WARNING:

Please read the License Agreement

on the back cover before removing
the Wrapping Material

Integrated Monitoring and Diagnostics

Diagnostic Algorithms

1000511

Effective December 6, 2006, this report has been made publicly available in accordance
with Section 734.3(b)(3) and published in accordance with Section 734.7 of the U.S. Export
Administration Regulations. As a result of this publication, this report is subject to only
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embedded in the document prior to publication.

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11241928
Integrated Substations Monitoring and Diagnostics
Diagnostic Algorithms

1000511

Technical Progress, December 2000

EPRI Project Manager

B. Ward

EPRI • 3412 Hillview Avenue, Palo Alto, California 94304 • PO Box 10412, Palo Alto, California 94303 • USA
800.313.3774 • 650.855.2121 • askepri@epri.com • www.epri.com

11241928
DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTIES AND LIMITATION OF LIABILITIES
THIS DOCUMENT WAS PREPARED BY THE ORGANIZATION(S) NAMED BELOW AS AN ACCOUNT OF
WORK SPONSORED OR COSPONSORED BY THE ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE, INC. (EPRI).
NEITHER EPRI, ANY MEMBER OF EPRI, ANY COSPONSOR, THE ORGANIZATION(S) BELOW, NOR ANY
PERSON ACTING ON BEHALF OF ANY OF THEM:

(A) MAKES ANY WARRANTY OR REPRESENTATION WHATSOEVER, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, (I) WITH
RESPECT TO THE USE OF ANY INFORMATION, APPARATUS, METHOD, PROCESS, OR SIMILAR ITEM
DISCLOSED IN THIS DOCUMENT, INCLUDING MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR
PURPOSE, OR (II) THAT SUCH USE DOES NOT INFRINGE ON OR INTERFERE WITH PRIVATELY OWNED
RIGHTS, INCLUDING ANY PARTY'S INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY, OR (III) THAT THIS DOCUMENT IS
SUITABLE TO ANY PARTICULAR USER'S CIRCUMSTANCE; OR

(B) ASSUMES RESPONSIBILITY FOR ANY DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY WHATSOEVER (INCLUDING
ANY CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES, EVEN IF EPRI OR ANY EPRI REPRESENTATIVE HAS BEEN ADVISED
OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES) RESULTING FROM YOUR SELECTION OR USE OF THIS
DOCUMENT OR ANY INFORMATION, APPARATUS, METHOD, PROCESS, OR SIMILAR ITEM DISCLOSED IN
THIS DOCUMENT.

ORGANIZATION(S) THAT PREPARED THIS DOCUMENT

Thomas Traub

This is an EPRI Level 2 report. A Level 2 report is intended as an informal report of continuing research, a
meeting, or a topical study. It is not a final EPRI technical report.

ORDERING INFORMATION
Requests for copies of this report should be directed to the EPRI Distribution Center, 207 Coggins Drive, P.O. Box
23205, Pleasant Hill, CA 94523, (800) 313-3774.

Electric Power Research Institute and EPRI are registered service marks of the Electric Power Research Institute, Inc.
EPRI. ELECTRIFY THE WORLD is a service mark of the Electric Power Research Institute, Inc.

Copyright © 2000 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved.

11241928
 CITATIONS
This document was prepared by
Thomas P. Traub
860 North Dewitt Place
Chicago, Illinois 60611
Principal Investigator
T. Traub
This document describes research sponsored by EPRI.
The publication is a corporate document that should be cited in the literature in the following
manner:
Integrated Monitoring and Diagnostics: Diagnostic Algorithms, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2000.
1000511.

The members of the Working Group who contibuted to this project are:

Predrag Vujovic, EPRI, Project Manager

Mike Alfieri, Consolidated Edison Company
Samie Bolton, Tennessee Valley Authority
Donald Chu, Consolidated Edison Company
Jack Hammers, Oklahoma Gas and Electric Company
Eddy Harrel, TXU Electric
Terry Jackson, Allegheny Power
Stephen Ladd, Duke Energy
Mike Lebow, Consultant
Harold Moore, Harold Moore and Associates
Leo Savio, Consultant
Christopher Stefanski, Commonwealth Edison Company
Thomas Traub, Substation Equipment Consultant
Barry Ward, EPRI

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REPORT SUMMARY

Reduced maintenance and outage costs could be realized by implementing cost effective and
timely maintenance related diagnostic capabilities into MMW. To accomplish this goal, EPRI
initiated a project titled “Integrated Monitoring and Diagnostics”. The project will encompass all
types of substation equipment that require maintenance; however, the initial emphasis has been
on power transformers.

Diagnostic algorithms needed to be developed to achieve the goals of the project. To obtain the
necessary knowledge a working group, as previously cited, was established. The group met
three times during 1999 and twice during 2000. The initial effort was to:

Review the causes of power transformer problems related to maintenance.

Determine the types of existing data sources and/or additional monitoring needed to detect
the need for maintenance.
Develop diagnostic algorithms utilizing the data for implementation into MMW.

This interim report details the work accomplished by the working group. The first 16 sections of
the report cover specific diagnostic algorithms for maintenance related transformer problems.
The last section covers other maintenance related transformer problems for which algorithms
have not yet been developed.

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CONTENTS

1. LTC THERMAL ............................................................................................................. 1-1

1.1. Federal Pacific and Westinghouse UTT-A and UTT-B LTCs .................................... 1-1
1.2. Waukesha UZD, GE LRT-200, ME 550, FP RT, AC TLH-21 LTCs............................ 1-2
1.3. McGraw-Edison 396 and 996 LTCs........................................................................... 1-2

2. LTC OIL DIELECTRIC .................................................................................................. 2-1

2.1. Oil in same compartment as current interrupting contacts ......................................... 2-1
2.2. Oil in compartment separate from current interrupting contacts................................. 2-2
2.3. LTCs with vacuum interrupters.................................................................................. 2-2

3. LTC MECHANICAL....................................................................................................... 3-1

4. LTC CONTROLS........................................................................................................... 4-1

5. LTC CONTACT EROSION............................................................................................ 5-1

6. DETERIORATION OF COOLING SYSTEM .................................................................. 6-1

6.1. Thermal Model .......................................................................................................... 6-1
6.2. Temperature Gauge Condition .................................................................................. 6-2
6.3. Differential Temperature............................................................................................ 6-2

7. INSULATION SYSTEM DETERIORATION—DIELECTRIC .......................................... 7-1

8. INSULATION SYSTEM DETERIORATION—THERMAL .............................................. 8-1

9. WINDING DETERIORATION—MECHANICAL ............................................................. 9-1

10. BUSHINGS...................................................................................................................10-1
10.1. Overheating .............................................................................................................10-1
10.2. Loss of seal, oil leaks ...............................................................................................10-1

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 10.3. Condenser Problem .................................................................................................10-2

11. OIL PRESERVATION SYSTEM ...................................................................................11-1

11.1. Inert gas or sealed tank systems..............................................................................11-1
Gas Pressure................................................................................................................11-1
Nitrogen Usage.............................................................................................................11-2
Oxygen in Oil ................................................................................................................11-2
Water in Oil...................................................................................................................11-2
11.2. Sealed conservator systems ....................................................................................11-2

12. MAIN TANK .................................................................................................................12-1

13. CHRONIC PROBLEMS................................................................................................13-1

14. DE-ENERGIZED TAP CHANGER................................................................................14-1

15. OPERATIONAL ABNORMALITIES (STATIC ELECTRIFICATION) .........................15-1

16. OIL PUMP AND PUMP MOTOR PROBLEMS .............................................................16-1

16.1. Oil pump ..................................................................................................................16-1
16.2. Oil pump motor ........................................................................................................16-1

17. OTHER MAINTENANCE PROBLEMS.........................................................................17-1

A. APPENDIX .................................................................................................................... A-1

Calculation of Slope ........................................................................................................... A-1
Monitoring or Test Effectiveness ........................................................................................ A-2

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1. LTC THERMAL

Overheated contacts in an LTC can result from various causes, such as, coking, misalignment
and loss of spring pressure. Because contact temperature cannot readily be measured directly,
the overheating will generally be detected by an increase in the LTC oil temperature. If the
overheating progresses to an advanced stage, the oil quality will deteriorate and bubbles may
form. A flashover between contacts could occur, which would place a short circuit on the
regulating winding, and cause the transformer to fail.

The parameters that could be monitored to detect LTC thermal problems for various types of
LTCs are mostly the same, but to some extent, are dependent on the particular type of LTC and
its manufacturer. The following is a list of parameters that could be monitored for all types and
manufacturers:

1. Main tank top oil temperature: OILCn.MX.TopT.i (UCA)

2. LTC oil temperature: OILCn.MX.LtchT.i (non-UCA)
3. Highest and lowest tap settings in past 60 days: LTCCn.MX.HiTapPos.i and
LTCCn.MX.LoTapPos.i (UCA) (The two UCA terms are since reset, but any time interval
could also be used)
4. Load in volt-amperes: PMXUn.MX.TotVA.i (UCA)
5. Tap position: LTCCn.MX.TapPos.i (UCA)
6. Transformer nameplate rating: TRXFn.DC.VARtg.i (non UCA)

1.1. Federal Pacific and Westinghouse UTT-A and UTT-B LTCs

For Federal Pacific and Westinghouse Type UTT tap changers, only the first three parameters
would be used to diagnose an LTC thermal problem. The procedure to be followed is:

Determine if the LTC oil temperature compared to the main tank top oil temperature* is less
than15oC†
If yes, the LTC is ok.
If no,
Determine if the LTC went through neutral in the past 60 days (or since reset)
If yes, calculate the slope of the difference between LTC oil temperature
and main tank oil temperature for the past three days
Determine if the slope of the maximum temperature difference is
increasing.

*
The difference in temperature can be determined by direct measurement or by infrared monitoring.
†
The following limit and others included in this report are the opinions of transformer experts, but may need to be
adjusted for specific types of load tap changers and actual utility experience.

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If yes, internally inspect the LTC

If no, continue to monitor
If no, operate the tap changer to wipe the contacts (2 to 5 times through
all taps at least once) and, for information purposes, perform DGA and
infrared monitoring..

The equation for the above algorithm is:

IF(OILCn.MX.LtchT.i-OILCn.MX.TopT.i<15,”LTC OK”,
IF((LTCCn.MX.HiTapPos.i>16)#OR#(LTCCn.MX.LoTapPos.i <17, “WIPE CONTACTS, DO DGA
AND INFRARED MONITORING”,
IF((3*(Date_Day_Num[_Count]*( OILCn.MX.LtchT.i- OILCn.MX.TopT.i)[_Count]+
( Date_Day_Num[_Count-1]*( OILCn.MX.LtchT.i- OILCn.MX.TopT.i)[_Count-1]+
( Date_Day_Num[_Count-2]*( OILCn.MX.LtchT.i- OILCn.MX.TopT.i)[_Count-2]-
((Date_Day_Num[_Count]+( Date_Day_Num[_Count-1]+( Date_Day_Num[_Count-3])*
( OILCn.MX.LtchT.i- OILCn.MX.TopT.i)[_Count]+ ( OILCn.MX.LtchT.i-
OILCn.MX.TopT.i)[_Count-1]+ (OILCn.MX.LtchT.i- OILCn.MX.TopT.i)[_Count-2]))))/
((3* (Date_Day_Num[_Count]^2+ Date_Day_Num[_Count-1]^2+ Date_Day_Num[_Count-2]^2)-
(Date_Day_Num[_Count]+( Date_Day_Num[_Count-1]+( Date_Day_Num[_Count-2])^2))>0,
“INTERNALLY INSPECT THE LTC”, ,”CONTINUE TO MONITOR”))

NOTE: The limits used in the above equation for HiTapPos and LoTapPos may need to be
adjusted, depending on the specific type of LTC.

1.2. Waukesha UZD, GE LRT-200, ME 550, FP RT, AC TLH-21 LTCs

The algorithm is the same as above except, instead of a 15°C temperature differential limit, use a
5°C differential for the AC TLH-21, and a 2oC differential for the others.

1.3. McGraw-Edison 396 and 996 LTCs

For McGraw-Edison 996 and 396 LTC’s, parameters 1, 2, 4, 5 and 6 would be used to diagnose
an LTC thermal problem. The procedure to be followed is:

Determine if the LTC oil temperature compared to the main tank oil temperature is less than
30oC.
If yes, the LTC is ok.
If no, determine if the tap position is even
If yes, perform DGA and infrared monitoring to confirm and internally inspect
the LTC
If no, determine if the load is less than 50% of nameplate rating
If yes, internally inspect the LTC
If no, calculate the slope of the difference between LTC oil temperature

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ltc thermal

and main tank oil temperature.

If the slope of the maximum temperature difference for the past 3
days is increasing, internally inspect the LTC.
If the trend is steady or decreasing, the LTC is ok.

The equation for the above algorithm is:

IF(OILCn.MX.LtchT.i-OILCn.MX.TopT.i<30,"LTC OK",
IF(IsInteger(LTCCn.MX.TapPos.i/2),
"PERFORM DGA AND INFRARED MONITORING AND INTERNALLY INSPECT THE LTC",
IF(PMXUn.MX.TotVA.i/ TRXFn.DC.VARtg.i <0.5,"INTERNALLY INSPECT THE
LTC",
IF((3*(Date_Day_Num[_Count]*( OILCn.MX.LtchT.i- OILCn.MX.TopT.i)[_Count]+
( Date_Day_Num[_Count-1]*( OILCn.MX.LtchT.i- OILCn.MX.TopT.i)[_Count-1]+
( Date_Day_Num[_Count-2]*( OILCn.MX.LtchT.i- OILCn.MX.TopT.i)[_Count-2]-
((Date_Day_Num[_Count]+( Date_Day_Num[_Count-1]+( Date_Day_Num[_Count-3])*
( OILCn.MX.LtchT.i- OILCn.MX.TopT.i)[_Count]+
( OILCn.MX.LtchT.i- OILCn.MX.TopT.i)[_Count-1]+
(OILCn.MX.LtchT.i- OILCn.MX.TopT.i)[_Count-2]))))/
((3* (Date_Day_Num[_Count]^2+ Date_Day_Num[_Count-1]^2+ Date_Day_Num[_Count-2]^2)-
(Date_Day_Num[_Count]+( Date_Day_Num[_Count-1]+( Date_Day_Num[_Count-2])^2))>0,
“INTERNALLY INSPECT THE LTC”,”LTC IS OK”))

1-3
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 EPRI Licensed Material

2. LTC OIL DIELECTRIC

Contamination of the oil for a load tap changer will result in reduced dielectric strength and
possible flashovers between contacts in the LTC compartment. Such flashovers place a short
circuit across one or more taps of the regulating winding and may cause the winding to fail. The
main causes of oil contamination for an LTC (non-arcing compartment) are moisture ingress and
particles in the oil.

The diagnostic algorithms that follow can detect abnormalities in the oil for a load tap changer.
The parameters* that could be monitored are:

1. Moisture in oil: OILCn.MX.LtchH2O.i (non UCA)

2. Dielectric strength per ASTM D-877: OILCn.MX.LtchD877.i (non UCA)
3. Dielectric strength per ASTM D-1816 (0.040” gap): OILCn.MX.LtchD1816A.i (non UCA)
4. Particles in oil: OILCn.MX.LtchParticls.i (non UCA)
5. PAHs and others: OILCn.MX.LtchPahs.i (non UCA)
6. Gas (saturation): OILCn.MX.LtchGasSat.i (non UCA)
7. Loss of vacuum alarm: LTCHn.ST.Vac.b2 (non UCA) (10=alarm, 1=normal)
8. Acetylene in oil: OILCn.MX.LtchC2H2.i (non UCA)

The general procedure for detecting abnormalities are:

2.1. Oil in same compartment as current interrupting contacts

Determine if the moisture in oil is greater than 25ppm

If yes, investigate
If no, moisture in oil is ok

The equation is:

IF(OILCn.MX.LtchH2O.i >25,"Investigate moisture in LTC oil","Moisture in LTC oil is ok")

Determine if the dielectric strength was measured per D-877 or D-1816

If D-877
Determine if the dielectric strength is greater than 25kV
If yes, the dielectric strength is ok.
If no, investigate

*
Particles in oil, PAHs and others, and gas(saturation) may also be useful for detecting LTC oil abnormalities.
Limits for these parameters have not been established and are to be determined. To evaluate the presence of
particles in oil, a statistical approach could be used.

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 EPRI Licensed Material

If D-1816
Determine if the dielectric strength is greater than 20kV
If yes, the dielectric strength is ok.
If no, investigate

The equation is:

IF((OILCn.MX.LtchD877.i <=25#OR#
OILCn.MX.LtchD1816A.i <=20),
"Investigate low oil dielectric strength","LTC oil dielectric strength is ok")

2.2. Oil in compartment separate from current interrupting contacts

Determine if the moisture in oil is greater than 20ppm

If yes, investigate
If no, moisture in oil is ok

IF(OILCn.MX.LtchH2O.i >20,"Investigate high moisture in LTC oil","Moisture

in LTC oil ok")

Determine if the dielectric strength (per D-1816) is greater than 26kV

If yes, the dielectric strength is ok
If no, investigate

The equation is

IF( OILCn.MX.LtchD1816A.i >26,"LTC oil dielectric strength is ok",

"Investigate low LTC oil dielectric strength")

2.3. LTCs with vacuum interrupters

Determine if loss of vacuum alarm is in alarm condition

If yes, investigate
If no, no action required

Determine if acetylene in oil exceeds 5ppm

If yes, investigate
If no, no action required

The equation for the above algorithm is:

IF(LTCHn.ST.Vac.b2 =10,”Investigate possible loss of vacuum”,

IF(OILCn.MX.LtchC2H2.i >5,”Investigate possible loss of vacuum”,”Bottle vacuum ok”))

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3. LTC MECHANICAL

Mechanical problems in an LTC will usually be evident by erratic operation. Worn or broken
components are common causes. The LTC may not operate at all, run sporadically, or run to the
mechanical end stops. Unusually high or low secondary voltage is a common symptom.

This diagnostic algorithm detects mechanical problems in an LTC, such as broken parts. It is not
intended to diagnose problems with the voltage regulating relay or problems due to contact
erosion.

The parameters that could be monitored to detect LTC mechanical problems are:

1. Steady-state LTC motor current: LTCHn.MX.DrvMotA.i (UCA)

2. Peak LTC motor current: LTCHn.MX.DrvMotAp.i (non UCA)
3. Time to change taps: LTCCn.MX.TmrR.i or LTCCn.MX.TmrL.i (raise or lower) (UCA)
4. Time of 84 relay operation: LTCCn.MX.84R.t (non UCA)
5. Time of seal-in contact operation: LTCCn.MX.SI.t (non UCA)
6. Motor index (area under the curve): LTCCn.MX.TimDrvMotA.i (non-UCA)
7. Tap position: LTCCn.MX.TapPos.i (UCA)

The procedure for diagnosing an LTC mechanical problem is:

Determine if the time for seal-in operation is greater than 60 seconds.*

If yes, initiate an alarm
If no, determine if the motor index has increased by less than 20% compared to the last
tap change
If yes, the LTC is ok
If no, determine if the LTC went through neutral
If yes, the LTC is ok
If no, initiate an alarm

*
The reason for the lengthy time limit of 60 seconds is because some LTCs have multiple steps when going through
neutral.

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The equation for the above algorithm is:

IF(TotalSeconds(LTCCn.MX.SI.t-LTCCn.MX.84R.t)>60,"Initiate alarm",
IF((LTCHn.MX.DrvMotA.i[_Count]/LTCHn.MX.DrvMotA.i[_Count-1])<1.2,"LTC is ok",
IF((LTCCn.MX.TapPos.i[_Count-1])=16)#AND#(LTCCn.MX.TapPos.i[_Count])=17),"LTC is ok",
IF((LTCCn.MX.TapPos.i[_Count-1])=17)#AND#(LTCCn.MX.TapPos.i[_Count])=16),
“LTC is ok”,”Initiate alarm”))))

NOTE: The tap positions specified in the above equation to determine if the LTC went through
neutral may need to be changed, depending on the specific type of LTC.

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4. LTC CONTROLS

The results of LTC control problems are similar to those of LTC mechanical problems. The LTC
may not operate at all, run sporadically, or have an unusually high or low number of operations.
Defective relays and switches are common causes of LTC control problems. Unusually high or
low secondary voltage is a common symptom.

The parameters that could be monitored to detect LTC controls problems are:

1. LTC motor current: LTCHn.MX.DrvMotA.i (UCA)

2. Sequence of control contacts (as defined by manufacturer’s diagrams and/or instructions for
the LTC)
3. Number of operations: LTCCn.MX.CntOper.i (now and previous) (UCA)
4. Elapsed LTC motor running time: LTCCn.MX.TmrR.t or LTCCn.MX.TmrL.t (raise or
lower)(UCA)

Limits have not been established for some of the parameters because they are highly dependent
on the type and manufacturer of the LTC or the user’s system. The manufacturer’s diagrams
and/or instructions for the LTC should be consulted.

The general procedure for detecting LTC control problems is:

Each time the LTC operates, use or calculate the motor running time using the monitored motor
current as input.
Determine if the running time is greater or less than a predetermined limit.
If no, then the LTC is ok.
If yes, then investigate.

The equation for the above algorithm is:

IF((LTCCn.MX.TmrR.i<Lower.limit)#OR#(LTCCn.MX.TmrR.i>Upper.limit),
"INVESTIGATE LTC RUNNING TIME",
IF((LTCCn.MX.TmrL.i<Lower.limit)#OR#(LTCCn.MX.TmrL.i>Upper.limit),
"INVESTIGATE LTC RUNNING TIME","LTC RUNNING TIME OK"))

Each time the LTC operates, use or establish the sequence and timing of the control contacts.
Determine if the timing of the control contacts exceed a predetermined limit.
If no, then the LTC is ok.
If yes, then investigate

The equations for the above algorithm will depend on the specific type of LTC.

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Over a time period to be specified, use or calculate the number of tap change operations.
Determine if the number of tap change operations is greater or less than a predetermined
limit based on normal number of tap change operations.
If no, then the LTC is ok.
If yes, then investigate.

The equation for the above algorithm is:

IF(((LTCCn.MX.CntOper.i[_Count]-LTCCn.MX.CntOper.i[_Count-1])
/(Date[_Count-1]-Date[_Count]))>Upper.limit,"LTC operations high limit exceeded",
IF(((LTCCn.MX.CntOper.i[_Count]-LTCCn.MX.CntOper.i[_Count-1])
/(Date[_Count-1]-Date[_Count]))<Lower.limit,
"LTC operations below low limit","LTC number of operations normal"))

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5. LTC CONTACT EROSION

Excessive contact erosion would require more frequent maintenance to replace affected contacts.
The amount of contact erosion depends on the number of LTC operations and the load at the
time of the tap change. The arcing contacts are mainly affected by contact erosion, however,
misalignment of any moving contact will increase the amount of erosion of that contact.

The parameters that could be monitored to detect contact erosion are:

1. Number of operations
2. Load at time of tap change
3. Oil quality

To implement this diagnostic algorithm, the relationship between contact erosion and the amount
of current interrupted will need to be established.

In general terms, the procedure to be followed is:

Determine the amount of current interrupted each time a tap change takes place.
Calculate the amount of contact erosion for each tap change (based on information from
manufacturer or tests)
Add the amount of contact erosion to the previous total erosion since the last contact
replacement.
Determine if the total contact erosion equals or exceeds a specified limit.
If no, the contacts are ok.
If yes, replace the contacts.

Oil quality, including particle count, may also be a useful indicator of contact erosion, but the
analytical procedure has not been established.

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6. DETERIORATION OF COOLING SYSTEM

Cooling system deterioration will result from clogged heat exchangers or inoperative cooling
fans, pumps or defective cooling controls,such as, gauges. When the cooling system has
deteriorated, the transformer oil temperature may become excessive and insulation aging will
accelerate. The oil volume will expand, and if the temperature is high enough, oil may be
expelled from pressure relief devices.

Two methods of detecting deterioration of the cooling system of a transformer were investigated.
These are the thermal model method and the differential temperature method.

6.1. Thermal Model

As the name implies the thermal model method requires a mathematical model that can
accurately predict transformer oil and winding temperature for varying conditions. The
parameters need to be monitored for the thermal model method are:

1. Main tank top oil temperature (by RTD): OILCn.MX.TopT.i (UCA)

2. Load in amperes: PMXUn.MX.A.i (UCA)
3. Calculated top oil temperature from thermal model (from EPRI PTLoad):
OILCn.MX.CalT.i (non UCA)
4. Calculated winding temperature from thermal model: WDNGn.MX.CalT.i (non UCA)
5. Winding temperature gauge reading: WDNGn.MX.T.i (non UCA)

The procedure for diagnosing cooling system deterioration using the thermal model method is:

Calculate top oil temperature using the thermal model and monitored inputs of load current and
ambient temperature.

Determine if the monitored top oil temperature exeeds the calculated top oil
temperature by more than 5oC for three consecutive periods. The
determination should be made once per day at the time of the normal peak load
period.
If no, the cooling system is ok.
If yes, the cooling system needs to be checked

Use of this method will require the development of accurate thermal models for various
transformer designs. A 5oC temperature differential limit is the best estimate available at this
time.

The equation for the above algorithm is:

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IF((OILCn.MX.TopT.i[_Count-2]-OILCn.MX.CalTi[_Count-2])<=5,”Cooling system ok”,

IF((OILCn.MX.TopT.i[_Count-1]-OILCn.MX.CalT.i[_Count-1])<=5,”Cooling system ok”,
IF((OILCn.MX.TopT.i[_Count]-OILCn.MX.CalT.i[_Count])<=5,”Cooling system ok”,”Check
cooling system”)))

6.2. Temperature Gauge Condition

The calibration of temperature gauges may also need to be checked if the 5oC temperature
differential between monitored top oil and calculated top oil is exceeded.

If the reading of the top oil temperature gauge exceeds that of the winding
temperature gauge
If yes, check gauges and verify readings and recalibrate
If no, check the calculated winding temperature versus the
monitored winding. If these are within 5C the gauges are ok.

The equation for the above algorithm is:

IF(OILCn.MX.TopT.i>WDNGn.MX.T.i,"Check gauges, verify readings and recalibrate",

IF(ABS(WDNGn.MX.CalT.i-WDNG.MX.T.i)<5,"Gauges ok","Check gauges,
verify readings and recalibrate"))

6.3. Differential Temperature

The differential temperature method requires monitoring of the temperature on the top and
bottom oil headers on a transformer. This method is not recommended, but it can be used as a
diagnostic tool if the thermal model method shows a problem.

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7. INSULATION SYSTEM DETERIORATION—

DIELECTRIC

Deterioration of the insulation dielectric system can ultimately result in an internal flashover and
failure of the transformer. Various contaminants in the insulating oil, primarily water and
particles, will reduce its dielectric properties.

The parameters that could be monitored to detect dielectric deterioration of the insulation system
and their corresponding limits are listed below. Violation of the limit for any of these monitored
parameters would indicate some dielectric deterioration of the insulation system.

Monitored Parameter and Limit

Oil quality: OILCn.MX.Diel1816A.i (UCA)
Not less than 26kV per ASTM D-1816 with 0.040” gap

Water in oil: OILCn.MX.H2O.i (UCA)

Not greater than 20ppm at 75oC for less than 345kV
Not greater than 10ppm at 75oC for 345kV and higher

Particles in oil: OILCn.MX.Particles.i (non UCA)

Not greater than 2000 particles per 10mL of oil.

Oil power factor: OILCn.MX.DissFact25.f or OILCn.MX.DissFact100.f (non UCA)

Not greater than 0.5% at 25oC or 1.5% at 100oC

Hydrogen in oil: CONCn.MX.H2.i (UCA)

Increasing trend after maximum value of 200 ppm and ratio of gasses indicates partial discharge
(hydrogen to methane ratio of 5 or 6:1)

Partial discharge: WNDGn.MX.AcuPaDsch.i (non UCA)

Any value greater than zero

Water in paper : WNDGn.MX.H2O.i (non UCA)

Not greater than 1% for 345kV and above
Not greater than 2% for less than 345kV

Primary voltage rating: TRXFn.DC.PriVRtg.i (non UCA)

Equations for the above algorithms are:

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Oil quality, particle count, water in oil

IF(OILCn.MX.Diel1816A.i>=26,"Oil dielectric strength ok",

IF((OILCn.MX.Particles.i>2000#AND#TRXFn.DC.PriVRtg.i <345,OILCn.MX.H2O.i>20),
"Message 1",
IF((OILCn.MX.Particles.i>2000#AND#TRXFn.DC.PriVRtg.i>=345,OILCn.MX.H2O.i>10),
"Message 1",
IF((OILCn.MX.Particles.i>2000#AND# TRXFn.DC.PriVRtg.i <345,OILCn.MX.H2O.i<=20),
"Message 2",
IF((OILCn.MX.Particles.i>2000#AND#TRXFn.DC.PriVRtg.i>=345,OILCn.MX.H2O.i<=10),
"Message 2",
IF((OILCn.MX.Particles.i<=2000#AND#TRXFn.DC.PriVRtg.i<345,OILCn.MX.H2O.i>20),
"Message 3",
IF((OILCn.MX.Particles.i<=2000#AND# TRXFn.DC.PriVRtg.i >=345,OILCn.MX.H2O.i>10),
"Message 3","Oil dielectric low, but particles and water content in oil ok"))))))

Message 1 Oil dielectric is low. Particle and water content high. Drain oil, clean and flush
with clean oil.
Dry insulation in accordance with Section M-8 and M-9 in Guidelines for Life Extension
of Substations. Refill with filtered and dry oil
Message 2 Oil dielectric is low. Particle content high, water content low. If resulting from
pump wear or other extreme contamination, drain oil, clean internal parts, flush, and
filter oil. See Guidelines for the Life Extension of Substations, Chapter 2, Section M-4.
If no history of severe contamination, filter the oil through a 1 micron or less particle filter
Message 3 Particle count low, water content high. Perform field drying of the paper.
See Guidelines for the Life Extension of Substations, Section M-8

Oil power factor

IF(OILCn.MX.DissFact25.f>0.5#OR#OILCn.MX.DissFact100.f>1.5),
Oil power factor is high. Filter through activated clay filters. Use a 0.5 micron transformer oil
filter in series to remove any clay particles. Check oil quality, including particle count , before
reenergizing,"Oil power factor is ok")

Hydrogen in oil

IF(CONCn.MX.H2.i<200,"Hydrogen in oil ok",

IF(CONCn.MX.H2.i/CONCn.MX.CH4.i<=6,”Hydrogen in oil is ok”,
IF((5*(Date_Day_Num[_Count]*( CONCn.MX.H2.i)[_Count]+
( Date_Day_Num[_Count-1]*( CONCn.MX.H2.i)[_Count-1]+
( Date_Day_Num[_Count-2]*( CONCn.MX.H2.i)[_Count-2]+
( Date_Day_Num[_Count-3]*( CONCn.MX.H2.i)[_Count-3]+

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Insulation system deterioration—dielectric

( Date_Day_Num[_Count-4]*( CONCn.MX.H2.i)[_Count-4])+
(Date_Day_Num[_Count]+Date_Day_Num[_Count-1]+Date_Day_Num[_Count-2]+
Date_Day_Num[_Count-3] +Date_Day_Num[_Count-4])*
((CONCn.MX.H2.i)[_Count]+ (CONCn.MX.H2.i)[_Count-1]+ (CONCn.MX.H2.i)[_Count-2]+
(CONCn.MX.H2.i)[_Count-3]+ (CONCn.MX.H2.i)[_Count-4]))))/
((5* (Date_Day_Num[_Count]^2+ Date_Day_Num[_Count-1]^2+ Date_Day_Num[_Count-2]^2
+ Date_Day_Num[_Count-3]^2)+ Date_Day_Num[_Count-4]^2)-
(Date_Day_Num[_Count]+( Date_Day_Num[_Count-1]+( Date_Day_Num[_Count-2]+
( Date_Day_Num[_Count-3] +( Date_Day_Num[_Count-4])^2))>0,
"Hydrogen in oil is excessive. Check recent history for events such as lightning or short circuits.
Check oil dielectric and particle and water content of oil. Perform acoustic PD measurements
If no source is located, de-energize, drain and inspect","Hydrogen in oil is ok")))

Partial discharge

IF(WNDGn.MX.AcuPaDsch.i >0,”Partial discharge detected. Research the history of the

design. Check for recent events, such as lightning or short circuits. Check oil quality, particles
and water. Perform acoustic location measurements. If problem continues and/or PD increases,
de-energize and inspect.”,”Partial discharge is ok”)

Water in paper

IF(WNDGn.MX.H2O.i<0.01,"Moisture in paper ok",

IF((TRXFn.DC.PriVRtg.i <345#AND#WNDGn.MX.H2O.i<0.02),"Moisture in paper ok",
"Moisture in paper above acceptable limit. When convenient for operations, drain and dry the insulation.
Reference Guidelines for Life Extension of Substations, Chapter 2, Transformers, Section M-7”))

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8. INSULATION SYSTEM DETERIORATION—THERMAL

Deterioration (accelerated aging) of the thermal properties of the transformer cellulosic

insulation system can reduce the ability of a transformer to withstand surge voltages and
through-faults. The main causes of cellulosic insulation deterioration are high temperature and
the presence of high levels of oxygen and water in the oil.

The parameters that could be monitored to detect thermal deterioration of the insulation system
and their corresponding limits are listed below. Violation of the limit for any of the monitored
parameters would indicate some thermal deterioration of the insulation system.

Monitored Parameter and Limit

Carbon monoxide in oil: CONCn.MX.CO.i (UCA)
Not greater than 250ppm per year (using least squares fit)

Oxygen in oil: CONCn.MX.O2.i (UCA)

Not grearter than 3000ppm

Water in oil: OILCn.MX.H2O.i (UCA)

Not greater than 10ppm at 75oC for 345kV and above
Not greater than 20ppm at 75oC for less than 345kV

Degree of polymerization : WNDGn.MX.DP .i (non UCA)

Not less than 400

Primary voltage: TRXFn.DC.PriVRtg.i (non UCA)

Furans in oil:
To be determined

Equations for the above algorithms are:

Carbon monoxide and water in oil

IF((5*(Date_Day_Num[_Count]*( CONCn.MX.CO.i)[_Count]+
( Date_Day_Num[_Count-1]*( CONCn.MX.CO.i)[_Count-1]+
( Date_Day_Num[_Count-2]*( CONCn.MX.CO.i)[_Count-2]+
( Date_Day_Num[_Count-3]*( CONCn.MX.CO.i)[_Count-3]+
( Date_Day_Num[_Count-4]*( CONCn.MX.CO.i)[_Count-4])+

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(Date_Day_Num[_Count]+Date_Day_Num[_Count-1]+Date_Day_Num[_Count-2]+
Date_Day_Num[_Count-3] +Date_Day_Num[_Count-4])*
((CONCn.MX.CO.i)[_Count]+ (CONCn.MX.CO.i)[_Count-1]+ (CONCn.MX.CO.i)[_Count-2]+
(CONCn.MX.CO.i)[_Count-3]+ (CONCn.MX.CO.i)[_Count-4]))))/
((5* (Date_Day_Num[_Count]^2+ Date_Day_Num[_Count-1]^2+ Date_Day_Num[_Count-2]^2
+ Date_Day_Num[_Count-3]^2)+ Date_Day_Num[_Count-4]^2)-
(Date_Day_Num[_Count]+( Date_Day_Num[_Count-1]+( Date_Day_Num[_Count-2]+
( Date_Day_Num[_Count-3] +( Date_Day_Num[_Count-4])^2))*365<250,”CO gassing rate
ok”,
IF((TRXFn.DC.PriVRtg.i >=345#AND#OILCn.MX.H2O.i<=10)#OR#
(TRXFn.DC.PriVRtg.i <345#AND#OILCn.MX.H2O.i<=20),
"CO generation is excessive. Research loading history. Has the unit been overloaded or
operated without cooling equipment in operation? Is the cooling equipment in good condition?”,
"CO generation is excessive and water in oil is high. Drain and dry in accordance with Section
M-7 of Guidelines for Life Extension of Substations"))

Carbon monoxide and oxygen in oil

IF((5*(Date_Day_Num[_Count]*( CONCn.MX.CO.i)[_Count]+
( Date_Day_Num[_Count-1]*( CONCn.MX.CO.i)[_Count-1]+
( Date_Day_Num[_Count-2]*( CONCn.MX.CO.i)[_Count-2]+
( Date_Day_Num[_Count-3]*( CONCn.MX.CO.i)[_Count-3]+
( Date_Day_Num[_Count-4]*( CONCn.MX.CO.i)[_Count-4])+
(Date_Day_Num[_Count]+Date_Day_Num[_Count-1]+Date_Day_Num[_Count-2]+
Date_Day_Num[_Count-3] +Date_Day_Num[_Count-4])*
((CONCn.MX.CO.i)[_Count]+ (CONCn.MX.CO.i)[_Count-1]+ (CONCn.MX.CO.i)[_Count-2]+
(CONCn.MX.CO.i)[_Count-3]+ (CONCn.MX.CO.i)[_Count-4]))))/
((5* (Date_Day_Num[_Count]^2+ Date_Day_Num[_Count-1]^2+ Date_Day_Num[_Count-2]^2
+ Date_Day_Num[_Count-3]^2)+ Date_Day_Num[_Count-4]^2)-
(Date_Day_Num[_Count]+( Date_Day_Num[_Count-1]+( Date_Day_Num[_Count-2]+
( Date_Day_Num[_Count-3] +( Date_Day_Num[_Count-4])^2))*365<250,”CO gassing rate
ok”,
IF(CONCn.MX.O2.i>3000,"CO gassing rate and oxygen level are both high. Process oil to
reduce oxygen. Determine source and correct. Nitrogen system not maintained? Conservator
bag leaking air? Gaskets leaking?", "CO generation excessive. Research loading history. Has
the unit been overloaded or operated without cooling equipment in operation? Is the cooling
equipment clean and in good condition?"))

Degree of polymerization

IF(WNDGn.MX.DP.i<400,”Insulation thermal life deteriorated. Risk of failure during high

level short circuits is significant. Replacement is advisable for critical locations.”,”Insulation
thermal life ok”)

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Insulation system deterioration—thermal

Characteristics and Action to Take for Mechanical and

Thermal Winding Insulation Deterioration.

I. Category I—Units with open breathing conservator tanks or open breathing tanks
A. Characteristics: CO generation will be high. Oxygen and water content of the oil
will be high. The insulation will have low DP and life is essentially gone.
B. Action: Probability of failure is high after short circuits. Accept the condition or plan
replacement.
II. Category II—Units with N2 blankets or conservators with rubber bags.
A. CO excessive, oxygen and water content high, loaded near nameplate with some
nominal overloading.
1. Research history of design. Has the manufacturer’s products had a similar
behavior?
2. Probability of excessive aging is great.
3. Recommend internal inspection. Take DP samples in accordance with
Section CA-2 in the Guidelines for Life Extension of Substations, Chapter 2.
4. Subsequent actions depend on DP values.
a) DP greater than 600. Correct high oxygen and water situations.
b) DP greater than 400, less than 600. Some aging has occurred. Correct
high oxygen and water conditions. Examine loading policy.
c) DP greater than 200, less than 400. Probability of failure is significant
if a high level short circuit occurs.
d) DP less than 200. Recommend removal from service. Probability of
failure is high with even low level faults.
III. Category III—Units with N2 blankets or conservator with rubber bags, well maintained
A. Check manufacturer’s history of performance
If no manufacturer’s problems exist or there is no record of poor materials, probability of
insulation having significant aging is low. Treat as a new transformer.

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9. WINDING DETERIORATION—MECHANICAL

The mechanical condition of a winding depends on its originally designed short circuit
capability, the number and magnitude of through-faults it has been subjected to, and the
condition of its insulation. Through-fault capability will be reduced as the winding insulation
shrinks from aging and the clamping pressure on the windings decreases. Numerous through-
faults can further decrease the clamping pressure and result in deformation of the winding
conductor and tearing of its insulation.

The parameters that could be monitored to detect mechanical deterioration of the insulation
system and their corresponding limits are listed below. Violation of the limit for any of the
monitored parameters would indicate some mechanical deterioration of the insulation system.

Excitation Current (open circuit)

A. For delta connected winding:
Excite across A to B: PMXUn.MX.ExA.PhsABf, (non UCA)
Excite across B to C: PMXUn.MX.ExA.PhsBCf, (non UCA)
Excite across C to A: PMXUn.MX.ExA.PhsCAf (non UCA)
B. For wye connected winding:
Excite across A to neutral: PMXUn.MX.ExA.PhsAf, (non UCA)
Excite across B to neutral: PMXUn.MX.ExA.PhsBf, (non UCA)
Excite across C to neutral: PMXUn.MX.ExA.PhsCf (non UCA)
Limit: Excitation current not greater than 30% increase from baseline (test report)

The equation is:

IF(ABS((PMXUn.MX.ExA.PhsABf-TRXFn.DC.ExA.PhsABf)/ TRXFn.DC.ExA.PhsABf)
>0.30),”Change in excitation current exceeds 30% limit”,”Excitation current within limits”)
(Similar equations for other phases and for wye connection)

where TRXFn.DC.ExA.PhsABf is the baseline excitation current (test report)

Turns Ratio:
A phase turns ratio: RATOn.MX.APhsV.f, (non UCA)
B phase turns ratio: RATOn.MX.BPhsV.f, (non UCA)
C phase turns ratio: RATOn.MX.CPhsV.f (non UCA)
Limit: Not greater than a 0.5% change from baseline (test report).

The equation is:

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IF(ABS((RATOn.MX.APhsV.f-RATOn.DC.APhsV.f)/RATOn.DC.APhsV.f)>0.005, ”Change in
turns ratio exceeds 5% limit”,”Turns ratio ok”)

where RATOn.DC.APhsV.f is the baseline turns ratio for A phase

Winding Resistance (corrected to 20C)

A. Across phases:
Resistance A to B: PMXUn.MX.Res.PhsABf, (non UCA)
Resistance B to C: PMXUn.MX.Res.PhsBCf, (non UCA)
Resistance C to A: PMXUn.MX.Res.PhsCAf (non UCA)
B. Phase to neutral:
Resistance A to neutral: PMXUn.MX.Res.PhsAf, (non UCA)
Resistance B to neutral: PMXUn.MX.Res.PhsBf, (non UCA)
Resistance C to neutral: PMXUn.MX.Res.PhsCf (non UCA)
Limit: Not greater than a 15% change from baseline
or
Not greater than a 2% difference compared to the other two phases

The equations are:

For change from baseline:

IF(ABS((PMXUn.MX.Res.PhsABf- TRXFn.DC.Res.PhsABf)/ TRXFn.DC.Res.PhsABf)
>0.15,”Change in winding resistance exceeds 15% limit”,”Winding resistance ok”)

where TRXFn.DC.Res.PhsABf is the baseline resistance across phases A and B

For comparison with another phase:

IF(ABS((PMXUn.MX.Res.PhsAf-TRXFn.DC.Res.PhsBf)/ TRXFn.DC.Res.PhsBf)
>0.02,”Difference in winding resistance compared to other phase exceeds 2% limit”,”Winding
resistance ok”)

Partial Discharge

For change in PD inception voltage:

PD Inception Voltage: PMXUn.MX.PdIncV.i (non UCA)
Not greater than 100% change from baseline

The equation is:

IF(ABS((PMXUn.MX.PdIncV.i- TRXFn.DC.PdIncV.i)/ TRXFn.DC.PdIncV.i) >1.0,”Change in

PD inception voltage exceeds the 100% limit”,”PD inception voltage ok”)

where TRXFn.DC.PdIncV.i is the baseline PD inception voltage.

For change in PD extinction voltage:

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PD Extinction Voltage: PMXUn.MX.PdExtV.i (non UCA)

Not greater than 100% change from baseline

The equation is:

IF(ABS((PMXUn.MX.PdExtV.i-TRXFn.DC.PdExtV.i)/ TRXFn.DC.PdExtV.i) >1.0,”Change in
PD extinction voltage exceeds the 100% limit”,”PD extinction voltage ok”)

where TRXFn.DC.PdExtV.i is the baseline PD extinction voltage.

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10. BUSHINGS

Bushing failures can result in a through-fault on a transformer and/or contamination of the main
tank with metallic and porcelain particles. Some of the causes of bushing failures are
deterioration of bushing dielectric properties with age, oil leaks, the entrance of moisture, and
design and manufacturing flaws. Thermal runaway can occur if a bushing condenser becomes
too hot from dielectric losses.

10.1. Overheating

Monitored Parameter
Bushing temperature: BUSHn.MX.T.i (non UCA)

Infrared monitoring is the recommended method for detecting these problems. The following
procedure should be used:

Determine if the temperature at the top connector of any bushing exceeds the temperature of both
of the other two bushings by at least 5ºC degrees.
If no, the bushings are normal
If yes, investigate. Possible causes are bad connections, oil leaks and loss of seal for
draw lead type bushings
Perform the infrared monitoring twice per year.

The equation for the above algorithm is:

IF((BUSH1.MX.T.i-BUSH3.MX.T.i>5)#AND#
(BUSH1.MX.T.i-BUSH2.MX.T.i>5),"Bushing one temperature is high",
IF((BUSH2.MX.T.i-BUSH1.MX.T.i>5)#AND#
(BUSH2.MX.T.i-BUSH3.MX.T.i>5),"Bushing two temperature is high",
IF((BUSH3.MX.T.i-BUSH1.MX.T.i>5)#AND#
(BUSH3.MX.T.i-BUSH2.MX.T.i>5),"Bushing three temperature is high",
Bushing temperatures are ok)))

10.2. Loss of seal, oil leaks

Gasket deterioration is a known problem that has affected bottom connected bushings of the
following types:
1. ABB O+C, 1987-93, 115kV and above.
2. All GE Type U

Monitored Parameter

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Oil level gauge: BUSHn.ST.Level.b2 (non UCA) (Status: 10= Normal, 01= Abnormal)

Determine if the oil level gauge shows above or below minimum level
If no, the bushing is ok
If yes, investigate

The equation for the above algorithm is:

IF(BUSHn.ST.Level.b2=10,"Bushing oil level ok","Investigate bushing low oil level")

Measurements of partial discharge may also detect bushing oil leaks, but upper limits have not
been determined.

10.3. Condenser Problem

The parameters that could be monitored to detect a bushing condenser problem are:

1. Power factor (tan delta): BUSHn.MX.C1PF.f and BUSHn.MX.C2PF.f (UCA)

2. Capacitance: BUSHn.MX.C1Cap.f and BUSHn.MX.C2Cap.f (UCA)
3. Tap voltage: BUSHn.MX.TapV.i (non UCA)
4. Partial discharge: BUSHn.MX.PD.i (non UCA)
5. Temperature (scan—dielectric heating): BUSHn.MX.T.i (non UCA)

The following recommendations apply to GE Type “U” bushings, but may be used for other
bushings unless the vendor has provided specific recommendations.

Determine if the bushing power factor is twice the original value or more (or above 1%)
If yes, the bushing is questionable and should be replaced
If no, the bushing is ok.
Determine if the C1 or C2 bushing capacitance is 110% of the original installation value or more.
If yes, the bushing is questionable and should be replaced.
If no, the bushing is ok.

The equation for the above algorithm is:

IF(BUSHn.MX.C1PF.f/BUSHn.DC.C1PFRtg.f>=2)
#OR#(BUSHn.MX.C2PF.f/BUSHn.DC.C2PFRtg.f>=2),
#OR#(BUSHn.MX.C1PF.f>0.01),
#OR#(BUSHn.MX.C2PF.f>0.01),
#OR#(BUSHn.MX.C1Cap.f/BUSHn.DC.C1CapRtg.f>=1.1)
#OR#(BUSHn.MX.C2Cap.f/BUSHn.DC.C2CapRtg.f>=1.1),
"Bushing is questionable, should be replaced","Bushing is ok")

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11. OIL PRESERVATION SYSTEM

Leaks are the main cause of problems with transformer oil preservation systems. The entrance of
moisture or oxygen will affect the dielectric properties of the insulating oil and the aging of
paper insulation. Leaks resulting in low oil level can have disastrous consequences.

11.1. Inert gas or sealed tank systems

The parameters that could be monitored to detect problems with the oil preservation nitrogen
system are:

1. Gas pressure: IGASn.MX.TankPres.i (UCA)

2. Number of Work Orders to add nitrogen in a specified period of time. IGASn.MX.N2Use.i
(non UCA)
3. Water in oil: OILCn.MX.H2O.i (UCA)
4. Oxygen in oil: CONCn.MX.O2.i (UCA)

Gas pressure should be between ½ and 3psi for inert gas oil preservation systems. The number
of Work Orders to add Nitrogen should be monitored since excessive nitrogen use may indicate
leaks. Also, the presence of water or oxygen outside normal limits could also indicate leaks.

Gas Pressure
Compare the gas pressure readings for the past 7 days
If no change, check the nitrogen system
If pressure varies, the nitrogen system is ok.

The equation is:

IF((IGASn.MX.TankPres.i[_Count-7]=IGASn.MX.TankPres.i[_Count-6])
#AND#(IGASn.MX.TankPres.i[_Count-6]=IGASn.MX.TankPres.i[_Count-5])
#AND#(IGASn.MX.TankPres.i[_Count-5]=IGASn.MX.TankPres.i[_Count-4])
#AND#(IGASn.MX.TankPres.i[_Count-4]=IGASn.MX.TankPres.i[_Count-3])
#AND#(IGASn.MX.TankPres.i[_Count-3]=IGASn.MX.TankPres.i[_Count-2])
#AND#(IGASn.MX.TankPres.i[_Count-2]=IGASn.MX.TankPres.i[_Count-1])
#AND#(IGASn.MX.TankPres.i[_Count-1]=IGASn.MX.TankPres.i[_Count]),
“Check nitrogen system”,”Nitrogen system ok”)

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Nitrogen Usage
Determine the number of work orders to replace the nitrogen bottle in the past 3 months
If the number is greater than 1, check for leaks
If the number is one or less, no action is required.

The equation is:

IF((IGASn.MX.N2Use.i[_Count-90]- IGASn.MX.N2Use.i[_Count])>1,”Nitrogen use excessive,

check for leaks”,”Nitrogen use normal”)

The above equation assumes that nitrogen bottle use is reported on a daily basis.

Oxygen in Oil
Determine if the oxygen in oil is greater than 3000ppm
If yes, check the oil preservation system
If no, no action required

The equation is:

IF(CONCn.MX.O2.i>3000,"Oxygen level high, check the oil preservation system","Oxygen in

oil ok")

Water in Oil
Determine if the transformer is 345kV and above
If yes, determine if the water in oil is greater than 10ppm at 75oC
If yes, check the oil preservation system and draw lead bushing caps for leaks
If no, no action required.
If no, determine if the water in oil is greater than 20ppm at 75oC
If yes, check the oil preservation system and draw lead bushing caps for leaks
If no, no action required.

The equation for the above algorithm is:

IF(TRXFn.DC.PriVRtg.i >=345#AND#OILCn.MX.H2O.i)>10)"Check the oil preservation system and

draw lead bushing caps for leaks",
IF(OILCn.MX.H2O.i>20,"Check the oil preservation system and draw lead bushing caps for leaks","Water in oil

11.2. Sealed conservator systems

The parameters that could be monitored to detect problems with sealed conservator oil
preservation systems are:

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1. Oil level: OILCn.ST.ConsvLev.b2 (non UCA), 10=Normal, 01=Low

2. Nitrogen in oil: CONCn.MX.N2.i (UCA)
3. Water in oil: OILCn.MX.H2O.i (UCA)

Determine if the oil level in the conservator is low

If no, no action required
If yes
Determine if the transformer is 345kV and above
If yes, determine if the water in oil is greater than 10ppm at 75oC
If yes, check the oil preservation system for leaks
If no, check for high nitrogen
If no, determine if the water in oil is greater than 20ppm at 75oC
If yes, check the oil preservation system for leaks
If no, check for high nitrogen
Determine if the nitrogen in the oil is greater than “X” ppm
If no, no action required
If yes, check the oil preservation system for leaks

The equation for the above algorithm is:

IF(OILCn.ST.ConsvLev.b2=10,"Sealed conservator oil preservation system ok",

IF((TRXFn.DC.PriVRtg.i >=345#AND#OILCn.MX.H2O.i)>10,"Check sealed conservator for leaks",
IF(OILCn.MX.H2O.i>20,"Check sealed conservator system for leaks",
IF(CONCn.MX.N2.i>10000,"Check sealed conservator for leaks",
"No leaks apparent, check oil level gauge"))))

Assumes user limit for nitrogen in oil is 10,000ppm.

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12. MAIN TANK

In addition to environmental concerns, oil leaks from the main tank of a transformer can cause
low oil level that will leave leads at the top of the core and coil assembly uncovered with oil.
Potentially disastrous consequences can be the result.

These diagnostic algorithms can be used to detect main tank oil leaks. The parameters that could
be monitored are:

1. Oil level: OILCn.ST.TkLev.b2 (non UCA) (10=low, 1=normal)

2. Visual: OILCn.ST.TkLevVis.b2 (non UCA) (10=leaks, 1=normal)

Determine if the main tank oil level indicates “low”

If no, the oil level is ok
If yes, investigate
Determine if visual inspection indicates oil leaks
If no, the oil level is ok
If yes, investigate.

The equation for the above algorithm is:

IF(OILCn.ST.TkLev.b2=10,”Investigate oil leak”,

IF(OILCn.ST.TkLevVis.b2=10,”Investigate oil leak”,”No oil leaks”))

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13. CHRONIC PROBLEMS

The diagnostic algorithm below will detect chronic problems that require more than routine
attention. An example of a parameter that could be monitored is:

1. Load tap changer Work Order count: LTCHn.MX.WoCnt .i (non UCA) (now and three
months previous)

Determine if two or more work orders have been issued in a three month period on the same
piece of equipment
If no, no special attention required
If yes, investigate to find cause and corrective action

The equation for the above algorithm is:

IF(LTCHn.MX.WoCnt.i[_Count-90]-LTCHn.MX.WoCnt.i[_Count]>=2,”WO count for LTC is

excessive, investigate to find cause and corrective action”,”WO count for LTC is ok”)

The above equation assumes that work order count is reported on a daily basis.

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14. DE-ENERGIZED TAP CHANGER

The contacts of a de-energized tap changer can overheat and become coked similarly to the
contacts of a load tap changer. One cause would be a decrease in contact pressure over time. If
the problem goes undetected long enough, the tap changer can fail dielectrically when a
flashover occurs between two contacts or to ground.

The parameters that could be monitored to detect problems with a de-energized tap changer are:

1. DGA (hot metal gasses): CONCn.MX.C2H4.i (non UCA)

2. Partial discharge: WNDGn.MX.AcuPdDsch.i (non UCA)
3. Voltage ratio: RATOn.MX. AphsVRat.f (Also BphsVRat and CphsVRat) (non UCA)
4. DC resistance: WNDGn.MX.AphsRes.f (for each winding) (non UCA)
5. Hand crank torque
6. Position indicator

Determine if hot metal gasses in the oil are greater than 100 ppm
If no, the tap changer is ok
If yes
Determine if the level of acoustic PD near the location of the DETC exceeds “Y”
counts per second.
If no, the tap changer is ok
If yes, perform off-line tests to further evaluate

The equation for the above algorithm is:

IF(CONCn.MX.C2H4.i<ETHYLENE.LIMIT,"The DETC is
ok",
IF(WNDGn.MX.AcuPaDsch.i>PD.LIMIT,"Perform off-line tests to further evaluate","The DETC is
ok"))

Off-line tests (voltage ratio, DC resistance, hand crank torque and status of position indicator)
should be performed to determine the next steps to be taken.

Determine if the off-line tests indicate a problem with the tap changer
If no, the tap changer is ok
If yes, exercise the tap changer, repeat off-line tests and determine if satisfactory
If yes, the tap changer is ok
If no, internally inspect

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15. OPERATIONAL ABNORMALITIES (STATIC

ELECTRIFICATION)

Recommended Mitigation Procedures

• Control of oil flow into bottom of shell form transformers

• Staging of pumps on FOA transformers

No. of pumps Group 1 Group 2 Group 3

3 1 1 1
4 1 1 2
5 1 2 2
6 2 2 2
7 2 2 3
8 2 3 3
9 2 3 4
10 3 3 4
11 3 4 4
12 3 4 5

Control of Pumps as a Function of Temperature

• Do not run pumps immediately before energizing. If run to move air bubbles, etc., run in
groups and let the unit set for 2 hours minimum after running pumps.
• Do not use manual mode. Bring on pumps with temperature controls
• Use lock-out circuits
• Use large warning plate on control cabinet door.
• Add section on static electrification precautions in instruction manual.

Precautions After Field Drying or Long Idle Periods

• Take transformer through temperature cycle

• GSU: Operate with reduced load with only part of cooling in operation.
• Autotransformers: If possible, operate in self-cooled mode for several hours at 50-60C.
Operate with no load loss only and reduced cooling.

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Change Cooling

• Change coolers so that reduced flow pumps can be used (expensive).

• Cooling should still be run in stages.

Design of New Transformers

• Buy and design OA/FOA/FOA whenever possible

• Use low flow rate pumps
• Avoid barrier effects.
• Arrange pumps so that flow is equal into each phase
• Activate pumps with temperature controls and use lock-out circuits. Use instruction plates to
inform.

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16. OIL PUMP AND PUMP MOTOR PROBLEMS

Worn bearings or impellers in transformer oil pumps contaminate the transformer oil with
metallic particles. A flashover may result if the particles accumulate in a high dielectric stress
area.

The parameters that could be monitored to detect pump or pump motor problems are:

1. DGA: CONCn.MX.(gasses to be specified).i (use acetylene pending further study)

2. Bearing wear indicator: PUMPn.ST.Bearing.b2 (non UCA) (10=good, 1=bad)
3. Acoustic PD: WNDGn.MX.Pd.i (non UCA)
4. Particles in oil: OILCn.MX.Particles.i (non UCA)
5. Ultrasonic: WNDGn.MX.UltraS.i (non UCA)
6. Oil flow: PUMPn.ST.PmpFlwSt.b2 (UCA) (10=good, 1=bad)
7. Pump motor current: PUMPn.MX.A.i (UCA)
8. Manufacturer: PUMPn.DC.Vnd.d (non UCA)

16.1. Oil pump

Determine if the bearing wear indicates good or bad

If good, no action required
If bad, replace the pump

The equation for the above algorithm is:

IF(PUMPn.ST.Bearing=10,”Pump ok”,”Replace pump”)

16.2. Oil pump motor

Determine if specific gasses (acetylene used pending further study) from DGA test exceed their
upper limits
If no, the pump is ok
If yes
Determine if bearing wear indicator indicates “good” or “bad”
If “good”, the motor and pump are ok
If “bad” the following investigative tests are suggested to determine if the
pump and/or the motor should be replaced:
Acoustic PD
Particles in oil
Ultrasonic
Oil flow (yes or no)

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Pump motor current

Manufacturer (track record)

The equation for the above algorithm is:

IF(CONCn.MX.C2H2.i<5,"Motor and pump are ok",

IF(PUMPn.ST.Bearing.b2=1,"The following tests are suggested to determine
if the pump and/or motor should be replaced:
Acoustic PD, particles in oil, ultrasonic, oil flow (yes or no), pump motor current,
Manufacturer's track record","Motor and pump are ok"))

Assumes a user limit of 5ppm for acetylene.

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17. OTHER MAINTENANCE PROBLEMS

This section lists other maintenance problems for which procedures for diagnosing problems and
limits for monitored parameters have not yet been developed. For each of the maintenance
problems, the parameters that would need to be monitored for use in diagnostic algorithms are
indicated.

Problem Parameters to be Monitored

Preventive Auto
Tap position
DGA (main tank)
Transient current zero during operation
Line voltage-no change while in bridging and non-bridging positions
Bushing Contamination
Leakage current
Corona scope
Visual
Ultrasonic (UE)
Operational abnormalities (static
electrification)
Liquid temperature
Partial discharge
Oil flow
DGA

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A. APPENDIX

Calculation of Slope
The steps outlined below were used for the slope calculations in this report.

1. The dates are converted to a Julian type date using the following equation:
Date_Day_Num= INT((Year(DATE)-1900)*365.25)+DayOfYear(DATE)
2. The slope of the least squares line is determined from:
b1 = Sxy/Sxx

where: Sxy = 6xy – (6x)(6y)/n and

Sxx = 6x2 – (6x)2/n

For the equation in Section 1.1:

x = Date_Day_Num, the date in Julian
y = (OILCn.MX.LtchT.i - OILCn.MX.TopT.i), the differential oil temperature
n = number of readings
(_Count) = the last row in the array

Example:

Date (x) (OILCn.MX.LtchT.i – OILCn.MX.TopT.i) (y)

3/1/00 12
4/1/00 12
5/1/00 16

Convert to Julian Type Date

3/1/00 Date_Day_Num[_Count-2] = 36585
4/1/00 Date_Day_Num[_Count-1] = 36616
5/1/00 Date_Day_Num[_Count] = 36646

Calculate Sxy and Sxx

6xy = (36585)(12) + (36616)(12) + (36646)(16) = 1,464,748
6x = 36585 + 36616 + 36646 = 109,847
6y = 12 + 12 +16 = 40
6x2 = 365852 + 366162 + 366462 = 4,022,122,997

Sxx = 4,022,122,997 - 109,8472/3 = 1860.7

Sxy = 1,464,748 – (109847)(40)/3 = 121.3

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Slope = Sxy/Sxx =121.3/1869.7 = 0.065

Monitoring or Test Effectiveness

The table that follows was used by the Transformer Focus Group to evaluate the effectiveness of
the different types of monitoring or tests to diagnose the transformer problems shown in Column
One. Effectiveness was measured in terms of whether the monitoring or test could be used to
Suspect, Predict, Detect or Identify the problem. In some cases, more than one measurement or
test (indicated when + signs are used) would be needed.

Problem Code Test or Monitored Suspect Predict Detect Identify

Parameter
LTC Thermal A DGA X ? A+E
B Thermography X X B+E
C Temperature Differential X X C+E+F+G
D Oil Quality D+E
E Type of LTC & MFR X X
F Tap Position
G Load Current
Preventive Auto Problem
A Tap position
B DGA (main tank) X A+B+C+D
C Transient current zero X Off-line tests, Items A
during operation through D
D Line voltage-no change X
while in bridging and
non-bridging positions
LTC Mechanical
A Load current X
B Operations (high/low) X X
C Motor current X X X C+E
D Time to change state X ? X D+E+G
(Alarm)
E Acoustic signature (new X X
technology)
F Torque monitor X ? ?
G Type of LTC & MFR
H DGA X X X X
LTC Dielectric
(oil)
A Moisture in oil X X
B Dielectric Strength D877 X X X X
- 25 kV or D1816 – 20 kV
C Particles in oil
D PAH's & others ? ?
E Gas (saturation) X
LTC Failure to Operate

A Output Voltage X X A+B

Problem Code Test or Monitored Suspect Predict Detect Identify

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Parameter
LTC Failure to B Motor current X X
Operate (Cont’d)
C Operations (high/low) X C+A
D Sequence of operations X X
E Time to change taps X X
LTC Dielectric (vacuum)
A Loss of vacuum alarm X
B DGA X
Deterioration of Cooling System
A Load Current A+B+C A+B+C G+A
B Ambient Temperature
C Winding & Oil X C+D+G C+D+G C+D
Temperature
D Oil Flow X
E DGA X A+C+E A+C+E
F Particles analysis Special
G Motor current X G+E G+C
H Thermography X X X X
I Temp Diff between surfaces (Radiators, headers, coolers) I+B
J Air flow through coolers X
Bushing Condenser Problem
A Power factor (tan delta) X X X X
B Tap Voltage X X X X
C Capacitance X X X X
D Partial discharge X X X X
E Temperature (scan - X ? ? ?
dielectric heating)
F DGA X
Bushing Contamination Problem
A Leakage current X X X
B Corona scope X X X
C Visual X X X
D Ultrasonic (UE) X X X
Bushing loss of seal (draw lead)
A Water ppm X
B Thermography X X X
Bushing Hot Connection
Top connection A Thermography X X
(external)
Top connection A Thermography X A+B X
(internal)
B Manufacturer
Bushing Oil
Leak
A Level X X X X
B Thermography X X X
C Partial discharge X
Nitrogen Blanket System Problem
A Water in oil X
B Oxygen in oil X
C Nitrogen useage X X X C+H
D Nitrogen pressure X X
(alarm)
E Partial discharge X D+E
F DP X
G Load current
H Temperature
Problem Code Test or Monitored Suspect Predict Detect Identify

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Parameter
Sealed A Oil level X X
Conservator
Problem
B Air in oil X X B+D
C Pressure differential X X X X
D Carbon monoxide X
E Water in oil X
Main Tank Gas Leaks - Sealed systems
A Oxygen in oil X X
B Water in oil X X
C Gas pressure X X X X
D Carbon monoxide X x
Main tank Oil Leaks
A Oil level X X X X
B Visual X X X X
Insulation System Deterioration (dielectric)
A Moisture in paper A+K+L A+C+D+K+L
B Particle count B+J+K
C Partial discharge X C+D C+D
D DGA X D+C D+C
E Recovery voltage X
F Insulation power factor X F+A+K+L F+A+K+L
G Insulation resistance X X
H Oil power factor X
I Interfacial tension
J Dielectric breakdown X B+J+K B+J+K
K Moisture in oil X
L Oil temperature
Insulation System Deterioration (mechanical -
aging)

A Moisture in paper X A+B+C+D A+B+C+D

B Load current
C Oxygen in oil X
D Carbon monoxide/ X X X A+C+D+E+G+J
Carbon dioxide
E DGA (hot metal gases) X X X A+C+D+E+G+J
F DP X
G Furans (with oil history) X X ? A+C+D+E+G+J
H Recovery voltage X X X
I Power factor X
J Oil processing history A+C+D+E+G+J
Chronic
Problems
A Work Order Count X X X X
Through fault
capability

A DGA/CO in oil
B Frequency Response X X X X
Analysis
C Digital fault recorder C+ B
D Partial discharge D+A+B+C+F+J
E Recovery voltage ?
F Low voltage impedance X X X X
G Vibration X G+C+B
H DP H+B+C+F+I
I Particle count
J Open circuit impedance X X C+I
Problem Code Test or Monitored Suspect Predict Detect Identify

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Parameter
Magnetic Circuit A DGA (hot metal gases) X X X
Problems
BVoltage (over- X A+B
voltage/voltage for Hz)
C Core ground resistance X X X X
D Thermography X X ?
E DC Neutral current X X A+E
F Partial discharge X X ?
De-energized Tap Changer Problems
A DGA X
B Partial discharge X
C Voltage ratio X X X C+D+E+F
D DC resistance X
E Hand crank torque X X E+F
F Position indicator X X X
Operational abnormalities (static electrification)

A Liquid temperature A+C A+C A+B+C

B Partial discharge X B+D
C Oil flow C+A
D DGA X X
Pump|Motor Problems
A Acoustic X X X
B Particles in oil X X B+G
C Ultrasonic X X X X
D DGA X D+F D+F
E Oil flow X E+F
F Pump motor current X X X X
G Manufacturer X X
Leads & Connections

A DGA X X
B Partial discharge X X
C Frequency Response X C+D X Items A through F plus
Analysis Internal inspection
D Digital fault recorder
E Resistance X X X
F Turns ratio X X X

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