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Public education witnessed wave after wave of innovation, reform, new themes, and other general signals of dissatisfaction with the status quo, Indicative of the seriousness of calls for reformation of public schools is the following statement issued by the President’ Advisory Commission on Science: ‘When school was short, and merely a supplement co the main activities of up, the form mattered litle, But school has expended to fill time that other activities ‘once occupied, without substituting for them... Bvery society must somehow solve the problem of transforming children into adults, for is very survival depends om that solution. In every society there is established! sore kind of institutional setting within which the transformation is 10 occur, in directions predicated by tocictal goals and values... In out view, the institutional fiamework for maturation in the United States isin need of serious e n. The school system, a it now exists, offers an. incomplete context for the accomplishment of many important facets of Another example of this disatsfaction with the status quo is found in the fol- lowing statement by John Gatto the Year 2000"Teacher of the Year in New York state: Public education teaches a covert curriculum whether ceachets tealize i oF not.Phis ccrriculum consists of confusion, class position, indifference, emotional dependence, intellectual dependency, and provisional self-esteem. Gatto observed that this docile and ebedient population, perfect for the fae tory or the army, was exactly what the Prussians had in mind when America adopted their educational system 200 years ago. Although many are calling for change in public education today, there is no strong mandate for the direction of such change in the United States, In the absence of centralized public planning and policy formation, local school boards rely on input from pressure groups, expert opinion, and various forces in the societal flow. Often, decisions about school programs are made in an isolated, piecemeal fashion without serious consideration of the pattern of decision mak~ ing. When goals are unclear, when there is no public consensus about what schools should accomplish, when there are value-laden decisions, or when cur riculum specialists are unable to articulate positions on controversial issues clearly, schools slip into the all-too-common pattern of reactive thinking and action. Currently, schools are being pushed along by technology and legislative ‘mandates to test. The absence of direction often results in a curriculum that includes neasly everything but accomplishes litle. 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To illustrite the diversity of belief about the purpose of formal education and approaches to educating, consider the two following statements by Robert Batckinn and A. 8. Neill. These starements are representative of two established fducational philosophies: perennalisnt and existtialism, Fist, Hutchins n directed to imune= “The ideal education is not an ad hoe edncation, not an education iis nota dines needs it not a specialized education, ot a preprofessional education Aiabtarian education. eis an education calcalated to develop the mind. I ive old-fashioned prejudices in favor of the ehree R's and the liberal favor of eying understand the greatest works chat the Inatnan race has produced, 1 int necesitics, the intellectual tools that are needed te ipeliewe that these are perny understand the ideas and ideals of oor world,” Now, Neill: jn which we should allow children to be them= ‘Sscipine,all diction, all sugyes- swe had-—a complete belief m the “Well, we set out co make a school selves In order to do this, we lad to renounce al tion, all moral training... ALL it requized was wh Ghd as 4 good, not evil being. Fr almost forty years this belief in he goodness of Sed fos never wavered; t rather has become a final faith. My view is that a cil iSonately wise and realistic. eft ro binself without adult suggestions of any Kind, the will develop as far as he is capable of developings® pose and means of educating are Such differences of opinion about the pu tbe made by curriculum planners extreme, but they iustrate the range of choices to Then ceatenents also indicate the tzends of education that various philosophies favor The perennials, who favor 2 highly controlled curriculum, much struccure erie discipline, and uniform teatment for stacents, can casly identify with trend sh as beck-to-the-basies and accountability. The existencalists, who see a non- school environment for personal growth, an environment with highly individualized setvitics and low degcees of formal structore, can identify with alternative programs, sradent rights movements, che new technologies, nd other nonstandard choices CRITICAL QUESTIONS TO BE ANSWERED Tach curriculum planner must face and answer some difficule questions about the purpose and organization of schooling, The answers ro such questions are cri Pe echool planning and establish dhe criteria for farure decision making and action. ‘he Saylor and Alexander stated the condition iti one of defining responsibility should seek to serve fom among, the In selecting the basic goals which the school ‘curriculum planner faces the major suum total of ends for which people sive the_spus pasop asarp 2onpord 0) oplaoud 996 snr woreZtt 110 wousse|> 40 LONINASHT Jo sporReUt IYAL ZEAL 918 Op Ar=4205 Jo prUry WAR pue suszqi Jo puny aq. guonvonpo jo asodknd aya sy exja\:serydosoyrad reuoneD Expo rofet Je Jo S90{049 dayea a4 9pLtIaao suonsanb Axeuntad Jo soquanes y [elooyps eat, ap Sumprypur pause aiojoq 1asau stondo sioyoud soarasuy 24 Kurau99 asag"Kalena 2y2 Jo apeoap may ayp UT “Poadtye bq 01 sagrizaZgo mort agp Jo Ause[> axp £q paurueraep wayo st 90m wuNIROK “ino vl uogwod e ypns jo SouBAnDay9 SY "wHjMoLLMD SuNsoxo axp amaonyss2 on iduinge day sv a8tey> Joy ayer AaeD0Ape Ue OIUL .3aN0 $6019,, SHOdopORDP Taungaouin ‘surtsBaud Jools Surdozaaap 205 eixei4z9 yeuoMIpen exp Jo ORETE tae Sundosoe uy Aaa10s Buiaoadeny 40 wLTOJs4 TeIOs $e U9 st sfoours Jo vod sand aup 31 anay st auies ayy, -parayye sf wexoud uoneonps rettigy arp jo asodind Stp SOG6I 2 JO ,WlOIN|PUT, OMeONPO jeIvads 30 soZ6y amp Jo stIEIHOLd jooKDs Syppien pue pooypryp Aro dyp ur auop sta se ‘susexSoxd yooyss Husuueyd 103 Hors “hand P se sioue9y jo spagt atp dance rauUd umyROHLANS ap “saaamo4 ‘| yet uaa Aue a8 faoioos ste amp EURUUOD sSouu ate s9ax0Y put samo sasoneqph jo Bauppiq aig op 02 parsodxo Apaisun s Joo>s axp fpeanse]“staygord je1208 ‘oh ojefos annetafe assed BaP aanoopar ysnowy acres on spend ayqruy 1 poou 1 s2op 200 uORMA' eos Huepx@ aya WoRsan on Fut1q 9 P2dH 10U S90 [pods aq) seottesmncu (ons zaptip us25 [e205 saALe]aypJo spmawap Huypeasod ep apt 29UEULLo]UOD ur ajdoad Bunod Jo SS Axessoont yp Sudoysaxp Jo sweat enamppaut ese popstar 2q 01 xpos winyootsin> axp 49108 poo atp wr yf Pood =e ‘inpeay wew poo ay soimnstoD ze JO uoNsOpsUED I6kayaH J 2aUENqe ap EL plot wn -nopsana 10j worraius red 94g se paydoade st seq uazHo9 ay asMEDaq WOHTUNS dyes “feareyoour v 81 sfooyps uF ywatudoysAap UMIROEAND “Wayo SOW uopeanpe 5 Hunsexa aqp suyer 07 Afuo 20 simonasa1 or st asqeoads wMN9TAsN Jo wrowsss ‘sump soup Suoury "ye> ‘ip Jo ayor aya zoyIae ouMULIMEp | VOISIDAP sf “aio st 4.21908 Jo sp29U ainany tp 40 HuAsad oxp Jo SuaDU09 [E1908 oxp “sed IP 4go soxeq aSpaymowy a4p 09 a70[8s 03 s9peD| LN|MO}AAND aq JO Wosstoap 2, (2 a7npe Asesoceuanvo) £19 -to0s 10 “uns Bundopsarp oxnereccay yp) ZaUsERT ax TeHipaynour oHEApeDE JO SOK va pat sonpenads ay) dgsavjoupe paztuei0 Jo Apoq aip aq pjpoxs aneuadojaaap fuinjaguizes oy aoWanu par 201008 aMEUTUOP ayp TUHIHAR os se Papreyp AcLeys ‘u39q ane sonbead pu dovurdo jeuoneanp Arua wanuiada stp OPN | asec! ay tr Aqpareadas porsaftins uso aney Sur -jooups 46} spun aofew sanyp veyp pontasqo Jou, INET PUE SOME, FHA _Suapind 20p Amyqystodsas ado008 oops tg pmnogs sods s0 sized aeyas uuatadofaxap ueting jo ssonosd pero) att nts Suuuuelg umprorsaay wy Sydosop ya 30 a1oy MHI, “Cree,Part I; The Essential Elements of Curriculum MeNeil poses eight questions that are useful in developing the philosophical aistumptions needed to screen educational objectives: 1. [5 the purpose of school co change, adapt to, or accept the social order? 2. What ean a school do etter that any ether agency or institution? 3. What objectives should be common to all? 4. Should objectives stress cooperation or competition? 5. Should objectives deal with controversial issues, or only hdve things for which there is established knowledge? Should attinudes be taught? Fundamental kill? Problem-solving strategies? ‘Should teachers emphasize subject matter or try to create behavior outside of school? Should objectives be based on the needs of the local cormmunity? Society in genera? Expresed needs of seudents?® THE STRUGGLE TO BEA DECISIVE LEADER Few educators would deny the importance of a philosophy in directing, activity, but few school districts or teachers relish discussions on the topic, Even well, known educators have confesed a dislike for stich discourse: 18s well to rid oneself ofthis business of “sis of education Dis subject are among the dull and most fies of human pursue," A sonse of distastfill weariness overtakes me whenever I hear someone discussing educational goale and philosophy.” Jn the past, part of che problem with discussing, educational philosophies in earnest has been the pervasiveness of the subject-dominated curriculum in American schools. This problem has been further compounded by “expert opinion” on the topic by college professors who are products of the system and therefore possess 4 ‘montimental conilice of interest in rendering an opinion. In school districes in which inguiry into che purpose of edcating has been quickly followed by retrenchment of the subject-matter curriculum, philosophical discussions have produced litle payoff But, when inquiry into educational purpose is honest, open, and leads to meatingfal change, philosophical discussions are among the most exciting endeavors, Charles Silberman, in his book Criss in the Classroom, cxpressed the meaning of philosophical undctstancings for the learning programs of the schoo! ‘What educators mus realize, moreover, is that how they teach and how they act may bbe more important than what they teach.The way we do things, that isto say, shapes values more directly and more effectively thas the way we tak about therm, Cet- tainly administrative proceduces like automatic promotion, homogeneous grouping, tacial segregation, or selective admission co higher education affect “citizenship ect~ cation” more profoundly than does the social studies curriculum. 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Ae yaar saved pute 9K 9 Sguruaeyg wenyoousing ws Ayosoryg JO 21OU SAL EIEIO aid 18 ‘fypart tf; The Esential Blements of Curriculum questions concerning the source, medium, and form of learning in a school environment “These queties are not simple, for there are many ways to select ideas, range them into instructional patterns, and package them into curriculum programs Those powsiblities are forever increasing as our knowledge of the world becomes nove sophisticated, Essential questions arise, questions chat must be answered priot to planning learning experiences for students, Should schools exist? What should tbe taught? Wha is the role of the teacher and the student? How does the school deal with change? FIVE EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHIES ‘There are many educational philosaphics, but for the sake of simplicity, itis possible to extract five distinct ones: (1) perennialism, 2) idealism, (3) realism, (4) experi Snentalism, and (5) existentialism, Collectively, these philosophies represent a broad Spevarum of thought about what schools should be and do, Educators bolding these Philosophies would create vey diferent schools. In the following sections, cach of ese standard philosophies is discussed in terms of ts posture on axiological,episte ological, and ontological questions ‘the five standard philosophies are compared in Table 3.1 in terms of atti- tudes on significant questions. Perennialism “The most conservative, traditional, or inflexible of che five philosophies is peren align, a philosophy drawing heavily from classical definitions of education. Peren- ‘halite believe that education, like human nature, is a constant. Because the dis- Cinguishing characteristic of humans 3s the ability to reason, edvcation should fours on developing rationality. Education, for the perennialist, is « preparation for life, and students should be taught the world’ permanencies through struc- cured study, For the perennialst, reality is a world of reason. Such truths are revealed to us through study and some through divine acts. Goodness is to be found in rationality hell Perenmalists favor a curriculum of subjects and doctrine taught through highly disciplined dnill and behavior control. Schools for the perennials exist pr ‘aril to reveal reason by teaching eternal truths. The teacher interprets and tells. The suudent is passive recipient. Because truth is eternal, all change in the imme- diate school environment is largely superficial Idealism Idealism is a philosophy that espouses the refined wisdom of men and women. Tecligy is sech a8 a World within » person's mind, Truth is t9 be found in the con sistency of ideas. Goodness is an ideal state, something to strive to atain, .TABLE 3.1 Five Major Educational Philosophies Se ee eee eee ee Perennialism ‘Aworld of reason A and God Reason and Consis (Knowledge) revelation Epistemology Goodness —Rationally Imitation of ideal sett Axiology parson to be emulated Teaching Disciplinary Reality subjects and eoctrine Teaching Discipl Truth mind via Teaching Dist Goodness beh smplars : (Values) (o reason) why ‘Toreveal reason To sharpen the ming Schools andGods will and intellectual Exist processes What Exteraltrutns Wisdom of the ages: Should Be Taught Role of Interprets, tes Reports, the Teacher tobe emulated Role of Passive reception Receives, memorizes ‘the Student School's ‘Truth to be preserved, Attitude Toward Change antichange Correspondence and sensation (as we see t) Laws of nature Subjects of physical workt—math, science To reveal the order world and se Laws of physical reatty Displays, imparts knowledge Menipulates, passive partici Always mi perfection, orderly change ‘Subject matter of experiences—social studies Experimentalism ‘A world of experience What works What is ‘The public test Problem solving, project method Making group cisions in light of ‘consequences To discover and expand the society we lve in to share expert Active participation, contributes ‘Change is evar prasent, a process Existentialism ‘A world of existing Personal, subjective choice Freedom ‘Subject matter of ‘cholee—ar, ethics, philosophy Arousing personal responses—questioning Awakening self to responsibilty “To aid children in knowing them: their place in society Unregimented topic areas Questions, assists student inpersonal journey Determines own rules Change is necessary at all timesPavt Il: The Essential Blemencs of Cursieulum Ideulists frvor schools that teach subjects of the mind, such as are found in most public school classtooms. Teachers, for the idealist, would be models of ideal behavior For idealists, the schools’ Function is to sharpen intellectual processes, to pre- sent the wisdom of the ages, and to present models of behavior that ate exemplary Students in such schools would have a somewhat passive role, receiving and mem orizing the reporting of the teacher. Change in the school program would gener ally be considered an intrusion on the orderly process of educating, Realism For the realist, the world is a it is, and the job of schools is to teach students about the wo, Goodness, or the realist, is found in the laws of nature and the order of the physical world, Truth is the simple correspondences of observation. The realist favors a school dominated by subjects of the herc-and-now ‘world, such as muath and science. Students would be taught factual information for Tustety The teacher would impart knowledge of this reality to stents oF splay Tach reality for observation and study. Classrooms would be highly ordered and “isciplined ike pature, and the students would be passive participants in the seudy bf things, Changes in school would be perceived as a natural evolution toward a perfection of order Experimentalism For the experinenait, the world is an ever-changing place. Reality is what i actu ally experienced. Truth is what presently functions. Goodness is what is accepted by public ees Unlike the perennials idealist, and relist, che experimentalist openly Accepts change and continuslly seeks to discover new ways to expand and improve society The experimentalist fvors a school with heavy emphasis on social subjects and experiences. Learning would occur through a problem-solving or inguity format, Teachers would aid learners or consult with learners who would be actively involved it discovering and experiencing the world in which they live Sich an educational program, which focuses on value development, would factor in group consequences Existentialism “The existentialist sees the world in terms of personal subjectivity; goodness, ruth, and reality ate individually defined. Reality isa world of existing, truth subjectively chosen, and goodness a matter of fieedom, For exstentialist, schools, if they existed st all, would be places that assisted students in knowing themselves and learning their place in society. If subject mat ter existed, ie would be a matter of interpretation such as the arts, ethics, or philos Opliy Teacher-stadent interaction would center around assisting students ip chee personal learning joumeys. Change in schoo! environments would be embraced 35