Pipe and Tubes

Pipes and tubes are extruded in a wide range of sizes, from medical small tubes and
drinking straws up to pipes of many feet in diameter.

From: Plastic Product Material and Process Selection Handbook, 2004

Related terms:

Intergranular Corrosion, Seawater, Poly(vinyl Chloride), Nitric Acid, Heat Exchanger,

Mandrel, Extrusion, Galvanizing

View all Topics

EXTRUSION
Dominick V. Rosato, ... Matthew V. Rosato, in Plastic Product Material and Process
Selection Handbook, 2004

Pipe and tube

Pipes and tubes are extruded in a wide range of sizes, from medical small tubes
and drinking straws up to pipes of many feet in diameter. Plastic pipes and tubings
have different definitions that are usually associated with the different industries
(plumbing, gas transmission line, beverage, medical, mining, and so on). A popular
definition for pipe is that they are rigid, hollow, long, and larger in diameter than
tubes. Tubings are basically the same except flexible and smaller in diameter such
as up to 0.5 in. (0.13 mm). Practically all pipes are extruded using TPs. Single screw
extruders are usually used but with PVC twin screw extruders are also used. Dies in
some of the line use the same basic type dies and plastic melt temperature ranges
used in wire coating (Chapter 17).

The extruder and die, as well as down-stream devices for the outside and inside
calibration of the pipes cross sectional area, if required, use air pressure and/or vac-
uum to contain the pipe shape. Wall thickness measuring device, mandrel designs
(such as while water cools outside;inside a thin spiral gap between the fixed mandrel
attached to the die provides cooling air), cooling tank, and automatic cutting with
pallet equipment for rigid pipe or windup unit for flexible pipe are downstream. The
line could include a marking device, testing device, etc. An important requirement
is to cool the extrudate rather fast near the die while keeping control of dimensions
and properties.

Included in the processes are various techniques to control the dimensions/sizes

that are either free drawn melts (usually for the small diameter tubes) or sizing
fixtures. Dimensional and/or thickness calibrating disks of different designs are
used. There are small diameter tube lines using draw down control (free extrusion)
sizing technology where the extruded tubular melt has no calibrating device after
leaving the die. It could have internal air pressure so that the tube does not collapse
upon leaving the die. Devices are also used with different designed calibrating/sizing
plates or tubes with or without pressure or vacuum assist in and/or outside the tube
(Figure 5.13).

Figure 5.13. Introduction to downstream pipe/tube line equipmen

Dies for pipe production consist essentially of a female die ring that shapes the
pipe outside diameter, and a male mandrel that shapes the inside diameter. The
difficulty is to support the mandrel in rigid and accurate alignment with the die
ring without compromising the product. The spider type uses three or four spider
legs to support the mandrel but these legs cause axial weld lines as the melt flows
around them (Chapter 17).

> Read full chapter

Fabrication Techniques for Fluoropoly-
mers
Sina Ebnesajjad Ph.D., Pradip R. Khaladkar, in Fluoropolymers Applications in the
Chemical Processing Industries, 2005

7.4.4 Welding PFA

PFA tubes and pipe liners can be butt-welded in a similar procedure to that used
for PTFE (Sec. 7.4.2). PFA does not require adhesive to form a bond. PFA is easily
welded by a heated platen technique in which the liner ends contact the heated
plate until a bead is formed. A heater plate temperature of 399°C, a contact time of
15–30 secs, and a soak time of 90–105 secs are required for liners with a diameter of
2.5–5.0 cm.[37] Soak time is the time period allowed after the bead has been formed.
No pressure is applied during the contact and soak periods. The plate is carefully
removed at the end of the soak time. The liner ends are rapidly brought in contact
using a welding device (see Fig. 7.16) without applying pressure.

Amorphous plastics, such as acrylics, are transparent to infrared rays. Some semi-
crystalline polymers, such as PFA, have surprisingly high levels of infrared trans-
mission. PFA can be welded by infrared under certain circumstances. For example, a
transparent tube of PFA was welded to a black sheet of PFA that absorbed the infrared
light generated by a Nd:YAG laser (1,064 nm).[38] A tube composed of natural PFA
(6.4 mm outer diameter and 3.2 mm inner diameter) was pressed into a 6.4 mm
diameter hole in an aluminum sheet. The aluminum sheet was used to shield the
black PFA sheet from stray radiation. The IR light was defocused to a diameter of 6.4
mm and aimed at the end of the tube in the aluminum. A laser power of 30 W with
a tube length of 50 mm produced a strong weld in a few seconds.

Procedures have been developed in which PFA has been welded to sintered PTFE.-
[39][40] An example was a ring consisting of PFA and PTFE sections (Fig. 7.18). This

procedure was comprised of placing the sintered PTFE segment in an appropriately

designed mold and charging PFA pellets in the space directly in contact with the
PTFE part. A weight was placed on top of the ram to apply a slight pressure (35 kPa)
to the PFA. The assembly was then placed in an oven at 340°C for 120 min. At the
end of this period, the assembly was removed from the oven and placed in a press.
The weight was removed and a pressure of 965 kPa was gradually applied to the PFA
over a period of 25 seconds to compress the molten PFA. The pressure was held until
the assembly had cooled to room temperature. This fusion weld was so strong that,
when the welded part was placed under tensile load, failure occurred in one of the
resins and not at the weld. The length of oven dwell times depends on the size of the
part. Pressure, however, must be maintained at low levels to achieve a high-quality
weld.

Figure 7.18. Welding of PFA and PTFE.[39][40]

> Read full chapter

Gas welding
Klas Weman, in Welding Processes Handbook (Second Edition), 2012

2.5 Applications
Gas welding is very suitable for welding pipes and tubes. It is both effective and
economic for applications such as construction and repair of heating, ventilation and
air conditioning (HVAC) systems. Other applications of gas welding include welding
of hot water pipes, gas bottles, nuclear heat exchangers and boilers. The technique
has the following advantages:

• The ability to even out the temperature in the weld at low temperatures. Slow
heating and cooling can avoid the risk of hardening.
• Metal thicknesses up to about 6 mm can be welded with an I-joint.

• Speed, as only one pass is needed. Filler wires can be changed without having
to pause for grinding.
• Good control of melting, as the welder can see at all times that he has the
desired pear-shaped opening in the bottom of the melt pool.
• Root defects are avoided by taking care to ensure good burn-through.

• Pipes and tubes often have to be welded in very confined spaces. In such
cases, gas welding is often preferable, bearing in mind the less bulky protective
equipment required (goggles, as against a normal arc welding helmet or visor,
and compact torch) to perform the work.
• The equipment is easy to transport and requires no electricity supply.

• It is possible to use the light from the flame to locate the joint before welding
starts.
•
The size of the HAZ can be reduced by surrounding the weld area with damp
(fireproof!) material.

Warning: Note the risk of fire when carrying out temporary welding or cutting work
in the vicinity of flammable materials or parts of buildings.

> Read full chapter

Welding automation and robotics

John Norrish, in Advanced Welding Processes, 2006

Orbital welding systems

The need to perform circumferential welds in pipe and tube fabrication applications
is met by a range of orbital welding systems, which include tube-to-tube heads,
tube-to-tube plate and internal bore welders. These are usually portable systems
which locate on or in the tube to be joined and rotate a GTAW head around the joint.
Larger devices may be tractor-mounted on a circumferential track similar to the sim-
ple tractor systems described above, whilst the smaller systems utilize a horseshoe
clamp arrangement. Wire feeding and arc length control may be incorporated in the
welding head and more sophisticated systems may allow the welding parameters to
be changed progressively as the torch moves around the seam.

These systems are commonly used in power station construction for boiler tube
joints and tube-to-tube plate welds. A good example of the productivity savings that
can be achieved with these techniques when compared with manual welding is the
application of orbital welding techniques to the fabrication of more than 60000 butt
welds in stainless-steel pipework at the BNFL reprocessing plant. [267, 268] The
application of orbital welding systems, together with improved pipe preparation
and purging techniques, gave an improved first-time pass rate (from 50–60% to
87–90%) for each weld and more than halved the person hours per weld. The use of a
pre-placed consumable socket [269] enabled simple square-edge pipe preparations
to be used, provided joint alignment, avoided the use of a wire feed system, and
allowed a single-pass welding procedure to be adopted. As in many applications of
this type, additional benefits were obtained by adapting the automation technique
to suit the application.

> Read full chapter

Zinc: Alloying, Thermomechanical Pro-
cessing, Properties, and Applications
R.F. Lynch, in Encyclopedia of Materials: Science and Technology, 2001

7.2 Continuous Hot-dip Galvanizing

The continuous hot-dip galvanizing process is applied to sheet, strip, wire, tube,
and pipe products manufactured in continuous operations. The advantages of this
technique are high production rates and a more ductile galvanized product, which is
readily formed. The overwhelming use of zinc in galvanizing is for sheet galvanized
products and this is where major technological improvements and alloy coating
development have taken place. A small addition of aluminum to the galvanizing
bath and a limited immersion time in the bath produce a thin zinc coating with
only a thin intermetallic layer, in contrast to the thick multiphase iron–zinc coatings
characteristic of batch hot-dip galvanizing. The use of Continuous Galvanizing
Grade (CGG) zinc alloys containing 0.25–1.0 wt.% zinc has become commonplace.
The trend is for minimum lead and/or antimony additions, producing a smaller size
spangle that is more ductile and allows a superior painted surface. Standardized
CGG grades are recognized in ASTM B 852. Zinc–aluminum and zinc–antimony
master alloys are specified in ASTM B 860. The process is flexible enough to allow
application of varying coating thicknesses. Applications are in steel framing, roofing,
painted building panels, construction, automotive appliances, and a multitude of
other end-use areas.

Alloy coatings have been developed that offer enhanced engineering performance.
In these instances, the enhanced performance of the zinc alloy coating has removed
prior limitations and allowed the potential of the underlying steel sheet to be more
fully used. Galvanneal is a zinc–iron coating produced in much the same way as con-
ventional galvanized. However, the bath has a reduced aluminum level to promote
greater intermetallic phase formation and the surface is heated after removal from
the bath during which the zinc surface layer is converted by diffusion to iron–zinc
intermetallic phases. Galvanneal is widely used in the automotive industry because
it has better weldability and paintability than conventional galvanized.

Zinc–aluminum coatings are produced by passing the steel through a bath con-
taining 1–55 wt.% aluminum. Two coatings offering enhanced corrosion resistance
and other performance features, Galfan and Galvalume, have become widely used
worldwide. Galvalume with 55 wt.% aluminum, 1.5 wt.% silicon, and the balance
zinc provides the better bold corrosion resistance of aluminum with many of the
features of galvanized. The microstructure consists of the outer coating and a
thin intermetallic layer, which bonds to the steel. The silicon addition restricts the
formation of the intermetallic layer that consists of two intermetallic compounds,
with the inner sublayer being a quaternary Al–Fe–Si–Zn compound and the outer
layer a ternary Al–Si–Fe compound. The multiphase outer coating contains cored
aluminum-rich dendrites and zinc-rich interdendritic areas, with occasional silicon
particles interspersed. Because 80% of the volume is aluminum, the coating
performs more like an aluminum coating. Galvalume uses include roofing and
siding, appliance uses based on its high reflectivity and heat oxidation resistance,
plus applications based on its general utility.

Galfan contains 95 wt.% zinc, 5 wt.% aluminum, and a small amount of mischmetal.
Superzinc is a similar product using a small magnesium addition instead of mis-
chmetal. The multiphase microstructure of Galfan is characteristic of its eutectic
composition, exhibiting a lamellar structure of alternating zinc- and aluminum-rich
phases. The fineness of the structure increases with higher cooling rate and is
completely eutectic when fast cooled. With slower cooling rates, primary zinc- or
aluminum-rich crystals appear, depending on composition. Commercially, Galfan
is normally fast cooled to generate the desirable fine eutectic microstructure. In
addition to two to three times the corrosion life of conventional galvanized steel,
Galfan provides superior sacrificial cut edge protection.A unique feature of Galfan
is the virtual absence of an intermetallic phase between the steel substrate and
the Zn–5 wt.% Al coating. This condition is the result of the mischmetal addition,
consisting primarily of lanthanum and cerium, which allows complete wetting of the
steel by the alloy coating and suppresses intermetallic phase formation. The absence
of an intermetallic phase renders Galfan highly formable as crack nucleation at the
intermetallic is avoided and the ductile fine eutectic microstructure itself is highly
resistant to crack propagation. The surface chemistry of Galfan is highly receptive
for painting. Thus the intrinsic corrosion resistance and sacrificial protection of
Galfan can be used in fabricated and painted products. Painted building applications,
formed automotive components, bare and painted appliance parts and cabinets,
deep-drawn motor housings, and fencing are among the applications of Galfan.

> Read full chapter

The influence of fibre architecture in

the failure of polymer composites
In Failure Analysis and Fractography of Polymer Composites, 2009

6.3.1 Introduction and methodology

Filament winding is a highly efficient means of fabricating low-cost structures
with rotational symmetry, such as pipes, tubes and spheres. The approach is to wind
fibre tows, through a resin bath, onto a mandrel.1 The winding angle can be varied
from normal to the mandrel (90 °) up to angles of about 35 although at low angles
it is difficult to control the fibre alignment.1 The winding process means the
architecture of the composite consists of many, interlocked lamina, at varying angles
to eachother. This, consequently, influences the dominant fracture mechanisms in
these materials. In particular, interlaminar failures tend to be localised and interact
strongly with intralaminar fracture modes.

From a fractographic perspective, filament wound components can be fairly de-

manding and difficult to examine. Because of the interlocked nature of the
lamina, damage development is fairly diffuse and it is rare that the failure will
significantly delaminate enough to allow easy exposure of the surfaces for analysis.
This means there is often significant fibre bridging across the crack faces, and
fracture surfaces will tend to disintegrate during dissection. Consequently, the best
approach for analysis is to use methods such as x-ray radiography to ascertain the
subsurface extent of any failure and then cross-sectioning and optical microscopy
to characterise the mode of failure.

> Read full chapter

FUELS – SAFETY | Hydrogen: Overview

U. Schmidtchen, in Encyclopedia of Electrochemical Power Sources, 2009

Handling Advice
The general rules of Good Laboratory Practice as well as the applicable regulations
for handling pressure vessels and flammable gases should be followed when hydro-
gen is involved. The properties of hydrogen do not justify extraordinary precautions
or safety measures.

In laboratories where hydrogen is being stored in large amounts and used regularly,
the following recommendations apply:

• Pipes and tubes should be welded or soldered.

• Make-and-break connections should be reduced to a minimum.

• Appropriate, preferably passive, ventilation should be guaranteed; many such

laboratories have an inclined ceiling or roof.
•
If gas detectors are used, they should be located near the top of the room and•
also close to those places where an escape of hydrogen is most likely.
In general, all safety measures should be passive as far as possible. They should
work without an external energy supply or at least remain operative if there is
a problem with the main energy supply of the laboratory.

In its general physical and chemical properties (flammable, lighter than air), hydro-
gen is rather similar to natural gas and can be treated as such in many respects.

> Read full chapter

Colloid Casting Processes: Slip Casting,

Centrifugal Casting, and Gel Casting
Nur S. Yüzbasi, Thomas Graule, in Reference Module in Materials Science and
Materials Engineering, 2020

Centrifugal Casting
Centrifugal casting is originally known from cement industry from 1978, as being
the most common method used to manufacture tubes and pipes in cement industry
(Glasser and Zhang, 2001; Kaufmann, 2004). Centrifugal casting involves solid-liq-
uid separation by spinning a mold in lab-scale centrifuge in order to accelerate the
sedimentation of colloidal suspension for the compaction of powders. The molds
used in centrifugal casting do not need to be porous and can be fabricated from
different metals and plastic materials (Buschow et al., 2001; Schilling, 2001).

In this technique, the mold is located at the bottom of centrifugal bucket that can
produce the centrifugal action in the direction of the mold. Centrifugal force can
accelerate the casting speed and significantly shorten the casting time. Different
from slip casting, the liquid in the slurry is removed from the top of the cake in this
technique. Centrifugal casting technique allows manufacturing of thicker parts in a
faster manner compared to other casting methods.

Centrifugal casting is one of the least common industrial casting technique in

ceramics due to the following drawbacks: (1) differential settling during the con-
solidation stage and (2) significant gradients in compaction stress observed within
the cake at different radial distances from the center of the centrifuge (Buschow et
al., 2001; Bengisu, 2013). These factors result in gradients also in packing density
and formation of subsequent shrinkage cracks during drying and debinding. The
compressibility problems can be addressed by avoiding flocculated slips (Schilling
et al., 1998; Buschow et al., 2001). To avoid segregation problems, consolidation
is suggested to be in the flocculated or in the coagulated state or utilize highly
concentrated dispersed suspensions (Huisman et al., 1995a,b; Schilling et al., 1998;
Buschow et al., 2001).

Centrifugal casting is also a common method for obtaining functionally grad-

ed materials (FGM) and manufacturing of layered micro-composites through the
sequential casting of different slip formulations (Marshall et al., 1991; Bengisu,
2013). The layer thickness can be arranged via controlling the centrifuging speed
and the solid concentration in the slurry (Marshall et al., 1991). Mainly composite
materials such as SiC reinforced Al-based FGMs or metallic materials having high
differences of density and low solubility on different phases can also be produced
with centrifugal casting (Chirita et al., 2008).

Alternatively, the slip is located in a hollow cylindrical plaster mold and rotated
around its axis to manufacture tubular or axisymmetrical bodies (Bengisu, 2013).
For instance, rings, tubes, pipes, and large motor housings are typically produced
using centrifugal casting (Campbell, 2015).

> Read full chapter

Corrosion behaviour of non-ferrous al-

loys in seawater in the Polish marine
industry
JERZY BIRN, IGOR SKALSKI, in Corrosion Behaviour and Protection of Copper and
Aluminium Alloys in Seawater, 2007

1.4 Recommendations on the use of non-ferrous alloys in sea-

water
In short, the following recommendations can be given for the application of non-fer-
rous alloys in seawater:

1. Al-brass for pipes and tubes of heat exchangers in seawater of small aggres-
sivity;
2. Sn-brass for tube plates of heat exchangers;

3. cupro-nickels 90/10 and 70/30 for pipes and tubes of heat exchangers in
seawater of greater aggressivity and in polluted seawater;
4. Sn bronzes as cast materials for pumps and valves;

5.
 Al, Mn, Ni, Fe bronzes as cast materials for propellers and other elements in 6.
seawater flowing at high velocity;
aluminium alloys Al-Mg and Al–Mg–Zn (without welding) for the hulls of fast
ships.

> Read full chapter

The Circular Flow Tube

Bastian E. Rapp, in Microfluidics: Modelling, Mechanics and Mathematics, 2017

14.8 Summary
In this section, we introduced the concept of flow tubes, which are convenient
control volumes that lend themselves well to describing constraint flow volumes,
e.g., pipes and tubes. We have derived the fundamental equations, i.e., the continuity,
the Navier-Stokes, as well as the energy equation for this control volume. We
also derived the Euler and the Bernoulli equations, which are special forms of the
Navier-Stokes equation in cylindrical coordinates. Obviously, we could have simply
copied the converted forms of the fundamental equations in cylindrical coordinates
and gotten the same equations. However, as we have seen, it is not difficult to
derive these equations “from scratch.”

> Read full chapter

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