CONTENTS

CHAPTER TOPIC PAGE NO

1 THE PROBLEM, OBJECTIVE AND SCOPE .. 1

1.1 THE PROBLEM .. 1
1.2 SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS IN SEISMIC SAFETY OF BUILDINGS 1
1.3 OBJECT AND SCOPE .. 2

2 STRUCTURAL PERFORMANCE DURING EARTHQUAKES .. 3

2.1 INTRODUCTION .. 3
2.2 EARTHQUAKE EFFECTS .. 4
2.2.1 Ground shaking .. 4
2.2.2 Ground failure .. 4
2.2.3 Tsunamis .. 4
2.2.4 Fire .. 4
2.3 GROUND SHAKING EFFECT ON STRUCTURES .. 4
2.3.1 Inertia forces .. 4
2.3.2 Seismic load .. 5
2.3.3 Factors affecting seismic load .. 6
2.3.4 Nature of seismic stresses .. 6
2.3.5 Important parameters in seismic design .. 6
2.4 EFFECT OF SITE CONDITIONS ON BUILDING DAMAGE .. 7
2.5 OTHER FACTORS AFFECTING DAMAGE .. 8
2.5.1 Building configuration .. 8
2.5.2 Opening size .. 8
2.5.3 Rigidity distribution .. 8
2.5.4 Ductility .. 8
2.5.5 Foundation .. 8
2.5.6 Construction quality .. 9
2.6 FAILURE MECHANISMS OF EARTHQUAKES .. 9
2.6.1 Free standing masonry wall .. 9
2.6.2 Wall enclosure without roof .. 9
2.6.3 Roof on two walls .. 10
2.6.4 Roof on wall enclosure .. 11
2.6.5 Roofs and floors .. 11
2.6.6 Long building with roof trusses .. 12
2.6.7 Shear wall with openings .. 13
2.7 EARTHQUAKE DAMAGE CATEGORIES .. 14

3 GENERAL CONCEPTS OF EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT DESIGN .. 15

3.1 INTRODUCTION .. 15
3.2 CATEGORIES OF BUILDINGS .. 16
 3.2.1 Seismic zones .. 16
3.2.2 Importance of building .. 16
3.2.3 Bearing capacity of foundation soil .. 16
3.2.4 Combination of parameters .. 17
3.3 GENERAL PLANNING AND DESIGN ASPECTS .. 17
3.3.1. Plan of building .. 17
3.3.2 Choice of site .. 19
3.3.3. Structural design .. 20
3.3.4 Fire resistance .. 20
3.4 STRUCTURAL FRAMING .. 20
3.5 REQUIREMENTS OF STRUCTURAL SAFETY .. 20
3.6 CONCEPTS OF DUCTILITY, DEFORMABILITY AND DAMAGEABILITY 21
3.6.1 Ductility .. 22
3.6.2 Deformability .. 22
3.6.3 Damageability .. 22
3.7 CONCEPT OF ISOLATION .. 23
3.8 FOUNDATIONS .. 23
3.8.1 Firm soil .. 23
3.8.2 Soft soil .. 23

4 BUILDINGS IN FIRED-BRICK AND OTHER MASONRY UNITS .. 25

4.1 INTRODUCTION .. 25
4.2 TYPICAL DAMAGE AND FAILURE OF MASONRY BUILDINGS .. 25
4.2.1 Non-structural damage .. 25
4.2.2 Damage and failure of bearing walls .. 26
4.2.3 Failure of ground .. 28
4.2.4 Failure of roofs and floors .. 28
4.2.5 Causes of damage in masonry buildings .. 28
4.3 TYPICAL STRENGTHS OF MASONRY .. 29
4.4 GENERAL CONSTRUCTION ASPECTS .. 31
4.4.1 Mortar .. 31
4.4.2. Wall enclosure .. 31
4.4.3 Openings in walls .. 32
4.4.4 Masonry bond .. 34
4.5 HORIZONTAL REINFORCEMENT IN WALLS .. 34
4.5.1 Horizontal bands or ring beams .. 35
4.5.2 Section of bands or ring beams .. 36
4.5.3 Dowels at corners and junctions .. 36
4.6 VERTICAL REINFORCEMENT IN WALLS .. 38
4.7 FRAMING OF THIN LOAD BEARING WALLS .. 38
4.8 REINFORCING DETAILS FOR HOLLOW BLOCK MASONRY .. 40
4.8.1 Horizontal band .. 40
4.8.2 Vertical reinforcement .. 40

5 STONE BUILDINGS .. 43
5.1 INTRODUCTION .. 43
5.2 TYPICAL DAMAGE AND FAILURE OF STONE BUILDINGS .. 43
5.3 TYPICAL STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES .. 44
 5.4 GENERAL CONSTRUCTION ASPECTS .. 44
5.4.1 Overall dimensions .. 44
5.4.2 Mortar .. 45
5.4.3 Openings in walls .. 46
5.4.4 Masonry bond .. 46
5.4.5 Horizontal reinforcing of walls .. 47
5.4.6 Vertical reinforcing of walls .. 47

6 WOODEN BUILDINGS .. 49
6.1 INTRODUCTION .. 49
6.2 TYPICAL DAMAGE AND FAILURE OF WOODEN BUILDINGS .. 49
6.3 TYPICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOD .. 50
6.4 TYPICAL STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES .. 52
6.5 THE BUILDING PLAN .. 53
6.6 STUD WALL CONSTRUCTION .. 54
6.7 BRICK NOGGED TIMBER FRAME .. 58
6.8 JOINTS IN WOOD FRAMES .. 59
6.9 FOUNDATIONS .. 59

7 EARTHEN BUILDINGS .. 61
7.1 INTRODUCTION .. 61
7.2 TYPICAL DAMAGE AND COLLAPSE OF EARTHEN BUILDINGS.. 61
7.3 CLASSIFICATION OF WALLS AND MATERIAL PROPERTIES .. 64
7.3.1 Classification of earthen constructions .. 64
7.3.2 Suitability of soil .. 64
7.3.3 Strength test of adobe .. 65
7.4 CONSTRUCTIONS OF WALLS .. 65
7.4.1 Hand-moulded layered construction .. 66
7.4.2 Adobe or block construction .. 66
7.4.3 Tapial pise construction .. 67
7.4.4 Earthen construction with wood or cane structure .. 68
7.5 GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS FOR SEISMIC AREAS .. 71
7.5.1 Walls .. 71
7.5.2 Foundations .. 72
7.5.3 Roofing .. 74
7.6 SEISMIC STRENGTHENING FEATURES .. 74
7.6.1 Collar beam or horizontal band .. 74
7.6.2 Pillasters and buttresses .. 74
7.6.3 Vertical reinforcement in walls .. 75
7.6.4 Diagonal bracing .. 75
7.7 PLASTERING AND PAINTING .. 76
7.8 SUMMARY OF DESIRABLE FEATURES .. 77
7.9 WORKING STRESSES .. 77
7.9.1 Unit compressive strength .. 77
7.9.2 Masonry compressive strength .. 77
7.9.3 Shear strength of masonry .. 78
7.9.4 Permissible tensile strength of masonry for loads perpendicular
to its plane (f a ) .. 78
8 NON ENGINEERED REINFORCED CONCRETE BUILDINGS .. 79
8.1 INTRODUCTION .. 79
8.2 TYPICAL DAMAGE AND COLLAPSE OF RC BUILDINGS .. 79
8.3 CARE IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION .. 81
8.4 TYPICAL MATERIAL PROPERTIES .. 83
8.5 DETAILING OF BEAMS .. 85
8.6 DETAILING OF COLUMNS .. 89
8.7 CONNECTION .. 89
8.8 ILLUSTRATE SKETCHES .. 89

9 REPAIR, RESTORATION AND STRENGTHENING OF BUILDINGS 91

9.1 INTRODUCTION .. 91
9.2 REPAIR, RESTORATION AND STRENGTHENING CONCEPTS .. 92
9.2.1 Repairs .. 92
9.2.2 Restoration .. 92
9.2.3 Strengthening of existing buildings .. 93
9.3 REPAIR MATERIALS .. 94
9.3.1. Shotcrete .. 94
9.3.2 Epoxy resins .. 94
9.3.3 Epoxy mortar .. 94
9.3.4 Gypsum cement mortar .. 95
9.3.5 Quick-setting cement mortar .. 95
9.3.6 Mechanical anchors .. 95
9.4 TECHNIQUES TO RESTORE ORIGINAL STRENGTH .. 95
9.4.1 Small cracks .. 95
9.4.2 Large cracks and crushed concrete .. 97
9.4.3 Fractured, excessively yielded and buckled reinforcement .. 98
9.4.4 Fractured wooden members and joints .. 100
9.5 MODIFICATION OF ROOFS .. 100
9.6 SUBSTITUTION OR STRENGTHENING OF SLABS 102
9.7 PLANNAR MODIFICATIONS AND STRENGTHENING OF WALLS 102
.. 9.7.1 Inserting new walls .. 102
9.7.2 Strengthening existing walls .. 104
9.7.3 External binding .. 109
9.7.4 Other points .. 110
9.8 STRENGTHENING RC MEMBERS .. 112
9.9 STRENGTHENING OF FOUNDATIONS .. 113

APPENDIX .. 115