CE 353 Geotechnical Engineering

Dr M. Touahmia

6 Soil Compaction

Lecture Outline:

1. General Principles
2. Standard Proctor Test
3. Factors Affecting Compaction
4. Modified Proctor Test
5. Field Compaction
6. Measurement of Field Compaction
7. Special Compaction Techniques

Textbook: Braja M. Das, "Principles of Geotechnical Engineering", 7th E. (Chapter 6).

1
General Principles

What is compaction?
• Many types of earth construction, such as roads, railways, embankments,
retaining walls, earth dams, and airport, require man-placed soils, or fills.
These soils are loose (weak) and must be compacted to increase their
strength characteristics.
• Soil compaction is defined as the method of mechanically increasing the
density of soil by reducing volume of air.

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General Principles

• The densification is accomplished by pressing the soil particles together into

a close state of contact with air being expelled from the soil mass in the
process, thereby increasing its unit weight.
• The degree of compaction is measured in terms of the dry unit weight (γd).
• For a given water content (w), the maximum degree of compaction that can
be achieved is when all of the air voids have been removed.
• The dry unit weight correlates with the degree of packing of the soil grains:
G
  s w

1 e
d

• The smaller the void ratio (e) will be, the higher the dry unit weight (γd) will
be.

3
General Principles

Objectives of Compaction:
• Compaction is done to improve the Engineering properties of soil such as:
1. Increasing the shear strength of soil (i.e., larger loads can be applied).
2. Decreasing future settlements.
3. Reducing the compressibility of soil.
4. Decreasing permeability.

Affecting Factors
• There are 4 control factors affecting the extent of compaction:
1. Compaction effort.
2. Soil type and gradation.
3. Moisture content.
4. Dry unit weight (dry density).

4
General Principles
Effect of Water on Compaction
• In soils, compaction is a function of water content (w).
• When water is added to the soil during compaction acts as a softening agent
on the soil particles.
• The soil particles will slip more on each other causing more reduction in the
total volume, which will result in adding more soil and, hence, the dry unit
weight (γd) will increase, accordingly, TO A MAXIMUM POINT (γd)max.
• Beyond a certain moisture content, any increase in moisture content tends
to reduce the dry unit weight. The moisture content at which the maximum
dry unit weight is attained is generally referred to as the Optimum Moisture
Content (wopt).
• The laboratory test generally used to obtain the maximum dry unit weight of
compaction and the optimum moisture content is called the Proctor
Compaction Test (Proctor, 1933).

5
General Principles

• What happens to the relative quantities of the three phases with addition of
water:

Add more soil to the

block = increasing
dry unit weight (γd)
of the soil

lowest void (e) ratio and highest

dry unit weight (γd) at optimum
moisture content (w)

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Standard Proctor Test

• Proctor test was originally developed to simulate field compaction in the lab.
• The purpose of the test is find the optimum moisture content (wopt) at which
the maximum dry unit weight (γd)max is attained (ASTM D 698).
• The test is an impact compaction test, in which a hammer is dropped several
times on a soil sample in a mold. The mass of the hammer, height of drop,
number of drops, number of layers of soil, and the volume of the mold are
specified.

Sample Mold Hammer

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Standard Proctor Test

Test Specifications (ASTM D 689):

• Volume of mold: 944 cm3

• Weight of hammer: 2.5 kg
• Height of drop: 304.8 mm
• Number of layers: 3
• Number of blows / layer: 25

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Standard Proctor Test

Test Procedure:
• Obtain 4.5 kg of soil passing No. 4 sieve
• Record the weight of the Proctor mold without the base and the collar.
• Assemble the compaction apparatus.
• Place the soil in the mold in 3 layers and compact using 25 well distributed
blows of the Proctor hammer.
• Detach the collar without disturbing the soil inside the mold.
• Remove the base and determine the weight of the mold and compacted soil.
• Remove the compacted soil from the mold and take a sample (20-30 grams)
of soil and find the moisture content.
• Place the remainder of the molded soil into the pan, break it down, and
thoroughly remix it with the other soil, plus 100 additional grams of water.

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Standard Proctor Test

Test Procedure:

10
Standard Proctor Test

Test Analysis:
1. Calculate the moisture content (w) of each compacted soil specimen.
2. Compute the total unit weight of the compacted soil sample by dividing the
wet weight of the sample (W) by the volume of the mold (V = 944 cm3).

3. Compute the dry unit weight (γd) of each sample, using:  d 
1 w
4. Plot the dry unit weight values (y-axis) versus the moisture contents (x-axis)
for each compacted sample. The curve is called compaction curve.
5. The peak of the curve is the Maximum Compaction (γd max) at Optimum
Moisture Content (wopt).
• On the same graph draw a curve of complete saturation or “zero-air-void
curve” (for S = 100%), using:
G
 z.a.v  s w

wG
1 s

S r

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Standard Proctor Test

Compaction Curve: Below wopt (dry side of optimum): As the

water content increases, the particles
G
 z.a.v  s w develop larger and larger water films
wG around them, which tend to “lubricate” the
1 s

S r particles and make them easier to be

moved about and reoriented into a denser
configuration.
At wopt: The density is at the maximum,
and it does not increase any further.
Above wopt (wet side of optimum): Water
starts to replace soil particles in the mold,
and since γw << γs the dry unit weight
starts to decrease.
 Zero-air-void: Corresponds to 100%
 
1 w
d
saturation.
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Factors Affecting Compaction

Effect of Soil Type and Gradation

• The soil type has a great influence on the maximum dry unit weight and
optimum moisture content.
• fine grain soil needs more water to reach optimum and coarse grain soil
needs less water to reach optimum.

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Factors Affecting Compaction

Effect of Compaction Effort

• The compaction energy per unit volume used for the standard Proctor
can be given as:
253 2.5  9.81 kN 0.305m 
E   1000   594 kN.m/m 3

944  10 m
1 -6 3

• As the compaction effort increases,

the maximum dry unit weight
increases and the optimum
moisture content decreases.
• Line of Optimum: A line drawn
through the peak points of several
compaction curves at different
compactive efforts for the same
soil, almost parallel to (z.a.v) curve.
• More compaction effort makes the optimum density close to ρ(z.a.v).
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Modified Proctor Test

• With the development of heavy rollers and their use in field compaction, the
standard Proctor test was modified to better represent field conditions. This
revised version sometimes is referred to as the modified Proctor test (ASTM
Test Designation D-1557 and AASHTO Test Designation T-180).
• This test is the same as the Standard Proctor Test with the following
exceptions:

1. Height of drop = 45.72cm

2. hammer weight = 4.54 Kg
3. Number of layers = 5 layers
• Compaction energy E2= 2700 kN-m/m3

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Modified Proctor Test

• Because of the increase in the compactive effort, the modified Proctor test
results in an increase in the maximum dry unit weight of the soil
accompanied by a decrease in the optimum moisture content:

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Field Compaction

• Most of the compaction in the field is done with rollers. The four most
common types of rollers are:

1- Smooth-wheel rollers 2- Pneumatic rubber-tired rollers

3- Sheepsfoot rollers 4- Vibratory rollers

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Field Compaction

1. Smooth-wheel roller (Drum)

• 100% coverage under the wheel.

• Contact pressure up to 380 kPa.
• Can be used on all soil types except
for rocky soils.
• Compactive effort: static weight.
• The most common use of large
smooth wheel rollers is for proof-
rolling subgrades and compacting
asphalt pavement.
• Provide a smooth finished grade.
• Compacts effectively only to 200-300 mm; therefore, place the soil in shallow
layers (lifts).

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Field Compaction

Pneumatic rubber-tired roller

• 80% coverage under the wheel.

• Contact pressure up to 700 kPa.
• Can be used for both granular and
fine-grained soils.
• Compactive effort: static weight and
kneading.
• Can be used for highway fills or
earth dam construction.

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Field Compaction

Sheepsfoot roller

• Has many round or rectangular

shaped protrusions or “feet”
attached to a steel drum.

• 8% ~ 12 % coverage.
• Contact pressure is from 1400 to
7000 kPa.
• Compactive effort: static weight and
kneading.
• It is best suited for clayed soils.

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Field Compaction

Vibratory roller

• Vibratory machines are distinguished

by their high frequency (2,000 to
6,000 blows/minute) and a low
amplitude. The vibratory action sets
the soil particles in motion, which
rearranges them into a denser
packing .
• Compactive effort: static weight and
vibration.

• Effective for compacting granular

materials: clean sands and gravels.

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Field Compaction

Vibratory plates, Rammers

• for compacting very small areas.
• effective for granular soils.

• Rammers have a low frequency (800 blows/minute), and a higher stroke (4

to 9 cm height). As the machine operates the ramming action breaks down
the soil, pushes the particles closer together, and forces air out of the voids.

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Field Compaction

Specifications for Field Compaction

• In most specifications for earthwork, the contractor is instructed to achieve a
compacted field dry unit weight of 90 to 95% of the maximum dry unit
weight determined in the laboratory by either the standard or modified
Proctor test. This is a specification for relative compaction, which can be
expressed as:

R%   d (field)
 100
 
d max -lab 

• The specification for field compaction based on relative compaction is an

end-product specification. The contractor is expected to achieve a minimum
dry unit weight regardless of the field procedure adopted.
• Field compaction control tests are specified, and the results of these become
the standard for controlling the project. The type and weight of roller, the
number of passes of that roller, as well as the lift thickness are specified. A
maximum allowable size of material may also be specified.

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Measurement of Field Compaction

• Most common methods:

Nuclear Method Sand Cone method

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Measurement of Field Compaction
Sand Cone Method (ASTM Designation D-1556)
• The sand cone device consists of a glass or plastic jar with a metal cone
attached at its top. The jar is filled with uniform dry Ottawa sand.
• In the field, a small hole is excavated in the area where the soil has
been compacted. The weight of the moist soil excavated from the hole
and the moisture content of the excavated soil are determined.
• After excavation of the hole, the cone with the sand-filled jar attached
to it is inverted and placed over the hole. Sand is allowed to flow out of
the jar to fill the hole and the cone.

Dry weight of the soil excavated from the hole

 
d
Volume of the hole

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Measurement of Field Compaction
Rubber Balloon Method (ASTM Designation D-2167)
• The procedure for the rubber balloon method is similar to
that for the sand cone method, except a rubber balloon is
used to determine the volume of the hole.
Nuclear Density (ASTM D2292-91)
• Nuclear Density meters are a quick and fairly accurate
way of determining density and moisture content. The
meter uses a radioactive isotope source (Cesium 137)
at the soil surface (backscatter) or from a probe placed
into the soil (direct transmission).The isotope source
gives off photons (usually Gamma rays) which radiate
back to the mater's detectors on the bottom of the
unit. Dense soil absorbs more radiation than loose soil
and the readings reflect overall density. Water content
(ASTM D3017) can also be read, all within a few
minutes.

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Special Compaction Techniques

Dynamic Compaction
• Pounding the ground by a heavy weight.
• Suitable for granular soils, land fills.

Pounder (Tamper)
Mass = 5-30 tons
Drop = 10-30 m

Crater created by the impact (to be backfilled)

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Special Compaction Techniques

Dynamic Compaction
• The depth of influence D, in meters, of soil
undergoing compaction is conservatively
given by: 1
D Wh
2
W = mass of falling weight in tons.
h = drop height in meters.

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Special Compaction Techniques

Dynamic Compaction

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Special Compaction Techniques

Vibroflotation
• Vibroflotation involves the use of a vibrating probe that can penetrate into
granular soil to depths of over 30 m. The vibrations of the probe cause the
grain structure to collapse thereby densifying the soil surrounding the
probe.
Vibroflot (vibrating unit)
Length = 2 – 3 m
Diameter = 0.3 – 0.5 m
Mass = 2 tons

• Vibro Replacement is a combination of

vibroflotation with a gravel backfill
resulting in stone columns, which not only
increases the amount of densification, but
provides a degree of reinforcement and a
potentially effective means of drainage.
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Special Compaction Techniques

Compaction Grouting
• Compaction grouting is a technique whereby a
slow-flowing water/sand/cement mix is injected
under pressure into a granular soil. The grout forms
a bulb that displaces and hence densifies, the
surrounding soil.

• Compaction grouting is a good

option if the foundation of an
existing building requires
improvement, since it is possible
to inject the grout from the side
or at an inclined angle to reach
beneath the building.

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