1) Discuss nucleic acids, nuclear proteins and vitamins (15mks)

 Nucleic acids
The transfer of genetic information to new cells is accomplished through use of
biomolecules called Nucleic acids
In Eukaryotic cells, there are two types of nucleic acids:
Ribonucleic acid (RNA) which is mainly found in cytoplasm of living cells
Deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA) which is mainly found in nucleus of living cells
DNA and RNA are polymers consisting of repeating subunits called Nucleotides
which are made of three components
I. A heterocyclic base that contains elements other than carbon in a ring called
heterocyclic rings. The bases found in DNA and RNA contain two types of
heterocyclic rings: Pyrimidine and Purine. There are two purine bases-
Adenine (A) and Guanine (G) whereas pyrimidines are of three types-
Thymine (T), cytosine (C) and Uracil (U).
II. A sugar. In the RNA, the sugar component is D-ribose and in DNA the sugar
is D-deoxyribose
III. A phosphate groups. The phosphate group in nucleotides is derived from
phosphoric acid.

Functions of nucleic acids include:

I. To store and transfer genetic information

II. To direct the synthesis of new proteins
III. The deoxyribonucleic acids stores all the genetic information in the cell
IV. The deoxyribonucleic acids controls the synthesis of RNA in the cell.

 Vitamins
Vitamins are organic compounds required by the body in small amounts for
metabolism, for protection, for maintenance of health and proper growth. They cannot
be synthesized by the body. Must be obtained by outside sources like diet. Vitamins
 also assist in the formation of hormones, blood vessels, nervous system chemicals and
genetic materials.
Vitamins are classified according to their ability to be absorbed in fat or water.
1. Fat Soluble Vitamins: they are absorbed through intestinal tract with the help of
lipids, they are stored in the liver and not excreted out of the body. Bile salts and fats
are needed for their absorption. Vitamins A, D, E and K are fat soluble
2. Water Soluble Vitamins: Vitamin B complex and Vitamin C are water soluble.
They are not stored in the body, therefore are required daily in small amounts.
Vitamins have got various functions in the body:
 Vitamin A acts as a regulator of the cell and tissue growth and differentiation
 Complex Vitamin B functions as enzyme cofactors or precursors for them.
 Vitamin D regulates mineral metabolism for bones and other organs.
 Vitamin C and Vitamin E functions as antidoxidants.

2. Discuss structure for genes and chromosomes (15 mks)

GENES

The gene is the basic physical and functional unit of heredity. It consists of a specific

sequence of nucleotides at a given position on a given chromosome that codes for a specific

protein.

Genes consist of three types of nucleotide sequence:

 Coding regions, called Exons, which specify a sequence of amino acids

 non-coding regions, called Introns, which do not specify amino acids
 Regulatory sequences, which play a role in determining when and where the protein is
made and how much is made

A human being has 20,000 to 25,000 genes located on 46 chromosomes (23 pairs). These

genes are known, collectively, as the human genome.

CHROMOSOMES

The nucleus of each cell in our bodies contains approximately 1.8 metres of DNA in total. This DNA is
tightly packed into structures called chromosomes, which consist of long chains of DNA and associated
proteins. In eukaryotes, DNA molecules are tightly wound around proteins called histone proteins which
provide structural support and play a role in controlling the activities of the genes. A strand 150 to 200
nucleotides long is wrapped twice around a core of eight histone proteins to form a structure called a
nucleosome. The histone octamer at the centre of the nucleosome is formed from two units each of
histones H2A, H2B, H3, and H4. The chains of histones are coiled in turn to form a solenoid, which is
stabilised by the histone H1. Further coiling of the solenoids forms the structure of the chromosome
proper. Each chromosome has a p arm and a q arm. The p arm, is the short arm, and the q arm is the long
arm. In their replicated form, each chromosome consists of two chromatids.

The chromosomes and the DNA they contain are copied as part of the cell cycle, and passed to daughter
cells through the processes of mitosis and meiosis. Human beings have 46 chromosomes, consisting of 22
pairs of autosomes and a pair of sex chromosomes. Two X sex chromosomes for females (XX) and an X
and Y sex chromosome for males (XY). One member of each pair of chromosomes comes from the
mother through the egg cell and one member of each pair comes from the father through the sperm cell.

Chromosomes have two main functions:

 To ensure that the DNA is segregated equally to daughter nuclei at cell division,
 To ensure that the integrity of the genome is maintained and accurately replicated in each cell
cycle.

The elements responsible for these functions are centromeres, telomeres and replication origins,
respectively