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Formulating Neem Oil Emulsion as Potent

Agrochemicals Using a Binary Emulsifier System
a a
Shrinivas C. Kothekar & Shamim A. Momin
a
Department of Oils , Oleochemicals and Surfactants, Institute of Chemical Technology ,
Matunga, Mumbai, India
Published online: 31 May 2008.

To cite this article: Shrinivas C. Kothekar & Shamim A. Momin (2008) Formulating Neem Oil Emulsion as Potent
Agrochemicals Using a Binary Emulsifier System, Journal of Dispersion Science and Technology, 29:6, 919-929, DOI:
10.1080/01932690701783630

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 Journal of Dispersion Science and Technology, 29:919–929, 2008
Copyright # Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 0193-2691 print/1532-2351 online
DOI: 10.1080/01932690701783630

Formulating Neem Oil Emulsion as Potent

Agrochemicals Using a Binary Emulsifier System
Shrinivas C. Kothekar and Shamim A. Momin
Department of Oils, Oleochemicals and Surfactants, Institute of Chemical Technology,
Matunga, Mumbai, India

Neem oil is a natural pesticide and has excellent insecticidal properties. Hence, in this study the
efforts have been made to formulate the Neem oil emulsions which would be used as agrochem-
icals. In order to formulate stable Neem oil emulsions, a binary emulsifier system of Hydol-6
(Polyoxyethylene Alkyl Ether-6 moles of ethylene oxids) and Hydol-10 (Polyoxyethylene Alkyl
Ether-10 moles of ethylene oxids) were employed. Stability of Neem oil emulsions as a function of
concentration of Neem oil, Hydol-6, Hydol-10, the amount of water, homogenization speed, and
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homogenization time was studied in depth. Apart from this, it was observed that the nature of
water also affects the stability of the emulsions. The concentration of Neem oil in the stable
emulsions was also found to exhibit the varying effects on the properties like dispersibility,
spreading power, and droplet size of the emulsions. Larvasidal effects of stable Neem oil
emulsions were examined.
Keywords Dispersibility, droplet size, hydol-6, hydol-10, larvacidal activity, neem oil
emulsions, spreading power

INTRODUCTION
Most of the neurotoxic insecticides which are being used
globally are damaging to the environment and=or pose a
threat to public health via food residues, groundwater con-
tamination, or accidental exposure. Although the risks
associated with the proper use of these pest control materi-
als should be minimal, the exaggerated perception of these
risks among the public is increasing demand for alternative
and safe environmentally sound pest controlling materials.
One such source available for natural insecticides is the
Neem oil. Neem oil is obtained from the seeds of Neem
tree.[1–2] Azadirachta indica, A. Juss. (Neem) of the family
Meliaceae, is native to the Indian subcontinent. Neem,
today, is grown in many Asian countries and in tropical
regions of the western hemisphere.[3] Native of Indian sub-
continent, this fast-growing shade tree is widely cultivated
in Africa, Australia, the Carribean region, and Central
and South America.[4] Azadirachtin (C35H44O16), a tetra-
nortriterpenoid and major anti-insect active present in
Received 14 May 2007; accepted 28 May 2007.
This work was supported by Unitop Industries Ltd. Mumbai,
India Ltd. by providing the gift samples of emulsifiers for
research work.
Address correspondence to Shrinivas C. Kothekar and
Shamim A. Momin, Senior Research Fellow, Department of Oils,
Oleochemicals and Surfactants, Institute of Chemical Tech-
nology, Matunga, Mumbai 400 019, India. E-mail: s_kothekar@
yahoo.com, skothekar2007@rediffmail.com
Neem oil, has been rated as the most potent naturally
occurring insect feeding deterrent[5,6] and has generated
wide academic and industrial interests.[7,8] Azadirachtin
(AZA) functions as a natural insect control agent because
of its antifeedant as well as insect growth regulatory
properties.[9]
AZA is dually advantageous as a natural insect control
agent because it possesses both antifeedant and insect
growth regulatory properties against insects. Over 200 spe-
cies of pest insects are known to be susceptible to the bioac-
tivity of AZA.[2] The lack of acute toxicity in lab animals
and lack of evidence for chronic effects in animals, com-
bined with a long historical use of Neem oil preparations
in traditional medicines in India should make a Neem
oil-based insecticide a highly acceptable alternative to
synthetic neurotoxin- type insecticides.[4]
Advantages of Neem oil preparations over pure AZA
include the presence of other potentially active constitu-
ents.[10,11] One derivative of Neem that may serve as a start-
ing point for the development of an insecticide is the oil
obtained from crushing of the dried seeds. Neem seed,
which contains approximately 40% oil, has the highest
concentrations of AZA. India currently produces over
80,000 metric tons of Neem oil annually. Aqueous emul-
sions of Neem oil are efficacious against insects in field
trials, which suggest that the crude Neem oil may be a use-
ful starting material for the development of Neem oil-based
insecticides.[12–13]

919
 920 S. C. KOTHEKAR AND S. A. MOMIN

Neem, like all other botanical preparations, will vary

considerably with respect to its active ingredients depend-
ing on thee genome of thee trees from which seed is col-
lected, the geographic area of origin and the variations in
environmental conditions.
The objective of the present study was to devise the
stable emulsions containing the high concentrations of
Neem oil and relatively low concentrations of emulsifiers
in deionized water as well as hard water. The stability stu-
dies were carried out at room temperature and extended
temperature as well. The stable emulsions were further
FIG. 2. Curve showing the variation of emulsifying power with
assessed for their insecticidal properties. change in concentration of Hydol-6.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Neem oil (unrefined) was procured from local market
and the free samples of emulsifiers Hydol-6 and Hydol-10
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were supplied by the Unitop Industries (Mumbai, India).

Hard water of 340 ppm was prepared by adding a mixture
of hydrous calcium chloride and magnesium carbonate.

Analysis of Emulsifiers Hydol-6 and Hydol-10

Foaming Power and Foamability
Determination of foaming power and foamability was
performed by using the Bartsch (shaking test) method.
Emulsifier solutions of different concentrations, that is,
0.01%, 0.1%, 0.25%, 0.5%, and 1% were vigorously sha-
ken in a 100 mL graduated cylinder (20 mm inner diameter)
by hand, 30 times in 30 seconds, as uniformly as possible,
and the foam volume was noted immediately. This reading
for foam volume was considered as the 0th minute (initial)
foam volume. The similar foam volumes were noted after
5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30 minutes. All the experiments were
performed at ambient temperature, that is, 30C.
Emulsifying Power
The experimental procedure to determine the emulsify-
ing power of emulsifiers of different concentrations, that
is, 0.01%, 0.1%, 0.25%, 0.50%, and 1% was same in all
FIG. 3. Curve showing the variation of emulsifying power with
change in concentration of Hydol-6.
respects, as described for the foaming power and foamabil-
ity except, to each 20 mL volume of the emulsifier solution
20 mL volume of the paraffin oil was added.
Surface Tension and Interfacial Tension Measurements
Surface tension measurements for different emulsifier
solutions of different concentrations were carried out by
using a SL. NO- 163 tensiometer with Du-Nouy ring
method at controlled room temperature, that is, 30C.
Triplet tests were performed for each measurement and
the average of three readings was considered as the final

FIG. 1. Curve showing the variation of foamability with change in FIG. 4. Curve showing the variation of surface tension with change
concentration of Hydol-6 and Hydol-10. in concentration of Hydol-6 and Hydol-10.
 NEEM OIL EMULSION AS POTENT AGROCHEMICALS 921

reading. Before the measurement, the platinum ring was

FIG. 5. Curve showing the variation of interfacial tension with
change in concentration of Hydol-6 and Hydol-10.
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cleaned with a chromic acid mixture and washed thor-
oughly with twice-distilled water, then burned red using
the oxidizing portion of the flame of an alcohol burner.
Surface tensions of different emulsifier solutions were
measured for their various concentrations, that is, 0.01%,
0.1%, 0.25%, 0.50%, and 1%. The ring was hung from
the load cell and lowered about 5 mm below the surface
of the emulsifier solution placed in a glass-tub (30 mL vol-
ume), and held still for another 30 minutes. The ring was
pulled from the surface and the apparent surface tension
was recorded.
The experimental procedure for determination of the
interfacial tension of different emulsifier solutions and of

TABLE 1
Formulation of Neem oil emulsions using Hydol-6 and Hydol-10 surfactants in deionized water
Neem oil Hydol-6 Hydol-10 Deionized Homogenizer Homogenization
Sr. no. (%) (%) (%) water (%) speed time Results
1 10 1 4 85 3000 rpm 60 minutes S
2 10 1 2 87 3000 rpm 60 minutes S
3 10 1 1 88 3000 rpm 60 minutes 0.5 ml CL
4 10 1 0.5 88.5 3000 rpm 60 minutes 1 ml CL
5 10 0.5 0.5 89 3000 rpm 60 minutes 1 ml CL
6 15 1 2 82 3000 rpm 60 minutes S
7 15 1 1 83 3000 rpm 60 minutes S
8 15 0.5 1 83.5 3000 rpm 60 minutes 0.5 ml CL
9 15 0.5 0.5 84 3000 rpm 60 minutes 2 ml CL
10 15 0.5 0.25 84.25 3000 rpm 60 minutes 2 ml CL
11 20 1 2 77 3000 rpm 60 minutes 1 ml CL
12 20 1 4 75 3000 rpm 60 minutes 1 ml CL
13 20 1 3.5 75.5 3000 rpm 60 minutes 1 ml CL
14 20 1 3 76 3000 rpm 60 minutes 1 ml CL
15 20 1 2.5 76.5 3000 rpm 60 minutes S
16 20 1 2.2 76.8 3000 rpm 60 minutes 1 ml OL
17 20 0.5 2.5 77 3000 rpm 60 minutes S
18 20 0.75 2.5 76.75 3000 rpm 60 minutes 0.5 ml CL
19 20 0.25 2.5 77.25 3000 rpm 60 minutes 0.5 ml CL
20 25 1 2 72 3000 rpm 60 minutes S
21 25 1 3 71 3000 rpm 60 minutes 7 ml CL
22 25 1 1.5 72.5 3000 rpm 60 minutes 0.5 ml OL
23 25 1 1 73 3000 rpm 60 minutes 2 ml CL
24 25 1 0.5 73.5 3000 rpm 60 minutes 2 ml CL
25 25 1 0.25 73.75 3000 rpm 60 minutes S
26 25 0.5 0.25 74.25 3000 rpm 60 minutes 3.5 ml CL
27 25 0.75 0.25 74 3000 rpm 60 minutes 6 ml CL
28 30 1 2 67 3000 rpm 60 minutes S
29 30 1 1 68 3000 rpm 60 minutes 4.5 ml CL
30 30 1 0.5 68.5 3000 rpm 60 minutes 7.5 ml CL
31 30 0.5 1 68.5 3000 rpm 60 minutes 7.5 ml CL
S.E.: stable emulsion; S: stable; CL: creamy layer.
 922 S. C. KOTHEKAR AND S. A. MOMIN

different concentrations, that is, 0.01%, 0.1%, 0.25%,
0.50%, and 1% was same in all respects, as described for
the surface tension measurements, except in the interfa-
cial tension measurement, equal quantities of emulsifier
solution and the paraffin oil were taken in a glass tub.
Also, the position of the platinum ring was adjusted at
the interface of emulsifier solution and the paraffin oil.
Formulation of Emulsions
Neem oil emulsions were formulated by means of high
speed homogenizer using 10–30% concentrations of Neem
oil, 0.25–1% of Hydol-6, and 0.25–2.5% of Hydol-10. The
emulsions were prepared in deionized water as well as hard
water of 340 ppm hardness. Initially, the homogenization
time of above mentioned ingredients was fixed to 1 hour.
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While optimization of different process parameters, homo-
genization time, and speed of homogenization were taken
into consideration in order to make the process as econ-
omical as possible.
Analysis of Stable Emulsions
In the present research work, ‘‘creaming’’ was con-
sidered as the measure of unstability of an emulsion. When
there was no occurrence of creaming, the emulsion was
considered as a stable emulsion.
The droplet size of stable Neem oil emulsions was ana-
lyzed by means of Coulter LS-230 particle size analyzer.
The dispersion power of the stable emulsion was analyzed
by adding a minute drop of an emulsion into the water
(100 ml) contained in a measuring cylinder. The time

TABLE 2
Formulation of Neem oil emulsions using Hydol-6 and Hydol-10 surfactants in hard water (340 ppm)
Neem oil Hydol-6 Hydol-10 Hard water Homogenizer Homogenization
Sr. no. (%) (%) (%) (%) speed time Results
1 10 1 2 87 3000 rpm 60 minutes S
2 10 1 1 88 3000 rpm 60 minutes S
3 10 1 0.5 88.5 3000 rpm 60 minutes S
4 10 1 0.25 88.75 3000 rpm 60 minutes 0.5 ml CL
5 10 0.5 0.5 89 3000 rpm 60 minutes 0.5 ml CL
6 10 0.25 0.5 89.25 3000 rpm 60 minutes 1 ml CL
7 15 1 2 82 3000 rpm 60 minutes 2 ml CL
8 15 1 1 83 3000 rpm 60 minutes S
9 15 1 0.5 83.5 3000 rpm 60 minutes S
10 15 1 0.25 83.75 3000 rpm 60 minutes S
11 15 0.5 0.25 84.25 3000 rpm 60 minutes 1.5 ml CL
12 15 0.25 0.25 84.5 3000 rpm 60 minutes S
13 20 1 2 77 3000 rpm 60 minutes 11 ml CL
14 20 1 0.5 78.5 3000 rpm 60 minutes 3 ml CL
15 20 1 0.25 78.75 3000 rpm 60 minutes 3 ml CL
16 20 0.5 0.25 80.25 3000 rpm 60 minutes S
17 20 0.25 0.25 80.5 3000 rpm 60 minutes 4 ml CL
18 25 1 2 72 3000 rpm 60 minutes 14 ml CL
19 25 1 1 73 3000 rpm 60 minutes 15 ml CL
20 25 1 0.5 73.5 3000 rpm 60 minutes 8.5 ml CL
21 25 1 0.25 73.75 3000 rpm 60 minutes 4 ml CL
22 25 0.5 0.25 74.25 3000 rpm 60 minutes S
23 25 0.25 0.25 74.5 3000 rpm 60 minutes 4.5 ml CL
24 30 1 2 67 3000 rpm 60 minutes 21 ml CL
25 30 1 1 68 3000 rpm 60 minutes 24 ml CL
26 30 1 0.5 68.5 3000 rpm 60 minutes S
27 30 1 0.25 68.75 3000 rpm 60 minutes 22.5 ml CL
28 30 0.5 0.25 69.25 3000 rpm 60 minutes 22 ml CL
29 30 0.25 0.25 69.5 3000 rpm 60 minutes 21 ml CL
30 30 0.25 3 66.75 3000 rpm 60 minutes 19.5 ml CL
31 30 0.25 2.5 67.25 3000 rpm 60 minutes 22.5 ml CL
S.E.: stable emulsion; S: stable; CL: creamy layer.
 NEEM OIL EMULSION AS POTENT AGROCHEMICALS 923

TABLE 3
Optimization of homogenization speed and homogenizer time for Neem oil emulsions using Hydol-6 and
Hydol-10 surfactants in deionized water
Neem oil Hydol-6 Hydol-10 Deionized Homogenizer Homogenization
Sr. no. (%) (%) (%) water (%) speed time Results
S.E 1 10 1 2 87 3000 rpm 60 minutes S
1 10 1 2 87 3000 rpm 40 minutes S
2 10 1 2 87 3000 rpm 20 minutes 0.5 ml CL
3 10 1 2 87 2500 rpm 60 minutes S
4 10 1 2 87 2500 rpm 40 minutes 1 ml CL
5 10 1 2 87 2500 rpm 20 minutes 2 ml CL
6 10 1 2 87 2000 rpm 60 minutes 1 ml CL
7 10 1 2 87 2000 rpm 40 minutes S
8 10 1 2 87 2000 rpm 20 minutes 2.5 ml CL
S.E 2 15 1 1 83 3000 rpm 60 minutes S
1 15 1 1 83 3000 rpm 40 minutes 2 ml CL
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2 15 1 1 83 3000 rpm 20 minutes 4 ml CL

3 15 1 1 83 2500 rpm 60 minutes 3.5 ml CL
4 15 1 1 83 2500 rpm 40 minutes 3 ml CL
5 15 1 1 83 2500 rpm 20 minutes 3 ml CL
6 15 1 1 83 2000 rpm 60 minutes 2.5 ml CL
7 15 1 1 83 2000 rpm 40 minutes 2.5 ml CL
8 15 1 1 83 2000 rpm 20 minutes 3 ml CL
S.E 3 20 0.5 2.5 77 3000 rpm 60 minutes S
1 20 0.5 2.5 77 3000 rpm 40 minutes 2 ml CL
2 20 0.5 2.5 77 3000 rpm 20 minutes 2 ml CL
3 20 0.5 2.5 77 2500 rpm 60 minutes S
4 20 0.5 2.5 77 2500 rpm 40 minutes S
5 20 0.5 2.5 77 2500 rpm 20 minutes 2 ml CL
6 20 0.5 2.5 77 2000 rpm 60 minutes 1 ml CL
7 20 0.5 2.5 77 2000 rpm 40 minutes 1 ml CL
8 20 0.5 2.5 77 2000 rpm 20 minutes 2 ml CL
S.E 4 25 1 0.25 73.75 3000 rpm 60 minutes S
1 25 1 0.25 73.75 3000 rpm 40 minutes 2 ml CL
2 25 1 0.25 73.75 3000 rpm 20 minutes 4.5 ml CL
3 25 1 0.25 73.75 2500 rpm 60 minutes 5 ml CL
4 25 1 0.25 73.75 2500 rpm 40 minutes 5 ml CL
5 25 1 0.25 73.75 2500 rpm 20 minutes 5 ml CL
6 25 1 0.25 73.75 2000 rpm 60 minutes 4 ml CL
7 25 1 0.25 73.75 2000 rpm 40 minutes 5 ml CL
8 25 1 0.25 73.75 2000 rpm 20 minutes 4.5 ml CL
S.E 5 30 1 2 67 3000 rpm 60 minutes S
1 30 1 2 67 3000 rpm 40 minutes 4.5 ml CL
2 30 1 2 67 3000 rpm 20 minutes 5 ml CL
3 30 1 2 67 2500 rpm 60 minutes 5.5 ml CL
4 30 1 2 67 2500 rpm 40 minutes 5.5 ml CL
5 30 1 2 67 2500 rpm 20 minutes 6 ml CL
6 30 1 2 67 2000 rpm 60 minutes 2 ml CL
7 30 1 2 67 2000 rpm 40 minutes S
8 30 1 2 67 2000 rpm 20 minutes 2 ml CL
S.E.: stable emulsion; S: stable; CL: creamy layer.
 924 S. C. KOTHEKAR AND S. A. MOMIN

TABLE 4
Optimization of homogenization speed and homogenizer time for Neem oil emulsions using Hydol-6 and
Hydol-10 surfactants in hard water (340 ppm)
Neem oil Hydol-6 Hydol-10 Hard water Homogenizer Homogenization
Sr. no. (%) (%) (%) (%) speed time Results
S.E 1 10 1 0.5 88.5 3000 rpm 60 minutes S
1 10 1 0.5 88.5 3000 rpm 40 minutes 3 ml CL
2 10 1 0.5 88.5 3000 rpm 20 minutes 4 ml CL
3 10 1 0.5 88.5 2500 rpm 60 minutes 2.5 ml CL
4 10 1 0.5 88.5 2500 rpm 40 minutes 3 ml CL
5 10 1 0.5 88.5 2500 rpm 20 minutes 4.5 ml CL
6 10 1 0.5 88.5 2000 rpm 60 minutes 2.5 ml CL
7 10 1 0.5 88.5 2000 rpm 40 minutes 2.5 ml CL
8 10 1 0.5 88.5 2000 rpm 20 minutes 3 ml CL
S.E 2 15 0.25 0.25 84.5 3000 rpm 60 minutes S
1 15 0.25 0.25 84.5 3000 rpm 40 minutes 3 ml CL
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2 15 0.25 0.25 84.5 3000 rpm 20 minutes 3.5 ml CL

3 15 0.25 0.25 84.5 2500 rpm 60 minutes 4 ml CL
4 15 0.25 0.25 84.5 2500 rpm 40 minutes 5 ml CL
5 15 0.25 0.25 84.5 2500 rpm 20 minutes 4.5 ml CL
6 15 0.25 0.25 84.5 2000 rpm 60 minutes 5 ml CL
7 15 0.25 0.25 84.5 2000 rpm 40 minutes 5 ml CL
8 15 0.25 0.25 84.5 2000 rpm 20 minutes 5.5 ml CL
S.E 3 20 0.5 0.25 80.25 3000 rpm 60 minutes S
1 20 0.5 0.25 80.25 3000 rpm 40 minutes 6 ml CL
2 20 0.5 0.25 80.25 3000 rpm 20 minutes 6 ml CL
3 20 0.5 0.25 80.25 2500 rpm 60 minutes 6.5 ml CL
4 20 0.5 0.25 80.25 2500 rpm 40 minutes 7 ml CL
5 20 0.5 0.25 80.25 2500 rpm 20 minutes 7.5 ml CL
6 20 0.5 0.25 80.25 2000 rpm 60 minutes 11.5 ml CL
7 20 0.5 0.25 80.25 2000 rpm 40 minutes 12 ml CL
8 20 0.5 0.25 80.25 2000 rpm 20 minutes 16 ml CL
S.E 4 25 0.5 0.25 74.25 3000 rpm 60 minutes S
1 25 0.5 0.25 74.25 3000 rpm 40 minutes 16 ml CL
2 25 0.5 0.25 74.25 3000 rpm 20 minutes 18 ml CL
3 25 0.5 0.25 74.25 2500 rpm 60 minutes 19 ml CL
4 25 0.5 0.25 74.25 2500 rpm 40 minutes 18 ml CL
5 25 0.5 0.25 74.25 2500 rpm 20 minutes 18.5 ml CL
6 25 0.5 0.25 74.25 2000 rpm 60 minutes 20 ml CL
7 25 0.5 0.25 74.25 2000 rpm 40 minutes 15 ml CL
8 25 0.5 0.25 74.25 2000 rpm 20 minutes 15 ml CL
S.E 5 30 1 0.5 68.5 3000 rpm 60 minutes S
1 30 1 0.5 68.5 3000 rpm 40 minutes 15 ml CL
2 30 1 0.5 68.5 3000 rpm 20 minutes 25 ml CL
3 30 1 0.5 68.5 2500 rpm 60 minutes 25 ml CL
4 30 1 0.5 68.5 2500 rpm 40 minutes 22 ml CL
5 30 1 0.5 68.5 2500 rpm 20 minutes 25.5 ml CL
6 30 1 0.5 68.5 2000 rpm 60 minutes 24 ml CL
7 30 1 0.5 68.5 2000 rpm 40 minutes 26 ml CL
8 30 1 0.5 68.5 2000 rpm 20 minutes 26.5 ml CL
S.E.: stable emulsion; S: stable; CL: creamy layer.
 NEEM OIL EMULSION AS POTENT AGROCHEMICALS 925

TABLE 5
Analysis of dispersibility of stable Neem oil emulsions formulated in deionized water
Neem oil Hydol-6 Hydol-10 Deionized Homogenize-r Homogenizatio-n
Sr.No. (%) (%) (%) water (%) speed time Dispersibility
1 10 1 4 85 3000 rpm 60 minutes 56 seconds
2 10 1 2 87 3000 rpm 60 minutes 57 seconds
3 10 1 2 87 3000 rpm 40 minutes 56 seconds
4 10 1 2 87 2500 rpm 60 minutes 51 seconds
5 10 1 2 87 2000 rpm 20 minutes 63 seconds
6 15 1 2 82 3000 rpm 60 minutes 107 seconds
7 15 1 1 83 3000 rpm 60 minutes 143 seconds
8 20 1 2.5 76.5 3000 rpm 60 minutes 155 seconds
9 20 0.5 2.5 77 3000 rpm 60 minutes 160 seconds
10 20 0.5 2.5 77 2500 rpm 60 minutes 101 seconds
11 20 0.5 2.5 77 2500 rpm 40 minutes 92 seconds
12 25 1 2 72 3000 rpm 60 minutes 121 seconds
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13 25 1 0.25 73.75 3000 rpm 60 minutes 147 seconds

14 30 1 2 67 3000 rpm 60 minutes 52 seconds
15 30 1 2 67 2000 rpm 40 minutes 56 seconds

consumed by an emulsion drop to get uniformly dispersed
into the water was the measure of the dispersion power of
that emulsion. In case of the spreading power of an emul-
sion sample, a fine droplet of it was carefully placed at the
center of the circle made on the leaf of a coconut tree and
time required by the droplet to spread across the diameter
of the circle was taken as a measure of the spreading power
of that Neem oil emulsion formulation.
Larvacidal Activity
This test was carried out at room temperature, that is,
30C in 500 ml capacity glass beakers each containing
250 ml of distilled water. Twenty larvae (third stage=early
forth stage) of culex and anopheles were added in to the
beaker containing 0.5%, 1%, 1.5%, and 2% of the single
emulsion at a time. Each bioassay was performed in three
replications for each concentration of emulsion. After 24
hours the mortality of each group was counted in terms
of ‘‘percentage of mortality.’’
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Foamability
Figure 1 indicates the variation of foamability of Hydol-
6 and Hydol-10 with the increasing concentration range
0.01%, 0.1%, 0.25%, 0.5%, and 1%. As can be seen from
the results, out of these two surfactants Hydol-6 showed
the best foamability, that is in the range of 61.33% to
88.89% at all concentrations as compared to Hydol-10,
which on the contrary showed relatively poor foamability
in the range of 19.23% to 58.82% at the same concentra-
tions. As can be seen from Figure 1, for the foamability

TABLE 6
Analysis of dispersibility of stable Neem oil emulsions formulated in hard water (340 ppm)
Neem oil Hydol-6 Hydol-10 Homogenizer Homogenization
Sr.no. (%) (%) (%) Hard water speed time Dispersibility
1 10 1 1 88 3000 rpm 60 minutes 52 seconds
2 10 1 0.5 88.5 3000 rpm 60 minutes 56 seconds
3 15 1 1 83 3000 rpm 60 minutes 87 seconds
4 15 1 0.5 83.5 3000 rpm 60 minutes 90 seconds
5 15 1 0.25 83.75 3000 rpm 60 minutes 95 seconds
6 15 0.25 0.25 84.5 3000 rpm 60 minutes 95 seconds
7 20 0.5 0.25 80.25 3000 rpm 60 minutes 126 seconds
8 25 0.5 0.25 74.25 3000 rpm 60 minutes 118 seconds
9 30 1 0.5 68.5 3000 rpm 60 minutes 142 seconds
 926 S. C. KOTHEKAR AND S. A. MOMIN

of Hydol-6 and hydol-10, the best values were obtained
with Hydol-6 as compared to the Hydol-10. This would
be due to the reason that Hydol-10 was not able to generate
the sufficient surface area required by minimizing the sur-
face tension of the solution. The other probable reason
behind this would be, due to the higher surface tensions
of Hydol-10; it failed to increase the surface area to ease
the foam generation, and hence showed poor foaming
power and foamability. On the other hand, Hydol-6
yielded the best foamability results due to its ability to
create the necessary surface area needed and also because
of its lower surface tensions, it could be able to increase
the surface area to ease the foam generation.
Emulsifying Power
The emulsifiers show their emulsifying power by adsorb-
ing at the interface of the water and oil and reducing the
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the higher absorption ability of Hydol-6 and Hydol-10 at
the interface of oil and water which reduced the interfacial
energy to higher extent and hence, produced a negative
interfacial tension. In other words, these two emulsifiers
produced a condition which was favorable for an increase
in the interfacial area.
Surface Tension and Interfacial Tension
Figures 4 and 5 indicate the variation of surface tension
and interfacial tension with the increasing concentration
range 0.01%, 0.1%, 0.25%, 0.5%, and 1% of Hydol-6
and Hydol-10, respectively. As shown in the results,
Hydol-6 was found to be more efficient as compared to
Hydol-10 in reducing the surface tension and interfacial
tension of water. In case of different concentrations of
Hydol-6 analyzed, the surface tension and interfacial
tension values were obtained in the range of 29.5 to 30.1

interfacial energy. It is the existence of this interfacial
energy that is essentially responsible for the instability of
an emulsion, since the large increase in interfacial area
upon the formation of emulsion droplets will cause an
increase in the free energy of the system. The lower
stabilization of emulsion can also be explained by micelli-
zation of emulsifiers in water. Figures 2 and 3 indicate
the variation of emulsifying power with the increasing con-
centration range 0.01%, 0.1%, 0.25%, 0.5%, and 1% of
Hydol-6 and Hydol-10, respectively. The analysis of these
emulsifiers showed that the emulsifying power of these
two surfactants was almost same, that is in the range of
30 to 1735 seconds. In other words, the emulsifying power
of these two emulsifiers was almost comparable as can be
seen from Figures 2 and 3, respectively. This is because,
dynes=cm and 0.9 to 1.9 dynes=cm, respectively. On the
other hand, in case of Hydol-10, the surface tension and
interfacial tension values were in the range of 33 to 33.9
dynes=cm and 2.6 to 4.5 dynes=cm respectively. The better
surface tension and interfacial tension reducing ability of
Hydol-6 would be because of its slow micellization in
water. On the other hand, the fast micellization of
Hydol-10 would be the reason for its higher surface tension
and interfacial tension values.
Stability Studies of Emulsions
The stability studies of emulsions forms an essential part
of the present research work. An emulsion which is very
much capable of re-tenting the internal phase in its finely
dispersed state possesses the best stability in terms of

TABLE 7
Analysis of spreading power of stable Neem oil emulsions formulated in deionized water
Neem oil Hydol-6 Hydol-10 Deionized Homogenizer Homogenization
Sr. no. (%) (%) (%) water (%) speed time Spreading power
1 10 1 4 85 3000 rpm 60 minutes 7 seconds
2 10 1 2 87 3000 rpm 60 minutes 9 seconds
3 10 1 2 87 3000 rpm 40 minutes 8 seconds
4 10 1 2 87 2500 rpm 60 minutes 8 seconds
5 10 1 2 87 2000 rpm 20 minutes 9 seconds
6 15 1 2 82 3000 rpm 60 minutes 16 seconds
7 15 1 1 83 3000 rpm 60 minutes 18 seconds
8 20 1 2.5 76.5 3000 rpm 60 minutes 22 seconds
9 20 0.5 2.5 77 3000 rpm 60 minutes 23 seconds
10 20 0.5 2.5 77 2500 rpm 60 minutes 22 seconds
11 20 0.5 2.5 77 2500 rpm 40 minutes 21 seconds
12 25 1 2 72 3000 rpm 60 minutes 29 seconds
13 25 1 0.25 73.75 3000 rpm 60 minutes 31 seconds
14 30 1 2 67 3000 rpm 60 minutes 37 seconds
15 30 1 2 67 2000 rpm 40 minutes 36 seconds
 NEEM OIL EMULSION AS POTENT AGROCHEMICALS 927

TABLE 8
Analysis of spreading power of stable Neem oil emulsions formulated in hard water (340 ppm)
Neem oil Hydol-6 Hydol-10 Hard water Homogenizer Homogenization
Sr.no. (%) (%) (%) (%) speed time Dispersibility
1 10 1 1 88 3000 rpm 60 minutes 10 seconds
2 10 1 0.5 88.5 3000 rpm 60 minutes 12 seconds
3 15 1 1 83 3000 rpm 60 minutes 14 seconds
4 15 1 0.5 83.5 3000 rpm 60 minutes 14 seconds
5 15 1 0.25 83.75 3000 rpm 60 minutes 13 seconds
6 15 0.25 0.25 84.5 3000 rpm 60 minutes 13 seconds
7 20 0.5 0.25 80.25 3000 rpm 60 minutes 15 seconds
8 25 0.5 0.25 74.25 3000 rpm 60 minutes 19 seconds
9 30 1 0.5 68.5 3000 rpm 60 minutes 21 seconds

shelf-life. Therefore, an emulsion can be considered stable hard water was added such that the total formulation will
as long as there is no separation of internal phase. Appear- be 100% by weight. Initially, the homogenization speed
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ance of creaming as a ‘‘layer’’ generally is considered as a
measure of instability of an emulsion. Hence, in the pre-
sent research studies the emulsions which did not show
any creaming were considered as the ‘‘stable’’ emulsions.
Formulation of Neem oil emulsions using Hydol-6 and
Hydol-10 using deionized water as well as hard water of
340 ppm hardness are shown in Tables 1 and 2, respect-
ively. The emulsions were prepared by varying the concen-
trations of Neem oil, deionized=hard water, Hydol-6, and
Hydol-10. Apart from this, the formulation studies were
also carried out by considering homogenizer speed and
homogenization time parameters. The Neem oil emulsions
were formulated by varying the oil phase from 10% to
30%. Other ingredients like Hydol-6 and Hydol-10 were
added on trial and error basis. The quantity of deionized=
and homogenization time were kept as 3000 rpm and 60
minutes, respectively (Tables 1 and 2). Once, the stable
emulsions were obtained using 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%,
and 30% oil phase of Neem oil, efforts were taken to
reduce the other parameters like homogenization speed
and homogenaization time to reduce the overall process
cost (Tables 3 and 4).
Analysis of Dispersibility, Spreading Power, and
Droplet Size of Stable Neem Oil Emulsions
After formulating the stable emulsions of Neem oil in
deionized=hard water (Tables 1 and 2) and optimizing
the process parameters like homogenization speed and
homogenization time (Tables 3 and 4), only those emul-
sions which were overall cost-effective were selected for

TABLE 9
Analysis of droplet size of stable Neem oil emulsions formulated in deionized water
Neem oil Hydol-6 Hydol-10 Deionized Homogenizer Homogenization
Sr. no. (%) (%) (%) water (%) speed time Droplet size
1 10 1 4 85 3000 rpm 60 minutes 0.910 mm
2 10 1 2 87 3000 rpm 60 minutes 0.668 mm
3 10 1 2 87 3000 rpm 40 minutes 1.060 mm
4 10 1 2 87 2500 rpm 60 minutes 0.933 mm
5 10 1 2 87 2000 rpm 20 minutes 1.089 mm
6 15 1 2 82 3000 rpm 60 minutes 0.906 mm
7 15 1 1 83 3000 rpm 60 minutes 1.197 mm
8 20 1 2.5 76.5 3000 rpm 60 minutes 0.986 mm
9 20 0.5 2.5 77 3000 rpm 60 minutes 1.199 mm
10 20 0.5 2.5 77 2500 rpm 60 minutes 1.141 mm
11 20 0.5 2.5 77 2500 rpm 40 minutes 1.398 mm
12 25 1 2 72 3000 rpm 60 minutes 1.327 mm
13 25 1 0.25 73.75 3000 rpm 60 minutes 2.156 mm
14 30 1 2 67 3000 rpm 60 minutes 1.233 mm
15 30 1 2 67 2000 rpm 40 minutes 1.660 mm
 928 S. C. KOTHEKAR AND S. A. MOMIN

TABLE 10
Analysis of droplet size of stable Neem oil emulsions formulated in hard water (340 ppm)
Neem oil Hydol-6 Hydol-10 Hard water Homogenizer Homogenization
Sr. no. (%) (%) (%) (%) speed (rpm) time Droplet size (mm)
1 10 1 1 88 3000 rpm 60 minutes 0.876 mm
2 10 1 0.5 88.5 3000 rpm 60 minutes 0.932 mm
3 15 1 1 83 3000 rpm 60 minutes 0.986 mm
4 15 1 0.5 83.5 3000 rpm 60 minutes 1.004 mm
5 15 1 0.25 83.7 3000 rpm 60 minutes 1.710 mm
6 15 0.25 0.25 84.5 3000 rpm 60 minutes 0.985 mm
7 20 0.5 0.25 80.2 3000 rpm 60 minutes 1.934 mm
8 25 0.5 0.25 74.2 3000 rpm 60 minutes 2.072 mm
9 30 1 0.5 68.5 3000 rpm 60 minutes 1.859 mm

the further analysis like dispersibility, spreading power, 1.398 mm (Table 9) and 0.932 mm to 2.072 mm (Table 10),
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and droplet size measurements (Tables 5, through 10). respectively. It was noticed that the dispersibility and the
The dispersibility of stable Neem oil emulsions formulated spreading power was increased with increase in the Neem
with deionized water and hard water was found to be in the oil concentration in case of the Neem oil emulsions formu-
range of 51 seconds to 160 seconds (Table 5) and 52 sec- lated with deionized water as well as hard water. But, this
onds to 142 seconds (Table 6), respectively. The spreading pattern of linearity was not observed in case of the droplet
power of stable Neem oil emulsions formulated with deio- size of the Neem oil emulsions formulated with deionized
nized water and hard water was found to be in the range of water as well as hard water.
7 seconds to 36 seconds (Table 7) and 10 seconds to 21 sec-
onds (Table 8), respectively. Similarly, the droplet size of Larvacidal Activity
stable Neem oil emulsions formulated with deionized water
The larvacidal activity (as percentage of mortality of lar-
and hard water was found to be in the range of 0.668 mm to
vae) of various Neem oil emulsions formulated in deionized
water as well as hard water is reported in Tables 11 and 12,
respectively. The percentage of mortality of different
TABLE 11 emulsions varied widely irrespective of the concentration
Percentage of mortality of larvae using various stable of Neem oil that was used in a particular emulsion. It
emulsions formulated in deionized water was observed that the percentage of mortality of larvae
% Mortality of larvae was less when 0.5% of the Neem oil emulsion was
Sample no.
Emulsion concentration 0.5% 1% 1.5% 2%
1 58 72 88 96 TABLE 12
2 57 72 88 96 Percentage of mortality of larvae using various stable
3 57 72 87 96 emulsions formulated in hard water (340 ppm)
4 57 72 87 96 % Mortality of larvae
Sample no.
5 58 72 87 96
Emulsion concentration 0.5% 1% 1.5% 2%
6 64 77 90 97
7 64 77 90 97 1 55 69 85 91
8 68 81 92 99 2 55 69 85 91
9 68 81 91 99 3 61 73 88 95
10 68 81 92 99 4 61 73 88 94
11 68 81 92 100 5 66 79 91 97
12 74 85 97 100 6 67 79 91 97
13 74 85 97 100 7 67 81 94 100
14 81 89 100 100 8 72 84 96 100
15 81 89 100 100 9 77 87 10 100
Note: Please refer Table 9 for the composition of various emul- Note: Please refer Table 10 for the composition of various
sions enlisted in Table 11. emulsions enlisted in Table 12.
 NEEM OIL EMULSION AS POTENT AGROCHEMICALS
employed. On the contrary, when the concentration of an
emulsion was increased the percentage of mortality of
larvae was also increased. It also was found that the per-
centage of mortality of larvae was almost 100% when
2% concentration of Neem oil emulsion was tested against
the larvae. From the results shown in Tables 11 and 12, it
firmly can be said that as the concentration of Neem oil in
a particular emulsion formulation increases, the larvacidal
activity also increases.
CONCLUSIONS
The present study shows that not only the concentration
of Neem oil plays a vital role in stabilizing an emulsion,
but other parameters like the emulsifier system, the nature
of water, speed of homogenization and the time of
homogenization are equally important. Without imple-
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menting the proper emulsifier system it is very difficult to
obtain the stable Neem oil emulsions. The concentration
of Neem oil employed in the emulsion formulations
strongly affects the properties like dispersibility, spreading
power, droplet size, and the larvacidal activity of final
emulsions. It also can be concluded that larvacidal activity
increases as the concentration of Neem oil in emulsion
formulation increases.
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