SOIL COMPACTION

TOPICS TO BE STUDIED

1.Compaction - Definition
2.Principles, objective and effects of Compaction
3.Methods of compactions, Lab and Field
4.Standard and Modified Proctor, Procedure and Results
5.Factors affecting Compaction
6.Properties and Structure of Compacted Fine and coarse -
MIST
grained Soils
L3T1 7.Field Compaction Control and Specifications
8.Estimating Performance of Compacted Soils
9.Example Problems
10.Home Assignment
LT COL MOHIUDDIN
LT COL
AHMED,
MOHIUDDIN
PEng AHMED, PEng
1
References

Main References:
 Holtz, R.D. and Kovacs, W.D. (1981). An Introduction to
Geotechnical Engineering, Prentice Hall. (Chapter 5)
Others:
 Das and Sobhan (2019). Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, 9th
Ed.

 Lambe, T.W. and Whitman, R.V. (1979). Soil Mechanics, SI Version,

John Wiley & Sons.

 Schaefer, V. R. (1997). Ground Improvement, Ground Reinforcement,

Ground Treatment, Proceedings of Soil Improvement and
Geosynthetics of The Geo-Institute of the American Society of Civil
Engineers in conjunction with Geo-Logan’97. Edited by V.R.
Schaefer.
2
 Compaction
 Soil is used as a basic material for construction
 Retaining walls,

 Highways, Embankments, Ramps

 Airports,

 Dams, Dikes, etc.

Why Important ?
In the construction of highway and other engineering
structures, loose soil must be compacted to increase their
unit weight. Compaction increases strength characteristics
as well as the bearing capacity of soil.
Results of Poor Compaction
 What is Compaction ?
Definition: Soil compaction is defined as the method of mechanically
increasing the density of soil by reducing volume of air

What do you think

about this live
compaction
Heavy Weight machine ?
 Compaction, in general, is the densification of
soil by removal of air which requires
mechanical energy.
 When loose soils are applied to a
construction site, compressive
mechanical  energy is applied to the
soil using special equipment to
densify the soil (or reduce the void
ratio).
 What is Consolidation ?
When a Static loads are applied to saturated
soils, and over a period of time the increased
stresses are transferred to the soil
skeleton, leading to a reduction in void ratio.

Depending on the permeability of the soil and

the magnitude of the drainage distance, this
can be a very time-consuming process.

Typicallyapplies to existing, undisturbed soil

deposits that has appreciable amount of clay.
 Compaction - Consolidation

Compaction Consolidation
means the means the
removal of air- removal of
water-filled
filled porosity.
porosity.
Compaction and Dry Density(γd)

 The degree of compaction of a soil is measured by the dry unit weight

of the  skeleton.
Achievement of degree of Compaction
 Reduce air-void volume VA in
Phase Diagram
soils as much as is possible.
 For a given water content w,
vA Air wA
the maximum degree of
vW Water wW
compaction that can be
vT achieved is when all of the air
voids have been removed,
vS Solids wS that is (Sr=1).
◦ Since  Sr = wGs/e, the corresponding
void ratio (for Sr=1) will be: e = wGs
Achievement of degree of compaction is related to increasing
the dry density of soil (γd)  what is γd ?
 
  M   
  t , d 
Vt 1 w
Normal Soil VS Compacted Soil
 Principles of Compaction

Compaction of soils is achieved by reducing

the volume of voids. It is assumed that the
compaction process does not decrease the
volume of the solids or soil grains·

uncompacted compacted uncompacted compacted

What Does Compaction Do? (Compaction Objectives)

1.  Increases Shear Strength

 This means that larger loads can be applied to
compacted soils since   they are typically
stronger.

2.  Reduces Permeability
 This inhibits soils’ ability to absorb water, and
therefore reduces the tendency to expand/shrink
and potentially liquefy

3.  Reduces Compressibility
 This also means that larger loads can be applied
to compacted  soils   since they will produce
smaller settlements.

4.  Controls Swelling & Shrinking

5.  Reduces Liquefaction Potential
General Compaction Methods
Coarse-grained soils Fine-grained soils
Laboratory

•Vibrating hammer (BS) •Falling weight and hammers

•Kneading compactors
•Static loading and press
•Hand-operated vibration •Hand-operated tampers

(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981; Head, 1992)

plates •Sheepsfoot rollers
•Motorized vibratory rollers •Rubber-tired rollers
Field

•Rubber-tired equipment
•Free-falling weight; dynamic
compaction (low frequency
vibration, 4~10 Hz)

Vibration Kneading
THEORY OF COMPACTION
(LABORATORY TEST)

15
Laboratory Compaction
The Standard Proctor Test
 Origin (ASTM D1557-91)

R.R. Proctor in the early

1930’s was building dams
for the old Bureau of
Waterworks and Supply in
Los Angeles, and he
developed the principles
of compaction in a series
of articles in Engineering
News-Record.
 Purpose
The purpose of a laboratory compaction test is to determine the proper
amount of mixing water to use when compacting the soil in the field
and the resulting degree of denseness which can be expected from
compaction at this optimum water
 VARIABLES OF COMPACTION

Proctor established that compaction is a function

of four variables

1. Dry density (d) or dry unit

weight, d.

2. Water content, w
3. Compactive effort (energy, E)
4. Soil type (gradation, presence
of clay minerals, etc.)
 THE STANDARD PROCTOR
TEST EQUIPMENTS

Hammer
Weight
5.5 lb

Drop Height
h=12”

soil Volume 1/30 ft3 or 944 cm3

Diameter 4 in or 10.16 cm
Height 4.584 in or11.643cm
 STANDARD PROCTOR TEST
The soil is mixed with varying
amounts of water to achieve different
water contents.
For each water content, the soil is
compacted by dropping a hammer 25
times onto the confined soil
The soil is in mold will be
divided into three lifts
Each Lift is compacted
25 times
This is don 4-6 times from dry-wet

Layer or lift # 3
soil Layer or lift # 2
Layer or lift # 1
25 Blows/Layer
Standard Energy ( Standard Proctor )
(ASTM D698 )

Compactive Energy (E) applied to soil per unit volume:

(# blows/layer) * (# of layers) * (hammer weight) * (height of drop)

E
Volume of mold

(25blows/layer)  * (3 no. of layers) * (5.5 lbs) * (1.0 ft)

ESP  3
 12,375 ft  lb / ft 3
(1/30)ft

2.495 kg (9.81m / s 2 )(0.3048 m)(3 layers)(25 blows / layer )

E
0.944  10 3 m3
 592712.0943N  m / m3 (12,375 lb  ft / ft 3 )  593kN  m / m3
(ASTM D698 defines it as 600 kN-m/m3)
Soil Compaction in the Lab: γzav is the zero-air-void unit weight (dry)

Standard Proctor Test - Summary G s gw

gZAV =
The maximum dry unit weight at Gs  w Sre=WcGs 1+ Wc Gs
a given moisture content with  ZAV  Sr

zero air voids can be given by : 1 e Dry Density Zero Air Void Curve
Sr =100%

5.5 pound hammer

H = 12 in
g d max 3
4
2
1 5
25 blows
per layer

wc1 wc2 wc3 wc4 wc5 Dry to Wet to Compactio

Optimum Optimum Curve
gd1 gd2 gd3 gd4 gd5
Optimum Water
Water Content
Increasing Water Content Content
(OWC)
4 inch diameter compaction
gwet
gdry = Mt 
mold. (V = 1/30 of a cubic foot)
1+ w %  , d 
100 Vt 1 w
 COMMON COMPACTION CURVES
ENCOUNTERED IN PRACTICE
Dry unit weight γd

One & one-half peaks

Bell-shaped

Double-peaked
Odd-shaped

Water content (w)

 THE STANDARD PROCTOR
PROCEDURE AND RESULTS
Results
Optionally, the unconfined
Maximum dry
compressive strength of
unit weight the soil is also measured

Dry Density (γd)

 A sample
  from the
mold

Optimum water content

Water Content (w)
 Role of Water in Compaction Process
Water lubricates the soil grains so that they slide more easily
over each other and can thus achieve a more densely packed
arrangement.
 A little bit of water facilitates compaction
 Too much water leaves water-filled voids and inhibits compaction.

as Co
m
2.0 it y pa
ct
Dry Unit Weight

ed Density when compacted

(Mg/m3)

ns

1.9
of Dry + mass of water
De

e e
3

1.8 s
r ea y du on added
1.7 Inc nsit acti
De omp
1.6 c Increase of density due
to
Density

1.5 to mass of water added

1.4

1.3 Density when compacted dry

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Water content w (%)
 MODIFIED PROCTOR TEST

Was developed during World War II

By the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers
 For a better representation of the compaction required
for airfield to support heavy aircraft.
 MODIFIED PROCTOR TEST
 Same as the Standard Proctor Test
with the following exceptions:
 The soil is compacted in five layers
 Hammer weight is 10 Lbs or 4.54 Kg
 Drop height h is 18 inches or 45.72cm
(25blows/layer)  * (5 of layers) * (10 lbs) * (1.5 ft)
E MP 
h (1/30)ft3
E MP  56,250 ft  lb / ft 3  2694kN  m / m3or 2700kN  m / m3
ASTM D1557-12
# 5 Remember, Standard Proctor Energy
soil # 4
# 3 ESP  12,375 ft  lb / ft 3  593kN  m / m3
# 2 E MP 56,250 ft  lb / ft 3
  4.55
# 1 E SP 12,375 ft  lb / ft 3
 COMPARISON-SUMMARY

Standard Proctor Test Modified Proctor Test

 Mold size: 1/30 ft3  Mold size: 1/30 ft3

 12 in height of drop  18 in height of drop
 5.5 lb hammer  10 lb hammer
 3 layers  5 layers
 25 blows/layer  25 blows/layer
 Energy(E1) 12,375 (ASTM
ft·lb/ft 3
D698 , )  Energy(E2) 56,250 ft·lb/ft3
(593 or 600 kN-m/m3) (2694 or 2700 kN-m/m 3
)
ASTM D1557
Effect of
Dry Density (γd)

energy(E) Modified E2=EMP

 E2 > E1

 
Standard E1=ESP

Water Content (w)

 Various Methods of Proctor Compaction Test
ASTM and AASHTO have four different methods for the standard and Modified Proctor
compaction test that reflect the size of the mold, the number of blows per layer, and the
maximum particle size in a soil used for testing. Summaries of these methods are given :
Description Method A Method B Method C Method D
Mold Passing #4 Sieve Passing 9.5mm Passing 19mm 1/13.33
Volume (ft3) 1/30 (944cm ) 3
1/30 1/30 (2124cm3)
Height (in) 4.58(116.4mm) 4.58 4.58 4.58
Diameter(in) 4 (101.6mm) 4 4 (6MP) 6 (152.4mm)
Weight of Hammer (lb/N) 5.5Lb or 24.4N (10Lb or 44.5N for Modified Proctor, MP)
Height of hammer 12in/305mm (18 in or 457mm for MP)
drop(in)
No. of Layer of Soil 3 (5 for MP)
No. of Blows per layer 25 25 56 56
Test on soil friction
passing sieve
No.4 (4.75 mm
sieve) (=<20%
No.4 (>=20%
retained and
¾ in (19mm)
(>=20% retained in
¾ in
retained) <=20% retained on 9.5mm sieve and
9.5mm sieve ) <30% in 19mm sieve
Note : If gradation requirement cannot be met in Passing 3/8”sieve Passing 3/4”sieve
(passing 9.5mm) (passing 19mm)
Method A then method B or C to be used.
Ref : ASTM D-698, AASHTO T-99 – Standard Note : These test methods apply only to soils (materials) that have 30 %
Proctor or less by mass of particles retained on the 3⁄4-inch (19.0-mm) sieve.
 Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

Explanation of Typical Moisture Density Curve

Or, Compaction Curve
At womc
Below womc Above womc
The density is at the
Dry of Optimum maximum, and it does Wet of Optimum
As the water content not increase any
Water starts to
increases, the further.
replace soil
particles develop
larger and larger
OMC particles in the

Dry Density (γd)
mold, and since
water films around
 w<<s the dry
them, which tend to
“lubricate” the   density starts to
particles and make
them easier to be Dry Wet  decrease.
Hammer Impact
moved about and Side Side Moisture cannot
reoriented into a escape under
denser configuration. Water Content (w) impact of the
Hammer Impact Escaping air hammer. Instead,
the entrapped air is
Air expelled from the
energized and lifts
soil upon impact in
Entrapped the soil in the
quantities larger air region around the
than the volume of Dry side Wet side hammer.
water added.
Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

Zero-Air-Void
ZAV: The curve represents
Degree of Saturation the fully saturated condition
2.0
(S=100%).
60% 80% 100%

"Zero ZAV cannot be reached by

( Mg3/ m )

1.9 Line of Air compaction.

optimums Voids"
Line of Optimum: A line
1.8
Modified drawn through the peak
Dry density

Proctor points of several compaction

curves at different
1.7
compactive efforts for the
Standard same soil will be almost
Proctor parallel to a 100 % S curve
1.6
0 5 10 15 20 25
Water content w (%)
Entrapped Air: is the
Points from the ZAV curve can be distance between the wet
calculated from: side of the compaction
γdry = Gsγw / (1+ e) curve and the line of 100%
saturation.
 Positive and Negative Effects of Compaction

As compaction effort is increased, maximum dry density is also increased

Note :
As compaction effort is increased, maximum moisture content is decreased
Compaction Curve
Zero Air Voids Curve
 After you plot a compaction test, plotting a
zero air voids curve is very important. This
curve is also called the 100% saturation
curve.
 This curve shows for a range of dry density
values what the saturated water content is
for any given value
Zero air void equation
G water G water G water   water 1 
 dry   
1 e wG 1  wG wsat (%)     x100
1
Sr   dry Gs 
Assume three values of γd and calculate wsat%

Range of optimum water content : Sand : 6-10%, Sandy silt or

silty sand : 8-12%, Silt: 12-16%, Clay : 14-20%
 Unit wt. water = 62.4
 w 1 
135
wsat (%)  S     100
  d Gs 
125

100 % Saturation Curve (S=1)

Dry Density, pcf

115
95 % Saturation Curve (S=0.95)
105
wsat(%) = 22.1(%)

95
75 % Saturation Curve
(S=0.75)
85
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34
Water Content, %
Assumed dry density = 105 pcf Assumed Gs = 2.70
 Compaction Specification of Soils In The Field

 Specifications for earth structures  Normal practice is to

(embankments, footings, etc.) usually call compact the soil dry
for a minimum of 95% of Proctor of optimum. Compact
maximum dry unit weight. the soil wet of
 This level of compaction can be attained at optimum for swelling
two water contents—one before the (expansive) soils
attainment of the maximum dry unit weight,
or dry of optimum, the other after attainment
of the maximum dry unit weight, or wet of
optimum
Excell Interpreting Compaction Data: Example Problem
Remember : γd = γbulk /(1+w)
The results of a standard compaction test are shown in the table below.
Water Content, w (%) : 6.2 8.1 9.8 11.5 12.313.2
Bulk Unit Weight, γb (kN/m3) : 16.9 18.7 19.5 20.5 20.4 20.1
(a) Determine the maximum dry unit weight and optimum water content. (b)
What is the dry unit weight and water content at 95% standard compaction,
dry of optimum? (c) Determine the degree of saturation at the maximum dry
density. (d) Plot the zero air voids line.
Solution : Compute γd = γbulk /(1+w)
And for zero air void curve use
 

Plot graphs as shown in Figure

(b) From Graph,
(γd)max = 18.4 kN/m3, Wopt = 11.5%
At 95% compaction, γd = 18.4 x
0.95=17.5 kN/m3 and w = 9.2%
Calculate degree of saturation at maximum dry unit weight.
Interpreting Standard Proctor Test Results and Specifying
Field Compaction Equipment – Example Problem
The standard Proctor test for a gravelly sand (24% gravel, 76% sand) to be
used as a base course (a soil layer above the existing soil) of a highway
embankment is shown in the Figure.
(a) Specify the compaction criteria for the field.
(b) Recommend field compaction equipment that would achieve the desired
compaction.
(c) Specify an appropriate quality control test.
Interpreting Standard Proctor Test Results Solution
and Specifying Field Compaction Equipment
Step 1: Determine maximum
– Example Problem dry unit weight and optimum
water content.
The maximum dry unit weight
and optimum water content are
19.6 kN/m3 and 5.8%,
respectively (from Figure)

Step 2: Specify dry unit

weight and water content.
Specify 95% standard Proctor
test to be compacted dry of
optimum
γd =18.6 kN/m3; w = 4.4%

Step 3: Determine field method of compaction.

The soil contains a larger proportion of sand than gravel. So, a vibrating roller is excellent
for sand and good for gravel. Specify a vibrating roller.
Step 4: Specify quality control equipment.
Either the sand cone or the nuclear density meter is suitable.
 EMPIRICAL RELATIONSHIP FOR PROCTOR
COMPACTION TESTS
Omar et al. (2003) presented the results of modified Proctor
compaction tests on 311 soil samples as under :

Ref : (Das, Advanced Soil Mech,

5th ed. 2019, Chapter-1)
Comparison of Field Compactors for
Various Soil Types
EMPIRICAL RELATIONSHIP FOR PROCTOR
COMPACTION TESTS
Expression for maximum relative density Dr

For granular soils with less than 12% fines (i.e., finer than No. 200
sieve), relative density may be a better indicator for end product
compaction specification in the field. Based on laboratory
compaction tests on 55 clean sands (less than 5% finer than No. 200
sieve), Patra et al. (2010) provided the following relationships:
Where,
 
A = 0.216 ln E - 0.850
B = −0.03 ln E + 0.306

Dr is the maximum relative density of compaction achieved

with compaction energy E, kN-m/m3 ; For Standard Proctor,
Esp=593 kN-m/m3 and for Modified proctor, Emp= 2694 or 2700 kN-m/m3
D50 is the median grain size, mm
 EMPIRICAL RELATIONSHIP FOR PROCTOR
COMPACTION TESTS
Expression for Optimum moisture content and Maximum dry unit weight with
the Plastic limit, PL of Cohesive soils. (Gurtug and Sridharan, 2004 )

   

Where, PL= Plastic Limit, %, E = Compaction energy, kN-

m/m3
Osman et al. (2008) analyzed a number of laboratory compaction test results on
fine-grained (cohesive) soil, including those provided by Gurtug and Sridharan
(2004). Based on this study, the equations are :
 

For Standard Proctor, Esp=593 kN-m/m3 and for Modified proctor, Emp= 2694 or 2700 kN-
 EMPIRICAL RELATIONSHIP FOR PROCTOR
COMPACTION TESTS
 

Where, A = 0.216 ln E - 0.850 and B = −0.03 ln E + 0.306

We know, for Modified proctor, Emp= 2694 kN-m/m3

Now, A=0.216 ln2694-0.85=0.856 ; B= -0.03 ln2694 +0.306=0.07

Dr= 0.856 (1.4)-0.07 = 0.836 = 83.6% (Ans)

Example 1.8
For a silty clay soil given LL = 43 and PL = 18. Estimate the maximum dry unit
weight of compaction that can be achieved by conducting modified Proctor test.

Solution Hints : Use equation proposed by Osman et al. (2008)

Ans :
Uses for Index Properties

We can also find dmax using Correlation of

Compaction Test Results with Atterberg limits

dmax = 130.3 - 0.82 *LL + 0.3*PI

wopt = 6.77 + 0.43 * LL - 0.21 * PI

44
 Factors Affecting Soil Compaction

1. Compaction effort
Compaction energy per unit volume (function
of number of blows per layer)
Water is added to lubricate the
contact surfaces of soil particles and
2. Moisture content improve the compressibility of the
soil matrix

3. Effect of soil type or Type of soil

Grain size distribution
Specific gravity of solids
Type and amount of clay materials
 Factors Affecting Soil Compaction

1
1- Standard Proctor Test Factor Affecting Soil Compaction
ASTM D-698 or AASHTO T-99 Amount of Compaction Energy 1
Energy, E1 = 12,375 foot-pounds per cft
Zero Air Void Curve
Dry Density Sr = 60% Zero Air Void Curve
Sr =100%
g d max

Zero Air Void Curve

g d max
Sr < 100%
Compaction Curve for Modified
Proctor

2- Modified Proctor Test

ASTM D-1557 or AASHTO T-180
Compaction
Energy, E2 = 56,520 foot-pounds (OMC) Curve for Standard
per cft = 2696=2700kN-m/m^3 Proctor

(OMC) Moisture
E2/E1=2700/600 = 4.5 Content

Number of blows per layer x Number of layers x Weight of hammer x Height of drop hammer
Energy, E
= Volume of mold
Factors Affecting Soil Compaction
2
 Factors Affecting Soil Compaction
2
 Factors Affecting Soil Compaction

2
 Factors Affecting Soil Compaction

2
 Factors Affecting Soil Compaction

3
 Holtz and Kovacs, 1981; Das, 2002

3Effects of Soil Types on Compaction

The soil type-that is,
grain-size distribution,
shape of the soil grains,
specific gravity of soil solids, and
amount and type of clay minerals present
Soil texture and Plasticity data
2.2 NO Description Sand Silt Clay LL PI
Well graded loamy
Dry density (Mg / m3)

2.1 1 Zero air voids, 1 88 10 2 16 NP

sand
2 S= 100 % Well graded sandy
2.0 2 72 15 13 16 NP
loam
1.9 3 Med graded sandy
3 73 9 18 22 4
loam
1.8 4 Lean sandy silty
5 4 32 33 35 28 9
1.7 clay
6
5 Lean silty clay 5 64 31 36 15
1.6 8 7
6 Loessial silt 5 85 10 26 2
5 10 15 20 25 7 Heavy clay 6 22 72 67 40
Water content w (%) N
8 Poorly graded sand 94 6 6 NP
P
 Effects of Soil Types on Compaction
3
Subgrade Materials
Unified Soil Classification
Group Symbol Value as Subgrade Material
GW Excellent
GP
REMEMBER Excellent to Good
G – Gravel/Gravelly soil GM
S – Sand or Sandy soil GC
W – Well graded Good
P – Poorly graded SW
L- Low plasticity (LL<50)
H- High plasticity (LL>50)
SP
M-Fine grained soil SM Good to Fair
(Inorganic silt)
(passing#200 sieve)
SC
C- Inorganic clay ML
O- Organic silts and clays Fair to Poor
Pt – peat,muck and other CL
highly organic soil
OL, MH, CH, OH, PT Poor to Not Suitable
3 Typical Compaction Curve for
Cohesionless Sands & Sandy Gravel
Complete saturation
(increasing) Density

 
Air dry  
 The coarse grained soils do not

  adsorb water and are not amenable
 to lubrication. Thus do not display
distinct optimum water content
bulking
(Occurs at about 4 to 5% water content)

(increasing) Water content

The capillary tension resists the tendency of soil particles
to take a dense state and hence the volume increases.
This phenomenon is known as the bulking of sand.
Properties and Structure of
Compacted Fine-grained Soils

58
 Structure of Compacted Clay Soil Lambe and Whitman, 1979
Lambe(1958) studied the effect of compaction on the structure of clay

Defused double layer

of ions around the clay
particles expands ;
hence, repulsion
increases and gives a
lower degree of
soils and the result of his study is illustrated in the Fig.
Intermediate A continued increase in moisture
structure content expands the Defused
double layers more ; hence,
Hi
g repulsion increases more and gives

h
Dry Density

flocculation Co a greater degree of particle

m orientation
pa
ct
ive
Ef
Lo fo
w rt
Co
mp
ac Dispersed
Flocculated Structure, or t iv
eE Structure
Honeycomb Structure, or ffo
rt Or, parallel
Random
Water Content
At low moisture content the defused double layer of ions surrounding the clay particles cannot be fully
developed ; hence, the interpaticle repulsion is reduced resulting a random particle orientation

Structure
Particle Arrangement Dry side more random
Dry side more deficient; thus imbibes more water,
Water Deficiency
swells more, has lower pore pressure
 Clay Fabric
A Clay Particle edge-to-face contact face-to-face contact

Flocculated Dispersed
positively
+ + + + charged edges
+ _ _
Plate-like or + __ _ _ __ negatively
+_ __ charged faces
Flaky Shape _ _ _ _ __ _
___ _ _
Clay Particle with Net negative Charge
General Compaction Methods
 Vibroflot
Types of Field Compaction Equipment
and Purpose

Smooth wheeled roller Sheep foot roller Impact Roller

Dynamic Compaction (tamper)
 Factors Affecting Soil Compaction
Method of Compaction

Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

63
 Field Compaction Control
and Specifications
 Laboratory tests are conducted on samples of the proposed
borrow materials to define the properties required for design.

 After the earth structure is designed, the compaction

specifications are written. Field compaction control tests are
specified, and the results of these become the standard for
controlling the project.

 In most specifications for earth work contractor is instructed

to achieve a compacted field dry unit of 90 to 95% of the
maximum dry unit weight determined in the laboratory by
proctor test. This is a specification for relative compaction
(R) or relative density, Dr (for granular soil).
Determine the Relative Compaction (R) in the Field

Where and When

First, the test site is selected. It should be representative or
typical of the compacted lift and borrow material. Typical
specifications call for a new field test for every 1000 to 3000
m2 or so, or when the borrow material changes significantly. It
is also advisable to make the field test at least one or maybe
two compacted lifts below the already compacted ground
surface, especially when sheepsfoot rollers are used or in
granular soils.
Method
Field control tests, measuring the dry density and water
content in the field can either be destructive or nondestructive.
Holtz and Kovacs, 1981
65
Determination of Compaction Status in the Field

Destructive Methods
Methods (a)
(a) Sand cone
(b) Balloon
(c) Oil (or water) method

(b)
Calculations
•Know Ms and Vt
•Get γd field and w (water content) (c)
•Compare γd field with γd max-lab and
calculate relative compaction R.

Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

66
 Field Compaction Determination
Relative Compaction (R%)

Relative compaction or percent compaction

By Sand
cone  d  filed
R  100% Typical required,
By
 d max  laboratory R = 90% ~ 95%
Proctor
Correlation between relative compaction (R) and the relative
density (Dr) is
It is a statistical result based
on 47 granular soil samples
by Lee and Singh(1971).
R  80  0.2 Dr
As Dr = 0, R is 80
 
Remember : Don’t get confused with Relative
compaction and Relative Density. One is
measurement of compaction % and the other is
relative denseness or looseness of soil. 67
 Example Problem
A field density test was performed in the field yields following
results:
Wet density =1.95Mg/m3, Water content=16%
Compute dry density and using the given curve(Curve-A&B) as the
laboratory standard, compute the relative compaction.
Solution Hints

Compute
γd = γbulk /(1+w)
Calculate relative
compaction :
 d  filed
R  100%
 d max  laboratory

Find, γd(max-lab) from the

given curve and find R
 Determine Compaction (in Field)

100% saturation
Line of Control
optimums
(1) Relative compaction
γd max (2) Water content (dry side
or wet side)
90% R.
Note : How to Determine the
Dry density, γd

Relative Compaction (R) in the

 Field and Performance of

Compacted Soils


Note: the engineering

Increase properties may be different
compaction between the compacted
energy sample at the dry side and at
wopt the wet side.
a b c
Holtz and Kovacs, 1981 69
Water content w %
Field Compaction Control
Field compaction control consists of the determination
of (1) Dry Density (2)Water content
Field Compaction Control
Field compaction control consists of the determination
of (1) Dry Density (2)Water content
Field Compaction Control
Determination Field Water Content by Proctor
Needle Test
Typical cross section of RHD road
Destructive Methods (Cont.)
1 point Proctor test
Sometimes, the laboratory maximum density may
not be known exactly. It is not uncommon,
especially in highway construction, for a series
of laboratory compaction tests to be conducted
on “representative” samples of the borrow
materials for the highway. If the soils at the site
are highly varied, there will be no laboratory
results to be compared with. It is time consuming
and expensive to conduct a new compaction
curve. The alternative is to implement a field
check point, or 1 point Proctor test.
Holtz and Kovacs, 1981
74
Destructive Methods (Cont.)
1 point Proctor test
Line of
Check Point Method optimums 100% saturation

Dry density, γd
 1 point Proctor test
 Known compaction A
curves A, B, C
 Field check point Y(no)
γd max
X B X
(it should be on the
dry side of
optimum) M

wopt
Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

Water content w % 75
 Destructive Methods (Cont.)
 The measuring error is mainly from the determination of
the volume of the excavated material.

 For example,
 For the sand cone method, the vibration from nearby working
equipment will increase the density of the sand in the hole, which will
gives a larger hole volume and a lower field density.  d  field  M s / Vt

 If the compacted fill is gravel or contains large gravel particles. Any

kind of unevenness in the walls of the hole causes a significant error in
the balloon method.

 If the soil is coarse sand or gravel, none of the liquid methods works
well, unless the hole is very large and a polyethylene sheet is used to
contain the water or oil.
Holtz and Kovacs, 1981
76
Nondestructive Methods

Nuclear density meter (a)

(a) Direct transmission
(b) Backscatter
(c) Air gap

Principles
Density
The Gamma radiation is scattered by the soil (b)
particles and the amount of scatter is
proportional to the total density of the material.
The Gamma radiation is typically provided by
Holtz and Kovacs, 1981
the radium or a radioactive isotope of cesium.
Water content
The water content can be determined based on
the neutron scatter by hydrogen atoms. Typical (c)
neutron sources are americium-beryllium
isotopes.
77
 Example Problem-1
A borrow pit’s soil is being used as earth fill at a construction project. The
in situ dry unit weight of the borrow pit soil was determined to be 17.18
kN/m3 The soil at the construction site is to be compacted to a dry unit
weight of 18.90 kN/m3 The construction project requires 15,000m 3 of
compacted soil fill. Calculate the Volume of soil required to be excavated
from the borrow pit to provide the necessary volume of compacted fill.

Solution Given that, dry unit weight of the borrow pit soil, γd(borrow pit)= 17.18 kN/m3
Unit weight of the compacted soil, γc = 18.09 kN/m3
Volume of compacted soil, Vc = 1500m3 , V(borrow pit) = ?

Total dry weight required to furnish the compacted fill

 Total dry weight of soil requred to be excavated from the borrow pit
 (18.90kN/m3 )(15,000m3 )  283,500kN
Volume of soil required to be obtained from the borrow pit
283,500kN 3
  16,500m
17.18kN/m3
 Example Problem-2
The in situ void ratio of a borrow pit’s soil is 0.72. The borrow
pit soil is to be excavated and transported to fill a construction
site where it will be compacted to a void ratio of 0.42. The
construction project requires 10,000 m3 of compacted soil fill.
Calculate the Volume of soil that must be excavated from the
borrow pit to provide the required volume of fll.

V f = soil in the fill b  soil in the borrow pit

Solution e  v (V )
Vs 0.72  v b
(Vs )b
(Vv ) f (0.72)(Vs ) b  (Vv )b
0.42  (Vs )b  (Vs ) f  7,042 m 3
(Vs ) f
(0.72)( 7,042 m 3 )  (Vv ) b
(0.42)(Vs ) f  (Vv ) f
(Vv )b  5,070 m3
(Vs ) f  (Vv ) f  10,000m3 (V )b  (Vv )b  (Vv ) b  5,070 m 3  7,042 m 3
(Vs ) f  0.42(Vs ) f  10,000m3  12,112m 3

(Vs ) f  7,042m3
 Example Problem-3
A compacted fill is to be constructed using the two potential borrow
areas A and B. The in situ properties of soil at these area as follows:
Borrow area A : en= 0.80, wn= 17.5%, Gs=2.65
Borrow area B : en= 0.68, wn= 14.0%, Gs=2.65
The compacted volume of the embankment will be 50,000m 3. Its unit
weight is 20kN/m3 at a placement water content of 20%.
Soil from the borrow area is to be
excavated and transported to the site
in trucks of 10m3 capacity. During
excavation and dumping of soil in the
trucks, the soil increase in volume by
10%. At the site the required
additional amount of water is added to
the soil and compacted to the desired
extent by pneumatic tyre rollers.
The cost of excavation, transportation and compaction is Tk400/truck
for borrow area A and Tk 500/truck for borrow area B. water charges
per truck is Tk150.Which of the two borrow areas is more economical ?
 Example Problem-3
Solution
 Example Problem-3
Solution

Cost of excavation, transport and compaction of soil

=6351x400 =Tk 25,40,400

Cost of transportation of water = 217x150 =Tk32,550

Total cost of using soil from borrow area A =

Tk 25,40,400 + Tk32,550 = Tk 25,72,950
 Example Problem-3
Solution

Total cost of using soil from borrow area B =

Tk 5,928 x500+514x150 = Tk
29,64,000+Tk77,100 = Tk 30,41,100
For borrow area A, total cost = Tk 25,72,950

Using borrow area A is,

therefore, more economical
 Home Assignment Problem Ans: 24.5

For constructing an embankment, the soil is transported from

a borrowed area using a truck which can carry 6m3 of soil at a
time, with the following details. Determine the number of truck
loads of soil required to obtain 100m3 of compacted earth fill
and the volume of borrow pit.
Property Borrowed area Truck Field
(in-situ) (loose) (Compacted)
Bulk unit weight (kN/m3) 16.6 11.5 18.2
Solution Water Content(%) 8 6 14
Hints
Borrow Area Field area
γd(filed) = γ(bulk) /(1+w)=18.2/(1+0.14) =15.96kN/m3 γd(borrow) =16.6/(1+0.08) =15.37kN/m3

γd(filed) =Gs γw (1+e), So, 1+e=0.615Gs So, 1+e=0.6383Gs

Vs = V/ (1+e)=100/(0.615Gs)=162.6/Gs V = Vs (1+e) = (0.6383Gs) x

Truck (162.6/Gs) = 103.79m3soil is required
for every 100m3 of compacted earth
γd = 11.5/(1+0.06)=10.85kN/m3 1+e=0.904Gs
No. of truck load= 146.99/6 =
V = Vs (1+e) = (0.904Gs) x (162.6/Gs) = 146.99m soil 3
24.4984 = 24.5 (Ans)
 THEORY OF COMPACTION
(FIELD COMPACTION – EQUIPMENT AND
PROCEDURES)

85
 Vibroflot
Types of Field Compaction Equipment
and Purpose

Smooth wheeled roller Sheep foot roller Impact Roller

Dynamic Compaction (tamper)
Common Equipment
Shown:
 Sheepsfoot
 Padfoot
 Vibratory Roller
 Grid Roller
Soil Compaction in the Field:

5- Sheep foot Roller

1- Rammers

2- Vibratory Plates 

6- Dynamic Compaction

3- Smooth Rollers

4- Rubber-Tire
 Equipment
Smooth-wheel roller (drum)
• 100% coverage under the wheel
• Contact pressure up to 380 kPa
• Can be used on all soil types
except for rocky soils.
• Compactive effort: static weight
• The most common use of large
smooth wheel rollers is for proof-
rolling subgrades and compacting
asphalt pavement.

Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

89
 Equipment (Cont.)
• 80% coverage under the wheel
Pneumatic (or rubber-tired)
• Contact pressure up to 700 kPa
roller
• Can be used for both granular and
fine-grained soils.
• Compactive effort: static weight
and kneading.
• Can be used for highway fills or
earth dam construction.

Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

90
 Equipment (Cont.)
Sheepsfoot rollers
• Has many round or rectangular
shaped protrusions or “feet”
attached to a steel drum
• 8% ~ 12 % coverage
• Contact pressure is from 1400 to
7000 kPa
• It is best suited for clayed soils.
• Compactive effort: static weight
and kneading.

Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

91
 Equipment (Cont.)
Tamping foot
roller
• About 40% coverage
• Contact pressure is from 1400 to
8400 kPa
• It is best for compacting fine-
grained soils (silt and clay).
• Compactive effort: static weight
and kneading.

Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

92
 Equipment (Cont.)
Mesh (or grid pattern)
roller
• 50% coverage
• Contact pressure is from 1400 to
6200 kPa
• It is ideally suited for compacting
rocky soils, gravels, and sands.
With high towing speed, the
material is vibrated, crushed, and
impacted.
• Compactive effort: static weight
and vibration.

Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

93
 Equipment (Cont.)
Vibrating drum on smooth- • Vertical vibrator attached to
smooth wheel rollers.
wheel roller
• The best explanation of why roller
vibration causes densification of
granular soils is that particle
rearrangement occurs due to cyclic
deformation of the soil produced
by the oscillations of the roller.
• Compactive effort: static weight
and vibration.
• Suitable for granular soils

Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

94
Acceptability of Various Types of Compaction Equipment
for a Given Soil Type

Types of
Compactor and Zones of Application
Compaction

Holtz and Kovacs, 1981, (2016ed. – P199)

Modified after Caterpillar, Inc, 1977 106
Variables-Vibratory Compaction
There are many variables which control the vibratory
compaction or densification of soils.
Characteristics of the compactor:
(1) Mass, size
(2) Operating frequency and frequency range
Characteristics of the soil:
(1) Initial density
(2) Grain size and shape
(3) Water content
Construction procedures:
(1) Number of passes of the roller
(2) Lift thickness
(3) Frequency of operation vibrator
(4) Towing speed
107 Holtz and Kovacs, 1981
Frequency
The frequency at which
a maximum density is
achieved is called the
optimum frequency.

108
Holtz and Kovacs, 1981
Roller Travel Speed

For a given number of

passes, a higher density is
obtained if the vibrator is
towed more slowly.

109
Holtz and Kovacs, 1981
Roller Passes
When compacting
past five or so
coverages, there is
not a great
increase in density

•240 cm think layer

of northern Indiana
dune sand
•5670 kg roller
operating at a
frequency of 27.5
Hz.
110
Holtz and Kovacs, 1981
Determine the Lift Height

111
Holtz and Kovacs, 1981
Dynamic Compaction
Dynamic compaction was first used in
Germany in the mid-1930’s.
The depth of influence D, in meters, of soil
undergoing compaction is conservatively
given by
D  ½ (Wh)1/2
W = mass of falling weight in metric tons.
h = drop height in meters

112
From Holtz and Kovacs, 1981
Dynamic Compaction:
Profile of Overlap
 Some practical questions with solution
on Compaction of Soils
 Question-1: Why do we use the dry density instead of
bulk density? It seems easier to obtain the bulk density
from field measurements while the dry density requires
extra knowledge of water content?

 Answer-1: We should use two independent

parameters (which are dry density and water content)
to obtain a compaction curve. The bulk density is not
suitable for this purpose because it is directly related
to the water content; i.e., when the water content
increases the bulk density also increases.
Question-2: Is there any difference between compaction
characteristics of coarse-grained and fine-grained soils?

Answer-2: Compaction curves of coarse-grained soils generally exhibit

more pronounced peaks compared to fine-grained soils. In addition,
coarse-grained soils tend to have higher values of ρdmax. In contrast,
fine-grained soils require more moisture for better compaction, and
for this reason, they typically have greater values of wopt (range of 15–
20%) compared to coarse-grained soils (10–15%) (Gratchev et al., 2018).
Question-3: It seems very difficult to compact soil to its maximum dry density in
the field, especially considering the procedures and equipment used for this
purpose. What is the quality control for such work?

Answer-3: Yes, it is not always possible to compact soil to its maximum dry
density. For this reason, an acceptable range of dry density (95% or more of the
maximum dry density) is used to control the field compaction work. A sand cone
test is commonly carried out at the compaction site to determine the dry density
and water content of the compacted soil. To ensure a high level of compaction, it
is required to perform at least one test per 1000 m3 of compacted soil.
End of Lecture
OPEN DISCUSSION
Q&A SESSION
 DESIGN TYPE-5
(Regional Highway)
ISG : 200-300 mm. Sub grade soil : Low plasticity min 4% CBR.
Sub base : 200 mm. ISG : Fine sand 8% CBR.
Base (WBM) : 200 mm. Sub-base : Brick chips≤ 50 mm with
Carpeting : 40 mm Sand FM≥ 0.8 min 30% CBR
Seal coat : 12 mm Base : Brick chips≤40 mm 80% CBR.
Width of carriageway : 5.5 m (1.2 m hard Carpeting : Crushed stone≤40mm +Bitumen.
shoulder in both side) Seal cost :Crushed stone dust + Course
sand + Bitumen.

1.2 m 5.5 m 1.2 m

12 mm Seal coat 40 mm carpeting

Base 200 mm
Sub- base 200 mm
Improved Sub-grade 200-300 mm

Embankment
 STEP- 2 : BOX CUT UP TO
REQUIRED DEPTH
Sub grade soil :
(natural soil of Low Plasticity)

After box cut this subgrade is improved by

achieving required compaction (4%CBR, DCP-
30mm/blow, 98% standard compaction).
A layer of sand cushion will be added after the achievement of required compaction
Estimating Performance of Compacted
Soils

120
Definition of Pavement Systems

Holtz and Kovacs, 1981 121

Characteristics Pertinent to Roads and Airfield

Holtz and Kovacs, 1981 122

 Clay Fabric
A Clay Particle edge-to-face contact face-to-face contact

Flocculated Dispersed
positively
+ + + + charged edges
+ _ _
+ __ _ _ __
Plate-like or +_ __
negatively
charged faces
Flaky Shape _ _ _ _ __ _
___ _ _
Clay Particle with Net negative Charge
 Clay Fabric
edge-to-face contact face-to-face contact

Flocculated Dispersed
 Clay Fabric
 Electrochemical environment (i.e., pH,
acidity, temperature, cations present in the
water) during the time of sedimentation
influence clay fabric significantly.

 Clay particles tend to align perpendicular to

the load applied on them.
 Isomorphous Substitution
The clay particle derives its net negative charge from the isomorphous
substitution and broken bonds at the boundaries.

 substitution of Si4+ and Al3+ by other lower valence

(e.g., Mg2+) cations
 results in charge imbalance (net negative)
positively charged edges
+ + + +
+ _ _
+ __ _ _ __ negatively charged
+_ __ faces
_ _ _ _ __ _
___ _ _
Clay Particle with Net negative Charge
 Cation Concentration in Water
The negatively charged faces of clay particles attract cations in the water. The
concentration of the cations decreases exponentially with the increasing distance from
the clay particle. The negatively charged clay surface and the positively charged cations
near the particle form two distinct layers, known as “electric double layer” or simply
“double layer”.

+ clay particle +

+ + cations
+ + - - ++
+ + + + + +
+ + + + - - + + + +
+ + + + - - + + + +
+ + + - - + + +
+ + + + + + +
+ + + - - + +
+ + + - - + + +
+ +
+ + + + + + + +
+ + - - + +
+ + + + + +
+ + + +
+ +

+ double
129 layer + free water
Cation concentration drops with distance from clay particle
 Adsorbed Water
A thin layer of water tightly held to particle; like a skin
 1-4 molecules of water (1 nm) thick
 more viscous than free water

adsorbed water
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
130
Clay Particle in Water

adsorbed water

- - 1nm
- -
- - 50 nm
- -
- - free water
- -
double
- - layer
water
131
 STEP- 1 : BOX CUT UP TO
REQUIRED DEPTH
Sub grade soil :
(natural soil of Low Plasticity)

After box cut this subgrade is improved by

achieving required compaction (4%CBR, DCP-
30mm/blow, 98% standard compaction).
A layer of sand cushion will be added after the achievement of required compaction
 75 mm thick compacted sand
cushioning (FM 0.80)

Fine sand
Field DCP 22mm/blow

Step-2 : Preparation of subgrade

(Sand Cushion is applied after box cut)
 BOX CUT AND PREPERATION OF
Step-3 : Construction
SUB GRADE of sub base

Instead of bricks recycled pavement

materials, i.e., broken stone, concrete, old
(Khoa 2/3 : Sand 1/3) surfacing etc. can also be used

Brick chips≤ 50 mm 200MM THICK ISG

SAND FM=1.2
Sand FM≥ 0.8 Ref: Road Design
min 30% CBR Standards
by Planning
ACV 32% Commission , 2004

DCP 9 mm/blow 98% Vibrating Compaction

Step-4 : Construction of Base

Brick chips≤ 50 mm
ACV 30%
min 80% CBR
DCP 3.5mm/blow

Construction OF base (WBM)

WBM - COMPLETED

WBM at airport road-Patenga

80% CBR
DCP 3.5mm/blow
 STEP-5 : Tac Coat
Rapid Curing Bitumen
SURFACEING 80/100 or 60/70 grade
0.25 to 0.4 ltr/ sqm
STONE
CARPETING
OVER WBM

Crushed stone
≤40mm
ACV<30%
L.A.A. < 40%. TAC COAT
 STONE CARPETING OVER WBM

TAC COAT

SPREADING STONE CARPETING MIXED WITH HOT

BITUMEN OVER WBM AFTER APPLICATION OF A THIN
BINDER COAT (TAC COAT) ON OLD WBM SURFACE
 CARPETING

Crushed stone
≤40mm
ACV<30%
LAA<40%

Compacted thickness Crushed stone

of carpeting = 40mm
≤40mm + Bitumen
 SEAL COAT

Application of 12mm seal coat over a 40 mm thick

compacted carpeting layer  Surfacing completed

12mm Seal coat

(compacted)
Crushed stone dust +
Course sand + Bitumen.
Densely graded Bituminous Carpeting (BC)
COMPACTION
COMPACTION