Bulletin of Electrical Engineering and Informatics

Vol. 8, No. 4, December 2019, pp. ab~cd

ISSN: 2302-9285, DOI: 10.11591/eei.v8i4.xxxx  1

Discolouration of Neutralized Waste Cooking Oil Dielectric

Liquid for Transformers

Imran Sutan Chairul1, Norazhar Abu Bakar2, Md Nazri Othman3, Sharin Ab Ghani4, Nur Hakimah
Ab Aziz5
1,2,3,4,5
High Voltage Engineering Research Laboratory, Centre for Robotics and Industrial Automation, Fakulti Kejuruteraan Elektrik,
Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka, Hang Tuah Jaya, 76100 Durian Tunggal, Melaka, Malaysia

Article Info ABSTRACT

Article history: This work explores the potential of non-edible waste cooking oil as a
transformer dielectric liquid. In the authors’ previous work, waste cooking oil
Received Jun 9, 2016 neutralized with caustic soda (normality: 2.0 N) (NWCO) was found to be
Revised Nov 20, 2016 promising for use as a transformer dielectric liquid. However, the colour
Accepted Dec 11, 2016 rating of the NWCO was higher than 1.0, which was higher than the
permissible limit specified in the IEEE C57.147 standard. Therefore, in this
work, NWCO oil samples were discolourized through an in-laboratory
Keywords: reclamation process. The reclamation process was conducted using Fuller’s
Earth adsorbent at a temperature of 80°C and stirring speed of 750 rpm for 1
Waste cooking oil h. The number of reclamation cycles was varied at 1, 2, and 3, and the colour
Neutralization ratings of the oil samples were determined. The results showed that the
Discolouration NWCO sample reclaimed for 2 cycles (RNWCO-2) had a colour rating and
Dielectric liquid acidity of 0.5 and 0.2320 mg KOH/g respectively, which was a significant
Transformer improvement over the colour rating and acidity of the NWCO. The
breakdown voltage, viscosity, and flash point of the RNWCO-2 sample were
29 kV, 41 mm2/s, and 260 °C, respectively, which fulfilled the specifications
of the IEC 62770 and IEEE C57.47 standards. Based on the results, it can be
concluded that discolouration through the reclamation process helps improve
the colour rating and acidity of the NWCO, while ensuring that the
breakdown voltage, viscosity, and flash point were within the specifications
stipulated in the standards.
Copyright © 2019 Institute of Advanced Engineering and Science.
All rights reserved.

Corresponding Author:
Norazhar Abu Bakar,
High Voltage Engineering Research Laboratory, Centre for Robotics and Industrial Automation,
Fakulti Kejuruteraan Elektrik, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka,
Hang Tuah Jaya, 76100 Durian Tunggal, Melaka, Malaysia.
Email: norazhar@utem.edu.my

1. INTRODUCTION
Mineral insulating (MI) oils can cause environmental problems such as soil and water pollution in
the event of a spillage [1]. This has motivated researchers to develop natural ester insulating (NEI) oils since
the early 1990s as well as the development of the IEEE Guide for Acceptance and Maintenance of Natural
Ester Fluids in Transformers (IEEE C57.147) in 2008 [2], which includes includes the specifications for the
physical, chemical, and electrical properties of natural ester fluids for transformers. The colour rating is one
of the physical properties of NEI oils specified in the standard. The colour rating of the NEI oil should be less
than or equal to 1.0, and the oil should be clear and free from sediment and suspended matter. The low colour
rating and clear appearance of the oil is essential so that inspections can be easily carried out on the oil-
immersed transformer.
In formulating transformer dielectric liquids from crude vegetable oils, the oils are discoloured
through a bleaching process. In contrast, in-service transformer dielectric liquids are discoloured through a

Journal homepage: http://beei.org/index.php/EEI/

2  ISSN: 2302-9285
reclamation process. Even though bleaching and reclamation processes are performed under different
circumstances, both of these processes have the same purpose, which is to minimize oxidation products, and
metals in the oil, as well as traces of gums and soap by means of adsorption [3],[4],[5]. Based on the
literature survey, different types of adsorbents and types of methods have been used for the reclamation
process. At present, there are four types of adsorbents commonly used for reclamation, namely: (1) Fuller’s
Earth, (2) bentonite, (3) activated alumina, and (4) activated carbon. There are two types of reclamation
processes, namely: (1) reclamation by percolation (where the oil is passed through an adsorbent material) and
(2) reclamation by contact (which involves mechanical agitation of the oil and adsorbent, followed by
filtration) [6].
N’cho et al. [7] performed reclamation by percolation on an aged in-service oil using Fuller’s Earth
adsorbent. The aged oil was heated and kept constant at 60 °C as the oil was passed through an activated
Fuller’s Earth cartridge. Quantitative measurements were made in terms of the removal of dissolved decay
products (DDPs) after each reclamation cycle. Consequently, the DDPs reduced after each reclamation cycle
and eventually, the reclaimed oil achieved a grade that was close to the grade for new oil after 15 cycles.
Allaf and Mirzaei [8] also conducted reclamation by percolation, where the oil was passed through an
activated Fuller’s Earth cartridge at a temperature of 23 °C and pressure of 1 mbar. Wilhelm et al. [9] also
used this method, where the aged NEI oil was passed through a stainless steel cartridge filled with 2 kg of
adsorbent three times.
Reclamation by contact has been carried out on aged in-service NEI oil samples using five different
adsorbents [9]. The reclamation process was conducted by stirring a mixture containing 1 L of NEI oil at 25
°C and 100 g of adsorbent for 4 h in a 2-L covered Erlenmeyer flask. Next, each oil-adsorbent mixture was
vacuum filtered through a filter paper (pore size: 3 µm) to remove the adsorbent. The reclaimed oil samples
were then tested for their acidity. The results showed that the acidity of aged in-service NEI oils can be
reduced by using a sufficient amount of adsorbent. Raymon and Karthik [10] conducted reclamation by
contact on 500 mL of aged MI oil using 5 g of activated bentonite. The MI oil was heated to 80 °C before
the oil was agitated with the adsorbent using a magnetic stirrer at a stirring speed of 750 rpm. The oil-
adsorbent mixture was then filtered using Whatman filter paper to remove the bentonite. Ab Ghani et al. [11]
studied two types of adsorbents commonly used for the reclamation process (Fuller’s Earth and bentonite) as
well as an alternative adsorbent (palm shell activated carbon (PSAC)). Reclamation by contact was carried
out on the transformer oil samples, where 500 mL of used transformer oil at 80 °C was mixed with 5 g of
adsorbent using a hot plate magnetic stirrer for 1 h at a stirring speed of 750 rpm. Following this, each oil-
adsorbent mixture was filtered through a Whatman filter paper (pore size: 3 µm) to remove the adsorbent.
The reclamation process was repeated five times. After the 1 st, 3rd, and 5th reclamation cycle, the relative
content of DDPs was determined using ultraviolet-visible (UV-VIS) spectroscopy. The results showed that
the relative content of DDPs decreased with an increase in the number of reclamation cycles for all types of
adsorbents tested in their study.
Studies have shown that reclamation by percolation require a large amount of adsorbent (e.g. 2 kg
[9]), a temperature less than 100 °C (e.g. 60 °C [7]) and a higher number of reclamation cycles (e.g. 15 cycles
[7]) to reduce the relative content of DDPs and acidity of aged insulating oils. For reclamation by contact,
four parameters need to be taken into consideration, namely: (1) weight of the adsorbent in grams (g), (2)
stirring speed in revolutions per minute (rpm), (3) oil temperature in degrees Celsius (°C), and (4) and time in
hours (h). Ab Ghani et al. [12] applied the Taguchi method to determine the optimal reclamation process
parameters (weight of adsorbent, stirring speed, and oil temperature) of aged MI oils, and the results showed
that these parameters significantly affected the acidity, viscosity, and breakdown voltage of the reclaimed MI
oils.
In the authors’ previous work, waste cooking oil neutralized with caustic soda (normality: 2.0 N)
(hereinafter NWCO) was assessed to determine its potential as a transformer dielectric liquid. However, the
colour rating of the NWCO was found to be higher the permissible limit specified in the IEEE C57.147
standard. Therefore, this work was conducted to discolourize the NWCO through an in-laboratory
reclamation by contact process using Fuller’s Earth adsorbent.

2. RESEARCH METHOD
Figure 1 shows the methodology adopted in this study. The waste cooking oil (WCO) was first
neutralized with caustic soda (normality: 2.0 N) to produce NWCO. Next, the NWCO was discoloured by the
reclamation process to produce the reclaimed neutralized waste cooking oil (RNWCO). The properties of the
RNWCO were assessed according to the IEC 62770 and IEEE C57.147 standards.

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3Bulletin of Electr Eng and Inf ISSN: 2302-9285 

2.1. Waste cooking oil

The WCO chosen in this work was basically edible vegetable cooking oil that had been used several
times for frying. WCO can be sourced easily owing to the increase in usage of cooking oils for food
preparation and consumption. It has been estimated that 50,000 tonnes of WCO [13] are generated in
Malaysia annually whereas European countries produce up to 10 million tonnes of WCO per year. [14]. In
the future, it can be expected that the amounts of WCO generated per year will increase in parallel with the
human population growth and therefore, there is an urgent need to reuse and recycle these oils to produce a
useful product, rather than disposing the oils into the landfill. In addition, WCO is 2–3 times cheaper [15]
compared wih crude vegetable oils [16], which will reduce the costs of producing transformer dielectric
liquids from WCO.

2.2. Neutralization of the WCO

To produce the NWCO, 1 L of filtered WCO was heated at 110 °C for 10 min to reduce its water
content and then the WCO was cooled down to 70 °C. Next, the WCO was neutralized with caustic soda
(normality: 2.0 N) in a 2-L beaker. The WCO was mixed thoroughly at a temperature of 70 °C and stirring
speed of 400 rpm for 5 min. Next, the WCO was left to rest to separate the oil from soap.

Start

Neutralization of the WCO with NaOH (normality: 2.0 N) to produce

NWCO

Discolouration of the NWCO through the reclamation process to

produce RNWCO (number of reclamation cycles: 1, 2, and 3)

Determination of the colour rating of the RNWCO samples

Physical and chemical property measurements of the RNWCO samples:

density, flash point, and viscosity

Moisture removal treatment of the RNWCO samples

Water content measurements of the RNWCO samples

NO
< 200 ppm

YES

Breakdown voltage measurements of the RNWCO samples

End

Figure 1. Flow chart of the methodology adopted in this study

After 24 h, it was observed that there were layers of liquid formed in the beaker, where the top layer
was the NWCO. The top layer was collected and then washed using hot water (> 90 °C) to remove soap

Title of manuscript is short and clear, implies research results (First Author)
4  ISSN: 2302-9285
residue. The washing process was repeated several times. Next, the NWCO were heated at 110 °C for 10 min
to reduce its water content and the NWCO was then cooled down to room temperature.

2.3. Discolouration of NWCO samples through reclamation by contact

Fuller’s Earth adsorbent clay is a mined material that is typically supplied as a fine powder after it is
dried and activated by acid. The colour of Fuller’s Earth can be grey, buff, green, brown, or blue [17],[18].
Fuller’s Earth has internal and external polar active sites that absorb the polar components of the oil while
allowing the non-polar components to be free [7],[19]. Thus, Fuller’s Earth is able to absorb both moisture
and carboxylic acids [18]. Reclamation by contact was adopted in this study, which involves the following
steps: (1) mechanical agitation and (2) filtration. In the first step, 1 L of NWCO and Fuller’s Earth adsorbent
were poured into a 2-L beaker and mixed continuously using a hot plate magnetic stirrer for 1 h. The weight
of the adsorbent, stirring speed, and oil temperature were 10 wt%, 750 rpm, and 80 °C, respectively. In the
second step, the oil-adsorbent mixture was separated using Whatman filter paper (pore size: 2.5 µm) to
remove sludge, which was composed of Fuller’s Earth adsorbent and polar components present in the
NWCO. Vacuum pump was used to accelerate the filtration process, which was completed within 3 h. Once
the filtering process was complete, the RNWCO was poured into an amber glass bottle, blanketed with
nitrogen, sealed tightly, and labeled accordingly. Nitrogen blanketing was carried out to prevent oxygen from
being trapped inside the amber glass bottle, preventing oxidation process. Three RNWCO samples were
prepared: (1) RNWCO-1 (number of reclamation cycles: 1), (2) RNWCO-2 (number of reclamation cycles:
2), and (3) RNWCO-3 (number of reclamation cycles: 3).

2.4. Physical, chemical, and electrical property measurements of the RNWCO samples
The colour of each RNWCO sample was observed and compared against the colour scale provided
in the ASTM D1500 standard. The acidity of the RNWCO samples was measured based on the amount of
potassium hydroxide (KOH) in milligrams (mg) required to neutralize hydrogen ions (H +) in 1 g of oil
sample. The acidity was measured using a compact titrator (Model: 848 Titrino plus, Metrohm AG,
Switzerland) according to the ASTM D974 standard. The relative density, flash point, and viscosity of the
selected RNWCO sample were measured in an ISO/IEC 17025-accredited laboratory according to the ISO
12185, ISO 2719, and ASTM D7042 standards, respectively. The water content of the selected RNWCO
sample was determined via oxidation of sulphur dioxide by iodine in methanolic hydroxide solution using
Karl Fischer coulometer (Model: 899, Metrohm AG, Switzerland) according to the ASTM D1533 standard.
The breakdown voltage of the selected RNWCO sample was measured using a portable dielectric strength oil
tester (Model: OTS60PB, Megger Ltd., UK) according to the ASTM D1816 standard. Two Verband der
Elektrotechnik (VDE) electrodes (caps: semi-spherical, gap distance: 1.0 mm) were used for the breakdown
voltage measurements. The voltage was increased gradually at a rate of 0.5 kV/s until breakdown occurred.
The minimum volume of each oil sample was 350 mL. The breakdown voltage is sensitive to the presence of
impurities (i.e. moisture, particles, air, and gas bubbles) in the transformer dielcectric liquid. For this reason,
moisture removal treatment was carried out by flowing nitrogen gas [20] through the selected RNWCO
sample for 30 min before the breakdown voltage measurements.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The effects of discolouration on the colour rating and acidity of the WCO, NWCO, and RNWCO
samples were first investigated and the results are presented and discussed in this section. The best
discolourized RNWCO sample was then chosen based on the lowest colour rating and acidity. Following
this, the physical, chemical, and electrical properties of the selected RNWCO sample were assessed
according to the IEC 62770 and IEEE C57.147 standards.

3.1. Effect of discolouration on the colour of the oil samples

Figure 2 shows the colours of the WCO, NWCO, and RNWCO samples. The colour of the WCO
sample was dark brown whereas the NWCO sample had a yellowish-orange colour (amber). The first
reclamation cycle changed the colour of the oil from amber (NWCO) to bright yellow (RNWCO-1) whereas
the second reclamation cycle changed the colour of the oil from bright yellow (RNWCO-1) to pale yellow
(RNWCO-2). However, the colour of the RNWCO-3 sample was similar to that of the RNWCO-2 sample,
indicating that the third reclamation cycle did not have a pronounced effect on improving the colour of the
RNWCO.

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5Bulletin of Electr Eng and Inf ISSN: 2302-9285 

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Figure 2. Colour changes of the oil samples: (a) WCO (before neutralization and discolouration),
(b) NWCO (after neutralization), (c) RNWCO-1 (after 1st reclamation cycle), (d) RNWCO-2 (after 2nd
reclamation cycle), and (e) RNWCO-3 (after 3rd reclamation cycle)

3.1. Effect of discolouration on the colour rating of the oil samples

The colours of the WCO, NWCO, and RNWCO samples were compared against the colour scale
(Figure 3) provided in the ASTM D1500 standard and the colour ratings of the oil samples are shown in
Figure 4. The colour ratings of the WCO and NWCO samples were 5 and 2, respectively. After
discolouration through reclamation by contact, the colour ratings of the oil samples improved, with a value of
1.0 for the RNWCO-1 sample and 0.5 for the RNWCO-2 and RNWCO-3 samples. Based on the colour scale
(Figure 3), a darker colour indicates the presence of acidic by-products from oil oxidation, which is highly
undesirable. The colour improvement of the oil samples indicates that the reclamation process has
successfully reduced the presence of oxidation products by means of adsorption [3].

Figure 3. Colour scale used to assess the colour of dielectric liquids according to the ASTM D1500 standard

WCO

NWCO
Oil sample

RNWCO-1

RNWCO-2

RNWCO-3

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

Colour rating according to the ASTM D1500 standard

Figure 4. Comparison of the colour ratings of the WCO, NWCO, and RNWCO samples

Title of manuscript is short and clear, implies research results (First Author)
6  ISSN: 2302-9285
3.2. Effect of discolouration on the acidity of the oil samples
The initial acidity of the WCO sample was found to be 5.4644 mg KOH/g whereas the acidity of the
NWCO sample was significantly lower, with a value of 0.2825 mg KOH/g. The acidity of the NWCO sample
was improved by 94.83% relative to the acidity of the WCO sample, indicating the effectiveness of the
neutralization process. Following this, the NWCO was discoloured through the reclamation process, where
the number of reclamation cycles was varied at 1, 2 and 3. Indeed, the reclamation process reduced the
acidity of the NWCO, where the extent of acidity reduction was dependent on the number of reclamation
cycles, as shown in Figure 5. The RNWCO-2 sample had the lowest acidity (0.2320 mg KOH/g), which
corresponds to a reduction of 17.87% relative to the acidity of the NWCO. Likewise, the acidity of the
RNWCO-1 and RNWCO-3 samples was reduced, with a value of 0.2527 and 0.2523 mg KOH/g,
respectively. In general, all of the RNWCO samples were within the stipulated limits for ‘continued use of
in-service natural ester fluids’ in oil-immersed transformers, which should be less than or equal to 0.30 mg
KOH/g, according to the IEEE C57.147 standard.

0.3

0.25
Acidity (mg KOH/g)

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
NWCO RNWCO-1 RNWCO-2 RNWCO-3
Oil sample

Figure 5. Acidity of the NWCO and RNWCO samples

3.3. Physical, chemical and electrical properties of the RNWCO-2 sample

The physical, chemical, and electrical properties of the RNWCO-2 sample measured in this study
are presented and summarized in Table 1. Density is a property that determines the suitability of the
transformer dielectric liquid for use in cold climates. The flash point is an important property because it is
related to the safety of the transformer dielectric liquid in the event of a fire hazard. Viscosity is defined as
the resistance of a fluid to flow, and thus, this property affects the ability of the transformer dielectric liquid
to conduct and dissipate heat in oil-immersed transformers. Breakdown voltage is defined as the applied AC
voltage at which disruptive discharge begins and thus, the transformer dielectric liquid is no longer a pure
electrical insulator.

Table 1. Comparison of the physical, chemical, and electrical properties of the RNWCO-2 sample with those
specified in the IEC 62770 and IEEE C57.147 standards
Property Unit IEC 62770 IEEE C57.147 RNWCO-2
Clear and free from sediment and
Color rating ≤ 1.0 0.5
— suspended matter
3
Density g/cm ≤1 ≤ 0.96 0.913
Flash point °C ≥ 250 ≥ 275 260
Viscosity mm2/s ≤ 50 ≤ 50 41
Acidity mg KOH/g ≤ 0.06 ≤ 0.06 0.2320
Water content mg/kg ≤ 200 ≤ 200 137a
Breakdown voltage kV ≥ 35b ≥ 20c 29a,c
a b c
After moisture removal treatment, IEC 60156 standard (gap distance: 2.5 mm), ASTM D1816 (gap distance: 1 mm)

In this study, the RNWCO-2 sample had the lowest colour rating and acidity and therefore, the
physical, chemical, and electrical properties were measured for this oil sample. The density, flash point, and
viscosity of the RNWCO-2 sample were determined to be 0.913 g/cm 3, 260 °C, and 41 mm2/s, respectively.

Bulletin of Electr Eng and Inf, Vol. 8, No. 4, December 2019: xx – xx

7Bulletin of Electr Eng and Inf ISSN: 2302-9285 

The breakdown voltage of the RNWCO-2 sample after moisture removal treatment was found to be 29 kV,
which was ~45% higher than the minimum dielectric breakdown voltage required for new natural ester fluids
(20 kV). Hence, the density, viscosity, flash point, and breakdown voltage fulfilled the specifications
stipulated in the IEC 62770 and IEEE C57.147 standards.

4. CONCLUSION
In this study, neutralized waste cooking oil (NWCO) was discolourized with Fuller’s Earth
adsorbent through reclamation by contact (number of reclamation cycles: 1, 2, and 3) to produce reclaimed
neutralized waste cooking oil (RNWCO). The RNWCO-2 sample (NWCO reclaimed for 2 cycles) had a pale
yellow appearance with a colour rating of 0.5. In addition, the RNWCO-2 sample was clear and free from
sediment and suspended matter. The reclamation process reduced the acidity of the RNWCO-2 sample to
0.2320 mg KOH/g, which corresponds to a reduction of 17.87% relative to the acidity of NWCO (0.2825 mg
KOH/g). The density, flash point, and viscosity of the RNWCO-2 sample were determined to be 0.913 g/cm 3,
260 °C, and 41 mm2/s, respectively. Moisture removal treatment was carried out on the RNWCO-2 sample
and the water content was found to be 137 ppm. Breakdown voltage tests were performed after the moisture
removal treatment and the breakdown voltage of the RNWCO-2 sample was 29 kV. In general, most of the
properties of RNWCO-2 sample investigated in this study fulfilled the specifications of the IEC 62770 and
IEEE C57.147 standards, except for the acidity, which was categorized as within the recommended limit for
‘continued use of in-service natural ester fluids’ in oil-immersed transformers specified in the IEEE C57.147
standard, where the acidity should be less than or equal to 0.30 mg KOH/g. Based on the results, it can be
concluded that the RNWCO-2 sample has potential to be used as a transformer dielectric liquid.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support provided by the Ministry of Education
Malaysia (MoE) and Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka (UTeM) under the Fundamental Research Grant
Scheme (FRGS/1/2017/TK04/FKE-CERIA/F00332). The authors amiably thank Mr Muhammad Nazori
Deraman from Faculty of Electrical Engineering, UTeM, Malaysia, for providing assistance on the
preparation of materials and measurements conducted in this study.

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BIOGRAPHIES OF AUTHORS

Imran Sutan Chairul received his BEng. (Hons.) degree in Electrical Engineering from Universiti
Teknikal Malaysia Melaka in 2008 and MEng. degree in Electrical Engineering from Universiti
Tenaga Nasional in 2012. He is currently pursuing his PhD degree at Universiti Teknikal
Malaysia Melaka, where his research is focused on vegetable-based transformer dielectric
liquids.

Norazhar Abu Bakar received his BEng. (Hons.) degree in Electronics and Electrical
Engineering from Leeds University, UK, MSc. (Eng.) in Control Systems from Sheffield
University, UK, and PhD degree in Electrical and Computer Engineering from Curtin
University, Australia. He is currently serving as a lecturer at Universiti Teknikal Malaysia
Melaka, Malaysia. His research interests are transformer condition monitoring and advanced
control systems.

Md Nazri Othman received his BSc. degree in Electrical Power from Memphis State University,
USA, MSc. in Power Electronic and Drives and PhD degree in Electrical Engineering, from
University of Nottingham, UK. He is currently serving as a lecturer at Universiti Teknikal
Malaysia Melaka, Malaysia. His research interests are designing electric machines, and
renewable energy.

Bulletin of Electr Eng and Inf, Vol. 8, No. 4, December 2019: xx – xx

9Bulletin of Electr Eng and Inf ISSN: 2302-9285 

Sharin Ab Ghani received his BEng. (Hons.) degree in Electrical Engineering from Universiti
Teknikal Malaysia Melaka in 2008, MEng. Degree in Electrical Engineering from Universiti
Tenaga Nasional in 2012, and PhD in Electrical Engineering from Universiti Teknologi
Malaysia in 2019. He is currently serving as a senior lecturer at Universiti Teknikal Malaysia
Melaka, Malaysia. His research interests are electrical insulations, power equipment and
insulation condition monitoring, as well as renewable energy.

Nur Hakimah Ab Aziz received her BEng. (Hons.) degree in Electrical Engineering from
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, MEng. degree in Electrical Power Engineering from University
of South Australia, Australia, and PhD degree in Electrical Engineering from University of
Strathclyde Glasgow. She is currently serving as a senior lecturer at Universiti Teknikal
Malaysia Melaka,, Malaysia. Her research interests include condition monitoring, diagnostics
and prognostics, as well as ageing of dielectric insulations.

Title of manuscript is short and clear, implies research results (First Author)