LEBW1414-00

March 2001
PETROLEUM A&I GUIDE

PETROLEUM ENGINES

APPLICATION and
INSTALLATION GUIDE
 CATERPILLAR® PETROLEUM ENGINE
APPLICATION AND INSTALLATION GUIDE

Table of Contents

Marketing Profit Center Locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4

Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
Serviceability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
Installation Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
Long Term Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
Petroleum Engine Selection, Ratings, and Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
Petroleum Equipment Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
Engine Packaging for Electric Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
Petroleum Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
Two-Bearing Generator Offshore Power Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
Two-Bearing Generator Land Rig Power Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
Auxiliary Service Single-Bearing Generators Without Bases . . . . . . . . . .25
Equipment Mounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
Engine Packaging for Mechanical Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
Mobile and Service Rigs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
Clutches, Belt and Chain Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
System Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
Torque Converters, Transmissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38
Transmission and Torque Converter Ratings and Adaptation . . . . . . . . . .40
Mud Pump Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
Alignment and Vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
General Alignment Information Defining Types of Misalignment . . . . . . .43
Crankshaft Deflection Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
Alignment of Two-Bearing Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
Alignment of Close-Coupled Driven Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
Alignment of Mechanical Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56
Vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57
Isolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
TMI Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
Noise Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72

Available electronically in the Technical Information section of

https://oilandgas.cat.com

© 1976, 1979, 1982, 1985, 2001 Caterpillar

1 LEBW1414-00
 Table of Contents

Governors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
Speed Droop Governors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
Isochronous Governors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
Electric Load Sharing Governors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
Electronic Governing and Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
Generator Set Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86
Cooling Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89
General Information and Cooling System Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89
Coolant Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .94
Watermaker Installation Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98
Interconnection of Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101
Heat Exchanger Cooling Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102
Expansion Tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
System Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109
Emergency Radiator Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114
Radiators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114
Installation Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117
Radiator Performance Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .118
Jacket Water Heaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .123
Extreme Cold Weather Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
Sizing and Installing Radiators for EPA Certified Engines . . . . . . . .125
Supplemental Radiator Design Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125
Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .130
Lubricating Oil Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .130
Scheduled Oil Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132
Lubricating Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .133
Prelubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .133
Duplex Oil Filter System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .134
Remote Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .134
Tilt Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .134
Supplemental Bypass Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .134
Fuel Delivery System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136
System Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136
Fuel System Attachments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .142
Fuel Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .143
Crude Oil Fuel System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .147
Exhaust System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151
Air Intake Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159
Engine Room Ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159
Land SCR Rig Ventilation Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .164
Combustion Air Intake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .165
Air Cleaners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .165
Crankcase Ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .168
DC Power Systems Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .171

LEBW1414-00 2
 Table of Contents

AC Power Systems Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .173

Oilfield Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .177
Shutoffs and Alarm Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .180
Starting Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
Electric Starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
Air Starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .187
Starting Aids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .189
Electrolytic and Galvanic Activity Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .191
Fuel Conservation on Petroleum Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .193
Daily Engine Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .205
Engine Support Systems Layouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .206
Design Review Sheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208

3 LEBW1414-00
 MARKETING PROFIT CENTER LOCATIONS
CAT POWER SYSTEMS NORTH AMERICA (PSNA)
NORTH CENTRAL REGION NORTHWEST REGION SOUTHEAST REGION CANADIAN REGION

330 S.W. Adams St., LD-LL30
Peoria, IL 61602
Ph: (309) 675-4605
Fax: (309) 675-4303
NORTHEAST REGION
12600 SE 38th St.
Suite 205
Bellevue, WA 98006
Ph: (425) 865-0251
Fax: (425) 865-0919
Speed No.: *0-037
7621 Little Avenue
Suite 202
Charlotte, NC 28226
Ph: (704) 752-1321
Fax: (704) 752-1316
Speed No.: *0-120
3700 Steeles Ave. West
Suite 902
Woodbridge, ON L4L 8K8
Ph: (905) 850-3655
Fax: (905) 850-3661
Speed No.: *7-25

175 Powder Forest Dr. SOUTH CENTRAL REGION SOUTHWEST REGION

Weatogue, CT 06089
Ph: (860) 658-3411
Fax: (860) 651-4118
Speed No.: *0-119
8300 FM 1960 West
Suite 340
Houston, TX 77070
Ph: (281) 677-2525
Fax: (281) 807-6535
Speed No.: *0-112
1450 N. Tustin Avenue
Suite 217
Santa Ana, CA 92705
Ph: (714) 560-4010
Fax: (714) 835-2737
Speed No.: *0-106

CATERPILLAR AMERICAS CO. (CACo) CATERPILLAR ASIA PACIFIC LTD. CATERPILLAR POWER SYSTEMS INC.
701 Waterford Way, Suite 200 (CAPL) Sanno Grand Bldg., 8th Floor
Miami, FL 33126-4670 Singapore Branch 2-14-2 Nagatacho
Ph: (305) 476-6800 7, Tractor Road, Jurong Chiyoda-Ku, Tokyo 100
Fax: (305) 476-6801 Singapore 627968 Japan
Republic of Singapore Ph: (03) 3593-3231
CATERPILLAR OF AUSTRALIA LTD. P.O. Box 0520 Fax: (03) 3593-3238
(CofA) Jurong Town Post Office
1 Caterpillar Drive Singapore 916118 CATERPILLAR S.A.R.L.
Private Mail Bag 4 Ph: 662-8333 76, Route de Frontenex
Tullamarine Fax: 662-8302 P.O. Box 6000
Victoria 3043 CH-1211 Geneva 6
Australia CATERPILLAR CHINA LIMITED (CCL) Switzerland
37/F., The Lee Gardens Ph: (22) 849 44 44
33 Hysan Ave. Fax: (22) 849 45 44
Causeway Bay Tlx: 413323
G.P.O. Box 3069 Cble: CATOVERSEA
Hong Kong
Ph: (852) 2848-0333
Fax: (852) 2848-0440
(852) 2848-0400
(852) 2848-0236
(852) 2848-0223
(852) 2868-5435

LEBW1414-00 4
 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Following are installation requirements for
Caterpillar Diesel Engines applied in petro-
leum applications, except for 3600 Series
engines.
Reliability of machinery is a major factor affect-
ing satisfactory performance.
Machinery must be properly installed in an accept-
able environment to achieve reliability.
The installation plan must assure machinery will
be able to function in its environment.
Caterpillar is not responsible for choice or per-
formance of components mentioned herein that
are not manufactured or serviced by Caterpillar.
“It is the installer’s responsibility to consider and
avoid possible hazardous conditions which could
develop from the systems involved in the spe-
cific engine installation. The suggestions provided
regarding avoidance of hazardous conditions
apply to all applications and are necessarily of a
general nature since only the installer is familiar
with the details of his installation. The sugges-
tions should be considered general examples
only and are in no way intended to cover every
possible hazard in every installation.”
The engine installation should be designed and
sized according to the requirements of the appli-
cation. Engine installation layout is important for
ventilation, cooling and the filtering of dirt and
sand from the air. Space must also be planned
for auxiliary equipment. In addition, heat and
noise levels should be adequate for worker’s
comfort and comply with local, state, marine
classification society or country codes. Consid-
erations must be given to how the engine pack-
age is delivered to the site, i.e. by crane or other
methods.
Multiple Use Facility
Drill rigs have auxiliary equipment such as boiler
units, compressors, etc. For this reason, it is
important for the room to have ample space for
maintenance and repair of all the equipment.
Serviceability
Adherence to proper maintenance practices is
critical to engine or generator set reliability.
Caterpillar publishes guidelines and service inter-
vals for every engine and generator model.
Reference should be made to these guidelines for
5 LEBW1414-00
specific maintenance practices. However, the
installation must be designed for ease of servic-
ing to ensure adequate maintenance.
Lifting Capabilities
The room enclosures should have adequate
clearance to allow lifting of the generator sets for
repair work, etc.
Clearances
There are different types of clearances: overhead,
side and front/rear.
Overhead Clearances
Overhead clearance is the clearance above the
engine and generator. Special consideration
should be made for clearances above the muf-
flers, exhaust stacks and cylinder heads to allow
space for maintenance work.
Side Clearances
In a single or multiple generator set application,
there should be sufficient space between engines
for drain carts, tool carriages and other equip-
ment. As a rule, the space between engines
should be equal to at least the width of the engine.
Front/Rear Clearances
The room should be designed to provide suffi-
cient area in front for removing the radiator and
camshaft from the block in case of major over-
hauls. In a similar manner, there should be suf-
ficient space at the rear of the generator for
removal of the rotor.
Access
Accessibility is an important feature in any engine
room design.
There will be periodic preventive maintenance
on the engine, so easy access should especially
be provided to:
• lube oil filters and drain plug
• fuel and air filters
• jacket water pump
• turbocharger
• heat exchanger
Routine Maintenance Temperatures
Access should be available through the service Pre-Start
entrance in the case of regular routine mainte- The engine should be equipped with starting
nance. The entrance should be designed to han- capabilities especially in cold conditions.
dle the removal of generator sets, parts, fluids Provisions such as jacket water heaters, battery
and tools. Maintenance personnel should be able heaters, oil heaters, ether start aids and anti-
to pass through freely. freeze concentration must be planned for to
ensure proper starting. These measures are taken
Major Repair in cold ambient conditions.
Rooms should be able to handle major repairs,
which may involve weight and size constraints. Operational
In order to maintain temperature and prevent de-
Service Convenience
rating of the engine during operation, adequate
Air air and coolant flow are necessary. Radiators, if
so equipped, provide cooling air for the room, as
Air should be in sufficient supply for use with air
well as the engine. Heat exchanger and remote
tools as well as ventilation purposes.
radiator cooling remove much of the heat from
Water the room, but ventilation will still be necessary
for radiant heat.
Water is an important resource for cooling pur-
poses as well as for cleaning the room, engine, Installation Considerations
and hands.
Handling
Air Pressure
Lift Points
Doors
Lift points on drill rig power modules are impor-
Air restrictions in enclosed engine rooms can cre- tant as they provide support to the equipment
ate a pressure differential between the room and when it is moved.
the surrounding areas. A 1.02 psi (7 kPa) pres-
sure differential can create a 3086 lb (1400 kg) When lifting, all supporting members (chains and
force exerted on a 3.28 2 6.56 ft2 (1 2 2 m2) cables) should be parallel to each other and as
door (as pressure is equal to weight divided by perpendicular as possible to the top of the object
area). The door design and proper ventilation being lifted.
should be taken into consideration when design- When it is necessary to remove a component on
ing the room. an angle, remember that the capacity of an eye-
bolt is reduced when the angle between the
Air Velocity supporting members and the object becomes
While air temperatures must be controlled, air less than 90 degrees. Eyebolts and brackets
velocities affect worker comfort. The typical air should never be bent and should only be loaded
motion conditions include: under tension.
Air Velocity To move only the engine, use the lifting eyes on
(fpm) m/min Conditions the engine itself.
50 15.2 Offices, seated worker To remove the generator only, use the lifting eyes
100 30.5 Factory, standing worker that are on the generator.
150 45.7 Capture velocity, light dust
200 61.0 Maximum continuous exposure Center of Gravity (CG) Calculations
1300 396.0 Capture velocity, rain
1 – 2000 306.0 – Maximum intermittent exposure
This information is important, especially when
610.0 they are hoisted by overhead cranes. Compo-
nents with a lower center of gravity have less ten-
Table 1. Conditions from air velocity
dency to tip over when lifted.

LEBW1414-00 6
Long Term Storage Open Storage of Generators
Engine Storage Test the main stator windings with a megohm-
meter:
When an engine is not started for several months,
the lubricating oil drains from the cylinder walls • before the initial start-up of the genera-
and piston rings. Rust can then form on the cylin- tor set
der liner surface, increasing engine wear and • every three months* if the generator is oper-
decreasing engine life. ating in a humid environment
To prevent excessive engine wear: • if the generator has not been run under load
• Be sure all lubrication recommendations for three months* or more
mentioned in the Maintenance Schedule *This is a guideline only. If the environment is extremely
intervals chart are completed. humid or salty, it may be necessary to perform the Megger
• If freezing temperatures are expected, check Test more frequently. Refer to one of the following publica-
tions for Megger Test information:
the cooling system for adequate protec- • SEBU6918, SR4B Generators and Control Panels Oper-
tion against freezing. A 50/50 solution of ation and Maintenance Manual
Ethylene Glycol based antifreeze and *• SENR5359, SR4B Generator Service Manual
approved water will give protection to –33°F
(–36°C).
If an engine is out of operation and if use of the
engine is not planned, special precautions should
be made. If the engine will be stored for more
than one month, a complete protection proce-
dure is recommended. Refer to SEHS9031,
Storage Procedures for Caterpillar Products, for
more detailed information on engine storage.
Your Caterpillar dealer will have instructions for
preparing your engine for extended storage
periods.

Generator Storage
When a generator is stored, moisture may con-
dense in the windings. Use a dry storage space
and space heaters to minimize condensation.

Removing Generator Moisture

Drying does not always produce desired results.
It may be necessary for the generator to be
dipped and baked by a qualified rebuild shop.
• Energize the space heaters in the generator
(if equipped).
• Space heaters can be installed on genera-
tors (see the Parts Manual). They warm the
windings to remove moisture. The heaters
should be connected at all times in high
humidity conditions, whenever the genera-
tor is not running.
Refer to SEHS9124, Special Instructions, Clean
and Dry Gen Set, or contact your Caterpillar
dealer.

7 LEBW1414-00
 PETROLEUM ENGINE SELECTION, RATINGS, AND CONFIGURATIONS

Petroleum Engine Selection Horsepower, Torque, and Machine Productivity

To better understand torque and horsepower,
General consider that a very small engine can provide
One of the major concerns in applying petroleum sufficient torque for a very large machine if there
engines is proper application of engine horse- is enough speed reduction. But, although the
power to obtain desired performance, economic machine could have sufficient torque, it would
operation, and satisfactory engine life. Successful operate at such a slow speed as to be unpro-
application of petroleum engines requires under- ductive. Productivity of most machines is approx-
standing of power requirements, how engines are imately proportional to horsepower input.
rated, applicable emissions requirements, and Horsepower is the time rate of doing work. Or
knowledge of the proper selection and use of restated, horsepower is proportional to the prod-
these ratings. uct of torque times rpm. Some basic relation-
ships are:
Power Requirements Compared
With Past Experience English units
Before selecting an engine model and rating, bhp = T 2 RPM
power demand must be analyzed. This is simpli- 5252
fied if experience is available with a similar
machine powered by an engine of known rat- T = 5252 bhp
RPM
ing and fuel rate performance. This experience
helps decide whether the machine was under- 1 hp = 33,000 ft-lb
powered, correctly powered, or overpowered. min
Where: T = Torque, ft-lb
Calculated Horsepower Demand Metric units
Machine load demand can be estimated mathe- bkW = T 2 RPM
matically when no actual machine experience is 9537
available. Using basic engineering principles on
work and energy and data on the type of task to T = 9537 bkW
be accomplished, it is possible to convert all RPM
functions of a machine to torque demand and T = Torque, N•m
then to power demand. Calculation may be the
only way available to estimate power requirements Torque Rise Effect on Performance
at the start of a new machine design. Of course,
this approach is accurate only if all factors are For equipment (such as a plunger pump) which
considered and assumptions are correct. For is capable of lugging the engine (i.e., applying
applications such as pumps or other continuous sufficient load to pull the engine speed down
loads, where demand is known quite well, cal- below rated speed at full throttle), it is important
culated values are quite accurate. In other appli- to consider two other characteristics of engine
cations, actual demand can differ significantly. performance. These are torque rise and response
to sudden load change.
Engine Measured Power Demand Torque Rise % =
Usually, the most practical way to assess power (Peak Torque) – (Rated Torque) 2 100
demand and engine capability is to make a selec- Rated Torque
tion based on calculation or comparison with past Cat® Diesel Engines used in mechanical drives
experience and test it. There is no substitute for typically provide high torque rise to perform well
a rigorous evaluation of an engine in the machine in a wide variety of applications.
or application. This provides final proof of
machine performance acceptability, or it will A torque curve is the graphical representation of
identify shortcomings in need of correction. torque versus speed.

LEBW1414-00 8
Some modification to the torque curve of a non- air/fuel ratio setting provides optimum machine
certified engine is possible in those cases where responsiveness and acceptable level of transient
this is required to achieve satisfactory machine smoke for a particular application.
performance. Consult your engine supplier if this
need exists. Adequate Machine Performance
If torque rise capability is higher than necessary, Manufacturers and customers develop their own
the machine driveline may be subjected to torque ideas of what constitutes adequate machine
levels which may shorten the life of gearing and performance. Insufficient power causes low
bearings. For this reason it is sometimes desir- productivity and user dissatisfaction. Excessive
able to let the machine operator shift to a lower power costs more to purchase, requires heavier
gear to increase engine speed instead of always drive system components, and may reduce
lugging the engine without a gear change. So, the equipment life if the operator is careless. The
decision to use an extra high torque rise engine ideal machine is responsive, productive, and
must also consider driveline capability. By con- durable, satisfying the owner’s need for per-
trast, an engine with insufficient torque rise will formance and overall value.
seem weak and may even stop running before
the operator has time to make a gear change. Tolerances
This is not acceptable either. The best compro- Actual engine power output may vary by up to
mise is to use enough torque rise to satisfy ±3% from nameplate value on a new engine.
machine performance requirements, but not so Similarly, where load demand of some work-pro-
much that driveline life becomes unacceptable. ducing device is published, the manufacturer’s
Devices such as blowers and centrifugal pumps tolerance should be added to demand power if
cannot lug an engine because power demand power needs are to be met in all cases.
drops off faster than engine capability as speed
is reduced. The amount of torque rise available Fuel Heating Value
in these applications is generally meaningless Fuel heating value affects the ability to achieve
because torque rise is not required, except as it rated power output because fuel is delivered to
may contribute to the ability to accelerate the load. the engine on a volumetric basis. Allowance
Generation sets are constant speed applications should be made for lower heat content fuel
and do not need torque rise capability. (higher API than standard) where the power level
is critical.
Response Effect on Performance Fuel rates are based on fuel oil of 35° API {60°F
A naturally aspirated engine has the fastest (16°C)} gravity having an LHV of 18,360 Btu/lb
response to sudden load increase because (42,780 kJ/kg) when used at 85°F (29°C) and
required combustion air is immediately available. weighing 7.001 lb/U.S. gal (838.9 g/L).
However, few naturally aspirated engines meet
emissions requirements. They are also more Auxiliary Loads
costly and heavy. In addition to the engine’s main load, allowance
There is a momentary lag in the response of a must be made for engine-driven auxiliary loads.
turbocharged or turbocharged and aftercooled Extra loads imposed by a cooling fan, alternator,
engine because it takes a moment for the turbo steering pump, air compressor, and hydraulic
to accelerate upon load increase. Progress in tur- pump may represent a significant proportion of
bocharger development has produced smaller, total engine power available.
faster responding turbochargers and, therefore, After establishing main load power demand and
turbocharged engines which respond quickly adding all auxiliary power demands, some addi-
to sudden load increase. With steady load tional power should be allowed for peak loads
and speed, turbo response is of no consequence. (such as grades and rough terrain) and reserve
Air/fuel ratio controllers, also called smoke lim- for acceleration, where applicable.
iters, momentarily limit fuel delivery until suffi-
cient air is available for combustion. They respond
to inlet manifold boost pressure. The proper

9 LEBW1414-00
Engine Rating Conditions Power Setting Determines Maximum Fuel Rate
Ratings are based on SAE 1995 standard Horsepower output of a basic engine model can
be varied within its design range by changing the
ambient conditions. Ratings are subject to ±3%
engine fuel setting or speed setting. Both settings
Power Tolerance. Ratings are valid for air cleaner
inlet temperatures up to and including 122°Faffect the engine’s maximum fuel rate and,
(50°C). therefore, the horsepower output capability.
Thermal and mechanical design limits will not be
Note: Horsepower shown on the performance
exceeded if an appropriate engine and rating
curve for generator set applications may be
is selected.
slightly below the advertised horsepower to
match a generator nominal output. Caterpillar Ratings are Offered
Engine performance is corrected to inlet air stan- in a 5 Tier Format
dard conditions of 29.31 in. hg (99 kPa) dry “INDUSTRIAL A” — CONTINUOUS RATINGS
barometer and 77°F (25°C) temperature. These
values correspond to the standard atmos- — For heavy duty service when engine is
pheric pressure and temperature as shown in operated at rated load and speed up to
SAE J1995. 100% of the time without interruption or
load cycling.
Performance measured using a standard fuel with
fuel gravity of 35° API having a lower heating — Time at full load up to 100% of the duty
value of 18,390 Btu/lb (42,780 kJ/kg) when cycle.
used at 84.2°F (29°C) where the density is — Typical examples are: pipeline pumping,
7.001 lb/US gal (838.9 G/L). well service mixing units.
The corrected performance values shown for
Caterpillar engines will approximate the values “INDUSTRIAL B” — RATINGS
obtained when the observed performance data (Mud Pump Service)
is corrected to SAE J1995, ISO 3046-2 & 8665 — For service where power and/or speed
& 2288 & 9249 & 1585, EEC 80/1269 and are cyclic.
DIN 70020 standard reference conditions.
— Time at full load not to exceed 80% of the
Engine Ratings duty cycle.
Another concern in applying engines is the proper — Typical examples are: oil field mechanical
application of engine power to obtain desired per- pumping/drilling, independent rotary drive,
formance, economic operation, and satisfactory well service blenders, cementers.
engine life. Successful application of engines
requires an understanding of how they are rated “INDUSTRIAL C” — INTERMITTENT RATINGS
and how to properly select and use these ratings. (Hoisting Service)
Published ratings are representative statements — For service where power and/or speed are
expressing engine power and speed capability cyclic. The horsepower and speed capa-
under specific loading conditions. There are sev- bility of the engine which can be utilized
eral ratings for each configuration of petroleum for one uninterrupted hour followed by one
engine model. hour of operation at or below the “IND A” —
Continuous power.
Engine Capability Determines Ratings — Time at full load not to exceed 50% of the
Horsepower rating capability is determined by duty cycle.
engine design. Combined capability and dura- — Typical examples are: off-highway truck,
bility of all engine components determine how fire pump application power, blast hole
much horsepower can be produced successfully drills, oil field hoisting, nitrogen pumping,
in a particular application. well service kill pumps, cementers, electric
drill rig power (also called Prime power).

LEBW1414-00 10
“INDUSTRIAL D” — RATINGS Engine Determines Rating Validity
— For service where rated power is required A properly maintained engine in actual use will
for periodic overloads. The maximum determine whether a particular rating level is
horsepower and speed capability of the appropriate. Ratings which are validated by
engine can be utilized for a maximum of acceptable field experience are retained. Contin-
30 uninterrupted minutes followed by one uing engine development results in ongoing
hour at “IND C” — Intermittent power. engine improvement and some increase in rat-
ings may result from this process.
— Time at full load not to exceed 10% of the
duty cycle. Engines are Developed for
— Typical examples are: offshore cranes, fire Specific Rating Levels
pump certification power, coil tubing units, Engines are designed and developed to produce
offshore cementer. specific power levels for particular applications.
Subsequent lab and field experience confirms
“INDUSTRIAL E” — RATINGS
rating validity. Increasing engine horsepower
— For service where rated power is required beyond approved levels to compensate for
for a short time for initial starting or sudden excessive load is not acceptable. Excessive
overload. For emergency service where engine wear or damage can result.
standard power is unavailable. The maxi-
mum horsepower and speed capability of Rating Curves
the engine can be utilized for a maximum Consult Technical Marketing Information (TMI)
of 15 uninterrupted minutes followed by or Petroleum Engine Performance handbooks for
one hour at “IND C” — Intermittent power rating curves which show available ratings at var-
or duration of emergency. ious speeds for each model and configuration.
— Time at full load not to exceed 5% of the Specification sheets also carry some of this infor-
duty cycle. mation for preliminary sizing purposes.
— Typical examples are: oil field well servic- Special Ratings
ing frac/acid pumping.
Most engine applications are well understood and
NOTE: APPLICATION EXAMPLES ARE FOR utilize one of the above existing published ratings
REFERENCE ONLY. FOR EXACT DETERMI- which have been confirmed by thousands of
NATION OF RATING TIER REFER TO SPECIFIC hours of successful experience. However, occa-
APPLICATION INFORMATION AND GUIDE- sionally, a unique application merits special rat-
LINES IN TMI. ing consideration because of unusually low load
factor or unusually short life requirements. In this
Life Related to Load Factor
case, consult your engine supplier. Factory appli-
Use of an oversized engine contributes to longer cation engineers will require that a special rating
engine life because it runs at a lower overall load request data sheet be submitted for review before
factor. It also provides quicker response to sud- a special rating can be considered for approval.
den load changes. Load factor is the ratio of aver- Emissions certification regulations reduce the
age fuel rate to the maximum fuel rate the engine feasibility of some special rating requests.
can deliver when set at a rating appropriate for a
particular application. This value is expressed as Altitude Derating
a percent. Each model and rating has established maxi-
mum altitude capabilities for lug and nonlug
Factors Involved in Establishing a Rating
applications. For higher altitude operation, power
Some of the application conditions considered settings must be reduced approximately 3% per
by a manufacturer in determining a rating for an 1000 ft. (305 m) above that rating’s altitude limit.
application are: load factor, duty cycle, annual Mechanically controlled diesel engines do not
operating hours, historical experience at a par- self-derate enough so that the fuel setting can be
ticular rating level, and expected engine life left unchanged. If they are not reset to appropri-
to overhaul. ate power levels, naturally aspirated engines may
11 LEBW1414-00
smoke badly and turbocharged engines may suf- Turbocharging, using energy from waste exhaust
fer excessive thermal and mechanical loading, gas, provides an efficient means to increase air
resulting in internal damage without giving exter- flow. The power rating of a turbocharged engine
nal indication of distress. Engine derating curves is usually limited by internal temperatures, tur-
are contained in the TMI. bocharger speed, and structural limits. Compres-
sion of the air by the turbocharger increases air
Actual Power Output Derives temperature.
from Load Demand
An aftercooler between the tubocharger and
Regardless of engine rating (power and speed intake manifold cools the hot compressed air.
setting), the actual power developed by an This increases air density and allows more air to
engine is determined by the load imposed by be packed into the cylinder and more fuel to be
driven equipment. For example, an engine set to burned. The rating is typically limited by internal
produce 500 hp (373 kW) will actually produce temperature limits, turbocharger speed, and
only 40 hp (30 kW) if the driven load demands structural limits.
only 40 hp (30 kW). For this reason, average fuel
Because turbochargers and aftercoolers provide
consumption indicates average load demand.
more air to the engine, the engine fuel rate can
Average fuel consumption also indicates load
usually be increased to use this extra combus-
severity on the engine by comparing it with the
tion air. As a result, engine component loading
rated fuel rate associated with that rating. When
or turbo speed become the limit on rating.
this ratio is expressed as a percent, it is called
Caterpillar Diesel Engines do not utilize turbos or
load factor.
aftercoolers as add-ons. Rather, engines are
designed and developed in all aspects for these
Engine Configurations higher loading levels. Then they are tested
On a given engine model, a power range capa- thoroughly to assure long life and satisfactory
bility is created by providing different engine performance.
configurations such as naturally aspirated,
turbocharged, and turbocharged-aftercooled.
Some engines may have the aftercooler cooled
with engine jacket water (JWAC). Some engines
may have the aftercooler cooled with a separate
lower temperature fresh water circuit (SCAC).
Some engines may have the aftercooler cooled in
an air-to-air cooling device (ATAAC). Emissions
requirements many times determine the type of
aftercooling used. Internally, these engines may
differ significantly. Naturally aspirated engines
generally do not meet emissions regulations.
Increasing power output by injecting more fuel
requires additional air for complete combustion
and internal cooling. This requires additional
mechanical strength of internal components and
additional design features such as oil jet cooling
for pistons. In any engine, the mass flow of air
supplied to each cylinder determines the amount
of fuel which can be efficiently burned. The entire
engine must be designed for strength and dura-
bility at approved power levels.

LEBW1414-00 12
 PETROLEUM EQUIPMENT DESCRIPTION

There are many different ways to transmit power Mechanical Drives

from rig engines to the mud pumps, rotary table,
drawworks, and auxiliary loads. Representative Mechanical drives may be either direct drive or
examples are discussed in this section to define use a torque converter.
nomenclature of these various drives and enable
Conventional Rig
proper application of engines with correct ratings.
The most common rig is the conventional rig. It
The terminology discussed is representative, but
may also be called a compound rig, although
recognize that the petroleum industry does not
compounds may also be used with independent
have complete agreement on nomenclature.
drives, Figures 1.1 and 1.2. Clutches are between
Petroleum drives will be discussed under the fol- the engines and compound with either direct
lowing headings: drive or torque converter drive.
Mechanical Drives The drawworks/rotary table is on an elevated
• Conventional Rig structure to provide ground clearance under the
• Split Rig rotary table for safety valves (blowout preven-
• Mobile Rig ters). Rig engines are also elevated on a sub-
Electric Drives structure. This simplifies power transmission to
• DC the drawworks.
• SCR Engine outputs are connected together with the
Service Rigs compound. A number of clutches control power
• Cementing distribution. Normally, engines operate in com-
• Acidizing pound while hoisting and separately when run-
• Fracturing ning the rotary table and mud pumps.
• Nitrogen Pumping The approved engine rating is the pumping and
drilling rating.

MAST (DERRICK)

DRAWWORKS

ENGINES

COMPOUND

SUBSTRUCTURE
MUD PUMPS

CONVENTIONAL RIG
Figure 1.1

13 LEBW1414-00
 TYPICAL CONVENTIONAL RIG
Figure 1.2

SPLIT RIG
Figure 1.3

LEBW1414-00 14
Split Rigs
Split rigs utilize independent drives to power the DRAWWORKS
various pieces of drilling machinery, Figure 1.3.
The approved engine rating for independent mud
pump application is the pumping and drilling
rating. Hoisting ratings are approved for inde-
pendent drawworks/rotary drive applications.
(Pumping and drilling rating can be used if engine
commonality is desired.)
Independent rotary drives are sometimes used ENGINE TRANSMISSION
with conventional rigs. Pumping and drilling rat-
ing is approved for this application. Figure 1.4
AC auxiliary generator sets supply electric
Mobile workover rig describes a truck or trailer-
power necessary on a mechanical rig. In this
mounted unit used to pull rod and tubing from a
application, prime power generator set rating
producing well. The unit consists of engine(s),
should be utilized.
transmission(s), and drawworks.
Auxiliary engines power such things as mud
Additionally, some rigs include a limited rotary
mix pumps, supercharger pumps, or air com-
table capacity for use during well bore cleanout,
pressors. Depending upon the particular appli-
while drilling out plugs (packers), or limited
cation, duty cycle, load factor, etc., either A, B,
redrilling in an existing well. A workover rig is also
or C rating tier levels are applicable. Electric
commonly called a service rig.
motor drives may be used in place of auxiliary
engine drives. Occasionally, a mobile workover rig includes a
chassis-mounted mud pump. This is required to
Mobile Rigs kill a flowing well, provide circulation during
cleanout and while drilling out plugs, etc.
Mobile units are defined as oil field drilling or Normally, a mobile workover rig will use an inde-
workover units permanently mounted on wheels. pendent mud pump kill unit.
They are frequently called chassis or carrier units,
self-propelled or trailer mounted. They are a ver- Mobile drill rig describes a truck or trailer-
sion of the split rig. A workover rig performs mounted unit used to drill a well. The unit consists
underground repair of an existing well. It may be of engine(s), transmission(s), drawworks, and
called a pulling unit when there is no provision rotary table.
of rotating the tubing string. Mud pumps are normally independent units.
Carrier Designations The rig may even be used for both drilling and
workover, or the basic unit can be sold into either
Figure 1.4 shows a back-in workover rig. It is rep- application. In such cases, the major difference
resentative of the workover rig carrier designa- is depth capacity. A drawworks and derrick used
tion. A drive-in carrier has the driver’s cab located for drilling (where heavy casing is handled) has a
at the hinge point of the derrick. smaller depth capacity than when used for work-
These rigs may also be trailer-mounted (not over (where lighter tubing or rods are handled).
shown). Manufacturers’ sales specifications will state both
drilling and workover depth capacities.
“Depending upon power and derrick capacity,
dual purpose rigs (workover/drilling) can drill to
more than 12,000 ft. (3600 m) and workover to
more than 20,000 ft. (6000 m).”

15 LEBW1414-00
Figure 1.5
LEBW1414-00 16
Drive Train Configurations for Mobile Rigs As Figure 1.6 illustrates, different motor assign-
ments are used when hoisting or pumping and
Figure 1.5 shows various drive trains. There is a
drilling.
great variety, and the drawings are not all-inclusive.
A main and spare AC generator is required for
If the unit is a trailer unit, the power system drop-
auxiliary power. The AC generators could be sep-
box (K) and drive axle (J) are eliminated.
arately driven by smaller Caterpillar Engines.
On the twin engine in-line, the two engines could
Figures 4.19 and 13.1 are a representative diesel
also be offset from each other, or the rear engine
engine power modules for DC drives. The DC
elevated to eliminate the dropbox (C).
generator is at the rear of the engine and utilizes
Rigs using only a torque converter behind the an AC blower for forced ventilation. Many of
engine may have a drawworks with either a two- these DC rigs are being converted to SCR.
or three-speed transmission or high-low drum
clutches. SCR Drives (Figure 1.7)
AC generators supply power to an AC
Electric Drives switchgear. AC power is then fed to the SCR
Electric drives are commonly SCR. Older DC (Silicon Controlled Rectifier) modules where the
drives may still exist. The same engine ratings AC is rectified to DC. An integral DC control
are applicable to both drives. Both utilize DC panel connects the SCR modules to various DC
motors due to their high torque at 0 rpm and their motors (Motor Assignment).
variable speed characteristics. The drives differ in As Figure 1.7 illustrates, different motor assign-
the method used to produce DC power. ments are used when hoisting or pumping and
drilling.
DC Drives (Figure 1.6)
Auxiliary AC power is normally supplied from
DC generators supply power to DC motors. A the same generators. Utility transformers are nor-
DC control panel regulates the DC and provides mally required as the AC generators are normally
means to connect the DC generators to various 600V AC. 600V AC provides the most accept-
DC motors (Motor Assignment). able DC voltage, when rectified.
Figure 2.10 and 17.10 are representative diesel
engine power modules for SCR drives.

Figure 1.6
17 LEBW1414-00
Figure 1.7

Some Electric rigs power variable frequency AC Undersized generators may cause circuit breaker
motors instead of DC motors. This has no essen- tripping or slower drawworks acceleration.
tial change for the engine or generator construc-
tion. If the variable frequency device is a “diode Service Rigs
front end” device, the AC generators do not have
to be oversized. Service rigs perform well servicing. This broad
category generally includes those oilfield activi-
AC Generators for SCR Drives ties that provide underground repair or alteration
of an existing well (workover) and technical well
SCR drives require special generators. The rated servicing. Workover rigs are discussed under the
voltage is usually 600V AC (for both 50 and subject Mobile Rigs.
60 Hz). This voltage changes to 800V DC through
the SCR system, to power the DC motors. Technical well services provide support functions
Operating DC motors at variable speeds causes to well drilling (cementing and logging) or pro-
the generator Power Factor to vary. For exam- vide means to change productivity of under-
ple, the drawworks go from 0 PF to 1.0 PF every ground formations (acidizing and fracturing).
hoisting cycle. Operation of the mud pumps at Technical well service rigs are not equipped to
low strokes also causes a low PF. do mechanical work on a well.
Accordingly, AC generators are oversized to 0.6 Service rigs that utilize large engines are used to
or 0.7 PF to provide more generator ampere perform three distinct services: cementing,
capacity. Testing of gen sets with oversize gen- acidizing, and fracturing.
erators is limited to the engine’s hp capacity. The unit consists of an engine(s), transmis-
Testable capacity of the gen set is given by the sion(s), and piston-type pump(s). Equipment is
equation: EkW = (bhp – rad fan hp) 2 Gen eff usually mounted on a commercial truck chassis
2 0.746. or may be trailer-mounted.
Additionally, the generator must be form wound Figure 1.8 shows an acidizing/fracturing unit. A
to provide additional mechanical bracing of the cement unit is not illustrated but is similar except
generator winding. This bracing resists the forces with smaller engines.
caused by current surges resulting from operation
of the SCR controllers. Generator winding tem- Cementing is the process of pumping cement
perature rise design limit is also lowered to com- down a well bore to anchor casing. Cementing
pensate for additional heating caused by the can be required several times during the drilling
SCR load. of a well.
LEBW1414-00 18
Acidizing is the process of pumping an acid
down the casing of a completed well into the
desired producing formation. Certain types of
rock can be dissolved by acid, and this dissolv-
ing process creates channels by which hydro-
carbons can more readily flow to the well bore.
Fracturing is the process of applying an ultra-
high pressure [2,000-15,000 psi (13783-
103448 kPa)] down the casing of a completed
well to a desired producing formation. This pres-
sure fractures the rock and creates channels by
which hydrocarbons can more readily flow to the
well bore.
Nitrogen pumpers can be used with fracturing
units. Nitrogen is used for foam-frac in formations
that would be damaged by a large volume of
fracturing fluid. Nitrogen can also be used to
remove the frac fluid from a well after the frac-
turing operation. (The nitrogen expands on
removal of pump pressure.)
Figure 1.8
19
The same service rig may be used to acidize or
fracture. This does require changing the fluid end
of the pump to match various pressure and flow
requirements.
Cementing units normally are not used to acidize
or fracture, although the unit appearance is sim-
ilar. Cementing units normally carry mixing
equipment not found on acidizing/fracturing units.
Cementing a well requires less power [100-
500 hp (75-373 kW)] than fracturing or acidizing
[500-10000 hp (373-7460 kW)]. Cementing is
thus usually done with trucks with two engines of
approximately 400 hp (300 kW) each.
Fracturing and acidizing are usually performed
by trucks that have a 1250-2250 hp (930-
1575 kW) engine.
Multiple trucks are used for high power acidizing
and fracturing operations.
LEBW1414-00
 ENGINE PACKAGING FOR ELECTRIC DRIVES

Properly designed power modules are essential The stationary frame of two-bearing driven
for diesel electric drives. Power modules must equipment tries to rotate with the engine crank-
withstand vibrations and maintain original align- shaft. If the petroleum base were not rigid
ment under all operational and environmental enough, engine torque would cause excessive
conditions. Misalignment can cause vibration and base flexing. Misalignment results, proportional
shorten the life of couplings and generator to load, which will not show up during a conven-
bearings. tional static alignment check.
The major cause of misalignment is flexing of the Bases for Two-Bearing Generator Drives
base due to weakness in design. Other causes
are poor installation methods and incorrect align- A Caterpillar petroleum base is a torsionally rigid
ment procedures. structure. Three-point suspension maintains
proper relationship and alignment of all equip-
Petroleum Bases ment and, by isolating external forces, prevents
engine block distortion.
Caterpillar petroleum bases are designed to elim-
inate frequent, periodic realignment. The follow- TORQUE REACTION OF 1 BEARING
ing criteria has been met with properly installed VS 2 BEARING GENERATOR
Caterpillar bases:
A. Engine torque does not cause excessive 1 BEARING GENERATOR OR
CLOSE-COUPLED 2 BRNG. GEN.
misalignment.
B. Substructure flexure during operation does
not cause bending movement of the base.
C. The power module is able to withstand
rough handling during transportation with-
out permanently distorting the base and
misaligning driven equipment. Tip over
angle of the Caterpillar petroleum land rig
base with engine-generator arrangement FLYWHEEL HOUSING TO
is a minimum of 42 degrees (.74 rad). GENERATOR BOLTED
JOINT ABSORBS
D. The petroleum base is free of torsional or TORQUE REACTION
linear vibrations in the engine operating
speed range.
ENGINE
MOVEMENT
One-Bearing and Two-Bearing Generators CRANK ROTATION

Caterpillar offers different bases for single- and GENERATOR

MOVEMENT
two-bearing generators. Whereas bases for two-
bearing generators must be sturdy to provide
support and maintain alignment, the base on sin-
gle-bearing generators can be lighter because
the base does not have to withstand torque reac-
tion. Bolting the generator stator housing to the
flywheel housing eliminates the need for the oil
field base to absorb the engine’s driving torque, BASE MUST MAINTAIN
ALIGNMENT AGAINST
Figure 2.1. TORQUE REACTION
Close-coupled two-bearing generators are like 2 BEARING GENERATOR
single-bearing generators in that torque reaction Figure 2.1
is taken through the flywheel housing.

LEBW1414-00 20
Alignment Responsibility Two-Bearing Generator
The Caterpillar base assures the user of one- Offshore Power Modules
source responsibility for both packaging and The Caterpillar petroleum offshore base consists
alignment. of a base-within-a-base. The inner base is three-
point mounted — with integral spring isolators
Three-Point Mounting and limit stops — to the outer base. The outer
The three-point suspension system must be used base can be welded to the rig support structure.
as there is a possibility the substructure sup- The inner base structure is not the same as engine
porting the base can deflect due to external rails used in other applications. See Figures 2.3
forces or settling. and 2.7.
Three-point mounting isolates the unit from sub- The other base must be supported by large gird-
structure deflection, thus maintaining proper rela- ers. The outer base can be welded or bolted to
tionship and alignment of all equipment and the rig structure. Inadequate support may result
preventing engine block distortion. More than in power module vibrations, Figure 2.4.
three mounting points can cause base distortion,
Figure 2.2.
Objectionable vibration can occur in adjacent
machinery or structures if the power module is
not mounted on well supported structures or is
not anchored securely. In addition to the three-
point mounting, vibration isolators may be
required to isolate objectionable vibrations.

SPRING ISOLATOR OUTER BASE INNER BASE

Figure 2.3

Figure 2.2

21 LEBW1414-00
Figure 2.4

Provision for High Tilt Angles To prevent these conditions, limit stops are
included with each isolator, Figure 2.5.
Engines on isolators have movement when sub-
ject to high tilt angles. Repeat cycles may dam- To optimize sound isolation, spring isolators
age connections to engine such as exhaust or include a mounting isolation pad and special
coolant. If tilt angle is extreme, the power mod- washers under the hold down bolt heads.
ule could fall out of the vibration isolator.

Figure 2.5

LEBW1414-00 22
 ! WARNING
IMPROPER LIFT RIGGING CAN ALLOW
LOAD TO TUMBLE CAUSING INJURY
AND DAMAGE

2438 mm 1524 mm
MAX. MIN.
(96 INCH) (60 INCH)

1. WEIGHT, CENTER SYMBOL LOCATION AND

INSTRUCTIONS GIVEN HEREIN APPLY TO UNIT
AS SHIPPED BY CATERPILLAR.
WEIGHT kg ( POUNDS)

2. USE PROPER SPREADER BAR AS DESCRIBED,

BECAUSE CENTER OF GRAVITY IS ABOVE
BASE LIFT POINTS.

3. ATTACH TWO PROPER RATED CABLES

FROM BASE LIFT POINTS TO SPREADER
BAR.

4. POSITION SPREADER BAR OVER CENTER

SYMBOL FOR LEVEL LIFT.

4W-1422 1
Figure 2.6

Lift Requirements The 40 ft. 9 in. (12.42 m) base has no decking

provided from rear of generator to rear of base.
Lifting of heavy power modules must be done
Customer-supplied auxiliary equipment is to be
properly to avoid damage or injury. Engine or
mounted here, necessitating customer-supplied
generator lift points should not be used to lift the
decking and reinforcement.
entire power module.
Figure 2.6 shows the decal included with each
power module, showing proper lift methods.

Two-Bearing Generator
Land Rig Power Modules
Caterpillar land rig base uses 18 in. (457 mm) Figure 2.8
wide flange beams. Available lengths of 25 ft. 9 in.,
30 ft. 9 in., 40 ft. 9 in. (7.85 m, 9.37 m, 12.42 m)
allow matching base length to equipment needs.
Alignment integrity is provided by using a base-
within-a base design. Figures 2.8 and 2.9.

INNER BASE

OUTER BASE
Figure 2.7 SPRING ISOLATOR
23 LEBW1414-00
 PLANKING OR CONCRETE

FIRM
SOIL

Figure 2.9
Three-Point Mounting Because ground conditions may vary from well
location to well location, vibrations may result
Three mounting points are built into the base,
which are not due to misalignment or unbalanced
Figure 2.8. This maintains alignment of engine-
parts. Unstable ground, discussed above, may
generator on uneven surfaces and during most
be reacting to normal forces within the engine/
rig moves.
generator combination, whereas at another well
Required site preparation is a level firm soil location no such reaction may occur.
which may be planked or a concrete surface,
See the section on Vibrations for further infor-
Figure 2.9.
mation.
Rough handling may occur during rig moves.
This requires that alignment should be checked Package Handling
after such rig moves. Cable tow and lift ends are part of land rig base,
Additionally, certain types of soil, such as fine Figure 2.10.
clay, loose sand, sand near the ground water Cable wrap protection against sharp bends is pro-
level, or soil that is freezing or thawing, are par- vided. Pipe end is above bottom of base to pro-
ticularly unstable under dynamic loads. Loose tect cable from constant abrasion when skidding
planking under the power modules may also on hard surfaces, Figure 2.10.
cause power module vibration.

AIR CLEANER

Figure 2.10 CABLE LIFT PROVISION

LEBW1414-00 24
Roof and Walkway
Roofs and walkway wings can be added by the
customer for servicing and weather protection,
Figure 2.11.
Width of the wings should suit the customer. It
should be at least as wide as the radiator. All con-
nections of the bracing to the base should avoid ROOF
BRACE
stressing or flexing the I-beam’s flange or verti-
cal member. ENGINE
Guard rails, cable runs, lighting, exhaust piping, NON-SKID
etc., can be added according to customer prefer- DECKING
ence. See Figures 10.2, 10.3, 10.4, and 10.5 for PLATE
additional details.

TYPICAL LAND RIG BASE USAGE ADDED

WITH WEATHER PROTECTION WING
Figure 2.11

Auxiliary Service Single-Bearing

Generators Without Bases
Caterpillar Engines equipped with mounting feet,
similar to those shown in Figure 2.14, are
designed to flex. Bolting the feet to the rig struc-
ture provides proper mounting. Do not weld the
engine to the rig structure.

Figure 2.12

25 LEBW1414-00

Figure 2.13
On larger Caterpillar Engines, engine rails are
extended to mount the generator. These rails
should not be notched or the cross braces
removed when generator interference is encoun-
tered, Figures 2.12 and 2.13.
A single-bearing generator set is still subject to
vibrations if bolted to an uneven base or one The preferred method of mounting is to provide
that flexes.
NOTE: A one-inch block of flexible mounting
material may be used under each mounting loca-
tion to provide sufficient clearance to isolate sub-
base flexing. Several types of resilient pads
isolate noise but not vibration. Some may even
amplify first order vibrations. As a general rule,
resilient mounting pads should have at least
0.250 in. (6.0 mm) static deflection; less than
this results in reduced noise but little or no vibra-
tion isolation. Consult the supplier for specific
information.
When a generator set is installed on a base that
has a deck place surface, make sure the genera-
tor set rests firmly on the base beams, Figure 2.14.
Mounting on the deck plate will cause consider-
able vibration of the deck plate or other struc-
tures on the base. This is true whether or not
a generator base is under the generator set,
Figure 2.15.
steel pads between the generator base and base

DECK PLATE

FLEXIBLE MOUNT AT
BASE BEAMS
MOUNTING FEET
Figure 2.14 ON BASE BEAMS

DECK PLATE

GENERATOR BASE

BASE BEAMS
STEEL PADS TO DO NOT BOLT
BASE BEAMS DECK PLATE TO
UNDER MOUNTING FEET PROVIDE CLEARANCE
Figure 2.15 TO DECK PLATE GENERATOR BASE

LEBW1414-00 26
beams. The deck plate should be cut out at the natural thermal growth, tolerances are greatly
pad location. Pads eliminate contact with the affected and could easily result in bearing or
deck plate, reducing vibration transmission into crankshaft damage.
the base. The mounting recommendations of The main structural strength of an engine is the
Figure 2.15 also apply to engines with mounting cast iron block. The plate steel oil pan, which
rails, Figure 2.13. supports the engine, is a deep, heavy weldment.
Other auxiliary equipment installed on the same Lugs or brackets are welded to the sides of the oil
base as the engine may create vibrations. Recip- pan and hold the engine to the standard mount-
rocating air compressors are a frequent cause of ing rails, Figure 2.16.
vibrations. These and other similar auxiliary
equipment should be mounted on isolators. Expansion/Thermal Growth
Flexible connections should be used on com- Any engine will expand in length, width, and
pressor air lines, etc. height from cold start to operating temperature.
THIS GROWTH MUST NOT BE RESTRAINED.
Equipment Mounting (The effect of thermal growth on alignment will
Mounting Engine to Base be discussed later.) As engine temperature
increases to operating level, the entire engine
The standard Caterpillar mounting channel or grows in length due to thermal expansion.
box rails are required. They properly support and
anchor Caterpillar 3508, 3512, and 3516 Vee- Cast iron has a coefficient of expansion of
type Oilfield Engines, Figure 2.16. These rails, 0.0000055, and that of steel is 0.0000063. This
while rigid enough, flex slightly to isolate the means that the block of an engine 94 in.
engine block from deflection caused by shim- (238.8 cm) in length will grow 0.083 in.
ming error or non-rigid mounting structure. A (0.212 cm) if its temperature is increased from
proper engine mounting system helps ensure 50°F (10°C) to 200°F (98.8°C). Using 0.0000063
dependable performance and long life if all equip- as the plate steel coefficient of expansion, a steel
ment is properly aligned. weldment of 94 in. (238.8 cm) will grow 0.089 in.
(0.226 cm) through the same temperature range.
The small difference in growth between the block
and the lubricating oil pan is compensated for in
the design of the engine by making holes in the
flange of the attached component (rails) larger
than the attaching bolts.
A fitted bolt is installed at the right rear corner of
the block to oil pan to provide a reference point
for making alignment. Clearance between the
mounting bolts and the mounting rails to the base
will then allow slip to compensate for thermal
growth.
Engine mounting rails also increase in tempera-
ture, but to a lesser degree. Therefore, as much
Figure 2.16 clearance is not necessary for the mounting bolts
through the engine rails as would be predicted
by engine growth.
Engine Construction
Diameter of the clearance-type bolts used between
A Caterpillar Engine is built as a rigid structure. the engine rails and base mounting blocks must
If the engine is mounted on a pair of longitudi- be 0.06 in. (1.6 mm) less than the diameter of
nal rails, the tops of which are in the same plane, the holes in the engine rails. This clearance allows
the engine will hold its own alignment and allow the engine mounting rails to grow without con-
all working parts to operate in the manner for finement, Figure 2.17.
which they were designed. If the engine is sub-
jected to external forces, or is restrained from its

27 LEBW1414-00
 It may be necessary to remove the engine to
facilitate final welding. Figure 2.18.
Generator Mounting
1. Mounting blocks are used between the gen-
erator mounting feet and base supporting
members. This eliminates the need to
machine base supporting pads, Figure 2.19.
One shim pack of approximately 0.030 in.
(0.76 mm) to 0.060 in. (1.5 mm) is installed
between each mounting block and generator
foot at original installation to permit possible
replacement of generator. Use Grade 8 bolts
and hardened steel washers.
Figure 2.17 2. The mounting blocks must be welded to the
Chocks should not be welded against the front base supporting members. Use only two
of the engine rail. There must be a minimum of mounting blocks on each side of generator,
0.030 in. (0.76 mm) clearance between them one at each end. The generator should be
and the engine rails to allow sufficient room for aligned before the mounting blocks are
thermal growth. welded. The generator will act as an alignment
fixture to hold the mounting blocks in place.
It is common marine practice to install a fitted
bolt at the right rear corner of the engine mount- 3. Recheck alignment and add or remove shims
ing rail. This is not required with the Caterpillar between the generator mounting feet and
base-within-a-base design. mounting blocks. See the section Alignment
for alignment details.
Mounting Instructions
The engine and generator must be mounted and
anchored according to the following rules. Failure
to do so may result in reduced life or prema-
ture failure.
Engine Mounting
The following information applies to engines uti-
lizing the 10 in. (254 mm) rails instead of the
base-within-a-base concept.
1. No shimming is allowed between the engine
and engine channel or box rails. Figure 2.18
2. Four mounting blocks and shims are used
between the engine rail and the base-sup-
porting member on two-bearing units. This
eliminates the need to machine base-sup-
porting pads, Figure 2.17. Use Grade 8 bolts
and hardened steel washers.
3. Mounting blocks must be welded to the base-
supporting members. Use only two mount-
ing blocks on each side of the engine, one at
each end. This minimizes engine block bend-
ing due to base bending. The engine should
be positioned before the blocks are welded.
The engine will serve as an alignment fixture,
and the blocks can be tack welded in place. Figure 2.19
LEBW1414-00 28
 ENGINE PACKAGING FOR MECHANICAL DRIVES

Figure 3.1

Engine Supports
Two types of engine supports are used — mount-
ing rails, Figure 3.2, and mounting feet, Figure 3.3.
Caterpillar 3508, 3512, 3516 (and some 3412)
Vee-type Oilfield Engines utilize mounting rails.
The standard Caterpillar mounting rails are
required.

ALIGNMENT CHOCKS
(REAR AND FRONT
SIDE ONLY)

MOUNTING BLOCK (4)

AND SHIMS

CLEARANCE
DO NOT USE FRONT TYPE BOLTS
RAIL RESTRAINT
Figure 3.2

29 LEBW1414-00
Mounting Engines to Rig engine. The alternative of raising the compound
is normally more costly.
The proper engine mounting system helps ensure
dependable performance and long life, if all
equipment is properly aligned.
The engine should be mounted on a pair of lon-
gitudinal beams, the tops of which are in the
same plane. If the tops of the beams are not flat,
add sufficient shims between the engine mount- PROPER PRACTICE
ing surface and mounting beams. Bolting engines Figure 3.4
to an uneven surface can cause harmful distor-
tions in the engine block, springing of the mount-
ing beams, and high stress in welds or base metal.
Refer to section on crankshaft deflection test
for the means of assuring the engine block is not
stressed.
IMPROPER PRACTICE
Mounting blocks are not required under the cen-
ter of the engine rail, Figure 3.2. A mount located Figure 3.5
there will distort the block if the beams to which
the rails are bolted bend. Mobile and Service Rigs
Engine-Transmission Mounting
The chassis of mobile rigs have two long stringers.
Frame flexing can occur due to off-highway
usage. Additionally, well site preparations may
not result in a flat operating surface. Service units
can also have extreme frame flexing due to feed-
back from the plunger pump.
These considerations require that some type of
three-point mounting of the engine-transmission
package be utilized. It supports the engine at a
single point at the front (a minimal torsional
restraint) and at two points (each side) on the fly-
wheel housing. This system allows large amounts
of rig frame deflection without undue stresses to
Figure 3.3 the mounting pieces or engine.
The diameter of clearance-type bolts holding the Front Support — Most mobile rig engines utilize
engine rails or feet to the mounting blocks on the the mobile equipment engine configurations with
oilfield base must be 0.06 in. (1.6 mm) less than a trunnion-type support, Figure 3.6. This is not
the diameter of the holes in the engine rails. This a true trunnion support in that it cannot rotate.
clearance allows the engine mounting rails or feet For this reason, the frame connection to the trun-
to grow without confinement, Figure 3.2. nion must allow an engine rocking motion to
occur (minimal torsional restraint). The radiator
Each engine or generator mounting bolt must has to be mounted separately on the rig chassis.
bolt through solid material, Figure 3.4. If a mount-
ing bolt is overhung, it will cause distortion, Some engine installations will require the wide
Figure 3.5. front support of the standard industrial engines,
Figure 3.3. To provide a single mounting point
When engines are being installed for repower, the at the front, this mount must be modified,
vertical distance from the crankshaft centerline to Figure 3.10. The wide front support is used where
the engine rails/feet may be different between it is inconvenient to separately mount the radia-
old and new engines. Modifications to the longi- tor. It will also find usage on helicopter rigs where
tudinal beams may be required to lower an the engine and radiator weight is restricted.
LEBW1414-00 30
Rear Engine Mounts — Rear mounts support the
rear of the engine and most of the transmission
weight. Rear mounts also supply resistance to
longitudinal and torsional forces.
In addition, the transmission must be supported
so that the transmission causes no appreciable
bending moment at the flywheel housing rear
face. See the section Overhung Power Trans-
mission Equipment for the method to calculate
bending moment, Figure 3.12.
Certain transmissions provide mounting pads to
support the rear of the engine and cause no
appreciable bending moment at the flywheel
housing rear face. Using this mount, instead of
the engine rear mounts and transmission mounts, TRUNION FRONT
SUPPORT
eliminates the transmission bending force on the
flywheel housing and need for the bases dis- Figure 3.6
cussed later in this section (assuming trunnion Figures 3.7 through 3.11 illustrate the various
front support). Approval from the transmission mounting concepts. They are all equally suitable,
supplier should be received before this mount- subject to the limitations discussed below.
ing is used.
Figure 3.7 illustrates the use of a base to support
the engine, transmission, and radiator. This base
is mounted to the chassis at three points.

Figure 3.7
31 LEBW1414-00
Figure 3.8 illustrates tying together the trans-
mission and rear engine supports with a short
base. This base has two mounting points to the
chassis. The front of the engine has a trunnion
mount plus the radiator is not engine-mounted.

Figure 3.8

Figure 3.9 is a modification of Figure 3.8. It shows

a power package which can be moved by heli-
copter. Such packages require rear engine feet for
support whenever the transmission is removed
from the engine for transportation.

Figure 3.9
LEBW1414-00 32
Figure 3.10 illustrates how to make a single-point
mount out of the wide front support. If space is no
limitation, the fabricated single-point mount could
attach to the bottom of the wide front support.

Figure 3.10

Figure 3.11 illustrates the overhanging weight of

the transmission being supported on springs.
Calculations are required to determine spring siz-
ing. The use of springs is limited to trailer rigs or
service rigs. The trailer fifth wheel gives, essen-
tially, a three-point mount during transit to min-
imize deflection forces on the flywheel housing.

Figure 3.11

33 LEBW1414-00
Forces and deflections of all components of the
mounting system must be resolved. If the third
mount is a spring, with a vertical rate consider-
ably lower than vertical rate of the rear engine
support, the effect of the mount is in a proper
direction to reduce bending forces on the flywheel
housing due to downward gravity forces but the
overall effect may be minor at high gravity force
levels. Supports with a vertical rate higher than
the engine rear mount are not recommended
since frame deflections can subject the engine
power transmission equipment structure to high
forces. Another precaution is to design the sup-
port so it provides as little resistance as possible
to engine roll. This also helps to isolate the engine/
transmission structure from mounting frame or
base deflection.
Overhung Power Transmission Equipment
Power transmission equipment, which is directly
mounted to the engine flywheel housing, must
be evaluated to ensure the overhung weight is
within tolerable limits of the engine. If not, ade-
quate additional support must be provided to
avoid damage.
Figure 3.12
LEBW1414-00
CAUTION: Mobile applications require consider-
ation of dynamic bending movement imposed
during normal machine movement or abrupt
starting and stopping.
The dynamic load limits and the maximum bend-
ing moment that can be tolerated by the flywheel
housing can be obtained from your Caterpillar
Engine supplier (source Caterpillar Technical
Marketing Information) [TMI].
For determination of the bending moment of
overhung power transmission equipment instal-
lations, see Figure 3.12.
To compensate for power transmission systems
which create a high bending moment due to
overhung load, a mount as shown in Figures 3.7,
3.8, 3.9 or 3.10 is required.
34
 Clutches, Belt and Chain Drives Auxiliary Drives
Clutches Engines on mechanical drill rigs are sometimes
called upon to drive one or more secondary loads
Both plate-type clutches and air clutches are in addition to the primary load. These may be
used. Plate-type clutches are primarily used to driven from a front power takeoff, gear-driven
drive small pumps and compressors. Engines auxiliary drive, front crankshaft pulley, front stub
driving mud pumps, drawworks, or a rotary table shaft, or a rear-mounted power takeoff driven
normally use air clutches. from the top of some transmissions.
Cyclic loading greatly affects clutch sizing. Auxiliary loads may be driven directly or indirectly
Centrifugal pumps cause no cyclic loading whilethrough belt or chain drives. Those which are
duplex mud pumps cause the greatest amount. direct driven may or may not require special cou-
Consult the clutch manufacturer to determine pling arrangements, depending upon torsional
applicable clutch load factors. characteristics of the total engine and load system
Plate-type clutches can operate with a limited for both ends of the engine. A torsional analysis
amount of side load. Clutch supports or pillow is recommended to identify any destructive tor-
block bearings allow greater side loads. Such sional criticals unless previous experience on
supports or bearings must be mounted on the identical installations has proven the system safe.
same skid as the engine, Figure 3.13.
Belt and Chain Drives
Belt and chain drives are generally free from tor-
sional problems. Large input shafts, etc. may
cause torsional problems, however. Belt and
chain drives introduce side loads due to belt or
chain pull plus tensioning forces. The larger the
drive pulley or sprocket, the greater the power
that can be transmitted. Increasing drive pulley or
sprocket diameter for any given side pull
increases the torque requirement of the drive.
Consequently, shaft size, the drive’s bearing spac-
ing and size, and capacity of the drive gears limit
the total horsepower the drive is capable of deliv-
ering regardless of side load limitations.
It is important to remember that belt or chain ten-
sioning must be added to the dynamic side load
when calculating the total. Failure to do this may
CLUTCH SUPPORTS overload bearings, chains, or belts and cause pre-
Figure 3.13 mature failure. Follow recommended practices
on belt or chain tensioning as well as those for
Excessive side loading of plate-type clutches can belt or chain size and width.
cause the driven plates to rotate off-center with
Refer to the Technical Marketing Info (TMI) for
the drive plates. The result is destruction of the
data on specific equipment.
teeth and failure of the clutch plates. Running the
engine without the clutch engaged (for long peri- Belt and chain drives may cause engine or driven
ods of time) can damage the clutch pilot bearing. machine to shift under heavy load due to torque
reaction plus belt and chain preload tension. Belts
Air clutches utilize an expanding air bladder for
or chains may also cause the PTO (Power Take
the clutch element, Figure 3.14. The output shaft
Off) shaft or crankshaft to deflect which causes
must be supported by two support bearings. Air
bearing failures and shaft bending failures.
pressure to operate the clutch is supplied by an
The driven sprocket or pulley should always
air connection through the drilled passage in the
be mounted as close to the supporting bearing
output shaft. Clutch alignment tolerances are
as possible.
reduced as air pressure to the clutch increases.

35 LEBW1414-00
Figure 3.14
Side load limits shown in TMI must not be
exceeded. Sometimes, due to the heavy side load,
it is necessary to provide additional support for
the driving pulley or sprocket. This can be done
by providing a separate shaft which is supported
by a pillow block bearing on each side of the pul-
ley or sprocket, see Figure 3.14. This shaft can
then be driven by the engine or clutch through
an appropriate coupling.
The size of the driving and driven sprockets or
pulleys is also important. A larger pulley or
sprocket will give a higher chain or belt speed.
This allows more horsepower to be transmitted
with less chain or belt tension. If it is suspected
that an engine or the driven machine is shifting
under load, it can be checked by measuring from
a fixed point with a dial indicator while loading
Figure 3.15
LEBW1414-00
and unloading the engine. Torque reactive vibra-
tions or torque reactive misalignment will always
occur under load.
System Considerations
Substructure Suitability
Substructures must have sufficient strength and
rigidity to support the weight of engines, com-
pounds, etc., and withstand imposed vibrations
and torque from mud pumps and engines.
Lateral bracing provides resistance to sway,
Figure 3.15. Pin joints should be tight. On older
rigs, it is sometimes necessary to repair worn
pin joints.
Figure 3.15 illustrates that there should be no
appreciable unsupported span of the compound
36
skid. Unsupported spans tend to allow the skid Compound Ratio
to sag, causing harmful vibrations. The compound ratio refers to the ratio of the pul-
ley/sprocket diameters that transmit power from
Engine Spacing
the compound to mud pumps and drawworks,
Engine spacing is normally determined by the Figure 3.16. Changing one or both of these pul-
distance between compound shafts. leys or sprockets changes the operating speed
Verify that using optional heavy-duty air clean- of mud pumps and drawworks. The result is to
ers does not cause interference with machinery reratio the compound.
or restrict personnel movement. If necessary,
brackets and piping can be fabricated to remotely
mount the air cleaner.
Engine radiators may also interfere with other
radiators or restrict personnel movement. Radia-
tors with the fan supported on the radiator can
be modified for right or left offset (as required).

Engine Operating Speeds

Most drilling contractors prefer to limit chain
speed to a given fpm (m/s) that gives a corre- Figure 3.16
sponding engine speed in the range of 1000 to
It is important the compound ratio be such that
1100 rpm, depending upon chain size and type.
mud pumps’ and drawworks’ rated speed are
Torque converter drives usually can operate at
reached with the engine at rated speed. Engine
1200 rpm.
life and performance are reduced when operated
Engines without torque converters must operate with high loads at low rpm.
at this speed. It is recommended that the engines
If mud pumps are not operated at their rated
be set for this rated rpm to assure optimum per-
speed, the compound ratio should be sized to
formance, particularly under hoisting conditions.
allow the engine to operate at its rated speed.
Engine governor springs/settings and turbo- Either ratio selected should not allow either the
charger matches will have to be changed from the mud pump or engine to be overloaded.
1200 rpm values when operating in the 1000 rpm
During many repowers, the engines removed
range, subject to engine certification limits. The
operated at speeds (e.g., 900 rpm) which may
Governor speed droop percent increases as the
be below the chain speed limits. Under such con-
operating speed is lowered. Improper springs
ditions, the replacement engines can be oper-
result in engines operating at a lower rpm when
ated at a higher speed corresponding to the chain
switching from mud pump to hoisting service —
speed limitation.
with a resulting lowered hoisting rate.
This higher speed may necessitate reratioing
Proper turbocharger matches reduce fuel con-
mud pump drives (changing the ratio), or the
sumption, exhaust smoke and improve response.
engines may have to be throttled back when
An engine should be set, with proper governor operating the pumps. Verify engine overload does
springs/settings and turbocharger, for the full not occur when throttled back. The drawworks
load operating speed and altitude. drive may not have to be reratioed, with the
Engine rated power changes as the rated speed resulting benefit of shorter trip time.
is changed. Consult the appropriate specifica- When new engines are replacing naturally aspi-
tion sheet. rated engines in direct drive hoisting service,
Above the engine altitude capability, improper lower gear selections may be required. Never-
turbo match can damage pistons and other com- theless, trip time is normally equal to or better
bustion components. Consult the TMI for a spe- than that with the original rig power.
cific engine altitude capability.

37 LEBW1414-00
Three factors account for this: Torque converter speed ratios are an important
consideration. The torque converter output shaft
• Once the engine accelerates, the hoisting speed
speed does not match engine speed. The approx-
is faster, provided the compound is operating at
imate relationship of output shaft speed to engine
a higher speed than with the previous rig power.
speed of a properly sized system is as follows:
• Engines with low torque rise may be able to
Speed Ratio
accelerate to rated speed when coming off the
Torque Converter Full Load No Load
slips. However, they then may slow down con-
siderably as layers of cable building up on the 1 Stage 80% 90-95%
drawworks drum increases line speed/engine load 3 Stage 50-60% 90-105%
and begins to lug the engine back. Cat Engines Type 4, 1 Stage 50-60% 90-105%
have a high torque rise. This allows the draw- National and Allison torque converters are single
works transmission to be operated in a higher stage, Figure 3.17. Twin Disc and Allison Trans-
gear with more weight on the hook than with low missions use single stage torque converters.
torque rise engines when hoisting the drill string.
The engine is better able to maintain rated speed The compound ratio must be selected accord-
as layers of cable build up on the drawworks ingly. Engine throttle settings may have to be
drum. The remaining hoisting cycle is thus faster. reduced during light load operation to prevent
operating the compound chain above recom-
• If the compound is operating at a higher speed mended speeds.
than with the previous rig power, time will also
be saved with the faster rate the empty blocks NATIONAL ALLISON
are lifted when tripping out.
In hoisting service, the heaviest drill string load
should be able to be lifted in other than the low-
est drawworks transmission gear under normal
conditions.

Torque Converters
When torque converters are used, the clutch is
normally on the torque converter output shaft.
Clutch capacity has to be increased beyond a
direct drive system.
Caterpillar Engines are compatible with rigs that
do or do not use torque converters. Figure 3.17
In hoisting service, engines without torque con-
verters may require a lower gear selection than Transmissions
engines with torque converters.
Transmissions fall into three broad classifications,
The use of torque converters increases the heat all of which transmit power through sets of
rejection to the engine radiator (up to 50%), gen- mechanical gears, either spur or helical types, or
erally requiring oversized radiators. planetary designs. Where multi-speed capability
is provided, it is accomplished either mechani-
cally or automatically (hydraulically, pneumati-
cally, etc.).
Due to the large number of transmissions com-
mercially available, the transmission discussion
will be restricted to general operating principles
and considerations.

LEBW1414-00 38
When selecting a transmission, the package Automatic, Semiautomatic, and
designer must work closely with the transmission Preselector-Type Transmissions
manufacturer. As the names imply, these transmission types
CAUTION: REGARDLESS OF THE TYPE OR affect the gear changes either completely auto-
BRAND OF TRANSMISSION SELECTED, THE matically or as predetermined by the machine
DESIGNER MUST ENSURE THAT IT HAS THE operator.
CORRECT HORSEPOWER, TORQUE, AND Engine power engagement/disengagement
SPEED CAPABILITY TO MATCH THE DIESEL clutching is normally fully automatic and does
ENGINE PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS. not require the machine operator to physically
move a clutch pedal or lever. For disengagement
Mechanical Transmission
the operator need only move the selector lever
The mechanical transmission provides the low- to a neutral position.
est cost method of providing multiple output
As with the mechanical transmission, the auto-
speeds when the driven equipment input speed
matic type must be carefully matched to the
range or torque requirements exceed the oper-
engine operating horsepower, torque, and speed
ating capability of the diesel engine. Mechanical
characteristics. However, with the automatic
transmissions are usually equipped with some
types, additional match consideration may be
type of clutch assembly to facilitate not only
required since they normally utilize a torque con-
engine starting but also to change gear ratios.
verter, hydraulic coupling, or other type of non-
mechanical engagement device for the power
engagement/disengagement function. This is
nearly always accomplished hydraulically.
The automatic-type transmissions provide oper-
ator ease of machine operation, as well as a
nearly constant power flow to the driven equip-
ment during gear changes.
A number of commercial manufacturers offer a
wide range of automatic-type transmissions. The
package designer/installer must work closely with
the transmission supplier to ensure the trans-
mission properly matches the machine applica-
tion and provides the desired operating features.
Figure 3.18
Generally, the higher cost of an automatic trans-
This type of transmission is applicable to both mission can be justified with a machine requiring
semimobile and mobile installations where the high productivity and frequent load cycle changes.
momentary loss of power to the driven equip- When using automatic-type transmissions, other
ment when gear changes are affected does not installation considerations are required since most
pose operating problems. Generally, the mechan- types require a system to cool the transmission
ical transmission is employed when the gear oil. Caterpillar offers jacket water connections to
speed change requirements are not a constant supply cooling water to customer or transmis-
requirement and the speed shifts do not have to sion manufacturer-supplied heat exchangers.
be executed rapidly.
Also offered are complete heat exchanger pack-
Today’s modern mechanical transmission, when ages on some engines, but care must be exer-
properly matched to the engine-driven equip- cised to ensure that the Caterpillar system is
ment, will provide reliable trouble-free service. capable of handling the transmission heat rejec-
Frequent gear changes, however, will accelerate tion. The cooling system capacity of the systems
clutch wear and maintenance costs. offered by Caterpillar can be obtained from your
Installation is simplified since mechanical trans- Caterpillar Engine supplier.
missions do not normally require oil cooling sys-
tems as do the automatic types.
39 LEBW1414-00
 ALLISON
Figure 3.19
Engine Mounted Transmissions
Engine mounted automatic transmissions are
commonly used on workover and service rigs,
Figure 3.19. Due to weight and space limitations,
engine mounted transmissions are generally pre-
ferred to drawworks mounted transmissions.
The most common transmission is a five or six
speed power shift transmission with manual shift
controls. These transmissions have a built-in
torque converter. The transmission is normally
not shifted on-the-go due to drawwork stress.
Torque converters in these transmissions auto-
matically lock up as the converter output shaft
accelerates to a set ratio of the engine speed. As
an engine is loaded and slows down, the trans-
mission is adjusted to go back into converter
drive at about 100 rpm to 120 rpm above peak
torque rpm. Transmissions used with competitive
engine models are usually adjusted to return to
converter drive at higher engine rpms. Caterpillar
recommends that proper lock-up be used for
Caterpillar Engines.
Rigs using only a torque converter behind the
engine may have a drawworks with either a two-
or three-speed transmission or high-low drum
clutches.
LEBW1414-00
TWIN DISC
Miscellaneous Considerations
When adding torque converters to an existing rig,
or repowering with more powerful engines, it is
necessary to verify the compound, drawworks,
and derrick assemblies can handle the increased
horsepower or torque.
Normally, a clutch is required with torque con-
verters and transmissions. Running only one
engine in a compound will rotate the output shaft
of the other engine’s converter or transmission
and will damage the unit because the lubrication
pump is normally driven off the input shaft.
Contact the manufacturer regarding lubrication
recommendations when the output shaft is rotat-
ing and engine is stopped.
Transmission and Torque Converter
Ratings and Adaptation
Contact the respective manufacturers for infor-
mation and performance curves not contained
in this section, such as stall torque, etc.
Allison transmissions and torque converters
contain a flywheel as an integral part of their unit.
Caterpillar Engines require a Caterpillar optional
Allison adapter which includes a special flywheel.
The Allison flex plates bolt to the Caterpillar fly-
wheel. Access holes are provided in the flywheel
housing to give access to certain mounting bolts,
Figure 3.20.
40
 In either case, over heating can occur if the con-
verter is loaded heavier than these assumptions.
Where available, the Caterpillar transmission
torque converter oil cooler is sized for 70% con-
verter efficiency. Actual heat rejection capacity is
in the TMI. Customer flanges are included. A
cooler connection group may be available if the
customer desires to supply his own cooler.
NOTE: Other torque converters or transmission
applications may require adaptation on the part
of the dealer or OEM.

Torque Converter and Transmission

hp/kW Ratings
Contact the torque converter or transmission
suppliers for their approved ratings.
NOTE: For convenience, transmission/torque
converter manufacturers list their approved input
hp/kW as the equivalent without fan engine
hp/kW that the engine is to be set for. Yet these
matches assume a net input hp/kW that includes
normal accessory losses. To these manufactur-
ers, without fan hp/kW is a gross hp/kW that
excludes normal accessory losses such as engine
radiator fan and certain hydraulic pumps. For
proper transmission/torque converter rating for a
Figure 3.20
nonradiator-cooled application or an application
with extra auxiliary hp/kW loads, consult the
Allison transmissions and torque converters do manufacturer.
not necessarily have the same engine adaptation Use of Allison and Twin Disc transmissions for
even though the same series designation is used. pumping and drilling applications is not antici-
pated because the lower engine speed does not
Oil Coolers provide for an optimum converter match.
Torque converters and/or transmissions reject
heat which must be removed. Commonly, this Mud Pump Calculations
heat is transferred into the engine cooling system. When sizing engines to drive mud pumps, several
Torque converter efficiency varies with the calculations may be required, depending upon
applied load and may have a peak efficiency the extent of information available.
of about 90%. Mud pump input power (hpin) can be calculated
By convention, to allow operating tolerance, the by the following formula:
heat load from torque converters is assumed to psi 2 gpm kPa 2 L/s
be 30% of the engine bhp. hpin = ____________ = ____________
1543 or 1457 671 or 634
Transmissions, with lock up capability, are water or mud water or mud
assumed to have a heat load of 20% of the
engine bhp. 1543/671 or 1457/634 reflect different volu-
metric efficiencies.

41 LEBW1414-00
Determination of engine power requires addition
of drive train power losses.
Engine hp = hpin + drive train hp losses
A reserve margin of 10% to 20% is commonly
added.
Many times only the pump stroke speed is known.
Gallons per stroke (liters per stroke) can be
derived as follows: (volume per pump stroke, not
volume per pump piston stroke)
(Dia)2 2 Stroke
Triplex: ____________________
97.9 424000
English Metric
(Dia)2 2 Stroke
Duplex: ___________________ +
147 63600
English Metric
[(Dia)2 – (rod)2] 2 Stroke
______________________________
147 63600
English Metric
(Dia = diameter of piston)
It is also useful to know the common operating
speeds of mud pumps when sizing belt ratios:
Duplex: 40 to 65 strokes per minute
Triplex: 100 to 175 strokes per minute
Internal gear reduction ratios can be found in
manufacturer spec sheets or by inspection of the
mud pump, Figure 3.21.

Figure 3.21
LEBW1414-00 42
 ALIGNMENT AND VIBRATION

Improper alignment results in excessive vibra- Checking Parallel Alignment

tion, short life of generator/compound bearings Parallel misalignment can be detected by attach-
and coupling or clutch parts and a need for fre- ing a dial indicator, as shown in Figure 4.2, and
quent realignment. Good alignment practices observing the dial indicator readings at several
include proper shimming, correct torque on hold- points around the outside diameter of the flywheel
down bolts, accurate dial indicator usage, as the wheel holding the indicator is turned.
allowances for bearing clearances, thermal
growth, and other characteristics of the engine.
CAUTION: BEFORE MAKING ANY ATTEMPTS
TO MEASURE RUN OUT OR ALIGNMENT, IT IS
IMPORTANT THAT ALL SURFACES TO BE
MEASURED OR MATED BE COMPLETELY
CLEAN AND FREE FROM GREASE, PAINT,
OXIDATION, OR RUST AND DIRT — ALL OF
WHICH CAN CAUSE INACCURATE MEA-
SUREMENTS.

General Alignment Information

Defining Types of Misalignment Figure 4.2

Parallel Alignment As a rule of thumb, the load shaft should indicate

to be higher than the engine shaft because:
Parallel or bore misalignment occurs when cen-
terlines of driven equipment and engine are par- A. Engine bearings have more clearance than
allel but not in the same plane, Figure 4.1. most bearings on driven equipment.
B. The flywheel or front drive rotates in a
“drooped” position below the centerline of
rotation.
C. The vertical thermal growth of the engine
is usually more than that of the driven
equipment. Engine main bearing clear-
ance should be considered when adjust-
ing for parallel alignment.
NOTE: Both parts can be rotated together if
desired. This would eliminate any out-of-round-
ness of the parts from showing up in the dial indi-
cator reading. With non-Caterpillar couplings, the
rubber driving elements must be removed or dis-
connected on one end during alignment since
they can give false parallel readings.
Figure 4.1

43 LEBW1414-00
Angular Alignment Figure 4.5 illustrates that misalignment can occur
Angular or face misalignment occurs when cen- in more than one plane. For this reason, alignment
terlines of driven equipment and engines are not readings must be taken at 90 degree intervals as
the units are rotated when checking alignment.
parallel, Figure 4.3.

BORE MISALIGNMENT
UP/DOWN

Figure 4.3 BORE MISALIGNMENT

RIGHT/LEFT
Checking Angular Alignment
Angular misalignment can be determined by
measuring between the two parts to be joined.
The measurement can be easily made with a
feeler gauge, and it should be the same at four
points around the hubs, Figure 4.4.
If the coupling is installed, a dial indicator from FACE MISALIGNMENT
one face to the other will indicate any angular UP/DOWN
misalignment. In either case, the readings will be
influenced by how far from the center of rotation
the measurement is made.
NOTE: The face and bore alignment affect each
other. Thus, the face alignment should be
rechecked after the bore alignment and vice versa.
After determining that the engine and load are in
alignment, the crankshaft end play should be FACE MISALIGNMENT
checked to verify that bolting the coupling RIGHT/LEFT
together does not cause end thrust. Figure 4.5

Figure 4.4
LEBW1414-00 44
Inaccurate Flanges
Inaccurate flanges cause apparent misalignment Shim packs under all equipment should be
and make accurate alignment impossible.
Face runout refers to the distance the hub face is
out of perpendicular to the shaft centerline,
Figure 4.6.
Figure 4.6
Shimming
0.030 in. (0.76 mm) minimum and 0.125 in.
(3.2 mm) maximum thickness to prevent later
corrections requiring removing shims when there
are too few or zero shims remaining. Excessive
thickness of shims may compress with use.
Shims should be of nonrusting material. Handle
shims carefully.
Engines and generators are recommended to use
four mounting feet. Before they can be aligned,
each foot must be carrying its portion of the load.
Failure to do this can result not only in misalign-
ment, but also in springing of the substructure,
high stress in welds or base metal, and high twist-
ing forces in the engine or generator, Figure 4.8.

Bore runout refers to the distance the driving bore

of a hub is out of parallel with the shaft centerline,
Figure 4.7.

Figure 4.8

Figure 4.7

The face and bore runouts of flywheel, clutch or

coupling, driven members, and hubs must be
checked when inconsistent alignment results
occur. Face or bore errors must be corrected.
Bore-to-pilot diameter runout error should not be
more than 0.002 in. (0.05 mm) on the flywheel
and 0.005 in. (0.13 mm) on adapters bolted to
the flywheel. Flange face runout should not be
more than 0.002 in. (0.05 mm).

45 LEBW1414-00
Procedure for Tightening Engine and Bolt Torque
Generator Mounting Bolts A bolt is properly torqued when it is stretched a
After alignment, each mounting surface must calculated amount. Proper stretch clamps the
carry its portion of the load. Figure 4.9 shows the driven device to the base securely. The clamp is
procedure used to verify proper shimming of gen- then maintained during movement caused by
erator or engine has been accomplished. When vibration. An undertorqued bolt cannot maintain
the proper number of shims has been established, clamping force while vibrations are present. It will
add or remove shims evenly when making align- gradually work loose and allow misalignment to
ment corrections. occur, Figure 4.10.
Bolts of the size used on Caterpillar oilfield bases
require very high torque values. As an example,
a 1 in. (25.4 mm) bolt has a torque of 640 ±
80 ft. lbs (868 ± 108 N•m). A torque wrench,
extension and torque multiplier are required to
obtain this high value. Do not use special bolt
lubricants as the effective bolt clamping force
can be excessive.
Caterpillar bolts are made of Grade 8 steel, one of
the strongest available. They are identified by six
raised or depressed lines on the nut or bolt head.
Figure 4.9 shows the recommended torque for
various Caterpillar bolts; however, these values
may be too high for standard commercially avail-
able hardware.
Make sure mounting bolts are not bottomed out
in hole, resulting in low effective bolt clamping
force. After completion of the final shimming and
bolting operation, recheck the alignment.

Figure 4.9

Figure 4.10

LEBW1414-00 46
Mounting Bolt Location
Each engine or driven equipment mounting bolt
must bolt through solid material. If a mounting
bolt is in an overhung condition, it will cause dis-
tortion, Figure 4.11.

PROPER PRACTICE

IMPROPER PRACTICE
Figure 4.11
Figure 4.12
Dial Indicators Dial indicator brackets must not bend due to
A dial indicator measures very small changes in weight of the indicator. Commercially available
distance. Alignment of shafting requires meas- dial indicator brackets may not give adequate
urement of small changes in distance dimen- support when the indicator is rotated, causing
sions. The indicator must be rigidly located so false readings. Therefore, magnetic base dial indi-
the specified alignment values can be measured. cator supports are not recommended.
To check support bracket rigidity, rotate the same
Support Brackets
configurations of bracket and indicator through a
An indicator support bracket must rigidly sup- circle while indicating on the bracket side of the
port the indicator when fixed to one of the shafts coupling. A maximum reading of less than
and rotated. The support bracket allows location 0.001 in. (0.025 mm) is allowed. It may be nec-
of the dial indicator at the measurement point. essary to temporarily bolt a very rigid reference
Proper brackets can be adjusted to work with arm onto the bracket side of the coupling for the
varying driveline configurations, Figure 4.12. indicator to read against to allow the same con-
figuration of bracket and indicator, as when tak-
ing an alignment reading.
Caterpillar recommends using the bracket,
Figure 4.13, when performing alignment checks.
Use two 0.50 in. (12.7 mm) diameter threaded
rods or bolts to assemble the adapter. It may be
necessary to fabricate different brackets when
checking clutch alignments.

47 LEBW1414-00
Figure 4.13

Accuracy of Dial Indicator Readings I

II
II
II

A
III
IIIIIIIIII

There is a quick way to check the validity of dial

II

II
I

II II
III II
IIIIIIIII

indicator face alignment readings. As Figure 4.14 0

shows, readings are taken at four locations des-
ignated as A, B, C, and D. When taking readings,
the dial indicator should be returned to location A
to be sure indicator reading returns to zero.
Values shown in Figure 4.14 are for a unit that is
II
II
I
II
II

II
III

III

D +10 –3 B
IIIIIIIIIII

IIIIIIIIII
II

II
II
II

II

II

II I II
II
I
I

II

not in alignment.
II II II
III II III
IIIIIIII IIIIIIIIII

The quick check is to remember that reading of

B + D should equal C. (This is valid where driv-
ing and driven shafts are rotated together while +7
checking alignment.)
“B + D = C”
The quick check is useful for identifying improper
II
II
II
II
III

C
IIIIIIIII
II
II

II
II

procedures such as: Sagging indicator brackets,

III

–3 + 10 = +7
IIIIIIIII

dial indicator finger riding on flywheel chamfer, or Figure 4.14

indicator not properly positioned causing indi-
cator to run out of travel.

LEBW1414-00 48
 Crankshaft Deflection Test 3. If the gauge reads more than 0.001 in.
(0.025 mm), cylinder block distortion has
3512 and 3516 Engines mounted on bases not occurred due to improper mounting.
supplied by Caterpillar may require a crankshaft
deflection test. This applies to bases that support
the engine at six or more points. Unevenness in
such a large number of mounting points can
bend the engine block.
In contrast, the use of four mounting blocks can-
not bend the engine block. Four mounting blocks
can induce a twist in the engine block, but this
cannot be detected with a crankshaft deflec-
tion test. See the section “Procedure for Tighten-
ing Engine and Generator Mounting Bolts.”
This test can be performed on all Caterpillar Oil-
field Engines equipped with crankcase inspection
doors to assure the engine block is not unduly
stressed. It should be performed under cold engine
conditions as this is the safest condition.
1. Remove an inspection door from the block
Figure 4.15
to expose the center crankshaft throw.
Rotate the crankshaft in the normal rotation Loosen the hold-down bolts between the
direction. When the cheeks of the center engine rails and mounting blocks. Check
throw just pass the connecting rods, install a carefully for loose shims, improper locations
Starrett No. 696 distortion dial indicator or of fitted bolts, interference from clearance
similar tool. As a precaution, tie a string to bolts, or any other constraints to proper
the gauge and secure it outside the engine engine block movement.
to facilitate retrieval should the assembly fall Make any needed adjustments and secure the
into the oil pan. hold-down bolts, making sure alignment of
Zero the dial indicator’s rotating bezel. the engine has not been disturbed.
Properly seat the indicator by rotating it on its 4. Repeat the distortion check procedure.
own axis until it will hold a zero reading. Consult your Caterpillar dealer if the engine
2. With the indicator still set at zero, rotate the block is still bent.
crankshaft in the normal direction until the
indicator nearly touches the connecting Alignment of Two-Bearing Generators
rods on the other side of the crankshaft. (Do
Factors Affecting Alignment
not allow the indicator to touch the connect-
ing rod.) The input shaft of remote-mounted equipment is
always positioned higher than the engine crank-
The dial indicator reading must not vary
shaft. This compensates for vertical thermal
more than 0.001 in. (0.025 mm) through-
growth, flywheel sag, and main bearing oil film lift
out the approximately 300 degrees of crank-
on crankshaft. These factors cause the relative
shaft rotation.
positions of crankshaft and load input shaft to
Rotate the crankshaft back to its original shift between static and running conditions.
position in the opposite rotation direction.
The indicator must return to its original read-
ing of zero to make a valid test. If not, the indi-
cator shaft points were not properly seated
and the test procedure must be repeated.

49 LEBW1414-00
Bearing Clearances
The generator rotor shaft and engine crankshaft
rotate in the center of their respective bearings,
so their centerlines should coincide. Alignment
is made under static conditions while the crank-
shaft is in the bottom of its bearings. This is not
its position during operation. Firing pressures,
centrifugal forces, and engine oil pressure all tend
to lift the crankshaft and cause the flywheel to
orbit around its true center, Figure 4.16.
Generally, driven equipment will have ball or
roller bearings which do not change their rota-
tional axis between static and running conditions.

Figure 4.16
Flywheel Sag
With the engine not running, the weight of the
overhanging flywheel and coupling causes the
crankshaft to bend. This effect must be com-
pensated for during alignment since it results in
the pilot bore and outside diameter of the fly-
wheel rotating lower than the true crankshaft
bearing centerline during alignment. Caterpillar
recommends alignment checks be performed
with the coupling in place, Figure 4.17.
Figure 4.17
Torque Reaction
The tendency of the engine to twist in the oppo-
site direction of shaft rotation and the tendency
of the driven machine to turn in the direction of
shaft rotation is torque reaction. It naturally
increases with load and may cause a vibration.
This type of vibration will not be noticeable at idle
but will be felt with load. This usually is caused
by a change in alignment due to insufficient base
strength allowing excessive base deflection under
torque reaction load. This has the effect of intro-
ducing a side-to-side centerline offset which
disappears when the engine is idled (unloaded)
or stopped.

LEBW1414-00 50
Thermal Growth Vertical compensation consists of aligning equip-
ment to a non-zero value, Figure 4.25.
As engine and generator reach operating tem-
peratures, expansion or thermal growth will Crankshaft horizontal growth occurs at the oppo-
occur. This growth is both vertical and horizontal. site end of the engine from the thrust bearing.
This growth has to be planned for when driven
Vertical growth occurs between component
equipment is connected to that end of the engine.
mounting feet and their respective centerlines of
The growth is slight if the driven equipment is
rotation. This thermal growth depends on the
bolted to the engine block, since the block and
type of metals used, the temperature rise that
crankshaft grow at approximately the same rate,
occurs, and vertical distance from the center of
Figure 2.12.
rotation to the mounting feet, Figure 4.18.

GENERATOR VERTICAL GROWTH

ENGINE VERTICAL GROWTH

Figure 4.18

HORIZONTAL THERMAL COUPLING

GROWTH CLEARANCE

Figure 4.19
51 LEBW1414-00
Horizontal compensation consists of using a cou-
pling that allows sufficient relative movement
between driving and driven members. The equip-
ment must be positioned so the horizontal growth
moves into the coupling operating zone, not away
from it. Failure to do so results in excessive
crankshaft thrust bearing loading and/or coupling
failure. Sufficient clearance has been allowed if it
is determined during a hot alignment check that
the crankshaft still has end clearance. Location of
thrust bearings on 3500 Series Caterpillar Engines
is at the center of the crankshaft. It is at the rear
of the crankshaft on other Caterpillar engines.

Cat Viscous Dampened Coupling

Caterpillar couplings use an internal gear design
with a rubber element between the gears. Silicone
grease aids in the dampening characteristics.
Figure 4.20
Clearances involved in internal gear design allow
accurate alignment measurement to be made
Interpreting Dial Indicator Readings
without removing the rubber element, Figure 4.20.
With front crankshaft drives, indicator readings
The coupling for front-driven equipment is similar
may appear to show the driven shaft is lower than
to the rear-drive coupling illustrated here. On front
the engine. This occurs because the dial indica-
drives, the driven element, Figure 4.20, is sup-
tor is mounted on the driven shaft instead of the
ported on the engine crankshaft as it does not
engine, reversing the indicator reference point,
weigh as much as the driving element.
Figure 4.21, due to the coupling configurations.

Figure 4.21

LEBW1414-00 52
Alignment Procedures For cold alignment, the generator is mounted
Refer to the following Caterpillar Special Instruc- higher than the engine to compensate for ther-
tion for more detailed information and spe- mal growth, bearing clearances, and flywheel
cific instructions on mounting and alignment droop, Figure 4.21.
procedures. Installation of Cat Viscous Dampened Coupling
Form No. Title When using the Caterpillar viscous dampened
SEHS7654 Alignment — General Instructions coupling, the rubber elements should be installed
SEHS7259-06 Alignment of Single Bearing Generators at this time. Install the coupling grease retainer
SEHS7073-01 Alignment of Two-Bearing Generators plate. Install the silicone grease after coupling
end clearance is correct.
Final alignment should be performed after all
major equipment has been installed on the base. Shift generator fore and aft as necessary to assure
Engines should be filled with oil and water and the inner member of the coupling is properly
ready to operate. positioned between the rear retaining plate of the
coupling and engine flywheel to allow for hori-
Misalignment between the diesel engine and all zontal growth. Failure to do so can result in exces-
mechanically driven equipment must be kept to sive crankshaft thrust bearing loading and/or
a minimum. Many crankshaft and bearing fail- coupling failure.
ures can be traced to incorrect alignment of the
drive systems. Misalignment at operating tem- Using a flexible steel scale or depth gauge, meas-
peratures and under load will always result in ure coupling end clearance to check that horizon-
vibration and/or stress loading. tal thermal growth will not cause metal-to-metal
contact within the coupling, Figure 4.23. Measure
Since there is no accurate and practical method distance (axial clearance dimension) from the
for measuring alignment with the engine running outer face of inner coupling member to the outer
at operating temperature and under load, all face of grease retainer plate. The distance should
Caterpillar alignment procedures must be per- be 0.34 ± 0.03 in. (8.6 ± 0.8 mm) for front drives
formed with the engine stopped and the engine and 0.41 ± 0.03 in. (10.4 ± 0.8 mm) for rear
and all driven equipment at ambient temperature. drives (flywheel-mounted couplings.)
Place driven equipment in its final position as
closely as possible without taking indicator read- Other Couplings
ings. There should be a minimum of 0.030 in. Flexible element of other couplings may need to
(0.76 mm) and a maximum of 0.125 in. (3.2 mm) be removed during alignment checks. Element
of shims under each mounting surface of the stiffness can prevent accurate alignment readings.
driven equipment.
With coupling element removed, driving and
Position driven equipment, using the leveling and driven members of the coupling should be rotated
alignment screws, Figure 4.22. together during alignment checks. This prevents
face or bore runout of piece parts from affecting
dial indicator readings. When both members are
rotated together, only equipment misalignment
will register on dial indicator readings.

Figure 4.22

53 LEBW1414-00
Figure 4.23

Final Alignment alignment limits for various generator drive

arrangements.
Use indicator support brackets to mount two dial
indicators to simultaneously measure bore and When the generator is moved to correct face
face misalignment. See Figure 4.24 for proper alignment, it will be necessary to recheck bore
format to record alignment readings. alignment and vice versa.
Be sure crankshaft end thrust is always in the When the engine drives more than one genera-
same direction before taking a face reading. Zero tor, recheck alignment of each generator after all
both dial indicators at the top and take readings generators have been aligned.
every 90 degrees (1.5 rad). Rotate the completeFor instructions on installation of shims and
assembly by barring the engine over. mounting bolts on the engine, refer to the Engine
Figure 4.25 illustrates the method to be used, Mounting Section.
provides instructions to be followed and lists

Figure 4.24
LEBW1414-00 54
 TWO BEARING ALIGNMENT — 21 INCH (534 mm) BASE AND BASE-WITHIN-A-BASE TYPE

Figure 4.25

After completion of the final shimming and bolt- To check for outside stresses, loosen the mount-
ing operation, recheck coupling alignment. ing bolts between the driven equipment and
engine flywheel housing. There should be no con-
Crankshaft end play should be checked after unit
tact between flywheel housing and driven equip-
is up to operating temperature. It should be
ment housing at this time to assure neither
between 0.007 to 0.025 in. (0.178 to 0.635 mm).
housing is being stressed. Clearance between the
Realignment Limits two separated faces should be parallel within
0.005 in. (0.13 mm). See Figure 4.26. Oilfield
Realignment is not required until field check lim- generators are extra heavy and may distort the
its are reached. When these limits are reached, flywheel housing when it is not parallel to engine.
units should be realigned to limits shown in pre-
vious paragraphs.

Alignment of Close-Coupled
Driven Equipment
Close-coupled components, such as single-bear-
ing generators, close-coupled two-bearing gen-
erators, transmissions, compounds, etc., rely on
bolting together of two piloted housings to deter-
mine alignment. When two piloted housings are
joined together in a parallel manner, they are in
alignment. However, outside stresses can be
introduced by poor mounting practices and allow
the flywheel housing to flex. This can contribute
to high vibration. Figure 4.26
55 LEBW1414-00
To avoid this, make sure there is a minimum
0.001 in. (0.03 mm) gap for the full 360 degrees
when making this parallelism check.
A dial indicator mounted between flywheel and
generator rotor is sometimes used to check align-
ment. However, after the generator housing is
piloted into and bolted to the flywheel housing,
alignment is not checked by the dial indicator
method.
When the dial indicator method produces results
in conflict with the parallelism check of the two
housings, Figure 4.26, such conflict indicates the
rear bearing of the driven equipment is not cen-
tered in relation to the engine and is subject to
generator manufacturer’s accepted tolerances,
flywheel housing nominal runout, and flywheel
droop.
Generator mounting feet should not be shimmed
after the generator housing is bolted to the fly-
wheel housing. Such practices stress both the
generator housing and flywheel housing and can
cause vibrations.
It is not necessary to make this check on smaller
Caterpillar Generator Sets where the engine does
not have rear mounting feet but relies on the gen-
erator supports, Figure 4.18. However, this check
is necessary on smaller Caterpillar Engines where
the driven equipment is also rigidly connected to
another piece of equipment. A common example
of this would be a mechanical drive where the
clutch mechanism is bolted to the compound. Poor
mounting practices with this arrangement can
cause excessive stresses in the flywheel housing.
Single bearing generators are recommended to
have a pilot shaft extension and loose fitting flex
plates or no pilot shaft extension but with piloted
plates. This aids in maintaining proper alignment.
If vibration is noted at assembly of a generator
having coupling plates piloted into the flywheel,
correction can often be made by repositioning
coupling plates 1⁄4 turn with respect to the origi-
nal location. Start the unit and observe the
change in vibration. A second or third relocation
may be necessary to find the position of lowest
vibration. Locate plates at point of lowest vibra-
tion. This procedure allows manufacturing toler-
ances to attempt to cancel each other.
Before bolting coupling plates onto the flywheel,
always rotate engine to the same position (i.e.,
no. 1 TDC). Tighten half the bolts while the fly-
wheel is in this position. Then rotate as necessary
LEBW1414-00
to tighten other bolts. This procedure assures that
any sag in the crankshaft is always as the same
position when the plates are fastened to flywheel.
Alignment of Mechanical Drives
Improper alignment will result in excessive vibra-
tion, short life of compound bearings and clutch
parts and a need for frequent realignment. Good
alignment practices include proper shimming,
correct torque on hold-down bolts, and accurate
dial indicator usage. See the section on General
Alignment Information for additional information.
Alignment Procedures
Final alignment should be performed after all
major equipment has been installed on the base.
Engines should be filled with oil and water and
ready to operate.
When clutches are used that contain air bladders,
pay careful attention to air pressure; the allow-
able amount of misalignment goes down as air
pressure increases. Alignment limits must not
exceed limits established for a Caterpillar viscous
dampened coupling or for the clutch, whichever
is smaller.
Clutches are to be disengaged when alignment is
checked, Figure 4.27. Rotate clutch slowly
through 360 degrees (6 rad) and check total indi-
cator reading at 90 degree (1.5 rad) intervals.
Shim engine, as required, to achieve correct align-
ment, Figure 4.5.
ALIGNMENT CHECK
Figure 4.27
56
Dial indicator readings will include an error due If the frequency of a forced vibration is the same
to runout of clutch or flywheel parts. Where as the natural frequency of free vibrations, exces-
excessive runout is suspected, check and cor- sive vibration results. This is called resonance
rect as required. and can cause serious problems.

Non-Cat Bases Mass Elastic System

Bases not manufactured by Caterpillar must Engine vibration may be of the following types
meet several design criteria. These bases must be and causes:
rigid enough to limit torsional and bending forces
1. Linear vibration — vertical and/or horizontal
caused by torque reaction and subbase flexing.
inertia forces due to lack of balance in recip-
They must prevent excessive bending forces
rocating or rotating machinery.
from passing to the engine block, couplings, and
driven unit during shipment. To prevent reso- 2. Torque reaction — not a vibratory force, but
nance, they must have a natural frequency out of may excite vibration.
the operating speed range. They must allow suf- 3. Torsional vibration of shafting — occurs in
ficient space for shimming so proper alignment any rotating mass elastic system (two or
can be accomplished. more masses connected by an elastic shaft)
where periodic forces are present. Where
Vibration these forces recur near the natural frequency
All mechanical systems with mass and elasticity of torsional vibration, resonance may develop
are capable of vibration. Engines produce vibra- and cause dangerous stress.
tion due to combustion forces, torque reactions, 4. Axial vibration of shafting — when torques
structural mass and stiffness combinations, and are applied to a crankshaft, it is alternately
manufacturing tolerances on rotating compo- shortened and lengthened. This could be
nents. These forces may create conditions rang- troublesome if the natural axial frequency is
ing from unwanted noise to high stress levels, near a torsional frequency.
and possible ultimate failure of engine or driven
components. Generator sets need no isolation for protection
from self-induced vibrations. However, isolation
The same amplitude and frequency of vibration
is required if:
generated by the engine could result in structural
damage if a fixed installation were housed in a 1. Engine vibration must be separated from
building, or close to sensitive instruments or equip- building structures.
ment, such as computers. 2. Vibrations from nearby equipment are trans-
Other influencing factors are foundation design, mitted to inoperative generator sets.
soil load characteristics, and other machinery
3. System is supported on a flexible mounting
operating in close proximity.
surface, such as a trailer bed.
Vibrating stresses can reach destructive levels at
engine speeds which cause resonance. Reso- Vibration isolators prevent the transmission of pos-
nance occurs when natural system frequencies sible damaging generator set vibration through-
coincide with engine excitation frequencies. out a building. Noise is also reduced.
Engine vibrations are produced and maintained When an engine and generator are to be assem-
by regular, periodic driving forces set up by bled to each other, vibration studies and tests
unbalanced moving masses. These are called must be completed to assure satisfactory, trou-
forced vibrations. ble-free operation on the job site. With factory
assembled generator sets, the responsibility is
Free vibrations have no driving force. When set assumed by the manufacturer. In any case, wher-
in motion such vibrations, if undamped, would ever assembly takes place, someone must
continue indefinitely with constant amplitude and assure the integrity of the installation from a
natural frequency. vibration standpoint.
Perfectly balanced rotating devices can vibrate
if not properly aligned.
57 LEBW1414-00
Vibration Measurement Point 3
Vibration measurements on large engine units Horizontal direction at the rear of the engine;
should be made using the Caterpillar Vibration locate the probe on the side of the block at the
Analyzer, Part No. 4C-3030. If Caterpillar meas- crankshaft centerline.
uring equipment is not available, an equivalent
device capable of measuring peak-to-peak dis- Point 4
placement at selected frequencies, overall veloc- Vertical direction at the rear of the engine; locate
ity, and overall displacement should be used. the probe on the block top deck (or rear housing)
Vibration should be measured at nine points on a in the plane of the crankshaft centerline.
two bearing generator set. Comparable points on
non-generator driven equipment may be impor- Point 5
tant. These points are illustrated in Figure 4.28 Vertical direction at the generator front bearing;
and are described below. locate the probe on the bearing housing at the
shaft centerline.
Point 1
Horizontal direction at the front of the engine; Point 6
locate the probe on the left side of the block at the Horizontal direction at the generator front bear-
crankshaft centerline. ing; locate the probe on the side of the bearing
housing at the shaft centerline.
Point 2
Vertical direction at the front of the engine; locate Point 7
the probe on the block top deck in the plane of Vertical direction at the generator rear bearing;
the crankshaft centerline. locate the probe on the bearing housing at the
shaft centerline.

VIBRATION MEASURING POINTS

Figure 4.28
LEBW1414-00 58
Point 8 This is applicable to both Diesel and Gas Engines
(reference: EDS 73.1, Linear Vibration).
Horizontal direction at the generator rear bear-
ing; locate the probe on the side of the bearing Consult the manufacturer of the driven equip-
housing at the shaft centerline. ment for applicable vibration limits.
If the measured vibration levels exceed the limits,
Point 9
contact your Caterpillar dealer representative or
Axial direction at the generator rear; locate the Caterpillar factory representative for assistance.
probe on the rear right outside edge of the
Warning: It is not an acceptable practice to lower
generator structure (not sheet metal) at the shaft
the package vibration levels when operating at
centerline.
stable conditions by tightening the snubber bolts
Vibration measurements must be made at the on the Caterpillar vibration isolators. This prac-
advertised driven equipment rating (100% load). tice will only hide vibration problems.
If additional data is desired, it is recommended
that measurements be made at 0% load, 50% Linear Vibration
load, and 75% load. It may be useful to take Linear vibration is exhibited by noisy or shaking
vibration measurements also at plus and minus machines, but its exact nature is difficult to define
10% of rated speed, at no load. without instrumentation. Human senses are inad-
Data must be reported in terms of peak-to-peak equate to detect relationships between the mag-
displacement (mils) at half order frequency, first nitude of vibration and period of occurrence. A
order frequency, overall velocity level (in/s) and first order (1 2 rpm) vibration of 0.010 in.
overall displacement (mils) for each of the nine (0.254 mm) displacement may feel about the
measuring locations. A chart can be used to same as third order measurement of 0.002 in.
record and report the measured vibration data. (0.051 mm).
Vibration occurs as a mass is deflected and
Vibration Limits
returned along the same plane and can be illus-
The vibration levels for any load condition, at any trated as a single mass spring system (see
of the nine measuring locations, must not exceed Figure 4.29). With no external force imposed on
the following guideline limits: the system, the weight remains at rest and there
1. Peak-to-peak displacement at half order fre- is no vibration. But when the weight is moved or
quency = 5 mils (0.13 mm) displaced and then released, vibration occurs.
The weight travels up and down through its orig-
2. Peak-to-peak displacement at first order fre- inal position until frictional forces cause it to rest.
quency = 5 mils (0.13 mm) When external forces, such as engine combus-
3. Overall displacement = 8.5 mils (0.22 mm) tion, continue to affect the system while it vibrates,
it is termed forced vibration.
4. Overall velocity = 1.35 in/s (34.3 mm/s)

MASS-SPRING SYSTEM
Figure 4.29

59 LEBW1414-00
Time required for the weight to complete one Velocity is extremely important; but because of
movement is called a period (see Figure 4.30). its changing nature, a single point has been cho-
sen for measurement. This is peak velocity nor-
mally expressed in inches per second.
Velocity is a direct measure of vibration and pro-
vides best overall indicator of machinery condi-
tion. It does not, however, reflect the effect of
vibration on brittle material.
Relationship between peak velocity and peak-to-
peak displacement is compared by:
V Peak = 52.3 2 D 2 F 2 106
Where:
V Peak = Vibration velocity in inches per second
ILLUSTRATION OF A PERIOD peak.
Figure 4.30 D = Peak-to-peak displacement, in mils
(1 mil – 0.001 in.).
Maximum displacement from the mean position
is amplitude; interval in which the motion is F = Frequency in cycles-per-minute (cpm).
repeated is called the cycle. Acceleration is another characteristic of vibra-
If the weight needs one second to complete a tion. It is the rate of velocity change. In the exam-
cycle, the vibration frequency is one cycle per ple, note that peak acceleration is at the extreme
second. limit of travel where velocity is “0”. As velocity
increases, acceleration decreases until it reaches
If one minute, hour, day, etc., were required, its “0” at the neutral point.
frequency would be one cycle per minute, hour,
day, etc. A system completing its full motion Acceleration is dimensioned in units of “g”
20 times in one minute would have a frequency (peak), where “g” equals the force of gravity
of 20 cycles per minute, or 20 cpm. (980 2 6650 mm/s2 = 386 in./s2 = 32.3 ft./s2).
Establishing vibration frequency is necessary Acceleration measurements, or “g’s”, are used
when analyzing a problem. It allows identifica- where relatively large forces are encountered. At
tion of engine component or condition causing very high frequencies (60,000 cpm), it is per-
the vibration. haps the best indicator of vibration.
Total distance traveled by the weight, from one Vibration acceleration is calculable from peak
peak to the opposite peak, is peak-to-peak displacement :
displacement. This measurement is usually g Peak = 1.42 2 D 2 F2 2 108
expressed in mils, one mil equaling one-thou- Machinery vibration is complex and consists of
sandth of an inch [0.001 in. (0.025 mm)]. It is a many frequencies. Displacement, velocity, and
guide to vibration severity. acceleration are all used to diagnose particular
Average and root-mean-square (rms) are used to problems. Displacement measurements are
measure vibration (rms = 0.707 times the peak better indicators of dynamic stresses and are,
of vibration). These terms are referred to in the- therefore, commonly used. Note that overall, or
oretical discussions. total peak-to-peak displacement, described in
Figure 4.31, is approximately the sum of indi-
Another method to analyze vibration is measur- vidual vibrations.
ing mass velocity. Note that the example is not
only moving but changing direction. The speed of
the weight is also constantly changing. At its limit,
the speed is “0”. Its speed or velocity is greatest
while passing through the neutral position.

LEBW1414-00 60
 REFERENCES FOR DISTANCES
Figure 4.32

PEAK-TO-PEAK DISPLACEMENT To apply isolators, wet weight and center of grav-

Figure 4.31
Isolation
Generator sets need no isolation for protection
from self-induced vibrations. They easily with-
stand any vibrations which they create.
However, isolation is required if engine vibration
must be separated from building structures, or if
vibrations from nearby equipment are transmit-
ted to inoperative generator sets. Caterpillar Gen-
erator Sets with isolation mounts between the
generator set and base already satisfy these
requirements. Running units are rarely affected
by exterior vibrations. Methods of isolation are the
same for external- or self-generated vibrations.
Isolation Location
Several commercial isolators provide various
degrees of isolation. Generally, the lower the nat-
ural frequency of the isolator, the greater the
deflection (soft) and more effective the isolation.
Weight of generator sets can be unequally dis-
tributed among the isolators, within the limits of
the isolators. However, isolator overloading will
eliminate isolator benefits. Isolators are most
effective when located under generator mount-
ing and engine front support (see Figure 4.32).
If additional support is desired, place an isolator
midway between front and rear mounts and
under radiator.
ity of the assembled unit must be established.
Assuming engine and generator are assembled
to a base, wet weight (WT) and assembled center
of gravity can be calculated. A common reference
is needed (see Figure 4.32). In this case, use the
rear face of the flywheel housing or engine block.
Because measurements are to both sides of
the reference, one direction can be considered
negative.
WT (D) = WE (D2) – WG (D1) + WR (D3)
WE (D2) – WG (D1) + WR (D3)
D = ___________________________
WT
WT = wet weight
WE = engine weight
WG = generator weight
WR = radiator weight
D1,2,3 = distances
If additional equipment is added, the process is
repeated to determine a new center of gravity.
Having established center of gravity for the total
unit (see Figure 4.33), loading on each pair of
isolators is determined by:
B A
S1 = WT __ S2 = WT __
C C

61 LEBW1414-00

DETERMINATION OF ISOLATOR LOCATION
Figure 4.33
Isolators are sized to have natural frequencies far
removed from engine exciting frequencies. If
these frequencies were similar, the entire unit
would resonate. The transmissibility chart in
Figure 4.34 depicts this condition. It also shows
the significant improvement caused by decreas-
ing the mounting natural frequency to allow a
ratio increase above √2 , or 1.414.
TRANSMISSIBILITY CHART
Figure 4.34
LEBW1414-00
Isolation Methods
Vibration is reduced by commercially available
fabricated isolators or bulk isolators. Both tech-
niques utilize static deflection, with increased
deflection resulting in greater isolation. Although
internal damping of various materials cause per-
formance differences, the vibration chart in
Figure 4.35 describes the general effect deflec-
tion has on isolation. By using engine rpm as the
nominal vibration frequency, magnitude of com-
pression on isolating materials can be estimated.
The unit can be separated from supporting sur-
faces by these soft commercial devices, i.e., those
which deflect under the static weight. Mounting
rails or fabricated bases withstand torque reac-
tions without uniform support from the isolators.
62

BASIC VIBRATION CHART
Figure 4.35
Piping connected to generator sets requires iso-
lation, particularly when generator sets mount on
spring isolators. Fuel and water lines, exhaust
pipes, and conduit could otherwise transmit
vibrations long distances. Isolator pipe hangers,
if used, should have springs to attenuate low fre-
quencies, and rubber or cork to minimize high
frequency transmissions. To prevent buildup of
resonant pipe vibrations, support long piping runs
at unequal distances (see Figure 4.36).
PIPE RUNS SUPPORT
Figure 4.36
63
Rubber
Rubber isolators are adequate for applications
where vibration control is not severe. By careful
selection, isolation of 90% is possible. They iso-
late noise created by transmission of vibratory
forces. Avoid using rubber isolators with natural
frequencies near engine excitation frequencies.
Adding rubber plates beneath spring isolators
block high frequency vibrations transmitted
through the spring. These vibrations are not
harmful but cause annoying noise.
Spring
The most effective isolators are of steel spring
design. They isolate over 96% of all vibrations and
noise transmitted from rotating machinery to
the foundation or mounting surface. Conversely,
isolators can absorb disturbances generated by
adjacent machinery and prevent damage from
being transmitted to idle equipment.
Spring-type linear vibration isolators are included
in offshore power modules. These isolators per-
mit mounting the generator set on a surface
capable of supporting only the static load.
A detail of a spring-type isolator shows the
addition of thrust blocks to restrict lateral move-
ment without interfering with the spring function
(see Figure 4.37). Limit stops are also included,
for tilt angle requirements.
VIBRATION ISOLATOR
Figure 4.37
LEBW1414-00
No allowance for torque or vibratory loads is Vibration carried throughout an enclosure causes
required. As with direct mountings, no anchor early failure of auxiliary equipment. Relays,
bolting is usually required. However, when oper- switches, gauges, and piping are adversely
ating in parallel, vertical restraints are recom- affected.
mended and the isolator firmly fastened to the Noise, while normally only annoying, can attain
foundation. Spring isolators are available with levels objectionable to owners and operators. If
snubber for use when engines are side loaded or operating near property lines, noise could exceed
located on moving surfaces. local ordinances.
Other Isolation Methods Torsional Vibration
Fiberglass, felt, composition, and flat rubber do
Torsional vibrations occur as subjects, such as
little to isolate major vibration forces. These an engine crankshaft, twist and recover. Standard
materials tend to compress with age and become generator set components withstand normal
ineffective. Because deflection of these types of
stresses caused by combustion forces and torque
isolators is small, their natural frequency is rela-
reactions. A generator set must prevent the
tively high compared to the engines. Attempting natural frequency of the drive train from approach-
to stack these isolators or apply them indiscrim-
ing the unit’s operating speed. Failure of crank-
inately could force the system into resonance. shaft, couplings, gears or bearings may result
Land rig power module include composition pads without this attention.
at the three internal mounting points. Land rig Torsional vibrations originate with the piston power
modules have reduced concern over vibration stroke. The simplified drive train in Figure 4.38
transmission. Composition pads are easily illustrates relationship of shaft diameter, length,
designed to remain in place during the frequent and inertia on the natural system frequency.
rig moves.
If no isolation is required, auxiliary generator sets
may rest directly on the mounting surface.
Factory assembled units are dynamically bal-
anced and theoretically there is no dynamic load.
Practically, the surface must support 25% more
than the static weight of the unit to withstand
torque and vibratory loads. Unless the engine is
driving equipment which impose side loads, no
anchor bolting is required. This normally applies
to all non-parallel generator set mountings. Thin
rubber or composition pads minimize the unit’s
tendency to creep or fret foundation surfaces. TORSIONAL VIBRATIONS
Figure 4.38
External Isolation
Piping connected to generator sets requires iso- Even though generator sets, factory packaged
lation, particularly when generator sets are on Caterpillar designed bases, avoid critical
mounted on spring isolators. Fuel and water lines, speeds where resonant conditions occur, all
exhaust pipes, and conduit could otherwise trans- applications, whether packaged by Caterpillar or
mit vibrations long distances. others, require a torsional vibration analysis. This
assures compatibility of the engine and driven
If isolator pipe hangers are used they should have equipment. It must be performed by either the
springs to attenuate low frequencies, and rubber customer or by Caterpillar, depending on the cus-
or cork to minimize high frequency transmissions. tomer’s preference. Customer performed analy-
To prevent buildup or resonant pipe vibrations, ses are subject to Caterpillar review and approval
long support piping should run at unequal dis- and Caterpillar does not assume responsibility
tances (see Figure 4.36). for analysis performed by others without specific
Caterpillar review and approval. Without the

LEBW1414-00 64
approval, no warranty for vibration caused prob- 9. For reciprocating compressor applications,
lems can be claimed from Caterpillar. For a harmonic analysis of the compressor
Caterpillar-performed analyses, a complete set torque curve under various load conditions.
of technical data (see below) must be submitted If not available, a torque curve of the com-
to Caterpillar before calculations are undertaken. pressor under each load condition through
The report will include a mathematical determi- one compressor cycle. The WR2 of all avail-
nation of the natural frequency, critical speeds, able flywheels for the compressor.
relative amplitudes of angular displacement, and
approximate nodal locations of the complete Couplings
elastic system (both engine and driven equip- A coupling must be torsionally compatible with
ment). See the Special Additions section of the engine and driven load so that torsional vibration
price list for ordering information. amplitudes are kept within acceptable limits. A
NOTE: Consult factory on compound installa- mathematical study called a torsional vibration
tions. There may be additional charges for analy- analysis should be done on any combination of
ses of applications where more than one engine engine-driveline-load for which successful expe-
drives a single load. A separate torsional analy- rience doesn’t already exist. A coupling with the
sis is also required for each engine with different wrong torsional stiffness can cause serious dam-
driven equipment in multiple engine installations. age to engine or driven equipment.
Technical data required: All couplings have certain operating ranges of
misalignment, and the manufacturers should be
1. The operating speed range.
contacted for this information.
2. Load demand curve on generator sets which
Some drives, such as U-joint couplings, have dif-
have a load dependent variable rigidity
ferent operating angle limits for different speeds.
coupling.
As a general rule, the angle should be the same
3. General arrangement drawing or sketch of
on each end of the shaft (see Figure 4.39). The
complete system, including data on equip-
yokes must be properly aligned and sliding spline
ment driven from front of engine.
connections should move freely. If there is no
4. With driven equipment on both ends of the angle at all, the bearings will brinell due to lack
engine, the power demand of each end is of movement.
required. In addition, simultaneous front
and rear power (maximum engine load) is Cyclic Irregularity
required. Cyclic irregularity is a nondimensional ratio
5. Make, model, WR2 (rotational inertia), and tor- describing degree of crankshaft twist occurring
sional rigidity on all couplings used between between two successive firings of cylinders dur-
the engine and driven equipment. ing steady-state operation. Formulas to repre-
sent this movement were derived before modern
6. WR2 of each rotating mass. Weight of each instrumentation allowed measurement. The ratio
reciprocating mass. is expressed as:
7. Torsional rigidity and minimum shaft diam- Cyclic irregularity: rpm rpm
eter or detailed dimensions of all shafting (maximum) – (minimum)
in the driven system whether separately ________________________
mounted or installed in a housing. rpm (average)
8. The ratio of the speed reducer or increaser. System speed varies with connected rotating
The WR2 and rigidity submitted for a speed mass. Cyclic irregularity differs, therefore, for a
reducer or increaser should state whether or basic engine, one driving a generator, or addi-
not they have been adjusted to engine speed. tional equipment.
This ratio compares merits of large slow speed
engines which were custom made, but has little
value applied to modern medium speed engines.

65 LEBW1414-00
 UNIVERSAL JOINT SHAFT DRIVE
Figure 4.39

Out-of-Balance Driven Equipment Good alignment practices include proper shim-

ming, correct torque on hold-down bolts, accu-
The engine itself is designed and built to run very
rate dial indicator usage, allowances for bearing
smoothly. Objectionable vibration generally
clearances, thermal growth, and accounting for
arises from either poor driveline component
other characteristics of the engine.
match to the engine or unbalance of the driven
equipment. Reciprocating equipment with large
imbalances, for example, can cause premature
failure of the mounting structure or undesirable
vibration even though the unit is properly mounted,
aligned, and isolated from the engine.
Even though the engine and the driven load are
in balance, it is also possible to encounter unde-
sirable and damaging vibration as a result of the
driving or connecting equipment having a mis-
alignment or out-of-balance condition. Long
shafts, drives, gear assemblies, clutches, or any
type of coupling where misalignment, out-of-bal-
ance, or mass shifting may occur, are probable
sources of vibration.

Alignment
An unsatisfactory engine mounting nearly always
results in alignment problems between the engine
and the driven machinery. Assuming that failure
of the driven equipment does not occur first, the
forces or loads transmitted to the engine in the
form of pounding, twisting, flexing, or thrust could
result in engine crankshaft and bearing failure.
Costly failures of this nature can be avoided if, at
the design and installation stage, the importance
of proper alignment between the engine and
driven load and adequate mounting to maintain
alignment is considered.
If this is possible, a suitable flexible coupling must
be incorporated into the drive train to compen-
sate for misalignment.

LEBW1414-00 66
 NOISE
Definitions
Noise can be defined as all unwanted sounds.
Music is sound and can be pleasant to some
people and noise to others. Noise and sound are
often used to describe the same physical char-
acteristics. Noise is generally random in nature
without distinct frequency components. Noise
can produce undesirable psychological effects
on people and physical damage to the ears.
Noise can be annoying and affect verbal com-
munications at work and away. At times, it may
impact behavior, including short term and long
term hearing loss, muscle tension, respiratory
reflexes, stress level, heart function, etc. Recog-
nizing this, many governmental agencies around
the world have established regulatory limits for
various levels of noise.
The noise from the engine comes mainly from
combustion, mechanical forces and from the
exhaust and air intake sources.
Frequency of sound refers to the rapidity or
cycles of an oscillation in a unit time. The con-
ventional unit is Hertz (Hz) — one Hz being one
cycle per second.
Sound Waves and Measurement
As sound waves radiate, their strength diminishes
(see Figure 5.1). As distance traveled doubles,
the wave amplitude is reduced by one-half. This
rule applies if the first measuring point is at least
two or three times the largest dimension of the
noise source, usually about three feet.
Distance Sound Strength
X 100%
2X 50%
4X 25%
Figure 5.1. Distance vs. wave amplitude.
Sound waves impinging on a microphone pro-
duce voltages proportional to sound pressures.
The signals measure amplitude or strength, of
the sound pressure waves. Amplitude and fre-
quency are the only sound properties measura-
ble using ordinary techniques.
67
Sound Pressure
The extensive audible range of sound compli-
cates noise ratings. The human ear hears pres-
sure levels that are about 100,000 times stronger
than the lowest pressure it is affected by. For this
reason, measuring instruments have extraordi-
nary range and are scaled in decibels (dB). The
decibel scale is logarithmic, which allows the
wide range of sound pressures to be measured in
only two- or three-digit numbers.
Sound Pressure Level (SPL) in dB =
Measured pressure
20 log10 2 ___________________
Reference pressure
The reference pressure is taken as: 20 µPa or
2 2 10–4 microbars = 0 dB. The relationship
between µPa and dB is that when multiplying the
sound pressure (µPa) by 10, 20 dB is added to
the dB level. Decibel (dB), is the relative meas-
urement of amplitude of sound. Sound is a pres-
sure which makes the membrane in the human
ear deflect. The softest pressure the human ear
can hear is 20 µPa (1 atmospheric pressure =
1 bar = 100 kPa = 14.5 psi) but the ear can take
pressures up to more than 1 million times higher.
Frequency — Weighting Networks
The ear is more sensitive to high frequencies than
low frequencies. To approximate the effect of
sound on the average person, measurements are
weighted according to frequencies correspon-
ding to the sensitivity of the ear. Loudness can
be measured by filtering the microphone signal
to reduce the strength of the low frequency sig-
nals and give more weight to frequencies in the
5,000–10,000 Hz range. The signal from the
measuring microphone is fed to an amplifier, then
to an attenuator, which is calibrated in decibels.
The signal is then fed to one of four weighting
networks, referred to as A, B, C, and D. The
response of the network chosen modifies the
input signal accordingly.
The most commonly used network is weighting
A (A-scale), and it is known as dBA or dB(A).
LEBW1414-00
Figure 5.2 shows the response characteristics for Band
an “A” filter. The result of adjustments through- Designation
(Center Band
out the frequency range is a total decibel rating Frequency) Limits
with a correction for various frequencies to 11300 Hz
approximate the human ear’s sensitivity. 8000 Hz
5650
Signals entering “A” weighted Signals leaving
filter filtering filter 4000
2830
High 2000
frequencies 1415
Low
frequencies
1000
dB(A) total 707
dB total 500
Relative
Response 353
dB 250
+5 176
A
0 125
-5
88
-10
63 Hz
-15
-20
44 Hz
-25
-30 STANDARD OCTAVE BANDS
A
-35 (ANSI STANDARD S1.11 IEC 225)
-40
-45 Figure 5.3
-50
20 50 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000 10,000
Frequency Hz Loudness
RESPONSE CHARACTERISTICS OF “A” FILTER The human ear does not use sound pressure
decibels to judge loudness. Rating noise loud-
Figure 5.2 ness is a complex operation because human
hearing is also frequency sensitive.
Octave Band Levels Sounds with frequencies in the 5,000-10,000 Hz
More detail is required of the frequency dis- range are the easiest to hear; sounds with very
tribution of a noise than provided by an low frequencies are the hardest. Hearing loss
A-weighted measurement. Measurements from exposure to noise is frequency sensitive.
are made with filters subdividing sounds over the
entire audible range into standardized frequency Direction of Sound
bands, permitting the pressure levels of only the Sound is mostly directional, meaning that the
sound within each subdivision to be measured. sound tends to move more in one direction
Each filter spans an octave; that is, the upper fre- than another.
quency limit is twice the lower limit as shown in
Figure 5.3. Sound levels in each octave are meas- The contour of the sound wave can be complex.
ured in decibels and are referred to as octave By measuring the sound pressure level three
band levels. dimensionally around the engine, the contour can
be determined (see Figure 5.4).
It is not only the source of the sound which will
give the direction, but also any kind of reflective
surface in the area of the engine, i.e. floor, walls
or ceiling.

LEBW1414-00 68
 Figure 5.6 shows the versatility of the decibel sys-
tem. Although calculations are made on the basis
of sound power, the system uses measured or
calculated sound pressures. Use the difference
in the pressure levels of two sounds to find how
their combined level exceeds the higher of the
Engine
two. First adjust the levels for the distances from
the source to the spot where the noises are being
added. To add a third level, use the same process
to combine it with the total of the first two.
3

Decibels added to higher of two noises

2.5
CONTOUR OF A SOUND WAVE

to obtain total in dB
Figure 5.4 2

1.5
Noise Addition
When standing by an engine, the noise heard 1
from other engines operating in the same area
will depend on the spacing of the engines and .5

where the person is in relation to the spacing. 0

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
A chart showing the combined effect of up to ten
equal sound sources is shown in Figure 5.5. Difference between two noises in dB

10 ADDITION OF UNEQUAL SOUNDS

Increase in sound pressure
dB or dB(A) Figure 5.6
8

Sound Level Conversions

Increase in dB or dB(A)

6 Sound level information is presented both in

terms of sound power level, SWL, dB(A), and
sound pressure level, SPL, dB(A). SWL is the total
4 sound power being radiated from a source, and
its magnitude is independent of the distance from
the source. Relative loudness comparison between
2
engines is simply a comparison of their sound
power levels at equivalent operating conditions.
0 When the sound power level (SWL) is known, the
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Number of sources sound pressure level (SPL) at any distance from
a point source (such as exhaust noise) can be
ADDITION OF EQUAL SOUNDS calculated.
Figure 5.5

69 LEBW1414-00
The equation for determining the sound pressure Noise Exposure
level of exhaust noise without any correction for
ambient temperature and pressure, is: As mentioned before, exposure to excessive
noise causes permanent hearing damage and
Sound Pressure Level, SPL dB(A) = adversely affects working efficiency and com-
Sound Power Level, SWL dB(A) – 10 2 Log 10 (CπD2)
fort. Recognizing this, the U.S. Government cre-
Where C = 2 For exhaust source adjacent to a ated the Occupational Safety and Health Act
flat surface, such as a horizontal (OSHA) which established limits for industrial
exhaust pipe adjacent to a flat roof. environments.
or C = 4 For exhaust source some distance When an individual’s daily noise exposure, des-
from surrounding surfaces, such as ignated D(8), is composed of two or more peri-
a vertical exhaust stack some dis- ods of noise at different levels, the combined
tance above roof. effect is calculated by: D(8) = (C1/T1) + (C2/T2)
+ ... + (Cn/Tn). Where Cn is duration of expo-
D = Distance from exhaust noise
sure at a specified sound level and Tn is total time
source (m).
of exposure permitted at a specified sound level
For C = 4 = SPL = SWL - 20 Log10 D - 10.99 (see Figure 5.7). The noise exposure is accept-
SPL measurement requires only a simple sound able when D(8) is equal to or less than 1.
level meter. However, the sum of sound waves Duration of Allowable
arriving from every direction depends on the Daily Exposure Level
acoustic characteristics of the environment and (hours) dB(A)
varies with position relative to the noise source. 8 90
SPL cannot be used to describe the strength of a 6 92
noise source without specifying relative position 4 95
and room acoustic properties of the test envi- 3 97
ronment. A disadvantage is that sound pressure 2 100
level conversion is valid for a point source only. 1.5 102
It cannot be used for mechanical noise since the 1 105
source (overall engine) is quite large. 0.5 110
0.25 115
If the sound pressure level of a point source at
some distance is known, the sound pressure PERMISSIBLE NOISE EXPOSURES
level at another distance can be calculated using
Figure 5.7
this formula:
SPL2 = SPL1 – 20 2 Log10 (D2 ÷ D1)
Where: SPL1 = known sound pressure level,
dB(A)
SPL2 = desired sound pressure level,
dB(A)
D1 = known distance, ft. (m)
D2 = desired distance, ft. (m)

LEBW1414-00 70
 TMI DATA

TMI contains the specific noise values (SPL) for Exhaust

the specific engine at different ratings. Various Sound pressure level data is recorded with the
definitions are used and most can be found under mechanical sound source isolated.
“HELP” in TMI.
Measurements
Free Field
The instrumentation used are Larsen/Davis and
Free field means that it is a 100% open area with- Hewlett-Packard. All measurements are for “with-
out any kind of sound reflections or other modi- out” radiator fan arrangements.
fying factors.
Tolerances for the overall and for the octave band
Sound Pressure Level, SPL, — data is shown below:
Mechanical or Exhaust Overall Plus or minus 2 dB(A)
Sound pressure level is presented under two 60 Hz Plus or minus 5 dB(A)
index headings: mechanical or exhaust. 125 Hz Plus or minus 5 dB(A)
250 Hz Plus or minus 4 dB(A)
Over one thousand data points per engine are
500 Hz Plus or minus 3 dB(A)
used to prepare this data. There are eight octave
1000 Hz Plus or minus 2 dB(A)
bands and one overall reading taken at four
2000 Hz Plus or minus 2 dB(A)
engine speeds, four loads, three distances, and
4000 Hz Plus or minus 2 dB(A)
four positions around the engine.
8000 Hz Plus or minus 2 dB(A)
Mechanical The confidence level of the above data is 99.73%,
Sound pressure level data is obtained by oper- which means that only 27 out of each 10,000
ating the engine in an open “free” field and engines measured of the same configuration as
recording sound pressure levels at a given dis- listed could fall outside of the nominal values plus
tance. The data is recorded with the exhaust the tolerances shown for the same engine, the
sound source isolated. repeatability tolerance is ±1 dB(A).

ENGINE INSTALLATIONS

Engine packages include an engine and some in a building or area that is noise sensitive. Since
piece of driven equipment, such as a generator internal combustion engines produce high noise
or a compressor. Guidelines for installation design levels at low frequencies, many traditional noise
are provided, along with information on using control approaches are relatively ineffective.
noise data on Caterpillar units from TMI. Every aspect of facility design must therefore
be reviewed with special emphasis on low-fre-
Some installations require very little noise abate-
quency attenuation characteristics in order to
ment (for example, a remote facility far from peo-
meet site criteria.
ple). Very sensitive installations, on the other
hand, may require extensive noise abatement A typical approach to designing an engine instal-
measures. Because of the variety of noise crite- lation is as follows:
ria that may apply to a given site, it is impossi- • Recognize the special requirements of engine
ble to provide a description of abatement installations. The first step is to become
measures meeting all site criteria. It is the respon- aware of the special noise characteristics of
sibility of the facility designer to ensure that the engine installations. Possible sources, paths,
specific criteria of the site are met. and receivers of large-engine noise are
It is strongly advised that a noise control expert reviewed.
be involved in the facility design process from
the beginning if the engine unit is to be installed
71 LEBW1414-00
• Identify site noise criteria. For example, is the
installation in a remote or a populated area?
Is it within a building sensitive to noise (for
example, a laboratory or a hospital)? What •
regulations, standards, or restrictions apply
to noise? The noise criteria form an essen-
tial part of the design goals. Since criteria
vary from site to site, all the criteria that apply
to a particular site cannot be identified. How-
ever, some guidelines for site noise criteria
are provided.
Identify and select appropriate noise abate-
ment measures. Guidelines for attenuation of
noise, both through commercially available
equipment and through facility construction,
are provided.

NOISE CONTROL

Noise can be either airborne or structure-borne stiffness) may coincide with pure-tone frequency
transmitted. Airborne noise is transmitted through components of the engine noise, resulting in very
air. Structure-borne noise is vibration transmit- efficient transfer of energy. Conventional build-
ted through a structure; typically supporting the ing acoustics generally is based on statistical
engine. Noise control methods are different for descriptions of noise, and therefore does not
the two sources. Noise control refers to appro- address resonance effects.
priate technology used for noise attenuation to For some installations, airborne noise must be
acceptable levels. controlled at several receiver points: inside the
Noise criteria at various frequencies for typical engine room; in other rooms in the building; and
areas are shown in Figure 5.8. outside the building. The simplest way to reduce
airborne noise within a building is through good
Airborne Noise Control building layout. Equipment rooms should be sit-
uated far from sensitive receiver locations in the
Airborne noise control is a straightforward and building. This takes advantage of the fact that
well-developed area compared with structure- propagating sound energy diminishes with dis-
borne noise control. There is abundant infor- tance from the source. In addition, there are two
mation available on sound absorption and other methods of controlling airborne noise: with
transmission properties of common construction high transmission loss walls and with absorption.
materials, and there are accepted and proven
procedures for applying that information. It is helpful to review some terminology before
discussing the sound transmission characteris-
However, it is important to recognize that much tics of walls. The transmission loss (TL) of a par-
of the conventional information and procedures tition is a measure of the ratio of energy incident
were developed for higher-frequency noise, and on the wall to that transmitted through the wall,
thus may not be appropriate for engine units, expressed in dB. The less relative sound trans-
which produce strong low-frequency acoustic mitted through the wall, the higher the TL of the
energy. For example, structural and acoustic wall. TL is a function of frequency.
resonances (conditions of minimum dynamic

Octave Bands in Cycles Per Second 31.5 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
Highly Critical Hospital or
Residential Zone 71 63 44 37 35 34 33 33 33
Night, Residential 73 69 52 44 39 38 38 38 38
Day, Residential 76 71 59 50 44 43 43 43 43
Commercial 81 75 65 58 54 50 47 44 43
Industrial-Commercial 81 77 71 64 60 58 56 55 54
Industrial 87 85 81 75 71 70 68 66 66
Ear Damage Risk 112 108 100 95 94 94 94 94 94

NOISE CRITERIA
Figure 5.8
LEBW1414-00 72
The sound transmission class (STC) of a partition blocks filled with sand to house the generator set.
is a single-number rating calculated from the par- In addition, the unit must incorporate vibration iso-
tition TL. A reference contour is adjusted against lation techniques. A rough guide comparing var-
the measured TL data, and the STC rating equals ious isolation methods is illustrated in Figure 5.9.
the value of the adjusted contour at 500 Hz. The Completely enclosed engines are impractical due
STC rating does not include information in fre- to openings required for pipes, ducts, and venti-
quency bands below 125 Hz. This rating is use- lation. Enclosures with numerous openings rarely
ful for designing walls that provide insulation attain over 20 dB(A) attenuation.
against the sounds of speech and music; it is
inappropriate for industrial machinery with low- Approximate
sound level
frequency energy such as engine units. TL data reduction
should be used instead, whenever possible. dB(A)
Original 0
machine
In typical partitions, sounds at higher frequen-
cies are attenuated more than sounds at lower
frequencies. The highest transmission loss val-
Vibration
ues are found in cavity wall (two-leaf) construc- isolators
2
tions, where the two separate wall layers are well
isolated. The transmission loss values increase
with the masses of the individual leafs, the depth Baffle 5
of the airspace, and the characteristics of any
sound-absorptive material in the airspace.
It should be noted that noise leaks can severely Absorption
material 5
degrade the performance of a partition. Materials only
are tested for their transmission loss character-
istics in a controlled laboratory setting, with all Rigid
edges sealed. But in typical construction, sound sealed 15-20
enclosure
leaks may occur at the edges of the wall, at open-
ings for pipes or electrical outlets, and across
shared ceilings (so-called flanking paths). A wall Enclosure,
with a leakage area equal to 0.01% of that of the and
isolators
25-30

wall area cannot exceed STC = 40, no matter

how high the STC of the wall construction.
Enclosure,
A partition may include elements with various absorption
35-40
transmission loss characteristics, for example, and
isolators
windows and doors. The transmission loss of the
partition must be calculated taking all elements
into consideration. Double
walled
To estimate the total airborne noise transmission enclosure,
absorption
60-80

loss of a facility, subtract the noise value for each and isolators
receiver from the estimated room-average sound
pressure level. If there is more than one space, ILLUSTRATION OF ISOLATION METHODS
the sum of the individual contributions must not Figure 5.9
exceed the criterion.

Mechanical Noise Intake Noise

Many techniques for isolating generator set vibra-
tions are applicable to mechanical noise isolation.
Modest noise reductions result from attention to
noise sources, i.e., reducing fan speeds, coating
casting areas, and ducting air flows. But for atten-
uation over 10 dB(A), units must be totally iso-
lated. One effective method utilizes concrete
73
Intake noise attenuation is achieved through
either air cleaner elements or intake silencers.
Noise attenuation due to various air cleaners and
silencers can be supplied by the component
manufacturer.
LEBW1414-00
Exhaust Noise To determine the DIL required by a particular
application, information is required on the actual
Exhaust noise is typically airborne. Exhaust noise
(unsilenced) and desired noise levels at the emis-
attenuation is commonly achieved with a silencer
sion point. The difference between these values
typically capable of reducing exhaust noise
is the silencer DIL. The desired source level is
15 dB(A) when measured 10 ft. (3.3 m) perpen-
determined from the criteria governing the site.
dicular to the exhaust outlet. Locating it near the
engine minimizes transmission of sound to the When used to attenuate exhaust noise, the
exhaust piping. Since the number of cylinders silencer must be sized to accommodate the spec-
and engine speeds result in varied exhaust fre- ified volume of flow without imposing excessive
quencies, specific effects of mufflers must be pre- backpressure. The flow area for a given back-
dicted by the muffler manufacturer. pressure can be calculated from the engine
exhaust flow (CFM) and the exhaust tem-
Silencers/Mufflers perature. The pressure drop will determine the
Silencers are used to attenuate airborne noise in required size of the silencer.
piping and duct systems. Their effectiveness gen-
Sound Absorption Treatments
erally is frequency sensitive, so it is essential that
they be matched to the frequency content of the Acoustically absorptive surfaces convert acoustic
noise. There are two major categories of silencers; energy into heat and are generally described by
dissipative and reactive. Dissipative silencers use sound absorption coefficients in octave bands.
absorptive, fibrous material to dissipate energy Absorptive surfaces may be used to reduce the
as heat. They are effective only for high fre- reverberant (reflected) sound field within a room.
quency applications (i.e., 500 to 8000 Hz). As mentioned above, reducing the reverberant
field within a room can also reduce the noise
Reactive silencers, on the other hand, use a
field outside the room. It should be noted that
change in cross-sectional area to reflect noise
absorptive materials do not attenuate the direct
back to the source. They are typically used
sound field.
for low-frequency applications (such as internal
combustion engines), and they may incorporate The absorption of a room may be estimated on
perforated tubes to increase broadband per- an octave-band basis from the absorption coef-
formance. The effectiveness of a reactive silencer ficients and the area of each room surface (ceil-
depends on its diameter, volume, and overall ing, walls, and floor). Alternatively, the room
design. Multi-chamber silencers provide maximum absorption may be determined through rever-
sound attenuation with some flow restriction. beration time measurements. Using this infor-
Straight-through silencers offer negligible flow mation and the source sound power data, the
restriction with slightly lower sound attenuation. noise reduction that can be obtained by adding
absorption to a room may be determined.
Stack silencers are designed to be inserted directly
Information on the absorption coefficients of a
into a stack and withstand a harsh environment.
material or element may be obtained from the
Finally, some manufacturers offer combination
manufacturer.
heat-recovery silencers for hot gas exhaust.
A wide variety of commercially available sound
Most manufacturers offer silencer dynamic
absorbing elements are available for almost every
insertion loss (DIL) information in octave bands
application. Ceiling treatments include lay-in tiles
from 63 to 8000 Hz, tested in accordance with
or boards (for suspended ceilings), tiles that can
ASTM E-477. DIL is the difference in sound level
be directly affixed to the ceiling surface, and
with and without a silencer installed in pipe or
suspended absorbers. Acoustic wall panels range
duct with air flow. Some manufacturers rate
from “architectural” panels with attractive finishes
silencers as being “industrial”, “commercial”, or
to perforated metal panels filled with absorbing
“residential” grade; in such a case, the DIL of
materials. Concrete blocks with slotted faces and
the silencer should still be requested in order to
acoustical fill may be used to add sound absorp-
determine the grade of silencer most suitable for
tion to normal concrete block wall construction.
the installation.

LEBW1414-00 74
Sound absorbing elements are selected on
the basis of their sound absorption coefficient in
the octave bands of interest. In addition, the ele-
ments must survive their environment, be easy to
maintain, and offer acceptable flame spread
properties.
Enclosures and Barriers
Enclosures and barriers block and reflect direct-
radiated sound from a noise source. A barrier
provides a “shadow zone” of sound attenuation
between the source and the receiver, much as
light casts a shadow behind a wall. Full enclosures
may be used around the source or around the
receiver (e.g., personnel in affected areas). Partial
barriers may be used to protect noise sensitive
areas, by locating receivers in the shadow zone.
The effectiveness of a barrier in blocking noise
transmitted through it is a function of its sound
transmission characteristics. Both enclosures and
barriers should be lined with absorptive material
to be fully effective. In the case of an enclosure
without absorption, the reverberant field inside
the enclosure can greatly increase the interior
sound pressure so that noise outside the enclo-
sure is also increased. In the case of a barrier
without absorption, the noise is simply reflected
elsewhere. Transmission loss and absorption are
the main selection criteria for barriers and enclo-
sures, and each is a function of frequency.
Openings in enclosures should be acoustically
treated, for maximum effectiveness. Also, when
using sound barriers it is important to control
“flanking path” (sound paths around the barrier).
There are many types of commercially available
enclosures and barriers. Complete enclosures for
specific types of mechanical equipment are avail-
able, some of which include silenced air inlets/exits
and a reactive silencer for exhaust noise. Several
types of modular panels are available that may
include sound absorbing material on one or both
sides of the panel. Outdoor barriers, designed to
resist wind and seismic forces, are also available
to block or reflect noise outdoors.
Along with acoustical performance, practical
issues must be considered in using barriers or
enclosures. Engine enclosures require ventila-
tion to dissipate the heat that builds up within the
enclosure. The enclosure must be accessible for
maintenance and inspection and may require
panic latches on doors. Acoustic materials within
the enclosure must be fire-resistant.
75
Structure-borne Noise Control
The purpose of a vibration isolation system
(whether simple or compound), or a wave bar-
rier, is to control the transmission of structure-
borne noise from the engine unit to the building
structure, either directly or through the ground.
Those measures are intended to control noise
close to the source, where control measures gen-
erally are most effective. However, even with
effective isolation mounting of the engine unit it
still may be necessary to provide additional struc-
ture-borne noise attenuation in the building
construction. The simplest way to attenuate
structure-borne noise along a path (at least con-
ceptually) is to increase the distance between the
source and receiver, since the amplitude of struc-
ture-borne noise decreases with increasing dis-
tance from the vibration source. The attenuation
of noise in concrete-frame buildings has been
found to be about 5 dB per floor for frequencies
up to 1000 Hz. Attenuation for vibrations travel-
ing along continuous concrete floor slabs typi-
cally range from 1.5 to 2 dB/meter. In general,
there is less attenuation along horizontal build-
ing structures.
Another way to attenuate structure-borne noise
is through structural discontinuities. A disconti-
nuity, or impedance mismatch, causes a reflec-
tion of energy back toward the source, thereby
controlling noise transmission. Such discontinu-
ities are usually filled with a resilient material to
prevent debris falling into and “shorting out” the
gap. Semirigid fiberglass board is normally used
to fill wall gaps, while asphalt-impregnated fiber-
glass board is normally used between on-grade
slabs, foundations, and footings. Many times,
large buildings already incorporate expansion
joints to allow for thermal expansion and con-
traction. These may be used to attenuate struc-
ture-borne noise by placing the source and
receivers on opposite sides of the expansion joint.
It is essential that construction elements, pipes,
or any other rigid connections do not bridge these
discontinuities.
In addition to the source and the path, receiver
locations can also be treated to control structure-
borne noise in some situations. For example,
a “floating floor” construction may be used to
isolate the receiver (e.g., a person or some piece
of vibration-sensitive equipment) from building
vibration.
LEBW1414-00
Foundation path. Especially in this area, designers are strongly
urged to consult qualified professional noise con-
Foundation Design is a very important and often
trol engineers for noise-sensitive installations.
overlooked aspect of large-engine unit facility
design. Large-engine units, as noted above, emit Engine units usually are mounted on concrete
relatively strong low frequency energy — struc- pad or metal deck foundations, using the spring
ture-borne as well as airborne. If the facility design mounts between the unit base and the founda-
does not account for both forms of noise, it is likely tion. Some of the smaller engine units come with
that site noise criteria will not be met. (Foundation isolators between the engine/generator and base
design for installations where noise is not an issue and do not require additional spring mounts for
is discussed in the Mounting section.) the unit base. Since the unit base provides suffi-
cient stiffness for alignment and relative deflec-
Unfortunately, structure-borne transmission and
tion of the engine and the driven equipment,
radiation is much more difficult to analyze than
there is no need to rely on the foundation for addi-
airborne noise. Whereas it may be relatively
tional stiffness. Thus a foundation that is ade-
straightforward to estimate the airborne noise
quate for supporting the static load of the unit
transmission loss of the building structure and
will be satisfactory for many installations where
various types of noise control systems, and
noise is not a critical concern.
thereby assess the adequacy of a facility design,
reliable quantitative estimates of structure-borne In installations where noise is a major concern,
noise transmission may be extremely difficult or attention must be directed toward all elements of
impossible to obtain with current technology, the isolation system and to the structural paths
particularly at low frequencies. Thus, the usual between the foundation and the rest of the build-
approach for noise-sensitive installations is to ing structure. Adequate isolation often can be
over-design for structure-borne noise, to ensure achieved with a simple system, but some instal-
that it is not a problem. This means taking care lations may require a compound isolation system.
to control every possible structure-borne noise

LEBW1414-00 76
 GOVERNORS

The purpose of the governor is to control the

diesel engine speed by regulating the amount of AIR-FUEL
fuel injected. LOCATION FOR RATIO
SHUTOFF CONTROL
Diesel engines that do not have to meet emis- SOLENOID
sions standards typically utilize a hydra-mechan-
ical (or hydraulic) governor and mechanically
actuated unit fuel injection systems. This gover-
nor regulates speed by controlling the position of
the fuel control rack. The speed control lever on
the governor is positioned by the operator using
some type of control lever, cable, or remote air SHUTOFF
actuator. Devices such as air-fuel ratio controls, SHAFT
shutdown solenoids, and manual shutoffs also
THROTTLE
operate on the governor. SHAFT
Most diesel engines that meet emissions stan-
dards utilize an electronic governoring and con-
trol system. The Electronic Control Module (ECM) SPEED DROOP GOVERNOR
is engine mounted and used in conjunction with
Figure 6.1
unit fuel injectors that are electronically controlled.
This governor regulates speed by controlling the Speed droop hydra-mechanical governors avail-
activation of the electronic solenoid on the unit able on Caterpillar Engines are not all the same
fuel injector. Speed setting can be remotely set in construction, but their speed droop character-
with various electrical devices. Functions such istics are the same. They are generally available
as air-fuel ratio, shutdown function, and altitude in approximately 3% or 8% versions, Figure 6.1.
sensing are electronically controlled in the ECM.
See the section on Electronic Governing and Load sharing between engines —
Control System for further information. Mechanical rigs
Speed Droop Governors Engines on a direct drive mechanical compound
must have load sharing, i.e., they must have speed
If the speed of an engine drops from no load to full droop. Without droop, it is not possible to bal-
load operation, the governor is said to have speed ance the load between engines, with the result that
droop. Speed droop is expressed as a percentage one engine will tend towards full fuel and the other
of full load speed. For example, a 10% speed engine will tend towards fuel off. This is true even
droop governor with a full load speed of 1200 RPM for ECM controlled engines which have an
would have a no load speed of 1320 RPM. adjustable feature called Top Engine Limit, TEL.
TEL equipped engines provide speed droop
under certain operating conditions, but not under
the range of conditions encountered on direct
drive mechanical compounds.
Engines on a mechanical compound, but with
each engine equipped with a torque converter, can
operate successfully with Zero speed droop in the
governor. The “slip” in the torque converter allows
the load to balance between engines, assuming
the engine speed settings are close to each other.

77 LEBW1414-00
Load sharing between engines — accomplished through the air actuator. The air
Generator sets actuators operate between 10 psi to 60 psi
(69 kPa to 414 kPa), Figure 6.2.
Lite plants on mechanical rigs are typically 3%
speed droop. They can be 0% speed droop if they The air line to the driller’s console must be prop-
are not operated in parallel, and equipped with erly sized for best hoisting response. Too small
optional hydraulic or electric governors. or too large reduces response rate.
Generator sets for SCR drill rigs require 0% (or Customer supplied shutoff and vent valve are rec-
isochronous) operation. This is accomplished ommended as it is an aid during engine servicing.
with a load sharing isochronous electric gover-
SHUTOFF AND
nor. These are typically referred to as Wood- VENT VALVE
To DRILLER’S
ward 2301A load sharing governors — or CONSOLE
equivalents. The newer electronic controlled AIR
engines have a load sharing module available, ACTUATOR
but this module is sensitive to the extreme elec-
trical noise encountered on SCR drill rigs, plus it
cannot be used to parallel with older engines that
are controlled with “master/slave” type load shar-
ing control systems. For 3500B engines for SCR Figure 6.2
rig service, Caterpillar therefore recommends the
use of the “direct fuel control” attachment. This Governor Force and Motion Data
allows the engine to be controlled with the 2301A
load sharing governor — or equivalent. The TMI contains information on (1) arc of
motion and (2) force level required to operate
the governor speed control on each engine
Hydra-mechanical model. This allows the designer to select or
Speed Droop Governor design an appropriate cable control, air control or
Engines equipped with speed droop governors some lever-link arrangement if a factory supplied
can be shut down by rotating the hand throttle unit is not available.
shaft beyond a detent into a fuel off position. A
manual shutoff shaft and provisions for mount- Design for Linkage Over-Travel
ing an optional DC shutoff solenoid are available Non-factory supplied control mechanisms must
on most Cat Engines. be designed with a stop which prevents over-
The manual shutoff shaft can have a lever loading the governor throttle lever when it
installed on it to provide a mechanical or pneu- reaches its limit of travel. But this causes a prob-
matic method of stopping the engine whereas lem when the stop on the control linkage is
the solenoid option provides for remote electric reached before full speed position of governor
shut down of the engine. lever is reached. This causes power complaints
because the engine is prevented from operating
When operated at less than rated full load speed, at rated power, because the linkage did not allow
the governor speed droop percentage increases the engine to develop rated speed.
because of the reduced flyweight force. Governor
springs should be changed to provide proper The best approach is to use a spring-loaded
droop. If not changed, engine power, response, breakover governor throttle lever which accepts
and load sharing will be reduced. motion of the control linkage beyond the travel of
the governor throttle shaft. It is easy to adjust cor-
Air-fuel ratio controls are available as standard rectly and visually check that the governor speed
or optional equipment for speed droop gover- control lever will travel its full range.
nors. This control minimizes smoke when accel-
erating or applying load to engine. They are Engine Shutdown Control
recommended for workover, service rigs, and
drawworks applications. Engine shutdown is done by shutting off the fuel
supply in some manner. Usually this is done with
Air actuator governor controls are available for a direct mechanical connection which pulls the
many engines. Engine shutdown cannot be rack to shutoff, or with a solenoid which does the
LEBW1414-00 78
same thing. Safety shutoffs are discussed more
completely in another chapter.
The 3300 and 3400 hydra-mechanical gover-
nors are available with an attachment 24V DC
speed trim adjusting motor. This feature is often
desirable on generator set service, Figure 6.3.

MECHANICAL
SHUTOFF LEVER
HANDLE FOR MODE
SELECTION AND
MANUAL CONTROL

SHUTOFF
SOLENOID

GOVERNOR
CONTROL MOTOR

LINKAGE

Figure 6.3

Isochronous Governors
Isochronous governors are usually referred to as
“constant speed” or “0% speed droop.” Their no-
load and full-load speeds are the same.
The isochronous governors used by Caterpillar are
the Woodward PSG and 3161. These governors
are serviced by Caterpillar, Figures 6.4 and 6.5.
Although these governors are isochronous, they
can be adjusted to provide 3% speed droop,
(8% on 3161). The speed droop adjustment is
external on the PSG and internal on the 3161.
PSG GOVERNOR
Figure 6.4

The PSG governor, which operates on engine oil,

is available for smaller generator set engines and
is normally supplied with an electric speed
changing motor.
The 3161 is supplied on the 3508, 3512, and
3516 for mechanical rig service. It has features
79 LEBW1414-00
similar to the Caterpillar speed droop governors.
The 3161 is supplied with a 10 to 60 psi (69 to
414 kPa) air actuator for drill rig service.
A shutoff and vent air valve should be added into
the governor air signal line near the engine,
Figure 6.2. This allows a serviceman to hold the
engine at low speed, if desired.

PNEUMATIC AIR-FUEL
SPEED RATIO
CONTROL CONTROL

NONPARALLEL CONTROL (STANDBY)

THROTTLE Figure 6.6
SHAFT

Electric Load Sharing Governors

A Woodward 2301A electric load-sharing gover-
nor system is available on most Caterpillar
Engines, Figure 6.9, including 3500B SCR rig
units with the “direct fuel control” feature added.
It is isochronous and provides automatic and
3161 GOVERNOR proportional load division between paralleled AC
Figure 6.5 generators and still maintain isochronous speed.
An EG3P or EG6PC actuator is mounted on the
Additional Isochronous Governor Features engine, Figure 6.6. They require a 0 to 200 mA
Engines equipped with isochronous governors input signal. The 3500B with “direct fuel control”
cannot be shut down by use of the governor con- also requires this same 0 to 200 mA input signal,
trol. These engines contain a manual shutoff pro- but includes a coil that simulates the current input
vision. PSG-equipped diesel engines have a requirements of the EG3P or EG6PC actuator.
hand-operated shutoff lever mounted next to the The load sharing 2301A is recommended for
governor. Diesel engines equipped with the 3161 SCR drives. Isochronous hydraulic governors
governors have a hand-operated shutoff plunger cannot maintain proper load division during the
lever located near the governor. large load swings when tripping (operating the
drawworks).
2301A Standby Governor
Speed adjustment from the face of the switchgear
For standby generator sets, a 2301A Governor is can be provided by using a sealed 50 ohm rheo-
standard on most engines. The control box does stat. Engine shutdown from the switchgear can
not allow parallel operation, Figure 6.6. This be accomplished by connecting a pushbutton
governor provides faster response than speed across the min-fuel terminals of the governor,
droop governors. An EG3P or EG6PC actuator except on 3500B series. A manual shutoff is also
is mounted on the engine, Figure 6.7. provided at the engine.
SCR control systems, provided by many SCR
system suppliers, contain a load-sharing gover-
nor integral with the switchgear circuitry and is
referred to as a “master/slave” control system.
Though these systems provide essentially the
same features as the 2301A Governor, Caterpillar
is not responsible for aspects of these systems.
LEBW1414-00 80
Duplex mud pumps cause a cyclic load fluctua-
tion occurring at the pump stroke speed. This
cyclic load will cause a cyclic reading on the fre-
quency meter plus a cyclic motion of the engine
fuel control.
EG3P or EG6PC ACTUATOR
Figure 6.7
2301A Governor Control Unit
Installation/Environment
Mounting
Mount control unit at a location of minimum
vibration with four 1/4-20 bolts (6.4 mm) (length
as required) through the 5/16 in. (7.9 mm)
mounting holes in the plate assembly.
For ease of adjustment, control unit should be
mounted so switchgear electrical indicating
instruments are readable when making governor
adjustments.
For stable speed control, control unit ambient
temperature must remain constant and be within
a –60°F to +150°F range (–50°C to +65°C). As
a general rule, mount the voltage regulator higher
than the governor to minimize temperature
buildup within the switchgear cubicle.
Do not expose control unit to intense AC mag-
netic fields like electrical buses or circuit break-
ers. Speed droop or actuator instability can occur
due to the erroneous signals picked up. A solid
metallic barrier should be used between the gov-
ernor compartment and circuit breaker and/or
bus area.

NOTE A: Lube oil idle speed switch maintains

low idle speed until oil pressure
closes switch. Another switch may be
added in series for low speed control
at the switchgear.
NOTE B: Approximately 1% speed change per
20 ohms. 250 ohms maximum remote
speed settling potentiometer.
NOTE C: 20K droop potentiometer. Leave open
if not used.
NOTE D: 2 second acceleration time per
50 MFD. Leave open if not used.
NOTE E: Shielded wires should be twisted
pairs.
NOTE F: Ground battery negative to switch-
gear frame and neutral bus.
NOTE G: Run shielded cable from component
to component. Do not run through ter-
minal points. Ground shielded cable
at control box only.
NOTE H: Installed on engine by Caterpillar Inc.
NOTE J: Speed range of magnetic pickup
1800-5400 hz.
NOTE K: All external wiring to be furnished
by customer.

WIRING DIAGRAM — STANDBY CONTROL

Figure 6.8
81 LEBW1414-00
Wiring used only during undervoltage or dead bus con-
ditions. Normally, the battery charger float charges
Since the 2301A system is designed to be sen-
the battery and operates the governors. Recom-
sitive to small signal changes, certain input lines
mended system contains one battery set and two
must be shielded from picking up stray signals
battery chargers. Battery chargers should be
from adjacent equipment. Shield all lines indi-
fused separately and on the emergency genera-
cated in the wiring diagram, Figures 6.8 and
tor circuit, if so equipped. If battery maintenance
6.10, and do not run shielded lines in the same
presents a problem, a nickel cadmium battery
conduit with heavy current carrying cables.
should be used. A nickel cadmium battery rat-
As Figure 6.10 indicates, the paralleling lines ing equivalent to 2 ampere-hours (7200 Coulomb)
should be closed through contacts of an auxiliary per engine is sufficient for four hours running
relay. The recommended contacts are sealed, without either battery charger operating. With
mercury wetted, dry reed or equivalent. lead-acid batteries, a capacity of 10 ampere-
Electrical noise can be picked up if the parallel- hours (36 000 Coulomb) per engine is required.
ing lines go direct to the circuit breaker. Also, cir- Condition of control batteries should be periodi-
cuit breaker auxiliary contacts sometimes provide cally checked. Lead-acid batteries should be
poor connections to the extremely small mV/mA changed on a regular schedule.
signals that flow through paralleling lines.
It may be desirable to have a low voltage alarm
To minimize electrical interference, the required set at 22V on a 24V system.
shielded cable must be run from component to
On land rigs, the battery should be disconnected
component, not through terminal points. All
during rig moves to prevent discharge.
shields must be grounded only at the control box
because it is a ready reference point. Shielded A battery charger or Power Pak by itself is not
cable must not have an outside metal sheath recommended. The governor is unstable during
which could cause a multiple ground. The bat- low voltage transients. Also during a dead bus
tery negative and shielding of various cables must condition, engines would shut down due to no
connect to a common point to provide effective governor power input.
grounding. See the section labeled Electrolytic If electric starting is used on standby units, that
and Galvanic Action Protection for further infor- standby battery can be used to operate that gov-
mation when in a marine environment. ernor; however, no other engine governor or
As with any electrical component, the control unit starter can be connected to it. The voltage dip
must be mounted in a dust-free environment. during cranking will cause instability on any 2301A
equipped engines that are running. If the standby
Wiring to governor components should be
generator will run in parallel with main generat-
16 gauge or larger stranded wire.
ing units, cranking battery must be separate from
A control battery and battery charger are required control battery.
for the governor system. The control battery is

PARALLEL CONTROL (LOADSHARE)

Figure 6.9
LEBW1414-00 82
NOTE A: NOTE E: NOTE I:
All external wiring, contacts and potentiome- Load sensor input voltage (terminals 1 Governor may be operated in parallel, without
ters to be furnished by customer. through 3) may be either 120 or 208 volt AC by carrying load if required, by wiring load shar-
simple reconnection of load sensor trans- ing control switch as shown (switch shown in
NOTE B: formers. (Reconnection Terminal Board). All non-load sharing position).
Run shielded cable from component to com- units shipped for 208-volt AC connection.
ponent, not through terminal points. Ground NOTE J:
shielded cable at control end only. NOTE F: A switch may be connected and labeled as:
On 3500B with “Direct Fuel Control,” this con-
NOTE C: Position Connection
nects to terminals 01 (+) and 02 (–) of the 40
Governor paralleling contacts (terminals 10 pin connector at the bottom of the Engine 1. STOP Shutdown Switch
and 11) are closed simultaneously with gen- Instrument Panel. Note H
erator circuit breaker by an auxiliary circuit 2. LOW SPEED Ramp Switch
breaker contacts directly, but through a relay NOTE G: Note G
solenoid. Ramp switch connected to terminals 14 and 3. FULL SPEED Load Share Switch
15 is engine-mounted oil pressure switch Note I
NOTE D: which maintains low idle speed until oil pres- 4. LOAD SHARE Load Share Switch
Ground battery negative to switchgear frame sure closes switch. Another manual switch Note I
and neutral bus. may be added (in series) for low speed con-
trol at switchgear.
NOTE H:
Optional shutdown switch(es) may be con-
nected to terminals 22 and 23 for remote shut-
down at driller’s console, at switchgear, etc.

2301A WIRING DIAGRAM — LOAD SHARING CONTROL

Figure 6.10

83 LEBW1414-00
Miscellaneous various sensors and transducers, the ECM detects
unintentional grounds, shorts, and open circuits,
A load-sharing control switch can be used where
thereby saving time during diagnosis of engine
it is desired to remove load from the engine
problems. The engine’s electronics stores records
before opening the generator circuit breaker. This
of past performance. This will allow troubleshoot-
reduces wear on the circuit breaker and mini-
ers to see if operation contributed to problems.
mizes transient speed changes. In full speed posi-
tion, engine load is reduced to less than 10%. See The ECM also provides cold start modifications
Note I, Figure 6.10. to injection timing. This provides reduced smoke
and reduced engine warm-up time.
Electronic Governing and Installation wiring diagrams and programming
Control System features vary somewhat between the various
The Electronic Control Module (ECM) is a full engine models. For specific and complete infor-
range electronic governor. It is a computer and mation, consult the proper Installation guide.
has full authority over engine fuel delivery. These presently are:
Injection timing is varied as a function of operat- SENR1025-03, for 3176C, 3196, 3406E,
ing conditions to optimize engine performance 3456, 3408E & 3412E
for emissions, fuel consumption, and ease of
operation. The electronic system also includes LEMB7301-00 for 3500B series engines.
mechanical or hydraulic actuated electronically
controlled unit fuel injections (MEUI or HEUI), Alarm, Derate, Shutoff Options
the wiring harness, switches, and sensors. The The ECM monitors functions such as exhaust
personality module is the software for the ECM. temperature, air cleaner restriction, water tem-
The ECM is engine mounted and cooled with peratures, and crankcase pressure continuously.
diesel fuel. See Figure 6.11. If important parameters enter into a dangerous
condition, the engine can protectively respond in
various ways.
Alarm mode provides alarm only for monitored
engine parameters. Derate mode will alter engine
RPM or hp when specific operating parameters
are exceeded. Shutdown mode will shut down the
engine when specific operating parameters are
exceeded. For example, it may derate itself sev-
eral percent every few seconds/minutes to pro-
tect itself from unplanned down time. Consult the
specific Installation Guide for specific details.
With proper communication links and software,
real time or historical data can be accessed and
remotely displayed or analyzed.

Programming Parameters
Many programmable parameters affect engine
ECM operation. Certain parameters affecting engine
operation may be changed with an Electronic
Figure 6.11 Service Tool, (ET). Some parameters may affect
engine operation in ways an operator may not
The ECM monitors many engine parameters, and expect. Parameters are stored in the ECM and
generates diagnostic codes, as required. This may be protected from unauthorized changes by
ECM data becomes the source for the data dis- passwords. Certain parameters are accessible
played on the engine instrument panel. Electronic only with Factory Passwords. Other parameters
controlled engines have a self-diagnostic capa- are accessible with Customer Passwords. Refer to
bility. In addition to monitoring the engine with the specific Installation Guide for details.

LEBW1414-00 84
Auxiliary switch requirements
All non-Caterpillar provided switches connected
to the electronic control system must be two wire
design and externally connected to the battery
negative. Internally grounded or case grounded
switches must not be used.
Applied voltage to switches by the ECM will nor-
mally not exceed 12 VDC. Switch contact plating
should not corrode or oxidize. Gold plated switch
contacts are recommended. Normal current draw
through the switches by the ECM will not exceed
5.0 mA.
Pin Connector Requirements
All connections to the electrical control system
are through pin type connectors. Field added
wiring should be tested with a 45 N (10 lb) pull
test on each pin/wire. This test ensures the wire
was properly crimped in the pin, and the pin
properly inserted into the connector. (Do not sol-
der wiring connections.)
All unused connector socked slots must be sealed.
Wiring Harness Routing
All wiring connections have connector seals to
keep out water and other contaminants. Wiring
added should not have short radius bends or ten-
sion on the connectors. Routing of all harnesses
should ensure that connector seals are not stressed
because the harness wiring curvature is too close
to the connector. See Figure 6.12.
INCORRECT
INSTALLATION
HARNESS PULLED TOWARD CENTER
TOO CLOSE TO CONNECTOR
HARNESS PULLED UP WIRE EXITING PULLED
TOO CLOSE TO CONNECTOR UP ON CONNECTOR
INCORRECTLY
CORRECT
INSTALLATION
WIRE EXITING STRAIGHT OUT
OF CONNECTOR CORRECTLY
HARNESS CORRECTLY
ROUTED
Figure 6.12
85
Battery Circuit Requirements
and Considerations
Proper grounding for the engine electrical sys-
tems is necessary for proper performance and
reliability. Improper grounding results in unreli-
able electrical circuit paths. That may damage
main bearings, crankshaft bearing journal sur-
faces, and aluminum components. Stray electri-
cal currents can also cause electrical noise which
degrades control and system performance.
These problems are often very difficult to diag-
nose and repair.
The customer must provide an AWG 4 (or larger)
ground wire from the engine Electronics Ground
Stud to the battery negative. All ground paths
must be capable of carrying any conceivable
fault currents. An AWG 4 (or larger) wire is rec-
ommended to handle alternator currents. The
alternator and other electrical loads should be
grounded at the same point (starting motor neg-
ative or battery negative) to avoid stray electri-
cal currents. Grounding through frame members
is not recommended.
Use of an alternator or battery charger without a
battery is not recommended as a power source
for electronic engines. The battery provides noise
suppression in addition to starting capability for
the engine.
Certain smaller engines can operate on 12 VDC
systems. Larger engines require 24 VDC. The
acceptable voltage range is 20 to 28 VDC. Lower
voltage will first cause the loss of instrumenta-
tion but the engine may keep operating with the
voltage as low as the 10 VDC. This is not rec-
ommended for normal operation.
A temporary loss of power (as in one or two milli-
seconds when switching) will not affect engine
operation. A loss of DC power for a longer period
(over 0.25 second) will cause the engine to stop
running, depending upon injection duration and
other loads on the ECM.
3500B engines require a power source of 24 VDC
10 Ampere continuous, 20 Ampere intermittent,
clean electrical power source.
Welding on an Electronic Engine
Before welding near an electronic engine, the fol-
lowing precautions should be observed:
— Turn the Engine Control Switch to the OFF
position.
LEBW1414-00
— Disconnect the NEGATIVE battery cable at pre-programmed low speed. The TPS can be fit-
the battery. If a battery disconnect switch is ted with a pneumatic operator for control.
provided, open the switch.
— Disconnect the ECM harness connectors.
— Connect the welder ground cable directly to
the member being welded. Place the ground
cable clamp as close as possible to the weld
to reduce the possibility of weld current dam-
age to bearings, hydraulic components, elec-
trical components and ground straps. Do not
use electrical components, the ECM, or
Electronics Ground Stud for grounding of the
welder.
— Protect wiring from welding debris or splatter.
— Use standard welding techniques to weld the
materials together.
Suppression of Voltage Transients
Caterpillar recommends transient suppression at
the source of the transient. Inductive devices such
as relays and solenoids can generate voltage
transients on control system inputs, and degrade
electronic control system performance. Field
installed relays and solenoids should include
built-in transient suppression diodes where pos- The Direct Fuel Control disables the governor
sible. See Figure 6.13.
POWER POWER
Figure 6.13
Throttle Position Sensor —
Non-generator Sets
The Throttle Position Sensor (TPS) eliminates the
mechanical throttle and governor linkages. The
TPS utilizes operator lever movement and sends
an electrical speed signal to the engine Electronic
Control Module (ECM). The TPS signal, along
with the speed/timing signal is processed by the
ECM to control engine speed.
The TPS signal is a Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) Transient speeds are temporary excursions (dips
signal. See Figure 6.14. Note that ‘0’ signal does or overshoots) from steady-state speeds caused
not stop the engine, but lets engine operate at a by sudden imposition or detraction of load.
LEBW1414-00
THROTTLE POSITION VS. PWM INPUT
100%
(Programmed
High Idle)
Throttle
Position %
0%
(Programmed
Low Idle)
0 5 10 90 95 100
5% “Deadband” Insures engine will reach Low and High Idle
Engine drops to Low Idle and a fault is logged
SPEED CONTROL WITH PWM INPUT
Figure 6.14
Direct Fuel Control — 3500B Gen Sets
Control of 3500B gen sets is recommended with
an optional 0-200 mA engine governor conver-
sion. This provides for control by the 2301A type
load sharing control. It allows for parallel opera-
tion with non-3500B gen sets, including opera-
tion in systems with master-slave control
schemes. Also see Note F in Figure 6.10.
system in the ECM. Low idle and overspeed func-
tions are retained. 0 mA control returns the engine
to the ECM set low idle, not to engine stop.
Shutdown can be done at the engine or by wiring
in a remote routine stop switch.
Data Connections
The ECM provides output pins that are dedicated
to the communications data link. The data link is
available to share data between the ECM, elec-
tronic service tools, and electronic display mod-
ules. See the specific Installation Guide for details.
Generator Set Performance
A governor should provide a stable speed control
when the load remains constant, Figure 6.15.
This is unrelated to any particular speed, but is
merely a tolerance on speed at any steady load.
Caterpillar governors have a steady-state speed
tolerance of ± 0.33%, while Woodward governors
offer ± 0.25%.
86
Figure 6.15

Wherever a load is applied to or removed from a on a drill rig is applied by the drawworks when lift-
generator set, the engine speed rpm, voltage and ing “empty blocks.”
frequency are temporarily changed from its
steady-state condition. This temporary change Motor Starting
is called transient response. When a significant The gen set’s ability to start large AC motors
load is applied, the engine speed temporarily without large frequency or voltage dips depends
reduces (generally referred to as frequency or on the entire system. System factors include:
voltage dip) and then returns to its steady-state
condition. The degree of this dip depends on the • Available engine power
amount of active power (kW) and reactive power • Capacity of the generator
(kVAR) changes based upon total capacity and
dynamic characteristics of the generator set. On • Energy stored in the rotating inertia of the
removal of load, the engine speed increases gen set
momentarily (generally referred to as overshoot), • Acceleration of the motor and its load (motor
then returns to its steady-state condition. The characteristics).
time required for the generator set to return to its
normal steady-state speed is called recovery time. A properly sized generator will support the high
This is illustrated graphically in Figure 6.15. starting kVA (skVA) required and sustain ade-
quate output voltage for the motor so it can pro-
Generator sets on offshore rigs have to meet the duce the needed torque to accelerate its load to
transient response requirements of the various rated speed.
marine classification societies. These require-
ments are demonstrated on a resistive load bank After the initial voltage dip, it is important that
with various step load changes. the generator restore voltage to at least 90% to
develop adequate torque to accelerate its load to
In addition, jackup drill rigs can impose large AC rated speed. Full voltage starting causes the
motor block loads with their leg jacking systems. largest voltage dip.
(See the section on motor starting.) Typically,
other AC motors on land or offshore rigs do not Voltage Regulators
present significant transient response challenges
due to the size of these motors in comparison to The voltage regulator is a key component in
the engine and generator capacity. determining the amount of voltage/frequency
deviation and recovery time on the AC motor
The DC motors, powered through the SCR con- portion of the load, such as when “jacking up” a
trol system, are considered to be “soft-start.” The jackup drill rig or when performing load bank
severest transient DC load (but of short duration)

87 LEBW1414-00
acceptance testing. There are several different
types of regulators:
• Constant voltage
• Volts/Hertz (Caterpillar standard)
• 2 Volts/Hertz
• Digital Voltage Regulator (adjustable Volts/
Hertz)
A constant voltage regulator attempts to maintain
rated voltage as the load is applied. Since the
generator is maintaining rated voltage, even
though the speed has reduced, it is maintaining
the applied AC load (ekW). This results in an
increased RPM drop during large AC load changes.
Constant voltage regulators are the most com-
mon regulation system on drill rigs. Some offshore
rigs have begun to use Volts/Hertz (Volts-per-
Hertz) regulation systems to improve stability
and transient response during certain non-drilling
functions. The voltage temporarily reduces when
the speed drops during the starting of large AC
motors. This voltage reduction improves the
overall voltage and frequency recovery time.
Digital Voltage Regulators are programmable to
compensate for changes in the inertia of the
engine generator and local load requirements. It
will provide constant voltage control, with
Volts/Hertz operation when under frequency.

LEBW1414-00 88
 COOLING SYSTEMS

General Information block should be a minimum of 165°F (74°C).

Coolant will exit at 175° to 210°F (79° to 99°C),
A No. 2 diesel fuel, when mixed with the proper depending on inlet temperature, load, temper-
amount of air and compressed to the ignition tem- ature regulator, and pressure. Cooling system
perature, will produce in excess of 19,500 Btu/lb pressure determines maximum allowable tem-
of heat energy (45,5000 kJ/kg). perature. 200°F (94°C) is the maximum for non-
As a general rule, 38% of this energy will be used pressurized systems, and 210°F (99°C) is the
to produce useful work, 30% will be discharged maximum for pressurized systems.
into the exhaust system, 27% will be rejected into Jacket water temperatures are maintained high
the engine cooling system, and 5% is radiated to enough by water temperature regulators to pro-
the environment. vide efficient engine operation. Light load oper-
The cooling system has a direct effect on the ation in cold weather, particularly where engines
operation and service life of the engine. If the are not protected from wind, may result in low
cooling system is not correctly sized, does not engine operating temperatures. Extended oper-
have good maintenance, or is not operated cor- ation under these conditions may cause engine
rectly, the engine can overheat or overcool. This damage.
can shorten the engine service life and/or result Maximum jacket water temperature limits are
in poor engine performance. controlled by size of radiators or heat exchangers.
Caterpillar oilfield Engines are equipped with the
basic components required for a closed circuit Cooling System Functions
cooling system. A closed system recirculates the
Figure 7.2 shows the basic components of com-
coolant. The components are all engine mounted
mon liquid cooled engine cooling systems. These
with the exception of the water system heat
basic components are: coolant, the water pump,
exchanger or radiator. These two items may be
the engine oil cooler, coolant temperature regu-
mounted on the same oilfield base. DO NOT use
lators, the fan and the radiator. In operation, the
sea water or impure untreated water in the jacket
water pump pushes coolant through the engine
system as it causes corrosion.
oil cooler and into the cylinder block. The coolant
Caterpillar oilfield Engines are designed to oper- then flows through the cylinder block and into
ate with a jacket water temperature differential the cylinder head(s) where it flows to the hot
of approximately 18°F (10°C) measured across areas of the cylinder head(s). Additional com-
the engine under full load. Coolant entering the ponents that will transfer heat to the coolant are

STACKED CORE RADIATOR

AFTERCOOLER EXPANSION TANK
CIRCUIT JACKET WATER OUTLET

AFTERCOOLER WATER OUTLET

Figure 7.1
89 LEBW1414-00
aftercoolers, water cooled exhaust manifolds, Water Temperature Regulators
water cooled turbocharger shields and housing The thermostat (regulator) and bypass line main-
and torque converter oil coolers. After flowing tain proper operating temperature. The regula-
through the cylinder head(s), the coolant goes tor directs all or part of the water discharged from
into the coolant temperature regulator housing. the engine jacket to the cooler. The bypassed
coolant is sent to the expansion tank on heat
exchanger cooled engines or to the water pump
inlet on radiator cooled engines where it mixes
with cooled water before returning to the engine
jacket. Thermostats with higher operating tem-
peratures are available for field installation. See
the section on Lubrication Requirements for High
Sulfur Fuels. Caterpillar Engines equipped for
radiator cooling have temperature regulators in
a controlled outlet configuration, Figure 7.4.
Most Caterpillar Engines equipped for expansion
tank/heat exchanger cooling have the same tem-
Figure 7.2
perature regulators but in a controlled inlet con-
figuration, Figure 7.5. This does cause the heat
When the engine is cold, the temperature regu- exchanger to be pressurized to the higher JW
lators prevent the flow of coolant to the radiator water pump pressure.
and direct the coolant back to the water pump Operating temperature of the jacket water on
inlet. As the temperature of the coolant becomes inlet-controlled systems will be higher than that
warmer, the temperature regulators begin to open for the outlet-controlled system by the amount
and permit some flow of coolant to the radiator of the temperature rise across the engine.
or heat exchanger.
The jacket water pump has sufficient capacity to
The regulator opens to maintain the correct maintain proper flow through the engine while
engine temperature. The amount that the regu- circulating water through a heat exchanging cir-
lator opens and the percent of coolant flow to the cuit with moderate line resistance. An increase
radiator depends on the load on the engine and in pipe diameter is required when external resist-
the outside air temperature. ance reduces water flow below the required min-
Caterpillar provides a radiator or heat exchanger imum. Refer to TMI or Engine Performance book.
and expansion tank system designed to perform
satisfactorily with each engine manufactured and Aftercooler Designs
to be compatible with various power levels The engine aftercooler reduces the temperature
selected. Modifications to the cooling packages of the charge air provided by the turbocharger.
are not acceptable without approval because of This results in cooler combustion and exhaust
possible disturbance to coolant flow paths. temperatures plus reduced engine emissions.
See Figures 7.1 and 7.3 for typical external com-
Jacket Water Aftercooling (JWAC)
ponents such as heat exchangers and expansion
tanks. Figures 7.2 and 7.4 illustrate this configuration.
Aftercooler water is the engine jacket coolant. The
The expansion tank and heat exchanger perform
aftercooler temperature will be up to 210°F (99°C).
the same function as the radiator. A radiator fan
provides air flow through the cooling fins of the Separate Circuit Aftercooling (SCAC)
radiator to transfer coolant heat to the air. An
external water supply is used to accomplish heat In this configuration, the aftercooler water source
transfer when using a heat exchanger. is a separate, cooler source of treated coolant.
This configuration is typically designed for an
aftercooler inlet coolant temperature of 140°F
(60°C). 140°F (60°C) is a practical limit for most

LEBW1414-00 90
 JW TEMPERATURE
EXPANSION TANK REGULATOR AFTERCOOLER

JW HEATER AC HEAT
EXCHANGER
JW HEAT
EXCHANGER AC TEMPERATURE REGULATOR
JW PUMP AC WATER PUMP

RH VIEW LH VIEW
Figure 7.3

RADIATOR COOLING — CONTROLLED OUTLET THERMOSTATS

Figure 7.4

radiator cooled applications and provides emis- at least 140 gpm (530 L/m) with an ambient tem-
sion compliance for many engines. This is utilized perature of 86°F (30°C) and at site conditions
on the 3500B series of engines. See Figure 7.1. (including altitude considerations).
In order to ensure emissions compliance in use, Figure 7.6 shows a SCAC radiator with side-by-
optional or customer supplied radiators must be side cooling sections. This radiator configuration
capable of rejecting enough heat to allow proper can work with both suction or blower fan config-
operation at worst case site conditions and also urations. On larger engines, radiator width may
must supply 140°F (60°C) SCAC cooling water become unacceptably large.
to the aftercooler inlet, with a SCAC flow rate of
91 LEBW1414-00
 HEAT EXCHANGER COOLING — CONTROLLED INLET THERMOSTATS
Figure 7.5

OUTLET

JW THERMOSTAT

AC JW AC PUMP
RADIATOR

BYPASS
LINE
AC TEMPERATURE REGULATOR

RETURN

ENGINE DRIVEN PIPING

JW PUMP PART OF ENGINE
SUPPLIED BY PACKAGER
OR RADIATOR SUPPLIER
RADIATOR COOLING — SIDE-BY-SIDE SCAC COOLING SECTIONS
Figure 7.6

Figures 7.1 and 7.7 show an SCAC radiator with Figures 7.3 and 7.5 show the SCAC system used
stacked core cooling sections. This radiator con- with heat exchanger cooling for offshore drilling
figuration will only work with a blower fan con- power modules. Dual heat exchanger circuits
figuration. includes expansion tanks to provide venting and
filling requirements.
SCAC cooling systems include an aftercooler ther-
mostat to prevent too cold of coolant in the after-
cooler. Cold aftercooler water, at high engine loads,
can cause excessive engine cylinder pressure.
See Figure 7.8.

LEBW1414-00 92
 OUTLET

JW ENGINE THERMOSTAT

AC PUMP

RADIATOR
BLOWER
FAN
BYPASS
LINE
AC TEMPERATURE REGULATOR

RETURN

ENGINE DRIVEN PIPING

JW PUMP PART OF ENGINE
SUPPLIED BY PACKAGER
OR RADIATOR SUPPLIER

RADIATOR COOLING — STACKED CORE SCAC COOLING SECTIONS

Figure 7.7

3500B AC PUMP AND LINES

Figure 7.8

Air-to-Air Aftercooling (ATAAC)
In this configuration, the aftercooler core is relo-
cated from the engine to the radiator. Cooling
with the ambient air reduces charge air temper-
ature. Engines subject to more stringent emis-
sions requirements use the ATAAC aftercooler
configuration. This is utilized on most of the
smaller Caterpillar electronic controlled engines.
Air piping routes turbocharger outlet air to the
ATAAC section of the radiator and back to the
engine inlet manifold.
If the ATAAC radiator is locally made, the charge
air section must be designed to deliver air to the
engine’s air intake manifold at a temperature
specified for the engine model with ambient air
temperature equal to (77°F) 25°C, maximum air
temperature to turbocharger equal to 97°F (36°C),
maximum pressure drop from the turbocharger
compressor exit to engine intake manifold of
4 in. Hg (13.5 kPa), and zero cooling system ram
air velocity. Specified inlet manifold air temper-
ature and turbocharger compressor exit condi-
tions can be found in the TMI. The recommended

93 LEBW1414-00
 Cooling System Protection
AIR All pipe and water passages external to the engine
ATAAC should be cleaned before initial engine operation
SECTION
to ensure there will be flow and foreign materials
will not be lodged in the engine or cooler.
Electrical systems should be designed so no con-
ER tinuous electrical potential is imposed on cool-
AT
W ing system components. Any electrical potential
may cause cooling system materials to be dam-
aged by electrolytic processes.
JW Galvanic activity in saltwater circuits produces a
SECTION
corrosive action with metal, resulting in deteriora-
tion of system components. Proper cathodic pro-
tection should be employed by installing sacrificial
zinc rods in sea water flow passages at numerous
locations. Sufficient zinc rods are installed on
Figure 7.9 Caterpillar components. In order to maintain this
protection, the zinc rods must be inspected reg-
charge air cooler location should provide paral- ularly and replaced when deteriorated. Refer to
lel air flow through the jacket water radiator and the section on Electrolytic and Galvanic Activity
charge air cooler. If a series (stacked) arrange- Protection for additional information.
ment between the charge air cooler and jacket
water radiator is selected, the charge air cooler Coolant Considerations
must be located upstream relative to the jacket
Properties
water radiator, or any other stacked coolers in
the system and special consideration must be Water is used in the coolant mixture because it is
given for core cleaning and servicing. the most efficient, best known, and universally
available heat transfer agent. However, each
Connections water source contains contaminant levels to
Use flexible connections for all connections to various degrees. At operating temperatures of
the engine (rubber hoses are not recommended). diesel engines, these contaminants form acids or
The positions of flexible connections and shut- scale deposits that can reduce cooling system
off valves are important. Shut-off valves (used service life.
on larger engines) should be located to provide Prime consideration in closed cooling systems is
a flexible connection and also allow engine repair to ensure no corrosion or scale forms at any point.
without having to drain the entire cooling sys- Therefore, select the best quality water available,
tem. Orient the flex connector to take the maxi- but never use salt water.
mum advantage of its flexibility. When selecting
Water hardness is usually described in parts per
connectors, consider normal thermal expansion
million, ppm (grains/gal), of calcium carbonate
and maximum expected movement.
content. Water containing up to 60 parts per mil-
Material compatibility must also be evaluated. lion (3.5 grains per gallon) is considered soft and
The internal surface must be compatible with the causes few deposits.
coolant used over the anticipated operating tem-
perature and pressure ranges. The liner material of Treated Water
the flexible connection must also be compatible Never use water alone as a coolant. Supplemen-
with potential coolant contaminants, such as lube tal coolant additives are required because pure
oil and system cleaning solutions. The outer cover water is corrosive at engine operating tempera-
must be compatible with its environment (tem- tures. Corrosion inhibitors or antifreeze solution
perature extremes, ozone, grease, oil, paint, etc.). added to water maintains cleanliness, reduces
scale and foaming, and provides pH control.

LEBW1414-00 94
A 3%–6% concentration of inhibitor is recom- Exposing engine coolant to freezing tempera-
mended to maintain a pH level of 8.5 to 10. Sud- tures requires additional antifreeze. Ethylene gly-
den changes in coolant composition should be col or Dowtherm 209 are recommended to protect
avoided to minimize nonmetallic component against freezing and inhibit corrosion. Borate-
failure. nitrite solutions such as Caterpillar inhibitor are
compatible only with ethylene glycol and can
Caterpillar cooling inhibitor is compatible with
replenish the original corrosion inhibitors in the
ethylene glycol and propylene glycol base anti-
antifreeze.
freezes but not with Dowtherm 209, or Cat
Extended Life Coolant (ELC). With a 30% mix- Figure 7.10 defines the concentration of ethyl-
ture of glycol containing corrosion inhibitors, no ene glycol required for system protection. It also
additional inhibitors are required. To maintain describes the effect on coolant boiling tempera-
constant protection, additives should be replen- ture which reduces coolant afterboil. The concen-
ished every 250 operating hours. tration should exceed 30% to assure protection
against corrosion, but above 60% will needlessly
For conventional heavy duty cooling systems the
penalize heat transfer capabilities. Generally, a
antifreeze/coolant is recommended.
radiator derates 2% for each 10% of antifreeze con-
NOTE: If cooling water comes in contact with centration. Use of antifreeze year around decreases
domestic water supplies, water treatment may radiator capabilities at least 6°F (3.3°C).
be regulated by local codes. Temperature
(°F) (°C)
Coolant/Antifreeze (Glycol) 320 160
300 149
Glycol in the coolant provides boil and freeze pro- 280 138
tection, prevents water pump cavitation, and 260 127

reduces cylinder liner pitting. For optimum per- 240

BOILING
116
220 105
formance, Caterpillar recommends a 50/50 gly- 200
TEMP
93
col/water coolant mixture. 180 82
160 71
Ethylene glycol is commonly used in heavy duty 140 60
(HD) coolant/antifreezes. Propylene glycol is also 120 49
common. Both ethylene glycol and Propylene 100 38
RECOMMENDED
glycol have similar fluid properties in a 50/50 80
CONCENTRATION 26
RANGE 30–67%
glycol/water mixture. Both ethylene glycol and 60
(°SEA LEVEL)
15
40 4
propylene glycol provide similar heat transfer, 20 –6
freeze protection, corrosion control, and seal 0 –18
FREEZING
compatibility. The following charts define the –20
TEMP
–29

temperature protection provided by the two types –40 –40

–60 –51
of glycol. –80 –62

Ethylene Glycol 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Concentration Protection Against %

% Glycol/% Water Freezing Boiling COOLANT FREEZING AND

50/50 –33°F (–36°C) 223°F (106°C) BOILING TEMPERATURES VS.
60/40 –60°F (–51°C) 226°F (108°C) ETHYLENE GLYCOL CONCENTRATION
Figure 7.10
Propylene Glycol
Concentration Protection Against
% Glycol/% Water Freezing Boiling Extended Life Coolant (ELC)
50/50 –20°F (–29°C) Caterpillar provides Extended Life Coolant (ELC)
222°F (106°C)
for use in heavy duty diesel engines, natural gas
NOTE: Do not use propylene glycol in concen- engines, and automotive engines. The Caterpillar
trations that exceed 50 percent glycol because of ELC anticorrosion package is totally different
propylene glycol’s reduced heat transfer capa- from conventional coolants. Caterpillar ELC is
bility. Use ethylene glycol in conditions that an ethylene glycol based coolant which contains
require additional boil or freeze protection. organic acid corrosion inhibitors (which turn into
95 LEBW1414-00
carboxylates) and antifoaming agents. Caterpillar Corrosion Resistance
ELC has nitrites that serve as corrosion inhibitors The coolant must prevent the formation of rust
that protect against cavitation corrosion. Caterpillar and pits in the engine and other components.
ELC also has TT (toly-triazole, a yellow [non fer- Since all water can cause corrosion, water alone
rous] metal corrosion inhibitor). Caterpillar ELC is not a good coolant. Both distilled water and
has been formulated with the correct levels of softened water are unacceptably corrosive when
additives to provide superior corrosion protection corrosion inhibitors are not added.
for all metals in diesel engine cooling systems.
Always add Caterpillar’s corrosion inhibitor,
Caterpillar ELC extends coolant service life to Cooling System Conditioner, or equivalent to the
6000 Service Hours or Four Years. Caterpillar water antifreeze mixture at the time of the initial
ELC does not require frequent additions of sup- fill of the cooling system if the initial fill does not
plemental coolant additives, SCA. A “one time include it. (This is not necessary when using
only” coolant Extender is the only maintenance Caterpillar Antifreeze. The Caterpillar formula
addition required. The extender should be added includes all necessary inhibitors for initial fill.) If
to the cooling system at 3000 Service Hours or water only is used (not recommended), it is
Two Years. extremely important that conditioner be added.
Caterpillar ELC is available Premixed with distilled Use 3P2044, quart (0.118 L), or 6V3542,
water in a 50/50 concentration. The Premixed 1/2 pint (0.24 L), Cooling System Conditioner.
ELC provides freeze protection to –33°F (–36°C). Because modern antifreezes contain consider-
The Premixed ELC is recommended for initial fill able dissolved chemical solids to accommodate
and for topping off the cooling system. ELC aluminum components, over-concentrations can
Concentrate is available to lower the freezing reduce heat transfer and cause water pump seal
point to –60°F (–51°C) for Arctic conditions. ELC leakage or failure.
Concentration should be used to adjust the
coolant freeze point as required where Caterpillar NOTE: Do not over inhibit your cooling system
ELC Premixed freeze protection is not acceptable. or damage will result.
Contact your Caterpillar dealer for part numbers Chromate Corrosion Inhibitors
and available container sizes.
Chromate is another corrosion inhibitor. In gen-
Caterpillar recommends the Extended Life Coolant eral, special testing equipment must be utilized in
as it provides extended coolant service life, cor- order to measure the coolant consist. Inappro-
rosion protection, extended water pump seal ser- priate amounts of corrosion inhibitor can do harm
vice life, and extended radiator service life. to the system. These are being phased out of
NOTE: The Caterpillar EC-1 specification is an usage due to toxicity and environmental concerns.
industry standard developed by Caterpillar. The
EC-1 specification defines all of the performance Water Quality and Treatment —
requirements that an engine coolant must meet Standard Temperature
in order to be sold as an extended life coolant Usable water for cooling systems must meet the
for Caterpillar engines. Caterpillar ELC meets following criteria:
the industry performance requirements of
ASTM D4985 and D5345 for heavy duty low sil- Chloride (CL) 2.4 grains/gal (40 ppm)
icate coolant/antifreezes. Caterpillar ELC also Maximum
meets the industry performance requirements Sulfate (S04) 5.9 grains/gal (100 ppm)
of ASTM D3306 and D4656 for automotive Maximum
applications.
Total Hardness 10 grains/gal (170 ppm)
NOTE: Do not mix ordinary ethylene glycol or Maximum
propylene glycol mixtures with ELC. Completely Total Solids 20 grains/gal (340 ppm)
flush system before converting from one to the Maximum
other coolant.
pH 5.5–9.0
Water softened by removal of calcium and mag-
nesium is acceptable.
LEBW1414-00 96
Coolant Testing
The coolant should be maintained throughout the
life of the application. Dealers have available lab-
oratory testing services which can measure not
only the glycol levels but also the main corrosion
inhibiting additives, as well as contaminants.
Caterpillar recommends additives be kept within
certain ranges depending on the type of coolant
as well as the application. If regular coolant is
being used, a prescribed dose of Supplemental
coolant Additive or SCA is usually added at
250 hour intervals which recharges the corrosion
inhibitors in the form of nitrates, nitrites, borates,
and silicates. If ELC (Extended Life Coolant) is
used, Caterpillar’s Cooling System Conditioner
is added which contains a carboxylate or organic
acid corrosion inhibitor, nitrites, and other ingre-
dients necessary to ensure the coolant remains
corrosion resistant. Overtreatment should also
be avoided since this can cause problems as well;
do not add treatment unless testing shows addi-
tive depletion. Caterpillar also has specifications
covering contaminants such as chlorides, sulfates,
hard water minerals, as well as dissolved gases.
These must be checked by analytical methods
since they can destroy a system even if corro-
sion inhibitor additives are in correct proportions.
Coolant Conditioners and Filters
For 3400 Series and smaller engines a cartridge-
type chemical coolant conditioner is available.
The conditioner reduces potential cylinder block
and liner pitting and corrosion.
A. Consult the factory for suitable coolant
conditioners which should be applied and
maintained in accordance with published
instructions.
B. If a dry charged additive water filter is
selected, the following plumbing recom-
mendations should be followed.
1. The filter inlet and outlet are ordinary
0.375 in. (9.5 mm) inside diameter rub-
ber hoses. Connect the hoses to obtain
the highest possible coolant pressure dif-
ferential across the unit. Heater hose
connecting points at the coolant pump
inlet and the temperature regulator hous-
ing are recommended. If uncertain, plumb
the inlet to a point on the discharge side
of the water pump and the outlet to a
point near the water pump inlet.
97
2. The outlet should be orificed with an
0.125 in. (3.2 mm) internal diameter ori-
fice. This will prevent excessive coolant
flow through the filter which can bypass
the radiator core and reduce effective-
ness of the cooling system. Inlet and out-
let lines should include shutoff valves so
the filter can be serviced without drain-
ing the cooling system.
System Venting
Air and entrained combustion gas must be
purged and/or vented from the cooling system.
Air can be trapped in the cooling system at ini-
tial fill or enter through combustion gas leakage
during operation. System deterioration or water
pump cavitation will result.
Air trapped in high points of the cooling system
during initial fill is difficult to purge and requires
venting, Figure 7.11. Entrained combustion gas
requires deaeration capabilities built into the sys-
tem. Deaeration is performed by the Caterpillar
expansion tank or Caterpillar radiator top tank. If
these deaeration components are not included,
custom deaeration must be provided. Centrifugal
deaeration gas separators are available on the
aftermarket. Alternatively, see the section on
Expansion Tanks for use of enlarged pipe diam-
eters for deaeration.
Caterpillar-supplied cooling systems completely
vent during initial fill at rates up to 5 gpm
(0.32 L/s). External piping will also vent provided
piping is installed without air traps and no higher
than engine connecting points on heat exchanger
systems. Figure 7.12.
The expansion tank (surge tank) must be the high-
est point of a radiator cooled system, Figure 7.13.
Radiator air venting requirements for each engine
are available on request.
A cooling system that will not purge itself on ini-
tial fill must have vent lines from the highest
points of the system to the radiator expansion
tank or to the expansion tank of a heat exchanger
system. Lines must enter the tank above normal
water level, have a continuous upward slope, and
contain no air traps. An adequate vent line should
be 0.25 in. (6.3 mm) tubing. Caution: The con-
stant full level in the expansion tank must be
above all piping. For additional information on
radiator cooling, see the section Radiators with
Expansion Tanks.
LEBW1414-00
Watermaker Installation Requirements fully open thermostats. As load on the engine
and/or engine speed decreases, external water
Connecting watermakers to the jacket water cir- flow decreases. The amount of heat and water-
cuit of 3508, 3512, 3516 Engines. flow available to the watermaker will be approx-
The following guidelines are intended to assist imately proportional to the load on the engine.
the designer and installer of watermaker systems
to avoid installations which may damage or impair Watermaker Circuit
engine operation. These guidelines in no way guar- Flexible connectors are required on all connec-
antee performance of the watermaker system. tions to the engine. Rubber hoses are not rec-
Watermaker system performance, as it affects ommended and are generally not approved by
the engine, must be verified at startup. marine classification societies. Use of flexible
metal connectors is recommended.
Watermaker performance will depend upon the
amount of heat received from the engine. Refer All connections are to be made external of the
to TMI or Engine Performance book for heat engine’s pump, thermostat and bypass system,
rejection and jacket water pump flow data. This i.e., between engine and cooler, Figure 7.14. The
data is for the engine at rated load and speed with

INCORRECT PIPING
Figure 7.11

CORRECT PIPING
Figure 7.12

LEBW1414-00 98
 CORRECT PIPING
Figure 7.13

engine jacket water bypass line is not to be mod- Shutoff valves in each line to the watermaker
ified or blocked. should be installed. This also applies for auto-
matic systems since it allows deactivating the
Watermaker piping should not block access to
system for servicing.
engine fuel and oil filters.
All external piping must be level, without air
Flow resistance imposed on the jacket water
traps, and below the expansion tank or radiator
pump by watermaker and piping from the engine
top tank. All high points must be vented to the
must not exceed the limits shown in TMI or
expansion tank/radiator top tank.
Engine Performance book.

Figure 7.14

99 LEBW1414-00
Expansion Volume
When the jacket water volume of the watermaker
and piping exceeds the allowable external vol-
ume for the engine-mounted expansion tank, an
auxiliary expansion tank must be added. Refer to
Figure 7.24 for allowable external volume of the
engine-mounted tank. (Refer to the section on
Auxiliary Expansion Tank if an additional tank
is required.) The engine mounted tank is
always required.
Expansion volume required for radiator-cooled
engines must be coordinated with the radiator
supplier. Additionally, a deaerator is required if
watermaker flow bypasses the deaeration fea-
tures of the radiator. Deaerator should be capa-
ble of venting air at the rate of 10% of the engine
MANUAL CONTROL SYSTEM
Figure 7.15
AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEM — SERIES FLOW
Figure 7.16
LEBW1414-00 100
displacement per minute. The deaerator must
vent to radiator top tank.
Watermaker Controls
Watermaker controls may be either manually
operated valves or thermostatically controlled
valves, Figures 7.15, 7.16, and 7.17.
Any failure of watermaker control system (elec-
trical, air, etc.) must shut off jacket water flow to
the watermaker and return the flow to the engine
heat exchanger.
The watermaker must be connected between the
engine jacket water connections and the heat
exchanger or radiator. Required flow diverters or
connections are not supplied by Caterpillar.
 AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEM — PARALLEL FLOW
Figure 7.17

For safety, valve(s) in the engine heat exchanger Do not use a circulating pump by itself because
circuit should contain .25 in. orifices (6.35 mm) the circulating pump head pressure will damage
so there will be a slight water flow in case all valves engine thermostats if they are closed.
are inadvertently left closed. This orifice assures Although the mixing tank is not Caterpillar sup-
water flow to actuate engine alarm system. plied, it can be used with any of the suggested
The thermostat valve, Figures 7.16 and 7.17, circuits.
should have a temperature setting that will not An auxiliary electrical heater may be installed
interfere with engine thermostats. This valve as shown.
should begin to divert water flow to the engine
heat exchanger at no more than 190°F (88°C) Interconnections of Engines
and be fully diverting at 205°F (96°C) for engines
with outlet controlled thermostats. Engines with Central cooling systems utilize a single external
inlet controlled thermostats should be 185°F circuit supplying coolant to several engines.
(85°C) and 200°F (93°C) respectively. Although separate cooling systems for each
engine is preferable, use of a single radiator or heat
If the watermaker cannot handle the full engine exchanger system is possible. Practical experi-
heat rejection and/or cannot handle full water flow ence has shown that only identical engines at the
of the engine, the automatic system, Figure 7.17, same loads and speeds can be successfully com-
must be used. The circuit, Figure 7.17 connects bined in a joint cooling system. A failure on one
the watermaker in parallel with the heat exchanger engine can adversely affect all engines. For this
whereas the circuit, Figure 7.16, connects the reason, interconnected engines should have iso-
watermaker in series with the heat exchanger. lating valves. Check valves are required on the
It should be remembered the volume of water output line of each engines to prevent recircula-
flow to the watermaker depends upon load and tion through an engine that is shutdown with the
watermaker size, up to the engine’s maximum thermostats opened.
flow limits. The cooling system for mixed engines with mixed
speeds, loads and thermostat configuration are
Mixing Tank very difficult to design and are rarely successful.
When the watermaker is a long distance from the They must meet the required criteria (water flow,
engine or where watermaker requires a constant temperatures, pressures, etc.) for each engine
water flow, a mixing tank and circulating pump while operating in all possible combinations with
are required, Figure 7.18. other units.

101 LEBW1414-00
Figure 7.18

A single auxiliary expansion tank is permissible. Heat Exchanger Cooling Systems

It must connect into each engine-mounted expan-
sion tank (if so equipped). See the section on Water Specifications
Auxiliary Expansion Tank. If a shutoff valve is
Caterpillar used two water classifications: fresh
installed between auxiliary expansion tank and
water and sea water.
each engine-mounted expansion tank, a 0.5 in.
(12.7 mm) line must be connected from below Fresh Water
the shutoff valve to the top of the auxiliary expan-
sion tank. The line should enter above the normal Fresh water refers to drinkable water. Prior to
full water level. chemical water treatment for engine corrosion
inhibiting, it must be in a pH range of 5.5 to 9.0,
Coolant return header to the engines must be containing no more than 40 ppm chlorides. Total
large enough and so located that no engine jacket dissolved solids must be less than 340 ppm. Total
water pump inlet operates in a vacuum. sulfates must be no more than 100 ppm. Total
If auxiliary jacket water pumps are required, refer hardness must be less than 170 ppm. This is the
to the section on mixing tanks and Figure 7.18. cooling water that is used within the engine‘s
jacket water system.
SCAC engines require that a separate set of
common cooling lines be provided for the after- Sea Water
cooler function.
Sea water refers to salt water, river water, lake
water and all waters that do not meet the fresh-
water requirement. Heat exchanger components
in contact with this water should be copper-nickel

LEBW1414-00 102
construction, or equivalent, highly corrosion resist- Engine-mounted heat exchangers require the
ant material. This is not the water retained within least amount of pipe fitting since jacket water
the engine’s jacket water system. connections to the heat exchanger are made at
the factory, Figure 7.3. Remote-mounted heat
Inboard Heat Exchanger Cooling exchangers require connecting jacket water inlet
Inboard heat exchangers are recommended for and outlet at the engine to shell side of the
use with Caterpillar oilfield Engines. Caterpillar exchanger.
inboard heat exchangers are shell and tube-type. The selected heat exchanger must accommodate
Heat is transferred from hot jacket water to cold sea water temperature and flow required to cool
sea water. Heat exchangers are usually mounted the engine when operating at maximum antici-
on the oilfield base, but may be mounted directly pated load with stated temperature differential.
on smaller engines.
Heat exchanger cooled systems require a sea
water pump to circulate sea water through the
heat exchanger tubes or plates. It is good design
practice to “always put the sea water through the
tubes”. The tubes can be cleaned by pushing a
metal rod through them; the shell side requires
chemical cleaning which is only available at
shore-side facilities.
Offshore drill rigs provide the main and standby
sea water pumps. Sea water is pumped into a
pressurized header for use throughout the rig,
including the engines.
The fresh water is circulated through the heat
exchanger shell, across the tubes by the engine-
driven water pump.
Most shell and tube heat exchangers are of either
the single-pass or the two-pass type. This des-
ignation refers to the flow in the cold water circuit
of the exchanger. In the two-pass type, the cold HEAT EXCHANGER TYPES
water flows twice through the compartment
where jacket water is circulated; in the single- Figure 7.19
pass type only once. When using a single-pass
exchanger, the cold water should flow through Heat exchangers should always be located at a
the exchanger in a direction opposite to the flow lower level (elevation) than the coolant level in
of jacket coolant to provide maximum differen- the expansion tank.
tial temperature and heat transfer. This results in
improved heat exchanger performance. In a two- Heat Exchanger Sizing
pass exchanger, cooling will be equally effective Occasionally, special applications exist which
using either of the jacket water connection points require an inboard heat exchanger size not avail-
for the input and the other for return. able as a Caterpillar unit. When these conditions
Factory supplied 150 gpm (9.5 L/s) two-pass exist, it is necessary to obtain a heat exchanger
heat exchangers are recommended because rig from a supplier other than Caterpillar. In order to
water header size is reduced. A 150 gpm (9.5 L/s) expedite the selection of a nonstandard heat
engine driven sea water pump is NOT available. exchanger, a Heat Exchanger Selection Work-
The rig main and standby sea water pumps must sheet is included, Figure 7.20. Heat exchanger
be sized to provide flow to a header system that suppliers will provide information and aid in
supplies all engines. selecting the proper size and material for the
application.

103 LEBW1414-00
Heat Exchanger Sizing Worksheet
Heat Exchanger Sizing Data
Required by Heat Exchanger Supplier

Engine Jacket Water Circuit:

1. Jacket water heat rejection* ________________ Btu/min (kW)
1a. Jacket water engine outlet temperature ________________ F° (C°)
2. Jacket water flow* ________________ gpm (L/sec)
3. Anticipated sea water maximum temperature ________________ F° (C°)
4. Sea water flow ________________ gpm (L/sec)
5. Allowable jacket water pressure drop ________________ ft. (m) water
6. Allowable sea water pressure drop ________________ ft. (m) water

Drop
7. Auxiliary water source h sea water
(sea water or fresh water) h fresh water
8. Heat exchanger material h adm. metal
(admiralty or copper-nickel) h cu-ni
9. Shell connection size** ________________
10. Tube side fouling factor** ________________

Aftercooler Water Circuit:

1. Aftercooler circuit water heat rejection* ________________ Btu/min (kW)
1a. Aftercooler circuit engine inlet temperature ________________ F° (C°)
2. Aftercooler circuit water flow* ________________ gpm (L/s)
3. Anticipated sea water maximum temperature ________________ F° (C°)
4. Sea water flow* ________________ gpm (L/s)
5. Allowable Aftercooler Circuit ________________ ft. (m) water
Water Pressure Drop*
6. Allowable sea water pressure drop* ________________ ft. (m) water
7. Auxiliary water source h sea water
(sea water or fresh water)* h fresh water
8. Heat exchanger material h adm. metal
(admiralty or copper-nickel) h cu-ni
9. Shell connection size** ________________
10. Tube side fouling factor*** ________________
***Refer to TMI (Technical Marketing Information)
***Refer to engine general dimension drawing
***Fouling Factor, a descriptive quantity often found on heat exchanger specifications, refers to the heat exchangers ability
to resist fouling. As defined in Caterpillar literature, fouling factor is the percentage of the heat transfer surface which can
be fouled without losing the heat exchanger’s ability to dissipate the engine’s full heat load. A factor of 0.0001 – 0001
is assumed for sea water systems.

Figure 7.20
LEBW1414-00 104
For a given jacket water flow rate, the perform- This type of cooling system is not widely used
ance of a heat exchanger depends on both the for oilfield engines. Sufficient ocean currents or
cold water flow rate and differential temperature. river currents, etc., are not always available to
To reduce tube erosion, the flow velocity of the maintain adequate cooling. They should be used
cold water through the tubes should not exceed with caution as overheating can result.
6 fps (183 cm/s).
At the same sea water flow rate, the flow resist- Keel Cooler Types
ance and the flow velocity will be greater through Fabricated Keel Coolers
a two-pass heat exchanger. The heat exchanger
should be selected to accommodate the cold Fabricated keel coolers may be made of pipe,
water temperature and flow rate needed to keep tubing, channel, I-beams, angle or other avail-
the temperature differential of the jacket water able shapes. The choice of materials must be
below about 18°F (10°C) at maximum engine compatible with materials used in the vessel’s
heat rejection. Thermostats must be retained in hull in order to prevent galvanic corrosion.
the jacket system to assure that the temperature
Sizing of Fabricated Keel Coolers
of the jacket water coolant returned to the engine
is approximately 175°F (79°C). Engine water temperature maximum limits are
controlled by size of the keel cooler. Heat trans-
Size heat exchangers to accommodate a heat
fer rates through any cooler depend mainly on
rejection rate approximately 10% greater than
cooling water temperature, cooling water flow
the tabulated engine heat rejection. The addi-
and heat transfer surface area. A cooler may
tional capacity is intended to compensate for
have to operate at its maximum capacity at zero
possible variations from published or calculated
hull speed. The minimum area calculated
heat rejection rates, overloads or engine mal-
includes a fouling factor. Materials used in cooler
functions which might increase the heat rejec-
construction, condition of waters in which the
tion rate momentarily. It is not intended to replace
vessel will operate, and service life expectancy
all factors which affect heat transfer, such as foul-
will influence the size selection of a new cooler.
ing factor, shell velocity, etc.
See the keel cooler sizing worksheet for aid in
Pay particular attention to the shell side pressure determining size of keel coolers for use with
drop to ensure the entire cooling system flow jacket water circuits.
resistance does not exceed the limitations on the
Keel cooler area recommendations contained in
engine freshwater pump.
the graphs (Figure 7.21 and 7.22) apply only to
Maximum Sea Water Temperature keel coolers made of structural steel (chan-
nel, angle, half pipe, etc.) welded to the ship’s
Size heat exchangers such that the seawater is shell plating. These recommendations take into
not heated above approximately 130°F (54°C). account the thermal resistance to heat transfer
Higher sea water temperatures will result in foul- of the steel plate, the internal and external water
ing of the heat transfer surfaces with chalk-like films, and the internal and external surface cor-
compounds. rosion factors. The coefficient of heat transfer of
Temperature rise can be calculated with the fol- the fresh water film flowing inside the cooler is
lowing formula: based upon a flow velocity of 3 ft/sec (0.9 m/sec).
The coefficient of heat transfer for the raw water
Heat Rejection (Btu/min)
_______________________ film varies with the velocity of water flow past the
∆ T (deg F) =
Flow (gpm) 2 7.99 cooler due to vessel speed. Surface corrosion
factors are based on treated fresh water and pol-
Keel Coolers luted river water. Miscellaneous factors become
A keel cooler is an outboard heat exchanger so predominant in the resultant heat transfer rate
which is either attached to, or built as part of, the that the type of material used and thickness of
submerged part of a ship’s hull. The heated water metal become minor considerations.
from the engine(s) circuit(s) is circulated through
the cooler by the engine driven water pump(s).

105 LEBW1414-00
 KEEL COOLER SIZING WORKSHEET
Engine Model __________________ Rating __________________ Hp (kW) at __________________ rpm

For Engine Jacket Water:

1. Jacket water heat rejection* ____________________________________________ Btu/min (kW)
2. Jacket water flow* ________________________________________________________ gpm (L/s)
3. Current speed classification (Refer to Figure 7.22) _____________________________________
4. Anticipated maximum sea temperature ________________________________________ F° (C°)
5. Minimum cooler area required (From Figure 7.22) _____________________________________
Sq ft/Btu/min (m2/kW)
6. Minimum area required (Line 1 times line 5)__________________________________Sq ft (m2)
*Refer to TMI or Engine Performance Book. Temperature assumed to be 210°F (99°C).

Figure 7.21

Normal deterioration of the cooler’s inner and Because of the severe deterioration of heat trans-
outer surfaces in the form of rust, scale and pit- fer characteristics associated with structural steel
ting progressively reduce a keel cooler’s effec- coolers, adequate cooler size sometimes becomes
tiveness over a period of years. Protective coatings impractical. This is particularly true in regions of
and marine growths will also reduce the rate of high sea water temperature (over 85°F [30°C]).
heat transfer. It can take 4–5 years before dete- In these regions, the use of “packaged” keep cool-
rioration stabilizes in keel coolers. It must be ers, or box coolers, made of corrosion-resistant
designed considerably oversize when new. materials is suggested. These coolers can provide

°C °F
29.4 85
ve
bo

26.7 80
dA

ts

t
no

no
an

er
Anticipated Maximum Sea Water Temperature

3K

1K

at
ts

23.9 75
W
no

ill
8K

St

21.1 70

18.3 65

15.6 60

12.8 55
(Per Revision of 8/11/90)
10.0 50

7.2 45 Thermostats start open 175°F (79°C) or above

These requirements apply to Keel
4.4 40 Coolers made of structural steel only.
Consider use of packaged Keel
Coolers made of corrosion-resistant
1.7 35 materials where sea water
temperature may exceed 65°F (18°C)

.006 .007 .008 .009 .010 .011 .012 .013 .014 .015 sq ft per Btu/min
.032 .037 .042 .048 .053 .058 .063 .069 .074 .079 sq m per kW
Cooler Area Required

Figure 7.22
LEBW1414-00 106
more heat exchange surface area in a given vol-
ume on, or within the hull, than the coolers made
of structural steel.

Expansion Tanks
Functions
Expansion tanks perform the following functions:
• Vent gases in the coolant
—to reduce corrosion.
—to prevent loss of coolant due to dis-
placement by gases.
• Provide a positive head on the system pump.
—to prevent cavitation.
• Provide expansion volume.
—to prevent coolant loss when the coolant Figure 7.23
expands due to temperature change.
• Provide a place to fill the system, monitor its Figure 7.23 shows the preferred method of con-
level, and maintain its corrosion inhibiting necting a remote expansion tank into the engine
chemical additives. cooling system. The enlarged section of pipe is
necessary to allow entrained gas to separate out
• Provide a place to monitor the system coolant of the water flow.
level.
—an alarm switch located in the expan- Expansion Tank Volume
sion tank will give early warning of cool-
ant loss. The expansion tank allows for thermal expan-
sion of the coolant. In addition to the thermal
expansion, there should also be volume for after-
Type of Expansion Tank boil and sufficient reserve to allow operation with
Engine-Mounted Expansion Tank small leaks until they can be repaired. For stan-
(Manufactured by Caterpillar) dard temperature systems, a volume of 15% of
the total system is sufficient.
The engine-mounted expansion tank provides all
of the above functions for the engine’s jacket
water circuit. Caterpillar also provides an expan- Auxiliary Expansion Tank
sion tank for Petroleum 3500B engine’s auxiliary (Jacket Water Circuit)
water circuit (the aftercooler circuit). It can pro- An auxiliary expansion tank is not required
vide adequate expansion volume for only a mod- when an engine-mounted or base-mounted heat
est amount of jacket water. Figure 7.24 describes exchanger is used. Calculations to determine if an
the allowable external volume using only the auxiliary tank is required must be made if a remote-
engine-mounted JW expansion tank. mounted heat exchanger, keel cooler, or devices
such as watermakers are added. Figure 7.24
The factory-installed expansion tank must be contains data indicating coolant capacity limits of
used with the heat exchanger and/or keel cool- engine-mounted expansion tanks.
ing system. If it is absolutely necessary to remove
the engine-mounted tank, consultation with An auxiliary expansion tank provides additional
Caterpillar Application Engineering on tank relo- expansion volume for the cooling system. The
cation and design is recommended. Modified function of this auxiliary tank need not be con-
expansion tank performance should be verified cerned with deaeration and can, therefore, con-
by testing. sist of a simple tank containing no baffle system.
The engine cooling system, including the engine-
mounted tank, is designed to provide proper
system venting. Air must also vent from the
engine-mounted tank through the connecting

107 LEBW1414-00
pipe to the auxiliary tank. Additional air vent pip-
ing may be required if the auxiliary expansion
tank is not located directly above the engine-
mounted expansion tank. Figure 7.25 shows the
recommended method of adding expansion vol-
ume to the cooling system.
The auxiliary tank should be supported sepa-
rately and isolated with a flexible connector
against vibration from the engine-mounted tank.
A pressure cap or vent cap is required. Auxiliary
tank minimum volume should include total expan-
sion volume required plus the water volume to
the low water level in the tank. Figure 7.26,
Auxiliary Expansion Tank Sizing, can be used to
determine minimum volume required.

Table of Cooling System Volumetric Data

Cooling System Volumetric Data
Column A Column B
Allowable External Volume Engine Jacket Water System Volume
Engine With Engine Mounted Tank With Engine Mounted Tank
Model U.S. Gal Liters U.S. Gal Liters
3116 0.0 0.0 7.5 28.0
3126 0.0 0.0 7.5 28.0
3304B 2.1 8.0 14.7 55.6
3306B 2.1 8.0 14.7 55.6
3176 0.0 0.0 12.0 45.0
3196 0.0 0.0 12.0 45.0
3406C 10.0 38.0 23.6 94.5
3406E 10.0 38.0 23.6 94.5
3408C 14.0 53.0 37.5 142.0
3412 14.0 53.0 42.8 162.0
3508 64.0 243.0 75.3 285.0
3512 48.0 182.0 85.3 323.0
3516 32.0 122.0 101.4 384.0

Figure 7.24

Figure 7.25
LEBW1414-00 108
 Auxiliary Expansion Tank Sizing, Engine Jacket Water
Engine Model ____________________ Rating ____________________ Hp at ___________________ rpm
1. Allowable external volume ___________ gal/L, with engine-mounted tank. (This value shown
in Figure 7.24).
2. Total Volume of jacket water contained in external cooling circuit (not furnished as part of
engine) ___________ gal/L. See Figure 7.34, for volume per length of standard iron pipe.
3. Line 2 minus Line 1 ___________ gal/L.
If this value is zero or less, additional tank is not required.
If this value is greater than zero, an auxiliary tank is required.
4. If required, the minimum volume of the auxiliary expansion tank can be determined by:
a. Engine volume, Figure 7.24, Column B ___________________________________________
b. External volume Line 2 __________________________________________________________
c. Multiply line a by 0.07 ___________________________________________________________
d. Multiply line b by 0.05 ___________________________________________________________
e. Total of lines c and d ____________________________________________________________
(This is the minimum volume of the jacket water auxiliary expansion tank.)
For Separate Circuit Aftercooler:
1. Total volume of aftercooler external water ___________ gal/L.
2. Multiply Line 1 by 0.02 ___________ gal/L.
3. Add the cold fill volume desired in auxiliary expansion tank to Line 2.
Total of Line 2 and cold fill volume ___________ gal/L.
(This is the minimum volume of the aftercooler circuit auxiliary expansion tank.)
Figure 7.26

System Considerations closed fresh water circuits. Strainer connections

should be no smaller than the recommended
Strainers and Filters line size. A differential pressure gauge across the
Strainers are used with large fabricated coolant duplex strainers indicates pressure drop and
piping systems to protect the cooling system enables the operator to determine when strainers
from physical damage due to circulating abra- need servicing.
sive materials and the plugging that occurs when Pressure drop across a strainer at maximum
large foreign materials enter the system. Areas water flow should be considered as part of the
having abundant marine life or shallow water system’s external resistance. Suppliers can help
drilling are benefited most by strainers. in proper selection of strainers and furnish the
Strainers should be installed as close to the hull values of pressure drop versus flow rate. The
as possible on the sea water inlet circuits. strainer selected should impose no more than
3 ft. (1 m) water restriction to flow under clean
Welded structural steel keel or skin cooler sys-
strainer conditions.
tems need strainers installed between the cooler
and pump inlet. Material, such as weld slag and Careful initial cleaning of the fabricated cooling
corrosion products, must be removed from the system in addition to annual cleaning will keep
system to prevent wear of cooling system com- accumulation of wear-causing debris to a mini-
ponents. mum. Maintenance of proper water coolant
inhibitor concentrations will aid in minimizing
Full-flow strainers of the duplex type are desir-
formation of debris.
able. Strainer screens should be sized no larger
than 0.125 in. (2.3 mm) mesh for use in sea water Some form of continuous bypass filter should
circuits and 0.063 in. (1.6 mm) mesh for use in also be used to remove smaller particles and
109 LEBW1414-00
sediment. Element size of the continuous bypass Coolant velocities can be varied for a known
filter should be 20 to 50 microns. pump flow by increasing or decreasing the size
of the pipe and components in the system. TMI
Water flow through the bypass and filter should
or Engine Performance book lists flow values of
not exceed 5 gal per min (19 L per min).
engine driven pumps. Figures 7.27 and 7.28 are
No filtering system is required on the engine useful graphs for converting water flow to veloc-
jacket water circuit when the heat exchanger is ity for pipes and tubes.
mounted on the oilfield base.
When electric sea water supply pumps are used, it
Marine Growth is recommended that flow be adjusted for individ-
ual engines with a balancing cock or glove valve
Marine growth in sea water cooling systems on the supply side of each engine. Pressure gauges
occurs in many areas of the world. Increased on supply and return lines should be installed as
temperature and flowing food source are primary a means of monitoring system operation.
causes. Experience is the best guide in knowing
where marine growth is excessive. System Pressure and Pressure Drop
Marine growth refers to minute marine plant or Piping and heat transfer equipment resist cool-
animal life which enters the sea water cooling ing water flow, causing an external pressure head
system, attaches itself, and grows. Sea water which opposes the water pump output. Cooling
strainers have minimal effectiveness due to the water flow is reduced as external head increases.
minute size of the adolescent plant or animal life. Total system resistance to flow must be limited to
(Strainers are effective with more mature plant ensure adequate flow. Resistance to flow is deter-
or animal life.) mined by size and length of pipe, number and
Marine growth can be controlled with varying type of fittings and valves used, coolant flow rate,
degrees of success by several methods. and losses contributed by heat transfer devices.
Excessive external heads demand pumps with
Periodic mechanical cleaning of heat exchanger, additional pressure capacity.
etc., removes accumulated growth. It may be nec-
essary to clean sea water headers also. Depending upon arrangement, sea water differ-
ential pressure at the engine heat exchanger can
Periodic chemical treatment combats marine be between 3 psi (21 kPa) and 12 psi (83 kPa).
growth. Chemical type and concentration must
be controlled to prevent deterioration of the sea Relief valves are required where sea water system
water cooling system components. Contact a valve sequencing could result in system over-
knowledgeable chemical supplier. pressures. Pressure control valves are required
where sea water flow to engines could be acci-
Continuous low-concentration chemical treat- dentally diverted to ballast pumps, mud tanks, etc.
ment via either bulk chemical or self-generating
processes are offered by various manufacturers. Check valves are not required on outlet of heat
exchangers discharging into a common dis-
Coolant Velocity charge manifold. Recirculation between heat
exchangers does not occur.
Coolant flow in the system must be maintained
in a velocity range to achieve optimum heat A low sea water pressure alarm should be used in
transfer without erosion damage to system com- case sea water pumps are inadvertently turned off
ponents. Jacket water external circuit velocities or to warn of gas entrainment of sea water pumps
between 2 to 8 ft. per sec (0.6 to 2.5 m per sec) are during an attempted blowout.
acceptable. Sea water circuit velocities between Total system resistance to flow must be limited to
2 to 6 ft. per sec (0.6 to 1.9 m per sec) are accept- ensure adequate flow. Resistance to flow is deter-
able. Experience has shown these velocity ranges mined by size and quantity of pipe, fittings, and
provide required cooling and adequate system life. other components in the cooling system. As
resistance (pressure drop) increases, water pump
flow decreases.

LEBW1414-00 110
 1.50 in. 2.00 in. 2.50 in. 3.00 in. 3.50 in.
m/s fps (38.1 mm) (50.8 mm) (63.5 mm) (76.2 mm) (89.0 mm)
12
3.5 4.00 in.
(102.0 mm)

3 10
4.50 in.
(114.0 mm)
2.5
8

VELOCITY
5.00 in.
(127.0 mm)
2
6

1.5

4
1

2
.5

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 gpm

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 L/s

FLOW

VELOCITY VS FLOW
Standard Pipe Sizes 1.5 to 5 in. (38.1 to 127 mm)
Figure 7.27

1.25 in. 1.75 in. 2.12 in. 2.38 in.

(31.8 mm) (41.8 mm) (53.3 mm) (60.0 mm)

m/s fps 1.00 in. 1.50 in. 2.00 in. 2.25 in. 2.50 in. 2.75 in. 3.25 in. 3.50 in. 2.75 in. 4.00 in.
(25.4 mm) (38.1 mm) (50.5 mm) (57.0 mm) (63.5 mm) (70.0 mm) (83.0 mm) (89 mm) (95.3 mm) (102.0 mm)
12
3.5

3 10 4.75 in.
(121.0 mm)

4.75 in.
(121.0 mm)
2.5
8 5.00 in.
(127.0 mm)
VELOCITY

2
6 V = Vel (tps)
Q = Flow (gpm)
1.5 A = in2 (ID)
ID = Inside Dia.
4
1 V=
0.321 Q 0.408 Q
=
For Other Wall
A ID2 Thicknesses

2
.5
Nom. Tube Size 0.65 in. (1.65 mm) Wall

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 gpm

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 L/s

FLOW

VELOCITY VS FLOW
Tube Sizes from 1 in. to 5 in. O.D. (25.4 mm to 127 mm)
(Common Usage Wall Thickness)
Figure 7.28

External resistance imposed on the pump (also Curves showing water flow versus external sys-
called external head) includes both the resist- tem head for engine jacket water pumps are
ance downstream of the pump outlet connection available in the TMI. Maximum external resistance
and resistance ahead of the pump inlet. Resist- must not be exceeded in the cooling circuit added
ance to flow in the external circuit of a closed cir- by the customer in order to maintain minimum
culating system consists only of the frictional water flow. Flows lower than the minimums shown
pressure drop. in TMI or Engine Performance book for each
pump circuit will shorten the life of the engine.
111 LEBW1414-00
 Typical Friction Losses of Water In Pipe
(Old Pipe) (Nominal Pipe Diameter)
Gallons Gallons
Per Head Loss in Feet Per 100 Ft Per
Minute (m per 100 m) Minute
3/4" 1-1/4" 1-1/2" 2-1/2"
gpm L/s (19.05 mm) 1" (25.4 mm) (31.75 mm) (38.1 mm) 2" (50.8 mm) (63.5 mm) gpm L/s
5 0.34 10.5 3.25 0.84 0.40 0.16 0.05 3" (76.2 mm) 5 0.34
10 0.63 38.0 11.7 3.05 1.43 0.50 0.17 0.07 10 0.63
15 0.95 80.0 25.0 6.50 3.05 1.07 0.37 0.15 15 0.95
20 1.26 136.0 42.0 11.1 5.20 1.82 0.61 0.25 20 1.26
25 1.58 4" (101.6 mm) 64.0 16.6 7.85 2.73 0.92 0.38 25 1.58
30 1.9 0.13 89.0 23.0 11.0 3.84 1.29 0.54 30 1.9
35 2.21 0.17 119.0 31.2 14.7 5.10 1.72 0.71 35 2.21
40 2.52 0.22 152.0 40.0 18.8 6.60 2.20 0.91 40 2.52
45 2.84 0.28 5" (127 mm) 50.0 23.2 8.20 2.76 1.16 45 2.84
50 3.15 0.34 0.11 60.0 28.4 9.90 3.32 1.38 50 3.15
60 3.79 0.47 0.16 85.0 39.6 13.9 4.65 1.92 60 3.79
70 4.42 0.63 0.21 113.0 53.0 18.4 6.20 2.57 70 4.42
75 4.73 0.72 0.24 129.0 60.0 20.9 7.05 2.93 75 4.73
80 5.05 0.81 0.27 145.0 68.0 23.7 7.90 3.28 80 5.05
90 5.68 1.00 0.34 6" (152.4 mm) 84.0 29.4 9.80 4.08 90 5.68
100 6.31 1.22 0.41 0.17 102.0 35.8 12.0 4.96 100 6.31
125 7.89 1.85 0.63 0.26 7" (177.8 mm) 54.0 17.6 7.55 125 7.89
150 9.46 2.60 0.87 0.36 0.17 76.0 25.7 10.5 150 9.46
175 11.05 3.44 1.16 0.48 0.22 8" (203.2 mm) 34.0 14.1 175 11.05
200 12.62 4.40 1.48 0.61 0.28 0.15 43.1 17.8 200 12.62
225 14.20 5.45 1.85 0.77 0.35 0.19 54.3 22.3 225 14.20
250 15.77 6.70 2.25 0.94 0.43 0.24 65.5 27.1 250 15.77
275 17.35 7.95 2.70 1.10 0.51 0.27 9" (228.6 mm) 32.3 275 17.35
300 18.93 9.30 3.14 1.30 0.60 0.32 0.18 38.0 300 18.93
325 20.5 10.8 3.65 1.51 0.68 0.37 0.21 44.1 325 20.5
350 22.08 12.4 4.19 1.70 0.77 0.43 0.24 50.5 350 22.08
375 23.66 14.2 4.80 1.95 0.89 0.48 0.28 10" (254 mm) 375 23.66
400 25.24 16.0 5.40 2.20 1.01 0.55 0.31 0.19 400 25.24
425 26.81 17.9 6.10 2.47 1.14 0.61 0.35 0.21 425 26.81
450 28.39 19.8 6.70 2.74 1.26 0.68 0.38 0.23 450 28.39
475 29.97 7.40 2.82 1.46 0.75 0.42 0.26 475 29.97
500 31.55 8.10 2.90 1.54 0.82 0.46 0.28 500 31.55
750 47.32 7.09 3.23 1.76 0.98 0.59 750 47.32
1000 63.09 12.0 5.59 2.97 1.67 1.23 1000 63.09
1250 78.86 8.39 4.48 2.55 1.51 1250 78.86
1500 94.64 12" (305 mm) 11.7 6.24 3.52 2.13 1500 94.64
1750 110.41 1.1 7.45 4.70 2.80 1750 110.41
2000 126.18 1.4 10.71 6.02 3.59 2000 126.18
2500 157.73 1.8 2500 157.7
3000 189.27 2.5 3000 189.3
Figure 7.29

When designing engine cooling systems, pres- It is always necessary to evaluate the design and
sure drop (resistance) in the external cooling installation of cooling circuits by testing the oper-
system can be calculated by totaling the pres- ation and effectiveness of the completed system
sure drop in each of the system’s components. to ensure proper performance and life.
Figures 7.29 and 7.30 can be used to determine
pressure drop through pipe, fittings, and valves.
Suppliers of other components, such as strain-
ers and sea cocks, can provide required data on
their products.

LEBW1414-00 112
 Resistance of Valves and Fittings
to Flow of Fluids
EXAMPLE: The dotted line shows that
the resistance of a 6-inch Standard
Elbow is equivalent to approximately
16 ft. of a 6-inch Standard Pipe.
NOTE: For sudden enlargements or
sudden contractions, use the smaller
diameter, d, on the pipe size scale.

Figure 7.30
113 LEBW1414-00
 Emergency Radiator Circuits See the section Watermaker Installation Require-
ments for proper circuit requirements. Figure 7.15
Some offshore drilling contractors may desire to is the proper circuit.
install a radiator on one drill rig engine in order
to supply some power whenever the sea water
system becomes inoperative, Figure 7.31.
Radiators
Radiator cooling is the most common type of
The radiator core must be suitable for 30 psi
closed cooling systems. Radiator cooling pro-
(206 kPa) operation due to the controlled inlet
vides a closed, self-contained system that is both
temperature regulators. The radiator core oper-
simple and practical for most installations.
ates near the engine jacket water pump pressure
plus radiator cap pressure setting. See the sec- Cooling of the engine parts is accomplished by
tion Water Temperature Regulators for additional keeping the coolant circulating and in contact
information. with the metal surfaces to be cooled. The pump
draws the coolant from the bottom of the radia-
The radiator should have an expansion tank to
tor, forces it through the jackets and passages,
collect any entrained gas. The pressure cap
and ejects it into a tank on top of the radiator.
should be removed and replaced with a 3/8 in.
The coolant passes through a set of tubes to the
(10 mm) vent line to the engine-mounted expan-
bottom of the radiator and again is circulated
sion tank. A 1/4 in. (8 mm) orifice should be
through the engine by pump action. A fan draws
installed to limit flow. If more than one engine
air over the outside of the tubes in the radiator
is connected to this radiator, each engine must
and cools the coolant as it flows downward. It
have a vent line with a shutoff valve to be closed
should be noted that the coolant is pumped
when the engine is not running. See the section
through the radiator from the top down.
Radiators with Expansion Tanks for additional
vent line information.

Figure 7.31
LEBW1414-00 114
The top tank is used for filling, expansion, and •
deaeration of engine coolant. Extended systems
using added coolant may require enlarged top
tanks. The top tank is fitted with a pressure cap.
This cap allows coolant level to be checked and
replenished as necessary. The cap also seals the
cooling system and limits its pressure with a
spring loaded disc valve.
The cooling system is designed to operate under
a pressure of 4 to 7 psi (27.6 to 48.3 kPa) which
results in a top tank temperature of 210°F (99°C).
This limit minimizes water pump cavitation and
prevents steam formation in the engine water
jacket. For each 1 psi (6.9 kPa) of pressure, the
boiling point is raised about 3°F (2°C).
The radiator fan represents a parasitic load of about
1.5% to 8% of the engine gross power output.
Information on attachment radiator fan groups is
available in the TMI. Figure 7.32. Estimated air to core rise.
A selection of radiators with engine-driven fans is •
available for each Caterpillar Engine model. These
radiators are fin and tube type and are generally
available in two sizes for each engine; the smaller
designed for 110°F (43°C) maximum ambient,
and the larger for 125°F (52°C) maximum ambi-
ent. 140°F (60°C) are available for some con-
figurations. Specific values can be supplied, as •
ambient capability will vary with engine power.
Performance
Radiator Design Criteria and Considerations
The following factors must be considered when •
designing and installing a radiator cooling system.
• Size the radiator to accommodate a heat
rejection rate approximately 10% greater
than the engine’s heat rejection. The additional
10% will compensate for possible variations
from published or calculated heat rejection
rates, overload, and system deterioration.
Even if the expected load is less than the
engine rated power, size the radiator to match •
engine rated power.
• Correction factors to the observed ambient
air temperature capability for the engine
must not be overlooked. Altitude above sea
level reduces the density of air and its ability
to cool the radiator. A good correction fac-
tor is 2°F (1.38°C) deducted from the
observed ambient temperature capability for
each 1000 ft. (305 m) above sea level.
115
Ambient air temperature may not be the
same as the air temperature flowing across
the radiator core. An engine equipped with
an engine-mounted radiator and blower fan
will increase the air temperature as it flows
across the engine to the radiator. The ambi-
ent temperature rise for different radiator
locations is found in Figure 7.32.
Blower Suction
Fan Fan
Engine only, outside or 5.4°F None
in a large engine room (3°C)
Engine/generator outside 7.2°F Not
or in a large engine room (4°C) Recommended
with generator
Engine/generator in enclosure 12.6°F
with external muffler (7°C)
Engine/generator in enclosure 16.2°F
with internal uninsulated muffler (9°C)
The effects of antifreeze must be considered
when sizing a radiator. The ability to transfer
heat diminishes when water is mixed with
ethylene glycol. The loss in ambient capa-
bility due to antifreeze is about 1.8°F (1°C)
for each 10% glycol, up to 50%.
Fan noise should be considered when select-
ing radiator location. Fan noise transmits
through the air inlet as well as the outlet. Soft
flexible joints between the radiator and the
ducting will minimize vibration and noise
transmission.
Position the radiator so prevailing winds do
not act against the fan. One form of wind pro-
tection for radiators is a baffle located sev-
eral feet from the radiator air discharge.
Another method is to install an air duct out-
side the wall and mounting the air inlet or
outlet vertically. Large radius bends and turn-
ing vanes prevent turbulence and excessive
air flow restriction.
Backpressure or air flow restriction reduces
radiator performance. If radiator air flow is to
be ducted, consult TMI or your radiator man-
ufacturer regarding the allowable backpres-
sure. An engine installation in an enclosed
space requires that the inlet air flow rate to
the enclosed space include the combustion
air requirements of the engine, unless the air
for the engine is ducted directly to the engine
from the outside.
LEBW1414-00
Figure 7.33

• Air flow losses and Efficiency
Particular attention should be given to items
restricting air flow, both in front of the radia-
tor and to the rear of the fan. The additive
effects of guards, bumpers, grills, and shut-
ters in front of the radiator, pulleys, idlers,
engine-mounted accessories, and the engine
itself behind the fan can drastically reduce
air flow.
Fan Drives
Caterpillar fan drives are designed to prevent exces-
sive crankshaft loading and to resist vibrations.
Fan drives sometimes require an outboard bear-
ing on the crankshaft pulley. These drives must
have a flexible coupling between the pulley and
the engine crankshaft. This coupling must not
interfere with the longitudinal thermal growth of
the crankshaft.
CAUTION: Fan belt and drive guard may not be
factory supplied due to the large number of pos-
sible configurations which we cannot identify.
OSHA and other government bodies may have
regulations concerning this. The user is respon-
sible to provide such guards where required but
not factory supplied.

Pipe Dimensions
Standard Iron Pipe
Nominal Size Actual I.D. Actual O.D. ft per m per ft per m per
In (mm) In (mm) In (mm) gal. Liter cu. ft. m3
1/8 3.18 0.270 6.86 0.405 10.29 336.000 27.000 2513.000 27,049.0
1/4 6.35 0.364 9.25 0.540 13.72 185.000 16.100 1383.000 14,886.0
3/8 9.53 0.494 12.55 0.675 17.15 100.400 8.300 751.000 8083.0
1/2 12.70 0.623 15.82 0.840 21.34 63.100 5.000 472.000 5080.0
3/4 19.05 0.824 20.93 1.050 26.68 36.100 2.900 271.000 2917.0
1 25.40 1.048 26.62 1.315 33.40 22.300 1.900 166.800 1795.0
1-1/4 31.75 1.380 35.05 1.660 42.16 12.850 1.030 96.100 1034.0
1-1/2 38.10 1.610 40.89 1.900 48.26 9.440 .760 70.600 760.0
2 50.80 2.067 52.25 2.375 60.33 5.730 .460 42.900 462.0
2-1/2 63.50 2.468 62.69 2.875 73.02 4.020 .320 30.100 324.0
3 76.20 3.067 77.90 3.550 88.90 2.600 .210 19.500 210.0
3-1/2 88.90 3.548 90.12 4.000 101.60 1.940 .160 14.510 156.0
4 101.60 4.026 102.26 4.500 114.30 1.510 .120 11.300 122.0
4-1/2 114.30 4.508 114.5 5.000 127.00 1.205 .097 9.010 97.0
5 127.00 5.045 128.14 5.563 141.30 0.961 .077 7.190 77.0
6 152.40 6.065 154.00 6.625 168.28 0.666 .054 4.980 54.0
7 177.80 7.023 178.38 7.625 193.66 0.496 .040 3.710 40.0
8 203.20 7.982 202.74 8.625 219.08 0.384 .031 2.870 31.0
9 228.60 8.937 227.00 9.625 244.48 0.307 .025 2.300 25.0
10 254.00 10.019 254.50 10.750 273.05 0.244 .020 1.825 19.6
12 304.80 12.000 304.80 12.750 323.85 0.204 .016 1.526 16.4
Figure 7.34

LEBW1414-00 116
 Radiator Installation Criteria
Piping
Coolant connections must be as large as (or larger
than) applicable engine coolant connections.
Outlet piping to the radiator must have a contin-
uous upward slope. Low spots will cause engine
to be an air trap to combustion gas leakage,
Figures 7.11, 7.13 and 7.43.
In order to maintain the correct flow relationship
in the radiator top tank, it is recommended that
no lines tee into the vent lines.

Offset Radiator
Where compound spacing causes radiator inter-
ference, it is possible to offset radiators to gain
clearance. This is most successful where the radi-
ator fan is radiator mounted. Figure 7.35

Crankcase Breathers
Crankcase breather fumes should be ducted
away from the radiator core when blower fans are
used. See the section on Crankcase Ventilation
for further information.

Miscellaneous
Guards should be fabricated for all exposed belts,
pulleys, or fans.

Radiator Mounting on Mobile Equipment

Several of the 3408/3412 radiators require a
base when engine-mounted, Figure 7.35. The
bottom of these radiators is lower than the engine.
The base raises the engine. In such cases, engine
height may become unacceptable. For example,
the derrick may no longer lay down.
Figure 7.36 illustrates the base has not been used Figure 7.36
and radiator is supported off the carrier frame.
Determine that upper radiator connections do
not interfere with derrick.
Many times in-line engine configurations will
mount between the carrier’s frame members. The
radiator usually will not fit. Optional mobile fan
drives can then be used to provide a high mount
fan drive up to the limits of their adjustments. The
customer will have to supply the radiator or at
least fabricate new water lines and supports.

117 LEBW1414-00
 off. Double clamps are desirable for all hose con-
nections under pressure.
Radiator ambient capacity will be reduced by
things such as: fan air recirculation due to vehicle
cab, oil-to-air coolers added to core, watercooled
exhaust manifolds, torque converter coolers, etc.

Radiator Structure
Caterpillar industrial radiators such as the 3300
Series unit construction type and the 3400 Series
bolted core are not designed for applications with
extreme machine vibration and large impact
loads. The maximum total amplitude of vibration
allowed at any point on the radiator core is 10 mil
(±5 mil). Core isolation is provided by rubber
mounts from the radiator frame sufficient to limit
core vibration amplitude for relatively high fre-
quency vibration; but low frequency vibration in
the order of 15 Hz may amplify radiator core
Figure 7.37
motion beyond 10 mil. In these cases special
The radiator top braces on radiators 17.0 ft2 machine frame or radiator support modifications
(1.6 m2) and larger may not be adequate to must be made.
restrain the radiator during off-road travel. This
Radiator Performance Criteria
would be particularly true with cross-mounted
engines. For this reason, a sturdy brace is required Since many of the radiators used by equipment
between the radiator top tank and rig structure, manufacturers will not be Caterpillar designed, a
Figure 7.37. Brace angle should not be shallower complete evaluation of the cooling system is
than that for the existing brace (which is to be required to prove the capability of the system.
discarded). This bracing recommendation is an Caterpillar Application Engineering can provide
engine installation requirement to be met by specific information on methods and criteria used
engine installer. to evaluate radiator performance criteria or refer
Additionally, service units require the radiator bot- to EDS 50.5, Form LEKQ3296. A cooling system
tom supports to be securely connected to the rig. test needs to be performed in accordance with
This protects against the large side-to-side chas- EDS 50.5 when a Cat radiator or expansion tank
sis movements caused by the triplex pump. The is NOT used.
radiator top may require side bracing as the radi-
ator shock mounts allow large top end movement. Additional Heat Load
Piping between the engine and the radiator should Frequently, the engine cooling system is utilized
be flexible enough to provide for relative motion to cool additional systems, such as transmissions
between the two. Hoses less than 6 in. (15.24 cm) and torque converters. The heat rejection of these
in length provide little flexibility and are difficult devices must be considered when sizing the radi-
to install. If the hose is more than 18 in. (45.7 cm) ator. The additional heat load which must be
in length, it is susceptible to failure from vibration added is 30% of flywheel power multiplied by
or coming loose at the connections. Long hoses 42.4 Btu/min/hp. (0.74 watt/hr/kW) on engines
on the inlet require wire support on the inside driving mud pumps. Use a factor of 20% of fly-
diameter to prevent collapsing. Support the pip- wheel power for torque converters built into trans-
ing with brackets, when necessary, to take weight missions.
off a vertical joint. High quality hose, clamps and Because the torque converter oil cooler is on the
fittings are a prerequisite for long life and to avoid pressure side of the engine water pump, pres-
premature failure. It if also necessary to bead pipe sure rated hose should be used and anchored
ends to reduce the possibility of a hose blowing

LEBW1414-00 118
 Auxiliary Cooling Provisions
3516 3512 3508 3412 3412 3408 3406 3306 3304
(1200) (1200) (1200) (1200) (1800) (1800)
Connections Only
gpm (L/s) 125 100 75 200 215 165 100
(7.9) (6.31) (4.7) (12.7) (13.6) (10) (6.3)
psi (kPa) (water) 5 5.6 6.7 10 10 10 10
(34.5) (38.6) (46.2) (69) (69) (69) (69) (69)
Cooler Only
Oil gpm (L/s) 70 70 37 40 16 20
(4.41) (4.41) (2.33) (2.52) (1.01) (1.26)
Oil psi (kPa) 75 75 75 75 75 75
(517.1) (517.1) (517.1) (517.1) (517.1) (517.1)
psi (kPa) 20 20 16.4 20 20 15
(oil pressure drop) (137.9) (137.9) (113) (137.9) (137.9) (103.4)
Heat Rejection 9558 9558 5688 3750 2225 900
btu/min (kW) (170) (170) (101) (67) (39) (16)
(SAE 30W Oil)
Figure 7.38

securely. See Figure 7.39. Hose clamps are inad- The radiator should contain a low coolant level
equate to anchor securely. The cooler device mark, Figure 7.40. It should be at or above the
must not present undue restriction to engine coolant level established under the coolant level
coolant flow. heading. This mark should be based on a cold
water condition.
Figure 7.38 lists the cooler or cooler connections
available on oilfield engines. The btu/min heat Coolant Level
rejection capacity may vary if other than SAE
30W oil is used. Caterpillar recommends a water reserve of 2 gal-
lons (7.57 L) or 12% of system capacity, which-
Water lines to the cooler must be high quality and ever is greater, be provided. In systems where
anchored to the engine so that hose failures due total coolant capacity is more than twice engine
to rubbing cannot occur. capacity, a reserve of 5% is sufficient.

Radiators With Expansion Tanks

Commercially available radiators may use expan-
sion tanks instead of top tanks. Such a radiator
must also meet the criteria listed in this section,
Figure 7.41, and the section on Remote-Mounted
Radiators.

Expansion and Afterboil Volume

TORQUE CONVERTER CONNECTIONS
Figure 7.39
Cold Fill and Low Coolant Level Marks
Caterpillar recommends a cold fill mark be noted
on the expansion tank or surge tank, Figure 7.40.
This indicates to the operator when the cooling
system is full.
119
An expansion volume equal to 10% of system
capacity must be provided to accommodate cool-
ant expansion and afterboil occurring at engine
shutdown. Failure to allow for this can result in
coolant overflow, dilution of antifreeze by subse-
quent makeup coolant, and possible water pump
cavitation caused by reduction in coolant level.
In systems where total capacity is more than twice
engine coolant capacity, an expansion volume
of 8% can be used, Figures 7.40 and 7.41.
LEBW1414-00
 RADIATOR TOP TANK REQUIREMENTS
Figure 7.40

Radiator Overfilling flow rate is 110 gpm, the 1 gal volume would be
changed 110 times per minute.
A radiator “brim-full” will expel water through the
overflow when the engine is started and brought Any entrained air present in the external system
up to operating temperature. If the radiator is is also drawn into the water pump, causing cav-
refilled to brim-full when it is shut down, water itation. Cavitation can also be caused by under-
will again be expelled when the engine is started. sized piping creating a vacuum at the water pump
inlet, causing water to boil. A cavitating pump
Continued operation under this cycling will result
reduces the amount of water being circulated,
in diluting the cooling system anti-freeze and cor-
usually resulting in engine damage.
rosion protection.
Additionally, makeup water may be poor quality Water Pump Cavitation
and cause harmful deposits. Given proper conditions of pressure and tem-
Operating personnel should be instructed to perature, all liquids will form a gaseous state
NOT fill radiators brim-full, but up to the cold (boiling point). In the cooling system pump inlet,
fill mark only. a gas or vapor bubble will displace liquid and
reduce the amount of liquid that can be pumped.
Air/Gas Venting This loss of pumping volume can be observed as
Combustion gas leakage and entrained air must be a loss in water pump pressure rise. The maxi-
vented from the cooling liquid. The venting mum pump rise loss acceptable at the cavitation
requirement for each engine is shown in EDS 50.5. temperature is 10% of the pressure rise observed
Separation of gas from a liquid medium requires at 120°F (48°C) coolant temperature to the pump
a low coolant velocity at the top of the radiator while operating at rated speed. Acceptable cav-
and a relatively quiescent flow. Coolant velocity itation temperature for a given engine is 210°F
across the top of a radiator core should be (98°C) minus the temperature rise across the
approximately 2 fps (9.4 cm/s). Another way of engine when fully loaded. EDS 50.5 shows a
stating this limit is based on the rate of change of method for calculating temperature rise. As a
the fluid volume above the core. The maximum general rule, temperature rise will be in the range
rate of change of volume should be 200 changes of 10°F to 18°F (5.5°C to 10°C). The TMI pro-
per minute. For example, if the volume of water vides heat rejection to jacket water and pump
above the core is 1 gal and the engine coolant flow which allows temperature rise calculations.

LEBW1414-00 120
Figure 7.41

Cavitation characteristics observed during an engine room, engine room temperature should
evaluation can be affected by system air venting be below 75°F (24°C).
capability. If air venting problems are present, Duct work should be supported independent of
cavitation temperature should be rechecked after engine or radiator.
a solution to the venting problem is found.
Static pressure imposed by duct work must be
Cooling Level Sensitivity (Drawdown) determined for each installation. The radiator
manufacturer should be consulted to determine
Drawdown capability from full coolant level with
permissible static pressure.
180°F (82°C) pump inlet temperature and engine
operating at rated speed must be 12% of the total Radiator Air Flow
system volume with no more than a 10% loss in
pump pressure rise. This level, so established, is Backpressure or air flow restriction reduces radi-
the low level reference position and should be ator performance. If radiator air flow is to be
marked in such a manner on the radiator top ducted, consult the radiator manufacturer regard-
tank that it can be accurately detected by visual ing allowable backpressure. An engine installation
inspection. A metal plate or sight glass should in an enclosed space requires that the inlet air vol-
be provided. The 12% value is appropriate for ume include engine combustion air requirements.
a system which uses a 7 psi pressure cap, but
lower pressure systems should provide 16% Remote-Mounted Radiators
drawdown capability. Remote systems impose added restriction on
cooling water flow by additional piping and fit-
Duct Work tings. An auxiliary pump in series with the engine-
Duct work and adjustable shutters can be used to mounted pump should not be used to overcome
direct some or all of the warmed radiator air for this restriction. Consideration should be given to
heating purposes. If this air is used to heat the radiator design and larger piping.
121 LEBW1414-00
TMI contains performance curves of various Remote radiators may also be on the same level
jacket water pumps. Refer to Figures 7.27, 7.28, as the engine, Figure 7.43.
7.29 and 7.30 for information on water velocity Oversize piping may be required to minimize pip-
versus flow, frictional losses of water in pipe, and ing loss.
resistance of valves and fittings to flow of fluids.
As shown in Figure 7.43, do not run the engine
Remote-mounted radiators should never be water outlet line below the engine. Such design
located more than 57 ft. (17.5 m) above the does not allow the engine to vent air or combus-
engine. At greater heights, the static head devel- tion gas to the radiator. Vent plugs could vent for
oped may cause leakage of the engine water initial fill, but combustion gas produced during
pump seals. operation would accumulate in the engine cool-
The radiator top tank loses its air venting capa- ing system and cause severe engine damage.
bility if it is located below the level of the engine Radiators for use with expansion tanks must
regulator housing. When a radiator must be withstand a water operating pressure of 30 psi
mounted lower than the engine, the factory sup- (207 kPa). (Caterpillar radiators are not recom-
plied expansion tank must be used, Figure 7.42. mended for this pressure.) This higher tube
Radiator design operating pressure must be pressure results because the thermostats in an
increased by 1 psi (6.9 kPa) for every 2 ft. expansion tank circuit are changed to a controlled
(610 mm) the engine is above the radiator. Radia- inlet configuration. See the section on Water
tor pressure caps should not be used. It should be Temperature Regulators. Conventional radiator
removed and the opening sealed. For best oper- tubes may flex and leak due to this pressure.
ation, water flow through the radiator should be
reversed. This ensures gas or air does not get
trapped in the radiator top tank, Figure 7.42.

Figure 7.42

Figure 7.43
LEBW1414-00 122
 Figure 7.45 indicates the correct size heater for
each engine model at minimum ambient room
temperatures to maintain engine jacket water
at approximately 90°F (32°C). Heater sizing
is based on wind velocity around the engine of
0 mph (0 kmh).
When a 15 mph (24 kmh) wind is present, heater
requirement doubles.
Time required for temperature to stabilize is
10 hours. Wattage requirements for shorter time
periods are inversely proportional to the 10-hour
requirements.
These heaters do not require circulating pumps.
Physical location and exposure to wind can affect
sizing.
Contact Caterpillar for special voltages, three-
phase current, and special heaters for ambient
temperatures lower than those listed.
For those who install their own systems, these
suggestions should be noted.
WATER HEATER 1. Mount heater as low as possible.
Figure 7.44
2. Cold water inlet to heater should be from
lowest possible point in the engine cooling
Jacket Water Heaters system.
Jacket water heaters should be considered for 3. Avoid cold water loops — any situation where
faster, easier starting in ambient air temperatures cold water must rise to enter the heater.
below 70°F (21°C). All automatic installations, 4. Join hot water side of heater near top of
standby generators, etc., should include these engine cooling system, but below the ther-
heaters, Figure 7.44. mostats. CAUTION: DO NOT CREATE HOT
JACKET WATER HEATER SIZES WATER LOOPS. Hot water line should enter
(Minimum Ambient Room Temperatures °F/°C, engine in either a horizontal or slightly
No Wind and 10 hour warmup to 90°F/33°C) inclined plane, eliminating the possibility of
kW required forming a steam pocket.
Engine Attachment Units to achieve 5. Use same pipe size (or larger) as heater
Model 3.0 kW 2 2 3.0 kW –40°F/–40°C connections.
3516 –10/–23 9 kW
3512 –30/–34 7.5 kW Cold Weather Considerations
3508 –40/–40 5.5 kW
3412 –40/–40 4.5 kW Form SEBU5338-01 Cold Weather Operation,
3408 –40/–40 3.5 kW contains information on operation, lubrication,
3406 –40/–40 3 kW and maintenance in cold weather conditions.
3306 –40/–40 1 kW Methods of retaining engine heat are discussed
3304 –40/–40 .75 kW below.
Figure 7.45 Commercially available radiator shutters should
be considered. Fan air flow across the engine
increases heat lost to radiation. Particularly at
light load, shutters minimize this heat loss and
raises the engine temperature.

123 LEBW1414-00
Commercially available diesel fuel fired jacket low fan speed air requirements. The opening is
water heaters should be considered on engines adjustable. The enclosure door will have to be
that must start when no AC power is available. opened by hand for summertime operation.
Engine enclosures or engine room enclosures are The house should be as airtight as possible. This
recommended to retain engine heat. includes an air barrier under the engine oil pan,
as illustrated.
Extreme Cold Weather Considerations
To minimize air changes in the engine room,
Extreme conditions require additional protection, combustion air can be ducted to the air cleaner
Figure 7.46. This protection is commercially from outside, as shown. An air source valve is
available. included so the engine can be started and idled
The radiator should be in a separate room from on the warmer air in the engine room. The engine
the engine. Absence of the radiator air flow will should be operated on outside air. Otherwise, a
ensure the engine environment is kept at a warmer vacuum may be caused in the engine room,
temperature in cold weather. depending upon how airtight the engine room
is. Air cleaner adapters are available to connect
In warm temperatures, the weather enclosure is ducting.
either removed or opened. Radiator cooling air
is drawn in through a roof door in the radiator room Heavy duty air cleaners can be utilized for pro-
during winter operation. Normally, radiator dis- tecting the engine from air cleaner plugging due
charge air is utilized for rig heating. to “ice fogs,” if they occur.

If emissions regulations allow them, two-speed Crankcase breather fumes should be piped out of
radiator fans are recommended because they the engine room to minimize oily deposits. In
offer several advantages for utilization of engine extremely cold weather, the fumes may have to
heat. First, lower fan speed reduces air flow and be discharged into the engine room due to
consequently increases air temperature rise of the breather outlet freezing. Fumes should be dis-
radiator air flow utilized for rig heating. Second, charged as remotely as possible from engine air
radiator fan horsepower is considerably reduced. cleaner inlets. An alternative sometimes used is
to discharge the fumes under the power module
Sensors for the two-speed motor and shutters base where it is generally warmer.
have to be protected from being affected by the
cold air coming through the roof door. The roof Lube oil and jacket water heaters should be pro-
door area is sized to accommodate only the vided. They are required for cold startup after a

Figure 7.46
LEBW1414-00 124
rig move. (Power is supplied by a small cold start
generator set.) They also can be used to main-
tain the temperature of an engine that is not run-
ning. On many rigs all engines are generally run
at all times, as there is no reliable way to keep the
engine ready for service at a moment’s notice,
with a resultant increase in fuel usage. Jacket
water heaters are readily available, but oil heaters
are not. Oil is difficult to heat without circulation.
Thus, immersion-type oil heaters are generally
not recommended as they lead to coking of the
oil. Unitized oil and water heaters are commer-
cially available which overcome the problem.
They employ oil and water circulating pumps for
proper system operation.
Exhaust piping should be so arranged that exhaust
will NOT be drawn into the radiator or combus-
tion air inlet.
Sizing and Installing Radiators for
EPA Certified 3500B Engines
Consult EPA document 40 CFR Part 89 for detailed
information on EPA regulations. Caterpillar radi-
ators meet these requirements.
Radiators must be sized to properly cool both the
jacket water and SCAC systems at maximum
ambient conditions and the conditions described
below to comply with the EPA regulation. Failure
to do so may be considered tampering.
Jacket water system sizing for EPA-certified
engines remains the same as non-certified
engines. The SCAC system, however, must be
properly sized to comply with EPA legislation.
Specifically:
SCAC radiator system must provide a maximum
of 140°F (60°C) coolant to the aftercooler at
140 gpm (530 L/min) minimum flow on an 86°F
(30°C) ambient day. Ambient is defined as air
temperature outside of the engine room or build-
ing in which it is installed.
Unless air cleaners are ducted to air at ambient
temperature (inside or outside of the engine room),
there will be an air temperature rise to the air
cleaner. This rise will increase the intake manifold
temperature and therefore affect emissions. To
compensate for this air rise to the air cleaners (in
cases where ducting is not possible), SCAC water
temperature must be lowered by the amount of
air temperature rise above ambient in a 1:1 ratio.
Caterpillar 3500B engine-mounted radiators are
sized to allow for a 7°F (4°C) air rise to the inlet
125
face of the radiator core (ATC) without ducting
the air cleaners. Optional Caterpillar high ambi-
ent radiators (122°F, 50°C) are available that
allow up to a 19°F (10°C) ATC rise where duct-
ing is not practical.
For non-Caterpillar radiators or remote-mounted
radiators, compensate for the air rise to the air
cleaners by using the aforementioned 1:1 ratio.
For example, if the temperature rise to the inlet
of the air cleaner is 10°F (6°C), the SCAC water
temperature to the aftercooler must be 140°F –
10°F = 130°F at 86°F ambient (60°C – 6°C =
54°C at 30°C ambient). Depending on the instal-
lation, it may be more economical to duct the air
cleaners to an ambient air location, or provide a
larger SCAC radiator.
Consult EPA document 40 CFR Part 89 for proper
usage of auxiliary radiator control devices (such
as variable frequency drives, multi-speed motors,
dampers etc.) to ensure they are in compliance
with the regulators.
Supplemental Radiator Design Criteria
Although Caterpillar-designed cooling packages
are recommended for many applications, there
are occasions where equipment manufacturers
prefer to supply their own radiators. The follow-
ing additional items should be considered with
these radiators.
Radiator Structure
Mobile equipment applications require radiator
construction which incorporates bolted top and
bottom tanks with side channel support. Rein-
forcing strips should be used on both sides of the
core header-to-tank bolted joint to limit distortion.
Compressed rubber is often incorporated between
the core and the inboard side of the channel
members to provide additional core support.
A complete evaluation of the cooling system is
required to prove the capability of the system.
Reference material for such an evaluation is pro-
vided by Engine Data Sheet EDS 50.5. Another
useful reference for evaluating radiator top tank
design is provided by EDS 52.1.
Cooling Capability
Caterpillar requires the maximum coolant dis-
charge temperature to the radiator to be 210°F
(98°C) for sea level operation and recommends
a minimum ambient capability of 110°F (42.9°C)
LEBW1414-00
during full load operation at all operating speeds.
This includes all additional heat loads which
might be imposed on the cooling system such
as torque converter coolers or air-to-oil coolers
which might be added in front of the radiator.
As indicated in EDS 50.5, certain measuring
devices are required to evaluate cooling capa-
bility. A suitable method for measuring engine
power could be a fuel meter, fuel setting indica-
tor (rack position), or dynamometer. Additional
measured data are engine speed, jacket water
and aftercooler coolant temperatures in and out
of radiator, air temperature to the radiator (sev-
eral locations), and ambient air temperature
which is sampled far enough from the machine
to eliminate effects of heat generated by the
operating machine.
Location of the test site should be such that
heated air which has passed through the radia-
tor is not forced back through the radiator in an
unrealistic manner by walls or other adjacent
structures (recirculation of air). Recirculation of
air can also be an inherent characteristic of the
cooling system but should be avoided. Locating
narrow strips of cloth on small pieces of wire fas-
tened at various locations around the outside sur-
face of the radiator provides an excellent flow
path indicator. Another useful tool for indicating
air flow path can be made by attaching a narrow
strip of cloth to the end of a long piece of wire
which can be used as a probe around the engine
or radiator periphery. Baffling of the radiator or air
flow directors are often necessary to ensure that
unheated ambient air is directed to the radiator
for most effective cooling. This is an insidious
problem which should not be overlooked.
Cooling capability of a radiator and torque con-
verter cooler are referenced to a 70% or 80% con-
verter efficiency operating level as a general design
consideration. Normally, the performance char-
acteristics of speed and torque ratio, input and out-
put power, and the heat generated by lost power
is provided by the torque converter manufacturer.
The efficiency characteristic will be associated
with an engine speed, and cooling system oper-
ating characteristics should be observed at this
engine speed whenever possible.
Equipment manufacturers often find that impos- routing.
ing a load on the engine is difficult to accom-
plish during cooling test operations. Direct drive
machines are the most difficult and usually require
that some type of dynamometer or other load
LEBW1414-00
absorbing device be fastened to the output shaft.
Torque converters can be used as load absorbing
devices if a separate cooling method (such as
cold plant water) is provided to the cooler.
Extended operation at converter stall can be
accomplished allowing all coolant temperatures
to stabilize without excessive torque converter oil
temperature. Note, however, that the cooling
capability established in this manner does not
include the equivalent of 20% to 30% flywheel
horsepower which would normally be cooled by
the engine cooling system. This must be included
by calculation in the same manner as the calcu-
lation shown in EDS 50.5 for extrapolating
observed temperature data to 210°F (90°C) radi-
ator top tank conditions. The additional heat load
which must be added is 20% to 30% of flywheel
horsepower multiplied times 42.4 Btu/min/hp.
Filling Ability (Reference EDS 50.5)
The cooling system must accept a bucket fill
method (interrupted) and continuous fill method
at a minimum rate of 5 gpm (18.9 L/min) with-
out air lock (false fill). The coolant should not be
below the qualified low operating level after
engine start and warm-up. The low coolant level
is established during drawdown tests. False fill is
a potential problem with all types of radiators.
Pump Cavitation (Reference EDS 50.5)
Verify capability in accordance with the earlier dis-
cussion of water pump cavitation.
Cavitation characteristics observed during an
evaluation can be affected by the system air vent-
ing capability. If air venting problems are present,
the cavitation temperature should be rechecked
after a solution to the venting problem is found.
Cooling Level Sensitivity (Drawdown)
(Reference EDS 50.5)
Verify capability in accordance with the earlier
discussion of cooling level sensitivity (Drawdown).
Air/Gas Venting (Reference EDS 50.5)
Verify capability in accordance with the earlier
discussion of air/gas venting. See Figures 7.47,
7.48, and 7.49 for suggested vent and fill piping
126
Other Radiator Considerations
Radiator inlet and outlet diameters should be the
same or, if possible, larger on the outlet and should
be located on diagonally opposite sides to limit
“channeling” of coolant flow on one side of the
core. The bottom tank height of the radiator
should be no less than the outlet tube diameter.
Radiator Core
Core frontal area should be as large as possible
to minimize restriction to air flow. Low radiator
core restriction usually results in being able to
provide a larger diameter, quieter, slower turning
fan, which demands less drive horsepower. Radi-
ator cores which are nearly square can provide
the most effective fan performance. They can be
installed with a minimum of unswept core area.
As a general rule, keep core thicknesses to a
minimum with a maximum of 11 fins per inch.
Increasing the number of fins per inch does
increase the radiator heat rejection for a given air
velocity through the core but at the cost of
increasing the resistance to airflow. While the
most economical initial cost will be maximum
core thicknesses and fins per inch, this involves
higher fan horsepower with consequent operat-
ing cost and noise penalties throughout the life
of the installation. In addition, a radiator with
more fins per inch is much more susceptible to
plugging from insects and debris.
Fan Recommendations
A. Fan Diameter and Speed
As a general rule, the most desirable fan is
one having the largest diameter and turning
at the lowest speed to deliver the required air
flow. This also results in lower fan noise and
lowest fan horsepower draw from the engine.
Blade tip speed, while being only one of
the elements of cooling fan design, is an
item easily changed with choice of fan drive
pulley diameter. An optimum fan tip veloc-
ity of 14,000 fpm (7112 cm/s) is a good
compromise for meeting noise legislation
requirements and cooling system perform-
ance requirements. Maximum acceptable
tip speed is 16,000 fpm (9144 cm/s) for
Caterpillar fans.
127
B. Fan Performance
Proper selection and placement of the fan is
critical to the efficiency of the cooling sys-
tem. It requires careful matching of the fan
and radiator by determining air flow needed
and static air pressure which the fan must
overcome. This must be done since most dis-
crepancies between cooling system calculated
performance and test results are traceable
to the “air side” and directly related to items
affecting fan air flow.
There are two major considerations for proper
fan selection:
1. Air flow needed to provide the required
cooling.
2. Select a fan that provides the required
air flow, and one that is relatively insen-
sitive to small changes in static pressure.
This desired design point is where a
small change in static pressure does not
cause a large change in air flow. Select-
ing a lower pressure point is not recom-
mended as it could be in the unstable
“stall” area where a small change in static
pressure causes a large change in air
flow. Performance curves for available
Caterpillar fans are shown as air flow
(cfm), static pressure head, (inches of
water, gauge) and horsepower in the
TMI. The Caterpillar curves are based on
standard air density, an efficient fan
shroud, and no obstructions.
This is a theoretical air flow which is sel-
dom possible because of some obstruc-
tion. Theoretical air flow sometimes can
be approached with the fan in a properly
designed close fitting shroud with no
more than 0.0625 in. (1.6 mm) blade tip
clearance. Such a close fitting shroud
is not practical, and tip clearance is
increased; a 0.5 in. (12.7 mm) clearance
is generally recommended. When a fan
speed different from those shown in the
curves is needed, the additional perfor-
mance data can be calculated using these
fan rules:
For Speed Changes
rpm2
_____
cfm2 = cfm1
rpm1
LEBW1414-00
 are somewhat less efficient than the venturi
rpm2
Ps2 = Ps1
( _____
rpm1 ) 2
shroud, box-type shrouds are most com-
monly used because of lower cost. Properly
positioned, a simple orifice opening in the
rpm2
hp2 = hp1
( _____
rpm1 ) 3
box shroud is practical. Straight tunnel
shrouds are usually less effective than ven-
turi or box shrouds. The fan tip clearance
For Diameter Changes should be 0.5 in. (12.7 mm) or less. A prop-
Dia2 erly designed shroud will:
cfm2 = cfm1
( _____
Dia1 ) 3

1. Increase air flow.

Dia2 2. Distribute air flow across core for more
Ps2 = Ps1
( _____
Dia1 ) 2
efficient use of available area.
3. Prevent recirculation of air.
Dia2
hp2 = hp1
( _____
Dia1 ) 5
As a general rule, suction fans should be no
closer to the core than the projected blade
width of the fan. Greater distance gives bet-
For Air Density Changes ter performance. Consider also that engine-
Ps2 = Ps1 r2
__ mounted items close to the back side of the
r1 fan can introduce vibrations into the fan to
cause fan failure, increase fan noise, and
r2 reduce air flow. Suction fans should be posi-
hp2 = hp1 __
tioned so that two-thirds of the projected
r1
width is inside a box shroud orifice plate
Ambient Capability Adjustments while a blower fan position is one-third inside
(Air Flow or Fan rpm Changes) the shroud.
cmf1
∆T2 = ∆T1
( _____
cfm2 )
0.7

rpm1
∆T2 = ∆T1
( _____
rpm2 )
0.7

Maximum Ambient Capability =

210 – ∆T2
cfm = Air flow in cubic feet per minute.
rpm = Fan speed in revolutions per minute.
Ps = Static pressure in inches of water.
hp = Fan horsepower.
Dia = Fan diameter in inches.
r = Air density in pounds per cubic foot.
∆T = Coolant top tank temperature minus
ambient air temperature.
C. Fan Shrouds and Fan Location
Two desirable types of shrouds are: venturi
and box.
Maximum air flow and efficiency is provided
by a tight fitting venturi shroud with sufficient
tunnel length to provide straight air stream-
lines. Small fan clearances require a fixed
fan or an adjustable shroud. Although they
LEBW1414-00 128
Proper Venting for Non-Standard Radiators

OUTLET CONTROLLED WITH VERTICAL RADIATOR CORE

Figure 7.47

OUTLET CONTROLLED WITH VERTICAL CROSS FLOW RADIATOR

Figure 7.48

OUTLET CONTROLLED WITH HORIZONTAL RADIATOR

Figure 7.49

129 LEBW1414-00
 LUBRICATION

The lubricating system of a modern diesel engine Caterpillar elements is encouraged for adequate
accomplishes three purposes. First, it lubricates engine protection.
friction surfaces to minimize friction losses. Larger oil pans are available on some engines.
Second, it cools internal engine parts which can- They provide increased oil change intervals
not be directly cooled by the engine’s water cool- and/or increased tilt angle capability.
ing system. Third, it cleans the engine by flushing
away wear particles.
Lubricating Oil Requirements
Proper lubrication requires clean oil free from
abrasive particles and corrosive compounds. It Sulfur content of today’s diesel fuels is increas-
requires a lubricant with sufficient film strength to ing in certain areas. Fuel supplies around the
withstand bearing pressures, low enough vis- world are limited and in order to maintain
cosity index to flow properly when cold and high needed quantities, refineries are buying crude oil
enough to retain film strength when subjected to wherever available. Sulfur levels of these crude
heat exposure on cylinder and piston walls. The oils vary significantly. Sulfur content of refined
lubricant must neutralize harmful combustion diesel fuel is dependent upon the amount of sul-
products and hold them in suspension for the fur in the crude supply, and the refiner’s ability
duration of the oil change period. Your local to remove it.
Caterpillar Dealer should be consulted to deter- When diesel fuel is burned in the engine’s com-
mine the best lubricant for local fuels. bustion chamber, fuel sulfur is converted to sul-
The 3600 Series diesel engines and all Gas fur oxides. These compounds will unite with
engines have different, unique oil specifications water vapor to form acids. When the vapors cool
and requirements. and condense in the valve guides or in the pis-
ton ring belt area, the acids attack metal and
Cleanliness cause corrosive wear. One function of the engine
lubricating oil is to neutralize the acids and retard
Normal engine operation generates a variety of metal corrosion.
contamination — ranging from microscopic metal
particles to corrosive chemicals. If the engine oil One factor that influences the formation of cor-
is not kept clean through filtration, this contam- rosive acids is the engine jacket water outlet
ination would be carried through the engine via temperature. If the outlet temperature is below
the oil. 175°F (70°C), acid vapor is readily formed
because of the lower dew point temperature and
Oil filters are designed to remove these harmful corrosion can occur. This is true even in fuels
debris particles from the lubrication system. Use with less than 0.5% sulfur. Under the above con-
of a filter beyond its intended life can result in a dition, the fuel performs as if it contained two
plugged filter. to three times the percent of sulfur that it actu-
A plugged filter will cause the bypass valve to ally has.
open releasing unfiltered oil. Any debris particles When corrosion occurs, the usual signs are liner
in the oil will then flow directly to the engine. wear and ring wear. However, top ring wear is
Solid particles are removed from the oil by not caused by corrosion but by the ring work-
mechanical filtration. Filter mesh size is deter- ing/sliding against a pitted surface. This pitted
mined by the maximum particle size that can be surface can peel layers of chrome off the ring
circulated without noticeable abrasive action. surfaces. Ring and liner wear will result in exces-
Standard oil filter systems on Caterpillar Engines sive oil consumption.
meet these requirements and are sized to pro- Also, the water content of the oil increases
vide reasonable time intervals between element because of the lower temperature. The water
changes. Filter change intervals relate to oil can react with the additives, deplete them and
change periods. form sludge. This reduces the oil’s protective
Caterpillar filters are designed to provide property.
maximum engine protection. Use of genuine
LEBW1414-00 130
 17

15

13 1
11
2

TBN
9

1
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Y X
% FUEL SULFUR, BY WEIGHT

Y TBN by “ASTM D2896”

X Percentage of fuel sulfur by weight
1 TBN of new oil
2 Change the oil when the TBN deteriorates to 50% of the original TBN

Figure 8.1

Additives It must be kept in mind the new oil recommended

TBN value will provide acceptable performance
Lubricating oil consists of a mixture of base oil
up to the standard drain interval, and we do not
fortified with certain additives. Depending on
recommend selecting oils with significantly
the type of base, paraffinic, asphaltic, naph-
higher TBN values. More than 5 TBN above rec-
thenic or intermediate (which has some of the
ommended is not advisable.
properties of the former), different additive
chemistries are used. High Sulfur Fuels
Certain lubricating oil additives contain alkaline Caterpillar lube oil change period recommen-
constituents which perform the neutralizing func- dations are based on the use of diesel fuels con-
tion. The measure of alkalinity in a lube oil is taining 0.4% or less of sulfur by weight. Fuel
termed TBN or Total Base Number. Oils having sulfur can produce rapid engine wear. Fuels of
high initial TBN values will generally have more higher sulfur content than 0.4% will require
reserve alkalinity or acid neutralizing capacity. reducing the oil change interval and/or use of
To minimize engine corrosive wear caused by high TBN oil. These measures reduce the cor-
increases in fuel sulfur levels, engine oils with rosive effect of the sulfuric acid that is formed by
higher alkalinity reserve (TBN) are essential. the sulfur and other by-products of combustion.
Guidelines have been developed to be used in The properties of the specific lube oil used, load
the selection of engine lubricating oils that may factor, and other variables may affect the rate
permit standard oil drain intervals when using of wear due to sulfur. The lube oil supplier should
diesel fuel with up to 1.5% sulfur content. This can be consulted for the analysis parameters and
be accomplished through use of oils with appro- limits which will assure satisfactory engine per-
priate alkalinity reserves (new oil TBN values) formance with his products.
and satisfactory verification procedures listed in
oil analysis.
Figure 8.1 contains the necessary information to
select the appropriate new oil alkalinity value
(TBN) for the sulfur level in the fuel being used.
131 LEBW1414-00
Contamination Oils of the same alkalinity value may not per-
form the same. Oil alkalinity can be achieved
Contamination refers to the presence of unwanted
through a variety of additive formulations; some
material or contaminants in the oil. There are
are more effective against acid corrosive wear
seven major contaminants.
than others. For this reason, it will be necessary
1. Wear Elements to closely monitor engine wear with Scheduled
Wear elements are regarded as those ele- Oil Sampling (S•O•S) — Atomic Absorption
ments whose presence indicates a part or Wear Analysis. If oil recommendations are fol-
component which is wearing. Wear ele- lowed and excessive wear is indicated by unac-
ments include: copper, iron, chromium, alu- ceptable levels of iron (Fe) and chromium (Cr)
minum, lead-tin, molybdenum, silicon, wear particles, it will be necessary to shorten
nickel, and magnesium. the oil change interval or change to another oil
2. Dirt and Soot of higher TBN value. If such oils are not avail-
Dirt can get into the oil via air blowing down able, S•O•S can provide the information nec-
past the rings and by sticking to the oil film essary to establish the maximum limit for a
and being scraped down from cylinder walls. reduced drain interval.
Soot is unburned fuel. Black smoke and a Other S•O•S elements (e.g., copper, aluminum,
dirty air filter indicate its presence. It causes tin and silicon) should not be ignored, however,
oil to turn black. since acid corrosion is not the only cause of
3. Fuel engine wear. Infrared analysis can provide oil
Unburned fuel may enter under cold condi- condition information indicating problems that
tions or enter when the engine is not run- may be contributing to engine wear.
ning, but with a high static fuel pressure. If the means are available to analyze used oil
4. Water TBN by ASTM D2896, use Figure 8.1 to deter-
It can condense in the crankcase if the mine the minimum TBN allowable in used oil.
engine operating temperature is insufficient. Minimum allowable TBN is determined by fuel
The usual means of entry is via leaks. sulfur content. These limits are higher for pro-
portionately higher fuel sulfur contents. Con-
5. Ethylene Glycol/Antifreeze trolled laboratory tests have demonstrated this
6. Sulfur Products/Acids is necessary because oil alkalinity concentra-
tion in critical areas having only small amounts
7. Oxidation Products of oil (valve guides and piston ring belt areas)
Oxidation products cause the oil to thicken; must be proportionately higher to effectively
oxidation rate is accelerated by high tem- neutralize the higher quantities of acids pro-
perature of the inlet air. duced in those areas.

Scheduled Oil Sampling (S•O•S) Coping with effects of fuel sulfur is not a simple
problem. Oils with larger quantities of acid neu-
Many Caterpillar Dealers offer Scheduled Oil tralizing components will have higher ash con-
Sampling as a means of determining engine tents. This may increase deposits on exhaust
condition by analyzing lubricating oil for wear valve heads and turbocharger nozzle rings. Even
particles. This program will analyze the wear though proper use of lubricants and oil drain
rate of your engines, indicate any shortcomings intervals reduce the degree of corrosive attack,
in engine maintenance, show first signs of exces- engine wear will increase when high sulfur fuel
sive wear which would mean an upcoming fail- is used.
ure, and help keep repair costs to a minimum.
This program may not indicate lube oil condition Synthetic Lubricants
nor predict a fatigue or sudden failure. Caterpillar Caterpillar Inc. neither endorses nor recommends
recommendations for oil and oil change periods a brand or type of extended oil drain interval
are published in Service Literature. Caterpillar crankcase oil for its engines.
does not recommend exceeding published oil
change recommendations without verification
procedures.
LEBW1414-00 132
Crankcase oil is changed because it becomes
contaminated with soot (unburned carbon),
wear products, partially burned fuel, acids,
dirt, and products of combustion. The additive
components included in the oil become depleted
as they perform their intended functions of dis-
persing soot, preventing oxidation, wear, foam-
ing, etc. Caterpillar requires engine crankcase
lubricants to meet Engine Service Designation
API CH-4.
The required viscosity is listed in Figure 8.2.
Multiviscosity oils are acceptable. In extreme
cold weather operation, where engines are
located in enclosed heated rooms, some oper-
ators and contractors prefer to make their oil
viscosity selection based on the expected range
of temperature within the engine room. After a
winter rig move, this may require use of space
heaters in the engine room for an extended
period of time before the engines can be started.

Special Oil Formulations Engine Oil Viscosity

Caterpillar DEO Ambient Temperature
Caterpillar does not recommend the use of addi- Multigrade
tives to extend oil change periods. Oil additives EMA LRG-1
such as graphite, teflon, molybdenum disulfide, API CH-4 Minimum Maximum
API CG-4
etc., which have been properly blended into an and API CF-4
oil that meets API CH-4 specification can be Viscosity Grade
used in Caterpillar Diesel Engines. These addi- SAE 0W20 –40°F (–40°C) 50°F (10°C)
tives are not necessary to achieve normal life SAE 0W30 –40°F (–40°C) 86°F (30°C)
and performance of the engine. SAE 0W40 –40°F (–40°C) 104°F (40°C)
Normal engine life and performance can be SAE 5W30 –22°F (–30°C) 86°F (30°C)
achieved by properly applying the engine, by SAE 5W40 –22°F (–30°C) 104°F (40°C)
servicing at recommended oil change period, SAE 10W30 –4°F (–20°C) 104°F (40°C)
by selecting the correct oil viscosity, by using a SAE 15W40 5°F (–15°C) 122°F (50°C)
API CH-4 oil, and performing maintenance as
outlined in the engine operation and mainte- Figure 8.2
nance guide.
Lubricating Oil Heaters
Caterpillar does not recommend the use of
molybdenum dithiophosphate friction modifier Caterpillar does not recommend the use of
additive in the engine oil. This additive causes immersion-type lubrication oil heaters due to their
rapid corrosion of bronze components in tendency to overheat the oil in contact with the
Caterpillar Diesel Engines. heating element. This overheating causes dete-
rioration and sludging of the lubricating oil and
Lubricating Oil may lead to premature engine failure.
Oils meeting Engine service classification To avoid this condition, when using an oil heater,
API CH-4 are recommended for Caterpillar heater skin temperatures should not exceed
Diesel Engines. Publication “Caterpillar Com- 300°F (150°C) and have a maximum heat den-
mercial Diesel Engine Fluids Recommenda- sity of 8 W/in2 (12.5 W/1000 mm2).
tions,” form SEBU6251-06, contains complete
information. Prelubrication
Viscosity is the property of oil which defines its 3512 and 3516 Vee-type engines have the capa-
thickness or resistance to flow. Viscosity is bility to prelubricate all critical bearing journals
directly related to how well an oil will lubricate before energizing the starting motors.
and protect surfaces that contact one another. The automatic system, standard on the 3516 drill
Oil must be provided in adequate supply to all rig engine utilizes a small air powered pump which
moving parts, regardless of the temperature. fills the engine oil galleries from the engine oil
The more viscous (thicker) an oil is, the stronger sump until the presence of oil is sensed at the
the oil film it will provide. upper portion of the lubrication system. Starter
motors are automatically energized only after the
engine has been adequately prelubricated.

133 LEBW1414-00
 Duplex Oil Filter System While remote filters have more potential for oil
leaks, they seldom cause problems when the fol-
Oilfield engines that require marine classification lowing recommendations are followed:
society certification must be capable of oil filter
change while running. A. Exercise cleanliness during removal and
installation of oil filters and lines. Keep all
The optional Caterpillar Duplex Oil Filter System openings covered until final connections
(available for 3408, 3412, 3508, 3512, and 3516 are made.
offshore engines) meets requirements of the
standard filter system plus an auxiliary filter sys- B. Use medium pressure high temperature
tem with necessary valves and piping, Figure 8.3. (250°F [120°C]) hose equivalent to or
The system provides means for changing either exceeding SAE 100R5 specification.
main or auxiliary filter elements with the engine C Keep oil lines as short as possible and at least
running at any load or speed. A filter change indi- as large as engine connections.
cator is included to tell when to change the main
filter elements. A vent valve allows purging of air D. Support hose as necessary to keep from
trapped in either the main or auxiliary system chafing or cutting on sharp corners.
when installing new elements. Air must be purged E. Use care in connecting oil lines so the direc-
from the changed section to eliminate possible tion of oil flow is correct. CAUTION: Engine
turbocharger and bearing damage. The auxiliary damage will occur if oil filter is improperly
system is capable of providing adequate oil fil- connected.
tration for at least 100 hours under full load and
speed operation. The same filter elements are Tilt Angles
used in both systems.
Installations at a permanent tilt or slant angle
Changing the filters when the engine is running should be reviewed to ensure the lubrication sys-
is not recommended when engine driven radia- tem will function properly. Transient and contin-
tors are used since fan blast may disperse oil dur- uous tilt angle limits are shown for all engines in
ing filter change. the TMI.

FUEL Supplemental Bypass Filters

FILTER
Supplemental filters generally fall into two cate-
OIL gories. The first are centrifugal filters. Centrifugal
FILTER
filters remove solids from the oil such as sludge,
wear materials, soot and carbonous material.
Centrifugal filters can extend the operating hours
before the primary filters become restricted as
indicated by oil filter differential pressure.
The second category of supplemental filters is
absorptive filters. Absorptive filters have an
absorbent media such as cotton or cellulose
DUPLEX LUBE OIL FILTER
fibers which absorb acids, moisture and remove
Figure 8.3 contaminants from the oil.
Caterpillar Engines usually do not require a sup-
Remote Filters plemental bypass oil filter system. However there
Some Caterpillar Engines have the capability for may exist some unusual operating condition
remote mounting the oil filter when space limita- which would cause the user to install a system.
tion or serviceability is a problem on mobile type Centrifugal filters have proved helpful in extend-
land drill rigs. However, authorization from ing the primary filter life while absorptive filters
Caterpillar Inc. must be obtained before making reduce acids and contaminants in the oil.
any modification to the engine lubrication system.

LEBW1414-00 134
If used, system must have a non-drainback fea-
ture when the engine is shut down and a 0.125 in.
maximum diameter orifice limiting flow to 2 gpm
(7.57 L/min). Refer to engine general dimension
drawings for recommended bypass filter supply
location and oil return to the crankcase.
Supplemental bypass absorptive filters increase
oil capacity and may allow oil and filter change
periods to be extended. However the drain inter-
vals cannot be extended arbitrarily. Oil and filter
life must be verified by adequate monitoring sys-
tems. Refer to the Caterpillar Operation Guide for
recommended change periods.

135 LEBW1414-00
 FUEL DELIVERY SYSTEM

System Description low pressure. It is injected by individual high pres-

sure pumps into each cylinder through special
The diesel engine fuel supply, delivery, and gov- high pressure fuel lines (6) to individual injectors
erning systems have one primary purpose — to contained in the cylinder head (DI).
deliver clean fuel at the precise quantity and time
needed to produce the required engine perform- Fuel in excess of engine demand is bypassed
ance. To do this many precision components are through a pressure regulating valve (8) where all
needed but the two major devices are the fuel or part of it returns to the fuel tank along with
injection pump and the governor which controls any air which may have been purged out of the
it. The fuel system supplied on a Cat Engine is system. On modern, unit fuel injected engines,
essentially complete, requiring only the hookup the fuel flow also cools the injector. Fuel flow rate
of fuel supply and return lines to a fuel tank, and is approximately 6 times the full load fuel con-
connection of governor controls. sumption rate. Fuel coolers (13) may be required
to prevent excessive fuel temperature.
A complete fuel system includes all of the follow-
ing basic devices also shown by schematic below. For every 10°F (6°C) that the fuel temperature
rises above 100°F (38°C) the engine loses about
In addition to these basic features, other devices 1% of the gross horsepower as a result of the
are frequently used to provide additional func- expansion of the fuel (low viscosity). With very
tions or to modify one of the basic functions. low viscosity, the fuel loses the capability to
Examples are fuel heaters, primary filters, duplex lubricate and damage to the injection compo-
filters, fuel coolers, air-fuel ratio controllers, load nents will occur. To avoid this, the maximum fuel
limiters, ether aids, load indicators, flow meters, temperature should not at any time exceed
gauges, and shutoffs. 150°F (66°C).
A complete fuel system includes all of the fol- If the system is drained, as during repair or filter
lowing basic devices also shown by schematic change, a hand-operated fuel priming pump (9)
below: is used to fill the system and expel the air. A pres-
1. Fuel Tank sure gauge (10) shows pressure of filtered fuel
supplied to the injection pump. If filters become
2. Water Separator or Primary Filter
plugged and require replacing, the gauge will
3. Transfer Pump read low when the engine is operating at load.
4. Secondary Filter The governor (11) controls the individual fuel
rates from shutoff to full delivery in order to

}
5. Injection Pump achieve desired engine speed, regardless of load.
6. Injection Lines or unit fuel injector
Component Description and
7. Injection Valves Installation Requirements
8. Fuel Pressure Regulator Individual components of the fuel system are
9. Priming Pump described here more completely as to purpose,
recommended features, and installation require-
10. Fuel Pressure Gauge
ments to achieve satisfactory performance
11. Governor and Controls and life.
12. Low Pressure Lines and Fittings
Fuel Tank
13. Fuel Cooler
It provides fuel storage and should have the fol-
Fuel is drawn from the tank (1) through the lowing features:
optional water separator or primary fuel filter (2)
Adequate size for the intended application.
by the engine-driven fuel transfer pump (3) and
pumped through the secondary fuel filter (4) into The capacity of a fuel tank or tank system can be
the injection pump housing reservoir (5) (or indi- estimated by multiplying the average horse-
vidual cylinder unit injector) and maintained at power demand by the hours of operation between
LEBW1414-00 136
refuelings, and divide the result by 16 for U.S. the required expansion volume. A small vent hole
gallons and by 4 for liters. (about 0.19 in. [4.81 mm] diameter) in filler tube,
just below top of tank, is required to make this
This calculation does not allow for any reserve
volume usable.
capacity which should be added to this basic
requirement. Venting to atmospheric pressure is necessary to
prevent pressure or vacuum buildup. A large tank
Appropriate material. Steel, aluminum, stainless
can be collapsed by vacuum or burst by pres-
steel, or copper clad steel is used successfully.
sure if not vented properly. The vent should
Fuel tanks are best made from low carbon include a filter.
rolled steel.
Filler must be adequately sized and located for
Water in fuel produces a voluminous, white cor- convenient filling. It should also be lockable. Fuel
rosion product when in contact with zinc. spillage must not reach hot parts. Also, fuel
Do not use zinc on significant surface area items spillage should not reach items which can soak
such as fuel tanks and lines which have potential up or entrap fuel or be damaged by fuel.
for sitting in contact with stagnant pools of water A 2° sloping bottom helps collect sediment and
for long periods of time. Fittings made of brass or any major amounts of water, and a bottom drain
coated with zinc should be acceptable because of is necessary to permit periodic removal of these
limited exposure to stagnant water and a lack of contaminants.
sufficient surface area to produce enough corro-
Fuel supply pickup should be off the bottom
sion product to cause plugging problems. Gal-
enough to leave 3% to 5% of the fuel in the tank.
vanized steel is essentially the same as zinc
This should leave sediment and water in the tank
coated material.
until drained off periodically.
The fuel tank must meet stringent corrosion pro-
Fuel return line should normally enter the tank
tection and leak detection regulations.
at the top and extend downward, exiting above
Expansion volume must be adequate to allow for the fuel level. Inlet and return lines should be sep-
expansion of stored fuel during temperature arated in the tank by at least 12 in. (204.8 mm)
change. Allowance of 5% of tank volume is ade- to avoid air pickup in the inlet line.
quate. This can be provided by extending the
The fuel tank should be grounded.
filler neck down into the tank enough to create

REPRESENTATIVE BASIC FUEL SYSTEM

(CONSULT TMI SCHEMATICS FOR EACH SPECIFIC MODEL)
Figure 9.1
137 LEBW1414-00
Tank Maintenance water. Fuel coolers may be necessary for proper
engine performance. The following factors affect
Fuel has a finite storage life of approximately one
the need for fuel cooling equipment:
year, although this may vary widely depending
upon initial quality, contaminant levels and stor- Length of periods of continuous operation: If the
age conditions. Periodic exchange of fuel and fil- operating periods are short, the amount of heat
tering/treating to remove water, scale and returned to the fuel tanks will be relatively small.
bacteria growth will extend fuel life. Fuel coolers are not generally required for
engines used in high performance applications,
Water contamination of fuel during long-term
such as fracturing.
storage offers a medium for bacterial growth,
forming a dark slime which: Length of time between periods of operation: If
• Plugs filters the time between periods of operation is long, the
• Deposits on tank walls and pipes heat will have an opportunity to dissipate.
• Swells rubber products that it contacts Volume of the fuel tank: If the volume of the fuel
Sulfur compounds are natural antioxidants, so tank is large (larger than 3,000 gal. (11 000 L)
the low sulfur fuels (0.05% by weight) now avail- per engine, it will accept a great deal of heat
able will degrade quicker in storage. The diesel before the temperature of the fuel leaving the tank
fuel will oxidize and form gums and varnishes increases significantly.
which can plug fuel filters and injectors. Local experience may modify these recommen-
Because microorganism growth occurs in the dations, particularly in hot climates.
fuel/water layer, the tank should be designed to
minimize this interface, and water bottoms should Offshore Rigs
be drained regularly. Offshore rigs should have a fuel day tank installed
Microbiocide additives, either water- or fuel-sol- in the engine room, Figure 9.2. All engine fuel
uble, can be added to fresh fuel to inhibit microor- supply and return lines (or manifolds) should be
ganism growth. Consult your local fuel supplier connected to this tank. This allows for venting of
for recommended additives. any air that may enter fuel delivery system.
In warm climates, large bulk storage diesel fuel The day tank’s fuel level when full should not
requires full filtering every six months to one year. exceed the top of the injection valves. If the full
level is higher, static pressure in the supply and
Every two years fuel should be completely return lines may allow fuel to leak into combus-
changed to remove water, scale, bacteria growth, tion chambers when the engine is not running.
oxidized gums/resins, and minimize filter clog- Engine damage can result.
ging due to fuel separation into components such
as asphaltenes. Where it is customary to install a large fuel
day tank at the top of the engine room, an aux-
Fuel Coolers iliary day tank should be mounted near the
engine room deck and float fed from the larger
A fuel cooler may be required on engines with
tank Figure 9.2. A capacity of 100-300 gal.
unit fuel injectors, such as the 3500 series.
(379-1136 L) is sufficient. The auxiliary day tank
Typical applications will be those where the fuel
isolates the pressure head of the day tank from
tank is exposed to high ambient temperatures
the engine fuel system.
or where there are restrictions to the size of the
tank. The fuel temperature must be kept below Land Rigs
150°F (66°C).
For land rigs the fuel day tank refill mark must not
By reducing the temperature of fuel and remov- be more than 12 ft. (3.65 m) below the engine
ing harmful particles, coolers and filters improve fuel transfer pump. If the fuel day tank is more
the quality of the fuel used by an engine. than 30 ft. (9.15 m) from the engines or if ambi-
The excess fuel returned from some engines ent temperature is extremely low, larger fuel sup-
equipped with unit injectors (1.7 liter, and 3500 ply and return lines should be used to ensure
Family Engines) can absorb considerable heat adequate flow. The fuel day tank should have
from the injectors and the surrounding jacket
LEBW1414-00 138
 FUEL SUPPLY SYSTEMS
Figure 9.2

provisions to vent air in case it enters the fuel Baffles reduce sloshing and resulting air entrain-
delivery system. ment. They also prevent sudden shifts in the
tank’s center of gravity, when in motion, as on a
Elevated fuel tanks for land rigs should not exceed
mobile machine.
the limitations, Figure 9.2.
Strong fastening of the fuel tank to the machine
Where a portion of the rig engines are elevated
is essential. This is especially important on a
on a substructure, 100 gal. (380 L) day tanks
mobile application where motion of a full tank
installed next to each engine improve startabil-
generates sizeable forces. It is good practice to
ity and isolate ground level engines from high
use some nonmetallic cushioning material
static fuel pressure. This requires an electric fuel
between the tank and support members to avoid
transfer pump at the main fuel tank location to
fretting and wear on the tank.
provide low pressure fuel to these individual float
controlled day tanks, Figure 9.3. Filler must be adequately sized and located for
convenient filling. It should also be lockable. Fuel
Mobile Rigs spillage must not reach hot parts. Also, fuel
Adequate fuel tank structural strength is required spillage should not reach items which can soak
to avoid failure under application conditions up or entrap fuel or be damaged by fuel.
which may include shock loading and steady Filler should be located near center of tank so
vibration. that parking a mobile machine on a side tilt will

Figure 9.3
139 LEBW1414-00
not cause expanding fuel to back up into filler likely to drain it out periodically. If the device is
pipe and overflow. This will also help avoid hard to see or difficult to service, it may not
spilling fuel from a full tank when operating on receive regular attention.
a grade. The installation should include valves which can
Fuel tanks should be shielded or located away isolate the separator and primary filter when ele-
from major heat radiating sources such as hot ments are changed.
exhaust manifolds and turbochargers. Also, the Excessive amounts of water, slimy material on
cooling fan blast picks up enough heat from the filters, corrosion of fuel system components, or
radiator to raise fuel temperatures significantly if tank coatings may indicate fungus/bacteria in
the air is directed at the fuel tank. This will result the fuel. Contact your fuel supplier for test kits to
in some power loss because of the heated, determine the degree of contamination and
expanded fuel. chemical additives to prevent recurrence.
Water Separator and Primary Filter Because water can collect and freeze at low
points in fuel lines, filters, or other components
Clean fuel meeting Caterpillar’s recommenda-
that contain fuel, a water separator should be
tions assures maximum engine service life and
placed as close to the fuel tank as practical in a
performance; anything less is a compromise and
visible, serviceable location. Usually, the sepa-
the risk is the user’s responsibility. Dirty fuel not
rator has a see-through feature that allows a
meeting Caterpillar’s minimum fuel specifications
quick visual check for presence of water and a
will adversely affect combustion, filter life, starta-
quick-drain valve to let water out.
bility and life of internal components.
Clean fuel is of utmost importance to fuel injec- Lines and Fittings
tion system components if long, trouble-free Pipes, hoses, and fittings must be mechanically
service life is expected. All Caterpillar Engines strong, leak-tight, and resistant to deterioration
are equipped with a main micronic filter system due to age or environmental conditions. Sizing
to protect the fuel injection pumps and valves. must be adequate to minimize flow loss. Routing
These filters are not designed to cope with great must be correct, and flex connections, such as
quantities of sediment and water. Both impuri- hose assemblies, must isolate engine motion
ties should be removed by an optional primary from the stationary members in the system.
filter. A fuel centrifuge used in place of a water
separator is acceptable. A primary fuel filter The pipes should be of the same material as the
should still be used because of contaminants tank, black iron or steel to avoid reaction with
that may be in the tank and piping as a result of the fuel.
construction. Copper pipe or tubing may be substituted in sizes
The system should be located ahead of any fuel of 0.5 in. (13.0 mm) nominal pipe size or less.
pumps since pumps have a tendency to emul- Valves and fittings may be cast iron or bronze
sify the water with the fuel, which will reduce the (not brass).
efficiency of the water trap. Give close attention Do not use zinc alloy or galvanized metal due to
to the system’s restriction since this will reduce its high chemical reaction with fuel.
the fuel pump lift capability.
The size of the pipe should be the same as the
Any system can be damaged by water in the fuel; size of the engine fuel inlet.
so water should be removed. Fuel system dam-
age by water is always the responsibility of Piping and fittings must be sealed to prevent air
the user. or dirt contamination. Air in the system causes
hard starting and erratic engine operation.
The water separator should be sized adequately
to separate and store enough water between peri- Determine the fuel line sizing by the supply and
odic drainings to prevent overfilling and water return line restriction. The maximum allowable
carryover into the engine’s fuel system. restriction is published in the TMI. Supply and
return lines should be no smaller than the fittings
The water separator should be mounted in a vis- on the engine.
ible location. If the operator sees water, he is more

LEBW1414-00 140
 Frictional Head Loss [ft. (m)] for 100 Feet (30.5 Meters) of Standard Weight Pipe
at 60°F (15.5°C) at Seal Level — Diesel Fuel
GPM (L/min) Pipe Size
3/8 1/2 3/4 1 1-1/4 1-1/2 2
2 (7.57) 15.2 (4.63) 5.5 (1.67) 1.1 (0.34) 0.5 (0.15) 0.2 (0.06)
4 (15.14) 55.5 (16.92) 20.3 (6.18) 5.1 (1.55) 1.4 (0.43) 0.5 (0.15) 0.2 (0.06)
7 (26.5) 61.0 (18.59) 15.3 (4.66) 4.6 (1.4) 1.2 (0.36) 0.5 (0.15)
10 (37.85) 26.3 (8.01) 8.5 (2.6) 2.5 (0.76) 0.9 (0.27) 0.2 (0.06)
19 (71.92) 28.5 (8.68) 7.5 (2.28) 3.5 (1.07) 1.2 (0.36)

Figure 9.4. Frictional head loss, pipes.

Frictional Loss in Pipe Fittings in Terms of Equivalent Feet (Meters) of Straight Pipe
Pipe Ball 45° Std. Std. Check Angle Globe Diaphragm
Size Valve Elbow Elbow Tee Valve Valve Valve Valve
(in.) ft. (m) ft. (m) ft. (m) ft. (m) ft. (m) ft. (m) ft. (m) ft. (m)
3/8 0.28 (0.085) 0.70 (0.213) 1.4 (0.427) 2.6 (0.792) 3.6 (1.1) 8.6 (2.62) 16.5 (5.03)
1/2 0.35 (0.107) 0.78 (0.238) 1.7 (0.518) 3.3 (1.01) 4.3 (1.31) 9.3 (2.83) 18.6 (5.67) 40 (12.19)
3/4 0.44 (0.134) 0.97 (0.296) 2.1 (0.64) 4.2 (1.28) 5.3 (1.62) 11.5 (3.51) 23.1 (7.04)
1 0.56 (0.171) 1.23 (0.375) 2.6 (0.792) 5.3 (1.62) 6.8 (2.07) 14.7 (4.48) 29.4 (8.96)
1-1/4 0.74 (0.226) 1.6 (0.488) 3.5 (1.07) 7.0 (2.13) 8.9 (2.71) 19.3 (5.88) 38.6 (11.77)
1-1/2 0.86 (0.262) 1.9 (0.579) 4.1 (1.25) 8.1 (2.47) 10.4 (3.17) 22.6 (6.89) 45.2 (13.78)
2 1.10 (0.335) 2.4 (0.732) 5.2 (1.58) 10.4 (3.17) 13.4 (4.08) 29.0 (8.84) 58.0 (17.67)

Figure 9.5. Frictional loss in pipe fittings.

Figures 9.4 and 9.5 provide useful frictional allow air to enter the fuel system, causing erratic
loss data. running and loss of power. Pipe joint compound
should be used on pipe threads, taking care to
Engine fuel pressure measured in the fuel return
keep it out of the fuel system where it can cause
line should be kept below 4 psi (27 kPa), except
damage.
for the 3300 Engine Family, which is 3 psi
(20 kPa). A shutoff valve is not recommended, Routing
for 3400 Series or smaller engines because dam-
aging pressure may result if the valve were left Whenever possible, route fuel lines under any
closed when engine was started. machinery so any leakage will be confined to
the bilges or drip pans under machinery. Leaks
If the engine is above the fuel tank, consider from overhead fuel system components may fall
adding a check valve to the fuel supply line to onto hot machinery, increasing the likelihood of
keep fuel from bleeding back to the fuel tank caus- fire danger.
ing hard starting.
Fuel lines should also be routed to avoid forma-
Fuel lines should be designed with the application tion of traps which can catch sediment or pock-
in mind. Especially on mobile, off-highway ets of water which will freeze in cold weather.
equipment, effects of vibration, shock loads, and
motion of parts should be considered. Fuel lines All connecting lines, valves, and tanks should be
should be well routed and clipped, with flexible thoroughly cleaned before making final connec-
hose connections where relative motion is pres- tions to the engine. The entire fuel supply sys-
ent. Lines should be routed away from hot tem should be flushed prior to engine startup.
parts, like manifolds and turbochargers, to avoid
fuel heating and potential hazard if a fuel line Transfer Pump
should fail. This engine driven pump delivers low pressure
Joints and fittings must be leak-tight to avoid (15 psi to 30 psi [103 kPa to 207 kPa]) fuel from
entry of air into the suction side of the fuel system. the tank to the injection pump housing reservoir
A joint which is leak-tight to fuel can sometimes (60 psi [414 kPa] on 3508, 3512, and 3516). It
141 LEBW1414-00
is a gear-type pump with some limited priming the effective pumping stroke. The governor con-
capability when the pumping gears are full of fuel. trols fuel delivery to produce a governed speed,
This pump should be protected from abrasive regardless of load.
wear and corrosion by a water separator or pri-
mary fuel filter. Injection Lines
On some smaller engines, individual fuel lines
Secondary Filter carry fuel at the very high pressure required for
Because fuel injection pumps and injectors are injection, from individual injection pumps to each
precision devices with extremely close clearances cylinder injector. These lines are heavy-walled,
between working parts, particles which can cause strong, specially extruded tubing made only for
damage must be removed in the secondary fil- this purpose. Because injection lines carry such
ter. This filter is standard equipment on all Cat high pressure, they should not be bent or dam-
Diesel Engines. When a secondary filter gets aged during installation or operation.
plugged, an engine typically loses power or may
run erratically. The fuel pressure gauge will indi- Injectors
cate low fuel pressure under these conditions. The purpose of the injector valve is to spray the
Filter media in Caterpillar fuel filters is developed correct pattern of atomized fuel into the com-
and carefully controlled to conform with Cat spec- bustion chamber (DI). It has a spring-loaded
ifications on filtration efficiency and durability. Use valve which requires that the pressure rise to
of filters of unknown capability may not protect some elevated level before valve opens at start
the precision fuel system from contamination. of injection. This is necessary for a precision-
timed fuel delivery and assures a sharp cutoff of
Fuel Pressure Regulator fuel at the end of each injection period.
Somewhere in the fuel path, before or at the injec- Most emissions certified engines utilize unit injec-
tion pump, there is a pressure regulating valve tors. No high pressure injection lines are required.
which limits the pressure of fuel supplied to the
injection pump housing reservoir. This pressure
must be enough to fill the individual injection Fuel System Attachments
pump assemblies, but would become excessive Duplex Fuel Filter System
if the transfer pump could not pump excess fuel
Oilfield engines that require marine classification
through a relief circuit back to the fuel tank. A
society certification must be capable of fuel filter
shutoff valve should never be placed in the fuel
change while running. The optional Caterpillar
return line because pressure may quickly build to
duplex fuel filter system (available for 3406,
damaging levels, depending upon the engine
3408, 3412, 3508, 3512, and 3516 Engines)
model. The return line also allows air to escape
meets the requirements of the engine and marine
from the system.
societies, Figure 9.6. Main and auxiliary filter sys-
3500 Series engines include a transfer pump tems are combined in one housing. The system
relief valve that protects the system if a return provides for changing either main or auxiliary fil-
line fuel shutoff valve is accidentally closed. ter elements with the engine running at any load
and speed. A vent position in the control valve
Priming Pump allows purging of air trapped in the housing when
When a fuel system has air in it, the hand prim- installing new elements. Both main and auxiliary
ing pump is used to fill the system with fuel and sections can be used simultaneously to extend
purge air. Once this has been done, the priming running time in an emergency. The auxiliary sys-
pump will not likely be used again until the fuel tem provides at least 100 hours full load running
system is emptied for adjustment or repair. time with reasonably clean fuel.
This system can be used when engine driven
Injection Pump radiators are used, but only to select the standby
Fuel is pumped at a very high pressure to each filter. Filter changing during engine operation is
cylinder unit injector. The fuel volume pumped not recommended due to safety concerns around
on each stroke is controlled by the rack (scroll hot surfaces and due to fuel being blown around
system) or electric solenoid which determines by the radiator fan air flow.
LEBW1414-00 142
 Caterpillar Engines burn a variety of fuels.
FUEL Generally, use the lowest priced distillate fuel
FILTER which meets the following requirements (fuel
OIL
condition as delivered to engine fuel filters).
FILTER
Fuel specifications meeting the above require-
ments include:
• ASTM D396 — No. 1 and No. 2 Fuels
(Burner Fuels)
• ASTM D975 — No. 1-D and No. 2-D Diesel
Fuel Oil
• BS2869 — Class A1, A2, B1, and B2 Engine
DUPLEX FUEL FILTER Fuels
1. Fuel Filter Housing
2. Priming Pump • DIN51601 — Diesel Fuel
3. Changeover Valve Handle • DIN51603 — EL Heating Oil
Figure 9.6
Preferred Fuels
Double-Wall Fuel Lines Distillate fuels which meet the following require-
On engines without unit injectors, double-wall fuel ments are the preferred fuels for Caterpillar
lines are required by marine classification soci- Engines:
eties for unmanned engine rooms and other Complete information on diesel fuels is in “Diesel
national association regulations on fire prevention. Fuels and Your Engine,” form SEBD0717.
The system contains high pressure steel fuel lines Caterpillar Specifications for Distillate Diesel Fuel
inside steel tubes. The fuel line assembly bleeds ASTM
off fuel that may have leaked from the main Specifications Requirements Test
injector line to a collecting tank. Aromatics 35% maximum “D1319”
The tank contains a float switch which can be Ash 0.02% maximum (weight) “D482”
wired to a warning alarm that activates when the Carbon Residue 0.35% maximum (weight) “D524”
tank fills. The tank can be connected to a larger on 10% Bottoms
reservoir. Cetane Number 40 minimum (DI engines) “D613”
35 minimum (PC engines)
Cloud Point The cloud point must not —
Fuel Specifications exceed the lowest expected
Clean fuel meeting Caterpillar’s fuel recommen- ambient temperature
dations assures maximum engine service life and Copper Strip No. 3 maximum “D130”
performance; anything less is a compromise and Corrosion
the risk is the user’s responsibility. Dirty fuel and Distillation 10% at 540°F (282°C) “D86”
maximum
fuels not meeting Caterpillar’s minimum fuel
90% at 680°F (360°C)
specifications will adversely affect combustion, maximum
filter life, injection system performance and serv- Flash Point Legal limit “D93”
ice life, startability and/or, perhaps, service life API Gravity 30 minimum “D287”
of valves, pistons, rings, liners, and bearings. 45 maximum
Fuel costs can represent 80% or more of total (Cont’d)
engine operating costs; it is good economics to
carefully consider proper fuel selection.
Fuel normally recommended for diesel genera-
tor sets is No. 2 furnace oil or No. 2D diesel fuel.

143 LEBW1414-00
 Caterpillar Specifications for Distillate Diesel Fuel low cetane number fuel can also cause white
ASTM smoke and odor at start-up on colder days.
Specifications Requirements Test Engines running on fuels with low cetane num-
Pour Point 10°F (6°C) minimum below “D97” bers may need to be started and stopped using
ambient temperature a good distillate fuel.
Sulfur 3% maximum “D3605”
or Blended fuels or additives can change the cetane
“D1552” number. The cetane number is difficult and
Kinematic 1.4 cSt minimum and “D445” expensive to establish for blended fuels due to
Viscosity 20.0 cSt maximum at the complexity of the required test.
104°F (40°C)
Water and 0.1% maximum “D1796” White exhaust smoke is made up of fuel vapors
Sediment and aldehydes created by incomplete engine
Water 0.1% maximum “D1744” combustion. Ignition delay during cold weather
Sediment 0.05% maximum (weight) “D473” is often the cause. There is not enough heat in
Gums and 10 mg per 100 mL “D381” the combustion chamber to ignite the fuel.
Resins maximum Therefore, the fuel does not burn completely.
Lubricity 3100 g minimum “D6708”
Using a cetane improver additive can often
0.018 in. (0.45 mm) “D6079”
maximum at 140°F (60°C)
reduce white smoke during engine start-up in
0.015 in. (0.38 mm)
cold weather. It increases the cetane number of
maximum at 77°F (25°C) diesel fuel which improves ignition quality and
makes it easier for fuel to ignite and burn. Contact
Figure 9.7
your local fuel supplier for information on where
*A higher cetane number fuel may be required for to obtain cetane improvers.
operation at a high altitude or in cold weather.
Cetane number is usually calculated or approx-
imated using a cetane index due to the cost of
Permissible Fuels more accurate testing. Be cautious when obtain-
There are exceptions to the distillate only ing cetane numbers from fuel suppliers.
Caterpillar recommendation for a suitable fuel. Higher cetane numbers indicate a shorter igni-
With the addition of special equipment, 3500 tion lag and are associated with better all-around
Series low speed Cat Engines will perform satis- performance in most diesel engines, especially in
factorily on some crude oils and blended fuels. high speed engines.
Since the composition of crude oils varies greatly
and since worldwide specifications of blended Specific Gravity (ASTM D287)
fuels are very broad, special care must be taken
before using such fuels in Cat Engines. Unsuit- The specific gravity of diesel fuel is the weight of
able characteristics of such fuels and precondi- a fixed volume of fuel compared to the weight of
tioning requirements are discussed later. the same volume of water (at the same temper-
ature). The higher the specific gravity, the heav-
Caterpillar has established the following guide- ier the fuel. Heavier fuels have more energy or
lines for fuel, as delivered to the fuel injection sys- power (per volume) for the engine to use.
tem, to determine the suitability of a fuel having
physical and chemical properties not meeting Lighter fuels like kerosene will not produce rated
Caterpillar Diesel preferred fuel requirements. power. (Specification sheets usually show ratings
when using fuel having 35 API density, at 85°F
Fuel Properties (29°C), weighing 7.001 pounds per gallon, and
having 18,390 BTU’s per pound. The same fuel
Cetane Number (ASTM D613) — Measure of the of 35 API density weights 7.076 pounds per gal-
ignition quality of a diesel fuel as determined in lon at 60°F (15°C). When comparing fuel con-
an engine. The higher the cetane number the bet- sumption or engine performance, always know
ter the ignition quality and the less the tendency the temperature of the fuel measurement for cor-
to knock. rect gravity and density.
Ignition delay also causes poor fuel economy, a Engine fuel settings should not be adjusted to
loss of power and sometimes engine damage. A compensate for a power loss with lighter fuels

LEBW1414-00 144
(with a density number higher than 35 API). Fuel the lowest ambient temperature at which the
system component life can be decreased with engine will be expected to start and operate, fuel
very light fuels because lubrication will be less filter wax plugging will not be a problem.
effective (due to low viscosity). Sulfur (ASTM D1522 or D3605) — Fuel sulfur
Lighter fuels may also be a blend of ethanol or forms compounds during combustion which
methanol with diesel fuel. Blending of alcohol react chemically with the lubricating oil. They
(ethanol or methanol) or gasoline into a diesel reduce the oil’s effectiveness in preventing the
fuel will create an explosive atmosphere in the formation and accumulation of deposits on the
fuel tank. In addition, water condensation in the piston and piston rings. Sulfur compounds also
tank can cause the alcohol to separate and strat- promote corrosion and corrosive wear.
ify in the tank. Caterpillar recommends against When diesel fuel containing sulfur is burned in
such blends. an engine’s combustion chamber, oxides of sul-
Viscosity (ASTM D445 Kinematic Viscosity) — fur form and react with water vapor to create sul-
Measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow. It is ordi- furic acid. If these acid vapors condense, they
narily expressed in terms of the time required for chemically attack the metal surfaces of valve
a standard quantity of the fluid at a certain tem- guides, cylinder liners, and may affect bearings.
perature to flow under gravity through a cali- For example, when the temperature of the cylin-
brated glass capillary viscosimeter. The higher der liners is lower than the dew point of sulfuric
the value, the more viscous the fluid. Since vis- acid, and the lubricating oil does not have suffi-
cosity varies inversely with temperature, its value cient alkalinity reserve (TBN) to neutralize the
is meaningless unless accompanied by the tem- acid, liners can wear ten times more quickly.
perature at which it is determined. With petro- When fuel sulfur damage occurs, there will be
leum oils, viscosity is commonly reported in very little change in engine power. But, frequently,
centistokes (CST). Other viscosity units used are corrosive wear will lead to excessive oil con-
Saybolt seconds, universalsus or, Saybolt sec- sumption and blowby, causing a premature,
onds, furol-SSF. Less common are the Engler expensive overhaul.
and redwood viscosity scales, whose principal
applications are outside the U.S.A. Maintain the crankcase breather system to pre-
vent condensation in the crankcase oil which will
High viscosity fuel will increase gear train, cam cause rapid TBN depletion.
and follower wear on the fuel pump assembly
because of the higher injection pressure. Fuel Maintain a regular Scheduled Oil Sampling
atomizes less efficiently and the engine will be (S•O•S) oil analysis program. Infrared (IR)
more difficult to start. analysis is valuable as well.
Low viscosity fuel may not provide adequate Follow standard oil change intervals unless S•O•S
lubrication to plungers, barrels, and injectors; its or known sulfur content indicates differently.
use should be evaluated carefully. Caterpillar recommends reducing the length of
Flash Point (ASTM D93) — Lowest temperature oil change periods or increasing crankcase
fuel will give off sufficient vapor to ignite when capacities or raising the operating water tem-
flame is applied. perature to offset the effects of higher quantities
of sulfur.
Pour Point (ASTM D97) — Lowest temperature
at which fuel will flow, a factor of significance in Water and Sediment (ASTM D1796) — The per-
cold weather startup and operation. A pour point centage, by volume, of water and foreign matter
of 5°F (3°C) lower than the ambient temperature which can be removed from fuel by centrifug-
at which the engine will be expected to start and ing. These materials affect the rate of fuel filter
operate should provide freedom from fuel filter plugging.
plugging. If the fuel contains a pour point depres- Salt water is the greatest single source of fouling
sant, the cloud point is the significant temperature. deposits and corrosion. Salt water can cause fuel
Cloud Point — Lowest temperature at which the injector and piston ring groove deposits and wear
sample becomes clouded by the formation of in fuel system plunger and barrel assemblies.
wax crystals. If this temperature is no higher than

145 LEBW1414-00
The coalescing type of separator is recom- taminating fuel supply is completely used, then
mended because often the water in the fuel is clean the fuel tank and use clean fuel.
mixed or broken into small particles which do
not settle. This separator is used if particles are Microorganisms in Fuel
so fine they make the fuel cloudy. All water and fuel offer a medium for bacterial
A coalescing type separator will separate all growth. These simple life forms live in the water
water from fuel. It can be put anywhere in the fuel and feed on fuel.
line, such as next to the components that need Microorganisms or fungi in fuel cause corrosion
the most protection from water. The elements are and filter plugging. Bacteria may be any color,
composed of two-stage paper media that are but is usually black, green or brown. Bacteria
replaceable. The element is plugged when there grows in long strings and has a slimy appear-
is a lack of fuel pressure. ance. A biocide added to the fuel will kill the
Make sure you know the percentage of sediment growth and/or slow its formation. Filtering the
in the fuel you purchase. If the sediment or water fuel, or proper disposal after using the biocide, is
for distillate fuels exceeds 0.05% to the engine, required to eliminate filter plugging.
consider other sources for fuel, or special filtra-
tion, centrifuging or settling procedures. Fuel Copper Strip Corrosion
should be tested often for both sediment and Corrosion (ASTM Test D130), is a discoloration
water. Testing is the only way you can be assured formed on a polished copper strip when immersed
that you are actually getting the quality of fuel in fuel for three hours at 212°F (100°C). Any fuel
you paid for. showing more than slight discoloration should
Sediment will gradually be caught in the fuel fil- be rejected.
ter, but this will cause added expense in more Many types of engine parts are of copper or cop-
periodic filter changes. Very small sediment will per alloys. It is essential that any fuel in contact
get through the filters and can result in fuel sys- with these parts be noncorrosive to them. There
tem wear. It is important to remove as much sed- are certain sulfur derivatives in the fuel that are
iment as possible before the fuel goes into your likely sources of corrosion.
engine. This will reduce the ash and particulate
contamination which causes deposits, corrosion Carbon Residue (ASTM D524) — Percentage by
and abrasive wear. weight of dry carbon remaining when fuel is
burned until no liquid remains.
Allow time for sediment to settle to the bottom
of the tank. Your engine will use the cleaner fuel Ash (ASTM D482) — Percentage by weight of
at the top and you can drain the sediment from dirt, dust, sand, and other foreign matter remain-
the bottom. However, as the specific gravity ing after combustion.
becomes higher, the settling method of removing
sediment becomes less effective. Fuel Stability
Gums and Resins
Sludge and Fibers
The gums and resins that occur in diesel fuel are
Both sludge and fibers can contaminate fuel dur- the result of dissolved oxidation products that do
ing handling and storage. Storage tanks, fuel pipe not evaporate easily or burn cleanly. Excessive
lines and barge transportation all contribute to gum in the fuel will coat fuel injection lines,
these contaminants. pumps and injectors and will interfere with the
Fibers cannot be removed except by filtering. close tolerances of the fuel system’s moving
Sludge will rapidly foul the centrifugal purifiers. parts. They will also cause rapid filter plugging.
Both of these contaminants will clog strainers During fuel storage the fuel will oxidize and form
and fuel filters. If fuel with sludge is burned in the more gums and resins. Reducing fuel storage
engine, it will cause filter fouling. periods (maximum of one year) will minimize the
formation of gums and resins.
The only solution to a sludge or fiber problem is
to replace (or clean) the filters often until the con-

LEBW1414-00 146
Fuel Separation oils, special hydraulic oils not covered by
Caterpillar recommendations, greases, clean-
Fuel must remain stable in storage. If not prop-
ing solvents, etc., be mixed with the diesel
erly refined, incorrect stability additives are used;
fuel. Also, do not use crankcase oils con-
or if fuel gets old, it can change its characteris-
taining water or antifreeze from engine
tics of being totally mixed to separating into com-
coolant leaks or from poor storage practices.
ponents like asphaltenes. This will cause rapid
fuel filter plugging and low engine power. To min- 2. Adequate mixing is essential. Lube oil and
imize the occurrence of fuel separation, use good fuel oil, once mixed, will combine and not
quality fuel with the correct additives from a rep- separate. 1. Mix used crankcase oil with an
utable supplier, and minimize the length of time equal amount of fuel, 2. filter, and 3. then add
the fuel is stored. Do not store fuel for over a year. the 50-50 blend to the supply tank before
new fuel is added. This procedure should nor-
Fuel Storage mally provide sufficient mixing. Failure to
Diesel fuel is more prone to oxidative attack in achieve adequate mixing will result in pre-
storage and to thermal degradation in use than mature filter plugging by slugs of undiluted
gasoline because of more sulfur and nitrogen and lube oil.
higher molecular weight components with higher 3. Filter or centrifuge used oil prior to putting it
distillation end points. The sulfur removal process in the fuel tanks to prevent premature fuel
helps stabilize the fuel by reducing sediment filter plugging or accelerated wear or plug-
forming products. But the use of cracked stocks ging of fuel system parts. Soot, dirt, metal,
(more unstable) has created the need for addi- and residue particles larger than 5 microns
tional treatment. should be removed by this process. If filter-
Commercial diesel fuels will usually contain a ing or centrifuging is not used prior to adding
variety of additives that improve or add desirable the oil to the fuel, primary filters with
properties. Fuel stability additives are extensively 5 microns capability must be located between
used in diesel fuels to prevent oxidative break- the fuel supply and engine. These will require
down of the fuel into gums and polymeric sedi- frequent servicing.
ment during storage. 4. Clean handling techniques of the used crank-
But the fuel still has a finite storage life which is case oils are essential to prevent introducing
usually limited to about one year. Care should contaminants from outside sources into the
also be used to prevent water and other con- diesel fuel supply. Care must be taken in col-
taminants from getting into the storage tanks to lecting, storing, and transporting the used
reduce the effectiveness of built-in resistance. crankcase oil to the diesel fuel tanks.
Diesel fuel day tank sight glasses may become
Mixing Used Crankcase Oil with Diesel Fuel blackened in time due to the carbon content in
It is necessary to collect, store, and dispose of the crankcase oil. Ash content of the lube oil
used crankcase oil from engines due to legisla- added to the fuel may also cause more rapid
tion and ecological considerations. It is no longer accumulation of turbocharger and valve deposits
acceptable to dump used crankcase oil into the than normal.
oceans, rivers, and harbors from vessels or off-
shore drilling and production platform installa- Crude Oil Fuel System
tions. It may be necessary for engine operators Where economics justify or where limited fuel sup-
to consider burning crankcase oil in their Cat plies necessitate, crude oil and heavier fuels (i.e.,
Engines. This can be done providing the pre- distillate-residual blends) can be permissible fuels
cautions below are carefully followed. for Caterpillar 3500 Series low speed Engines.
1. Only diesel engine crankcase oils can be Caterpillar does not recommend using any of the
mixed with the diesel engine fuel supply. The heavier fractions such as residuals or bottoms.
ratio of used oil to fuel must not exceed 5%. Residual fuels or blended fuels with high (above
Premature filter plugging will occur at higher 20%) percentages of residuals are unsuitable
ratios. Under no circumstances should because they have a high viscosity range, low igni-
gasoline engine crankcase oils, transmission tion quality and vanadium and sodium contents
147 LEBW1414-00
that shorten engine life. Such fuels may cause The same diesel power ratings may not always
high wear rates in the fuel system, on the piston apply for Caterpillar engines burning crude oil or
heavy fuels. Reasonable engine service life can
rings, cylinder liners, and exhaust valves. Also, fil-
ter problems and deposits in the piston ringbelt be achieved when proper procedures are fol-
may be evidenced. lowed. However, the greater risks involved make
it good practice to include slightly higher than
Special fuel pretreatment equipment may be
normal maintenance costs when figuring the
required and is available from suppliers of fuel
overall economics to be gained.
treatment equipment. Also, it may be essential
to start and stop the engine on a better quality, A fuel analysis should be performed (see Fig-
ASTM No. 2-D type fuel to prevent plugging and ure 9.8.). Include a distillation curve. Operation
sticking fuel system components and to permit at light load is not recommended. On occasion,
satisfactory startability. operation at 50% load has reportedly caused
smoking.

Crude Oil Chart

Fuel Properties and Characteristics Permissible Fuels as Delivered to the Fuel System
Cetane number or cetane index Minimum 35
(ASTM D613 or calculated index)
(PC Engines)
(DI Engines) Minimum 40
Water and sediment % volume (ASTM D1796) Maximum 0.5%
Pour point (ASTM D97) Minimum 10°F (6°C) below ambient temperature
Cloud point (ASTM D97) Not higher than ambient temperature
Sulfur (ASTM D2788 or D3605 or D1552) Maximum 0.5% — See page 133 to adjust oil TBN
for higher sulfur content
Viscosity at 100°F (38°C) Minimum 1.4 cSt
(ASTM D445) Maximum 20 cSt
API gravity (ASTM D287) Maximum 45
Minimum 30
Specific gravity (ASTM D287) Minimum 0.8017
Maximum 0.875
Gasoline and naphtha fraction Maximum 35%
(fractions boiled off below 200°C)
Kerosene and distillate fraction (fractions boiled off Minimum 30%
between 200°C and cracking point)
Carbon residue (ramsbottom) (ASTM D524) Maximum 3.5%
Distillation — 10% Maximum 540°F (282°C)
— 90% Maximum 716°F (380°F)
— cracking % Minimum 60%
Distillation — residue (ASTM D86, D158 or D285) Maximum 10%
Reid vapor pressure (ASTM D323) Maximum 20 psi (kPa)
Salt (ASTM D3230) Maximum 100 lb/1,000 barrels
Gums and Resins (ASTM D381) Maximum 10 mg/100 mL
Copper strip corrosion 3 hrs @ 100°C (ASTM D130) Maximum No. 3
Flashpoint °F °C (ASTM D93) Maximum Must be legal limit
Ash % weight (ASTM D482) Maximum 0.1%
Aromatics % (ASTM D1319) Maximum 35%
Vanadium PPM (ASTM D2788 or D3605) Maximum 4 PPM
Sodium PPM (ASTM D2788 or D3605) Maximum 10 PPM
Nickel PPM (ASTM D2788 or D3605) Maximum 1 PPM
Aluminum PPM (ASTM D2788 or D3605) Maximum 1 PPM
Silicon (ASTM D2788 or D3605) Maximum 1 PPM
PPM = parts per million
Figure 9.8
LEBW1414-00 148
Engines for crude fuel operation should be Fourth — Another problem created by highly
equipped with higher temperature thermostats, volatile crudes (low initial boiling points) is vapor
bypass centrifugal oil filter, and fuel injector locking of the fuel system. This situation can be
pushrod keepers. handled by an “air eliminator.” This, in some cases,
can be an ordinary float-type steam trap inverted,
Pretreatment of Crude Oils but it should be made of corrosion-resistant
First — The crude may contain excessive materials. It should be located after the auxiliary
amounts of sediment and water that will require filters. If the engine is stopped occasionally and
removal before they get to the engine. This can allowed to cool, coagulation may build up in this
usually be accomplished with a settling tank, vapor trap and cause it to be inoperative.
Figure 9.9, a centrifuge or special filtering equip- Fifth — The proper oil change recommendation
ment or a combination of these methods. The must be made in each case. Many crude oils con-
crude may also contain solid particles of wax at tain large amounts of material that accelerate
ambient temperature that would plug the filters lube oil deterioration. For this reason, the stan-
rapidly. It is impractical to try to remove the wax, dard change period with recommended oils
but the crude can be heated sufficiently to dis- should be reduced one-half. From this point, the
solve it. The amount of heat needed will vary from length of change period with crude is determined
one crude to another and will, therefore, have to by sulfur content the same as with distillate fuels.
be determined in each situation. Frequently, With 0.4-1.0% sulfur, the change period should
jacket-water heated fuel filters, available from again be reduced one-half. When sulfur content
fuel equipment suppliers, are adequate. If not, an exceeds 1.0%, still further reduction is recom-
external heating system will be necessary. mended. In many cases, it may be desirable to
Second — The crude oil must not have too high install a larger capacity lube oil system to avoid
a viscosity. For maximum life and minimum short oil changes.
maintenance of the fuel pumping and injection
Crude Oil Settling Tanks
systems, the viscosity of the crude oil in these
systems should be within 1.4 to 20 cSt at 100°F A great deal of sludge can be removed from
(38°C). If the crude’s natural viscosity is higher crude oil by proper settling. A recommended set-
than this, it may be heated or diluted to reduce it. tling system consists of two cone-bottomed
The degree of heating required will vary from one tanks, Figure 9.9, each holding a little more than
crude to another and will have to be estab- four days usable supply of fuel. Sludge in the bot-
lished in each case. Another method of reducing tom third is discarded before refilling. The tanks
viscosity is to blend the original crude with a suf- must be housed in a heated building, and each fit-
ficient amount of lighter distillate material. Again, ted with heating coils. Immediately after filling,
the blending proportions would have to be hot water is circulated through the heating coil
determined for each crude. until the tank is heated to 100°F (38°C). The heat
is then shut off and the fuel allowed to settle
Third — The crude must have a cetane number
undisturbed for four days. During this time, fuel
of at least 40. This brings its distillation charac-
is being used from a second tank. Temperature
teristics into the picture. The cetane number
inside the settling tank building should be main-
should be determined by actual engine test
tained above 70°F (21°C), and the tanks must
because calculated numbers of crude oils are
be vented outside the building.
unreliable.
A two-day supply of diesel fuel should be main-
The cetane number of a crude is a function of its
tained for emergency use and to start and stop
composition. Crude is generally subdivided into
engine when the crude fuel is highly viscous or
fractions by boiling temperatures. The combina-
heavy with paraffins.
tion of the gasoline and naphtha fractions, which
have low cetane numbers, should not exceed
35% of the total crude. The kerosene, distillate
and gas oil fractions combined should make up
at least 30% of the total because they have high
cetane numbers.

149 LEBW1414-00
Figure 9.9

LEBW1414-00 150
 EXHAUST SYSTEM

Exhaust systems collect exhaust gases from 3. allow for relative shifting between reference
engine cylinders and discharge them as quickly points on engine exhaust components. This
and silently as possible. A primary design con- shifting has numerous causes. It may result
sideration of the exhaust system is to minimize from expansion and contraction of compo-
backpressure. Backpressure will indirectly raise nents due to temperature changes or by slow
the exhaust temperature which will reduce exhaust but continual creep processes that take place
valve and turbocharger life. A well designed throughout the life of any structure.
exhaust system will have minimum backpressure. In order to take care of vibratory stresses, soft-
All internal combustion engines generate heat as ness or flexibility of the flexible connection is of
a result of combustion. The temperatures in prime concern. The connector must have high
Caterpillar engines combustion chambers can fatigue life to withstand normal stresses for indef-
reach 3,500°F (1927°C). 30% of this total heat inite periods. Softness prevents transmission of
is expelled through exhaust. vibration beyond the connection. Resistance to
fatigue keeps it from breaking under vibratory or
For safety reasons an exhaust system must be
recycling stresses.
gas tight. It should also be insulated, shielded, or
isolated to avoid damage, injury, or distress from Optional Caterpillar flexible exhaust couplings
exposure to, or contact with, its high tempera- meet these requirements. See Figures 10.1 and
tures. Uninsulated exhausts greatly increase the 10.5. See Figures 10.3 and 10.4 for installation
heat rejection into an enclosed engine room. To limitations for these flexible connections.
prevent excessive engine room temperatures, the On land rigs, exhaust piping or muffler should
exhaust system should be properly insulated. not be supported by brackets, etc., connected to
CAUTION: Dry exhaust manifolds may require the engine, Figures 10.1, 10.5, 10.6.
guards when the work space makes it easier for Growth and shrinkage of the exhaust pipe must
a person to fall against the exhaust system. be planned, otherwise it will create excessive
OSHA and other government bodies may have loads on exhaust piping and supporting struc-
regulations concerning this. The user is respon- ture. Long runs of dry exhaust pipes can be sub-
sible to provide such guards where required but jected to very severe stresses from expansion
not factory supplied. and contraction. From its cold state, a steel
exhaust pipe will expand about 0.0076 inch per
Flexible Connections
foot of pipe for each 100°F rise of exhaust tem-
The exhaust pipe must be isolated from the perature (0.11 mm/m for each 100°C). This
engine with flexible connections, Figure 10.1. amounts to about 0.65 inch expansion for each
They should be installed as close to the engine’s 10 feet of pipe from 100°F to 950°F (52 mm/m
exhaust outlet as possible. A flexible exhaust con- per meter from 35°C to 510°C).
nection has three primary functions:
It is of utmost importance that flexible pipe, when
1. isolate the weight of the exhaust piping from insulated, be insulated in such a way that the flex-
the engine. No more than 60 lbs (28 kg) of ible pipe can expand and contract freely within
exhaust piping weight should be supported the insulation. This generally requires either a
by 3400 and 3500 Series engines. The limit soft material or an insulated sleeve to encase the
is 25 lbs. (11.3 kg) on smaller engines. flexible pipe.
2. relieve exhaust components of excessive Long runs of exhaust pipe should be divided into
vibrational fatigue stresses; sections having expansion joints between sec-
tions. Each section should be fixed at one end and
be allowed to expand at the other. Figure 10.7 illus-
trates methods for connecting exhaust systems.

151 LEBW1414-00
 weld straps must be removed prior to starting the
engine.
For maximum durability, allow the flexible con-
nection to operate as close as possible to its free
state.
Flanges must
be parallel

Free length
L

PROPER MUFFLER MOUNTING

Figure 10.1
B or C
Four (4) small straps can be tack-welded between
the two end flanges to hold the engine exhaust L = 457 (457 mm I.D.)
flexible connection in a rigid position during
exhaust piping installation. This will prevent the Figure 10.2
fitting from being installed in a flexed condition.
Attach a warning tag to the fitting noting that the

Installation Limits of Flexible Metal Hose-Type Exhaust Fittings

A B C
Maximum Offset Maximum Compression Maximum Extension
Hose Between Flanges From Free Length From Free Length
Diameter in. mm in. mm in. mm
4 & 5 in. 1.0 25.4 0.25 6.25 0.25 6.25
6 in. 1.5 38.1 0.25 6.25 0.25 6.25

Installation Limits of Bellows-Type Flexible Exhaust Fittings

A B C
Maximum Offset Maximum Compression Maximum Extension
Hose Between Flanges From Free Length From Free Length
Diameter in. mm in. mm in. mm
8 & 12 in. 0.75 19.05 1.50 38.1 1.00 25.40
14 in. 0.75 19.05 3.00 76.2 1.00 25.40
18 in. 0.90 22.86 3.00 76.2 1.75 44.45

Figure 10.3. Installation limits for bellows and flexible connections.

LEBW1414-00 152
 Spring Rate for Install piping with 9 in. (229 mm) minimum clear-
Bellows-Type Flexible Fittings ance from combustible materials.
Spring Rate — Axial
Exhaust heat must be discharged without caus-
Diameter lb/in. kN/m
ing discomfort to personnel or hazards to struc-
8 in. 170 29.7
tures or equipment.
12 in. 194 33.9
14 in. 391 68.5 Extend exhaust stacks to avoid heat, fumes and
18 in. 110 19.3 odors. Also, the exhaust pipes should not be in
close proximity to the air intake system for
Figure 10.4. Spring rates. the engine or the crankcase ventilation system.
Engine air cleaners, turbochargers, and after-
Piping coolers clogged with exhaust products can cause
premature failures. Pipe outlets cut at 30° to 45°
Physical characteristics of the equipment room on angles will reduce gas turbulence and noise. Rain
offshore rigs determine exhaust system layouts. caps forced open by exhaust pressure will keep
Arrangements with minimum backpressures are water from entering.
favored. Securely support pipes and rubber
dampers or springs installed in the exhaust pipe Muffler placement greatly affects silencing abil-
bracing to isolate vibrations. ity. See Figure 10.8. Locating it near the engine
minimizes transmission of sound to the exhaust
Piping must be designed with engine service in piping. Higher exhaust temperatures near the
mind. In many cases, an overhead crane will be engine also reduces carbon buildup in the muf-
used to service the heavier engine components. fler; a drain removes condensation.
For both installation economy and operating effi- During repowers, engine hp may be increased.
ciency, engine location should make the exhaust Larger mufflers and/or piping may be required.
piping as short as possible with minimum bends Avoid sudden changes in diameter if existing
and restrictions. There should be a sleeve in wall exhaust piping is retained. These act as orifices
openings to absorb vibration and an expansion and their pressure drop is hard to predict, but can
joint(s) in the pipe to compensate for lengthways be very high.
thermal expansion or contraction.

EXHAUST SYSTEM
Figure 10.5
153 LEBW1414-00
 EXHAUST SYSTEM
Figure 10.6

1. Engine exhaust outlet. 6. Anchor point for vertical run of pipe.

2. Flexible pipe connection. 6.
NOTE: Allowance for expansion must be made on either side of
3. Long sweep elbow. 6.
anchor. If muffler is used, it should be installed as section of pipe.
4. Longitudinal and lateral pipe support, fixing location of end pipe.
5. Lateral pipe support, allowing for longitudinal expansion. 7. Expansion sleeve with spray shield.
8. Condensate trap (removable for cleanout).
Figure 10.7
LEBW1414-00 154
Mufflers
For muffler location instructions see Figure 10.8.
Exhaust noise attenuation is best performed with
a quality muffler; however, attenuation charac-
teristics of a muffler are not the same for all fre-
quencies. Therefore, the effect of a given muffler
upon a naturally aspirated or a turbocharged
engine could be different. The effect of a given
muffler could be quite different if the engine runs
at two different speeds.The manufacturer must
be contacted for any specific muffling charac-
teristics. As an additional noise attenuation aid,
the exit opening of the exhaust pipe should be cut
at a 30° angle (0.52 rad), Figures 10.5 and 10.6.
Consult the TMI for engine exhaust noise data.
effective silencing is required — such as
semi-residential areas where a moderate
background noise is always present.
• “Supercritical” — Provides maximum silenc-
ing for residential, hospital, school, hotel,
store, apartment building and other areas
where background noise level is low and gen-
erator set noise must be kept to a minimum.
At least 5 diameters of straight pipe upstream of
the muffler and 2.5 diameters downstream are
required to minimize turbulence and backpressure.
Piping
Combined engine exhaust systems can allow
operating engines to force exhaust gases into
engines which are not operating. This is not an
acceptable installation practice.
Recirculated exhaust gas will cause several prob-
lems. Gas will condense an appreciable amount
of water which can cause engine damage. Also,
soot can clog the turbocharger, aftercooler, or
plug air cleaner elements.
Use of an exhaust isolating valve has not been
successful. Deterioration at exhaust temperatures
tends to be high plus soot buildup causes the
valve to leak. If the valve is not gas tight, it is
ineffective.
Check that generator power and control cables
are not mounted too close to the exhaust.
When moving a land-rig engine, exhaust outlets
should face opposite forward movement. If headed
forward, the turbocharger could rotate from the
air forced into it, resulting in engine failure shortly
after spudding the next well.

Figure 10.8
Rain Protection
The exhaust end should be sloped and the pipe
Spark arresting mufflers are available. These are end angled to prevent water entering the pipe.
many times specified when the owner judges Alternatively, some form of rain cap should be
them to be beneficial. fitted to the vertical exhaust system.
Mufflers are rated according to their degree of
silencing and commonly referred to by such terms Cleanliness
as “residential” or “critical” and “supercritical”. Install an identifiable blanking plate to prevent
• “Residential” — Suitable for industrial areas debris from falling into the turbocharger during
where background noise level is relatively installation. The Caterpillar shipping cover can
high or for remote areas where partly muffled be used for this purpose. Install it directly on top
noise is permissible. of the turbine housing. Attach a warning tag to
the plate indicating it must be removed prior to
• “Critical” — Reduces exhaust noise to an starting the engine.
acceptable level in localities where moderately
155 LEBW1414-00
Slobber
Extended engine operation at no load or lightly
loaded conditions (less than 15% load) may
result in exhaust manifold slobber. Exhaust man-
ifold slobber is the black oily fluid than can leak
from exhaust system joints. The presence of
exhaust manifold slobber does not necessarily
indicate an engine problem. Engines are designed
to operate at loaded conditions.
At no load or lightly loaded conditions, the seal-
ing capability function of some integral engine
components may be adversely affected. Exhaust
manifold slobber is not usually harmful to the
engine; the results can be unsightly and objec-
tionable in some cases.
Exhaust manifold slobber consists of fuel and/or
oil mixed with soot from the inside of the exhaust
manifold. Common sources of oil slobber are
worn valve guides, worn piston rings, worn turbo-
charger seals or light load poor combustion. Fuel
slobber usually occurs with combustion problems.
A normally operating engine should be expected
to run for at least one hour at light loads without
significant slobber. Some engines may run for as
long as three, four or more hours before slob-
bering. However, all engines will eventually slob-
ber if run at light loads. External signs of slobber
will be evident unless the exhaust system is com-
pletely sealed.
If extended idle or slight load periods of engine
operation are mandatory, the objectionable effect
of the engine slobber can be avoided by loading
the engine to at least 30% load for approximately
ten minutes every four hours. This will remove
any fluids that have accumulated in the exhaust
manifold. To minimize exhaust manifold slobber,
it is important that the engine is correctly sized for
each application.
Exhaust Backpressure
Backpressure limits recommended are 27 in.
(685 mm and 6.7 kPa) of water for turbocharged
engines and 34 in. (865 mm and 8.5 kPa) of
water for naturally aspirated engines, measured
at the fitting in the exhaust elbow provided for
this purpose. There is no minimum backpressure
requirement.
To avoid excessive exhaust temperature, loss of
power, increased fuel consumption, and soot
from incomplete combustion caused by back-
pressure, a method of approximating the back-
pressure of the system in the design phase is
provided. (See Exhaust Backpressure Calcula-
tion Worksheet, Figure 10.10). Figure 10.9 con-
tains the data required to calculate exhaust
backpressure. The chart is calculated with an
exhaust temperature of 900°F (482°C). This
should be increased/decreased 7% for every
100°F/55°C increase/decrease from 900°F
(482°C).
To ensure the above limits are not exceeded dur-
ing operation, it is recommended the design limit
be one-half of the above backpressure limits.
Pressure drop includes losses due to piping, muf-
fler, and rain cap, and is measured in a straight
length of pipe 3 to 5 diameters from the last tran-
sition change after the turbocharger outlet. The
backpressure should be measured as close to the
engine as possible.

Exhaust Gas Recirculation

Exhaust stacks must be designed so engine
exhaust is discharged high enough and in a direc-
tion to keep it clear of air turbulence and eddy
currents created by wind, radiators, and the rig’s
fresh air supply system. Engine air cleaners, tur-
bochargers, and aftercoolers clogged with
exhaust products will cause engine failures,
Figures 10.5 and 10.6.

LEBW1414-00 156
 PRESSURE DROP PER FOOT (METER)
OF STRAIGHT PIPE AT 900°F (482°C)

4" (100 mm) dia

mm) dia

ia

ia
ia
mm) d

)d
d
.08

m
m)

m
(2)

0m

0
5" (125

25
0
6" (15

(20

"(
10
8"
dia
.04 m)
0 0m
(1) " (3
12
a
m) di
3 50 m ) dia
14" ( 00 mm
16" (4

0
2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000 12,000
(3320) (6640) (9960) (13 280) (16 660) (19 920)

EXHAUST FLOW (CFM/m3•H)

NOTE: With 800°F (427°C), pressure drop increases 7%.

Figure 10.9

157 LEBW1414-00
 EXHAUST BACKPRESSURE CALCULATION WORKSHEET
General Data

EXHAUST FLOW DATA

Engine Model __________________________________
Power: ________________ HP @ _____________ RPM
PIPE DATA
Exh. Pipe Inside Diameter _______________ in. (mm)
Pressure Drop ➀ ____________________ inch H2O/ft
(mm H2O/m)
(See Figure 9.9)
__________________________________ CFM (m3/HR)
________________________________ lbs/min (kg/min)
__________________________________ °F (°C) Stack
(See TMI or Engine Performance book)
MUFFLER DATA
Manufacturer _________________________________
Model _____________________________________
Muffler Pipe Connection
Size _________________________________ in. (mm)

Calculation for Backpressure:

I. Straight Pipe Resistance
Total Length of Straight
Sections of Exhaust Pipe Pressure Drop Resistance
_______________ ft. (m) X ➀ _______________ inch H2O/ft = ➁ _______________ inch of H2O
✿______________ (mm H2O/m) ✿______________ (mm of H2O)
II. Elbow Resistance
Inside Diameter of Elbows Quantity of Elbows Equivalent Length
____________ in. (mm) X _________ std. 90° X 2.75 (0.033) = _____ ft. (mm)

____________ in. (mm) X _________ long sweep 90° X 1.67 (0.02) = _____ ft. (mm)

____________ in. (mm) X _________ 45° elbow X 1.25 (0.015) = _____ ft. (mm)

____________ in. (mm) X _________ square elbow X 5.50 (0.066) = _____ ft. (mm)
Total Equivalent Length _____________________ ft. (mm)
Pressure Drop Total Equivalent Length Resistance
➀ _______________ inch H2O/ft X _______________ ft. (m) = ➂ _______________ inch of H2O
✿______________ (mm H2O/m) ✿______________ (mm of H2O)
III. Muffler Resistance
Obtain from manufacturer; based on muffler data and exhaust Resistance
flow data. ➃ _______________ inch of H2O
✿______________ (mm of H2O)
IV. Total Exhaust System Resistance
Straight Pipe Resistance Elbow Resistance Muffler Resistance System Resistance
➁ ––––––––– + ➂ ––––––––– + ➃ ––––––––– = ––––––––– inch of H2O*
––––––––– (mm of H2O)
NOTE: Use additional pages for each pipe size. *kPa = inch of H2O X 0.249
Figure 10.10

LEBW1414-00 158
 AIR INTAKE SYSTEMS

Engine Room Ventilation Offshore Rig Ventilation

Engine room ventilation must accomplish two In modern offshore installations, natural draft ven-
things: tilation is too bulky for practical consideration.
1. Provide an environment which permits the Adequate quantities of fresh air are best supplied
machinery and equipment to function prop- by powered (fan-assisted) systems.
erly with dependable service life. Correct routing of ventilation air is vital. Without
2. Provide an environment in which person- it, air flow will not adequately maintain comfort-
nel can work comfortably and, therefore, able engine room temperatures.
effectively. All engine room radiated heat is eventually
absorbed by engine room surfaces. Some is
An engine not enclosed does not present venti-
transferred to the air or water through the enclo-
lation problems; therefore, this discussion applies
sure. The remainder must be carried away by a
to engine rooms only.
flow of cool ventilating air which picks up the heat
About five percent of fuel consumed by an engine through contact with these surfaces.
is lost as heat radiated to the surrounding air. In
Ventilating systems must be designed to provide
addition, heat from generator inefficiencies and
safe working temperatures and adequate air flow
exhaust piping can easily equal engine radiated
for machinery, equipment, and personnel at all
heat. Any resulting elevated temperatures in
times, but especially when the rig’s hatches are
the engine room may adversely affect mainte-
closed for bad weather operations.
nance personnel, switchgear, and generator set
performance. For personal comfort, air movement of at least
five feet per second should be maintained in
General Information working area adjacent to sources of heat or where
air temperature exceeds 100°F (38°C).
There are three aspects to ventilation:
Long runs of hot, uninsulated exhaust pipe can
Ventilation Air dissipate more heat into an engine room than all
machinery surfaces combined. It is, therefore,
The flow of air required to carry away the radiated
important to completely insulate the exhaust sys-
heat of the engine(s) and other engine room
tem within the engine room’s work area. Hot
machinery.
pipes and other hot surfaces within the engine
Combustion Air room should also be insulated if localized high
air temperatures are created because of them.
The flow of air required to burn the fuel in the
engine. CAUTION: When refrigeration equipment is
installed within engine room space, ensure its
Crankcase Fumes Disposal location is such that any refrigerant leakage will
not be drawn into the engine’s combustion air.
The crankcase fumes of the engine must be Severe engine damage will occur if refrigerants,
either ingested by the engine or piped out of the such as Freon or ammonia, get drawn into the
engine room. engine’s air intake system. Locating refrigerant
compressors near an engine room air discharge
Engine Room Temperature area is appropriate.
A properly designed engine room ventilation sys-
tem will maintain engine room air temperatures Offshore Rig Ventilation Systems
within 15°F (9°C) above the ambient air tem- Recommended ventilating systems are described
perature (ambient air temperature refers to the below:
air temperature surrounding the vessel). In gen-
1. Bring outside air into the engine room through
eral, engine room temperature should not exceed
a system of ducts. These ducts should be
120°F (49°C).
routed between engines, at floor level, and
159 LEBW1414-00
 VENTILATION TYPE 1
Figure 11.1
discharge air up at the engines and genera-
tors. The most economical method is to use
the service platform built up around the
engines as the top of this duct, Figure 11.1 —
Type 1.
This requires the service platform to be con-
structed of solid, nonskid plate rather than
perforated or expanded grating. The duct
outlet will be the clearance between the deck-
ing and oilfield base.
Ventilation air discharge fans should be
mounted or ducted at the highest point in the
engine room. They should be directly over
heat sources.
This system provides the best ventilation with
the least amount of air required. In addition,
the upward flow of air around the engine
serves as a shield which minimizes the
amount of heat released into the engine
room. Air temperature in the air discharge
duct will be higher than engine room air
temperature.
If System No. 1 is not feasible, the following
3. If System 1 or 2 is not feasible, the following
method is recommended:
2. Bring outside air into the engine room as far
away as practical from heat sources, utiliz-
ing fans or large intake ducts. Discharge this
air into the engine room as low as possible,
Figure 11.2 — Type 2.
LEBW1414-00 160
Allow air to flow across the engine room from
the cool air entry point(s) toward sources of
engine heat such as the engine, exposed
exhaust components, generators, or other
large sources of heat.
Ventilation air discharge fans should be
mounted or ducted at the highest point in the
engine room. They should be directly over
heat sources.
Engine heat will be dissipated with this sys-
tem, but a certain amount of heat will still
radiate and heat up all adjacent engine room
surfaces.
If the air is not properly routed, it will rise to
the ceiling before it gets to the engines,
Figures 11.3 A and B.
This system will work only where the air inlets
circulate the air between the engines. Air
inlets located at the end of the engine room
will provide adequate ventilation to only the
engine closest to the inlet. Figure 11.3 B
shows this incorrect system.
method can be used; however, it provides the
least efficient ventilation.
Bring outside air into the engine room and
discharge it directly down on the engines with
inlet fans, Figure 11.4 — Type 3.
 Ventilation exhaust fans should be mounted room. It also interferes with the natural con-
or ducted from the corners of the engine room. vection flow of hot air rising to exhaust fans.
Engine rooms can be ventilated this way, but
This system mixes the hottest air in the
it requires extra large capacity ventilating fans.
engine room with the incoming cool air, rais-
ing the temperature of all air in the engine

VENTILATION TYPE 2
Figure 11.2

INCORRECT VENTILATION
Figure 11.3A

161 LEBW1414-00
 exceed 120°F (49°C). Where ambient tempera-
tures exceed these values, Tr should be main-
tained at 15°F (9°C).
1. For use with ventilating flow System 1,
Figure 11.1

POWER UNIT C = He + Ha + Ca (English)

1.4 WTr
He + Ha
NO AIR C = + Ca (Metric)
BETWEEN POWER UNIT 0.00168 WTr
ENGINE
C = cfm (m3/hr) ventilating air required
He = Engine heat (Btu/min or kW) released
POWER UNIT to engine room per engine at maximum
desired engine room temperature,
Figure 11.5.
Ha = Auxiliary or driven equipment heat
(Btu/min or kW) released to engine
INCORRECT AIR FLOW room per each power module. If exact
Figure 11.3B heat rejection data is not available,
an estimated value is one-third of
Air Quantity Required for Ventilation the engine heat rejection for each
generator.
A method of calculating the quantity of air
needed to reach any predetermined temperature W = Density (lbs/ft3 or kg/m3) of air at max-
in the engine room is determined by the follow- imum outside ambient temperature,
ing formulas: Figure 11.6.
It is recommended the engine room temperature Tr = Maximum desired temperature rise (°F
should generally be less than 100°F (38°C). or °C) from outside ambient tempera-
Engine room work area’s temperature should not ture to air temperature in engine room.

VENTILATION TYPE 3
Figure 11.4
LEBW1414-00 162
 Ca = Combustion air requirements of engine, Emergency/Standby Generator Set Ventilation
refer to TMI or Engine Performance Emergency/Standby generator sets are normally
book. radiator cooled. The following additional guide-
2. For use with ventilating System 2, Figure 11.2 lines should be followed:
Radiator air inlet and outlet ports should each be
C = He + Ha + Ca (English) at least 1.25 times the radiator frontal area.
0.7 WTr
Resistance of louvers should be considered when
He + Ha calculating air flow restriction on the radiator fan.
C = + Ca (Metric)
0.00084 WTr Additionally, these ports must be so arranged or
3. For use with ventilating System 3, Figure 11.4 deflected so air recirculation does not occur. The
engine exhaust outlet must be arranged so
H e + Ha exhaust gas does not recirculate into the radia-
C = + Ca (English)
0.4 WTr tor air inlet.
He + Ha If ventilation ports of the engine room are covered
C = + Ca (Metric) by watertight doors, it is recommended the engine
0.00048 WTr
air cleaner be ducted outside of the engine room.
Radiator Cooled Engines Otherwise, starting of the engine with the doors
closed will result in a vacuum in the engine room.
Engine driven blower fans on Caterpillar radiators
have an air flow in excess of that required for Total duct air flow restriction, including air clean-
engine room ventilation. ers, should not exceed 10 in. (2.49 kPa) of water
measured while the engine is producing full rated
Radiator cooling fans are sensitive to air flow power. It is good design practice to design com-
restriction. Restriction in either inlet or outlet duct- bustion air ducts to give the lowest practical restric-
ing should generally be less than 0.5 in. H2O tion to air flow, since this will result in longer times
(0.13 kPa). The radiator supplier should be con- between filter element service or replacement.
tacted for the exact value.

Heat Rejection to Atmosphere

Btu/min. (kW) Rejection at Various Engine Room Ambient Temperatures
Consult TMI for Actual Values
Engine Model 85°F/29°C 100°F/38°C 115°F/46°C
3304 910 (16) 775 (14) 637 (11)
3306 1375 (24) 1170 (21) 963 (17)
3406 2100 (37) 1785 (31) 1470 (26)
3408 3900 (68) 3300 (58) 2730 (48)
3412 4200 (73) 3570 (62) 2940 (51)
3508 5100 (90) 4350 (77) 3600 (63)
3512 7690 (135) 6550 (115) 5390 (95)
3516 10,200 (180) 8660 (152) 7100 (125)
Figure 11.5

Density of Air at Various Temperatures

°F/°C lb./cu. ft. (kg/m3) °F (°C) lb./cu. ft. (kg/m3)
0/–18 0.086 (1.38) 70 (21) 0.075 (1.20)
10/–12 0.084 (1.35) 80 (27) 0.074 (1.18)
20/–7 0.083 (1.33) 90 (32) 0.072 (1.15)
30/–1 0.081 (1.30) 100 (38) 0.071 (1.14)
40/4 0.079 (1.27) 110 (43) 0.070 (1.12)
50/10 0.078 (1.25) 120 (49) 0.068 (1.09)
60/16 0.076 (1.22) 130 (54) 0.067 (1.07)
Figure 11.6
163 LEBW1414-00
Combustion air duct velocity should not exceed
2,000 ft./min. (610 m/min). Higher velocities will
cause unacceptable noise levels and excessive
flow restriction.
Figure 11.8 illustrates a land rig installation where
ventilation should be considered. Natural draft
ventilation is almost completely blocked by roofs,
SCR house, tool room, and vertical discharge radi-
ators. Warm weather operation may result in unac-
ceptable engine and generator temperatures.

EMERGENCY GEN SET OR

PRODUCTION POWER HOUSE LAND RIG ENGINES REQUIRING VENTILATION
Figure 11.7 Figure 11.8

Figure 11.9 shows an engine room designed to

Land SCR Rig Ventilation Systems provide a combination of ventilation and engine/
Land SCR rig engines equipped with suction or generator air inlet ducting.
blower fan radiators have an air flow in excess of Ventilation is provided by the air discharged from
that required for recommended engine ventila- the generator. In warm weather, the air source
tion. As long as radiator air flow is not obstructed, valve is positioned to provide outside air to the
no further ventilation requirements are needed. generator ventilation air inlet. Air discharged from
Land rig engine installations with remote radia- the generator exits through the roof vent door
tors or vertical discharge radiators should be and open rear of base, providing engine ventila-
inspected to determine if sufficient engine ven- tion as a secondary result.
tilation is provided.

Figure 11.9
LEBW1414-00 164
In cold weather, the air source valve will be posi- Air entering the engine air cleaners should not
tioned to provide partial or total generator venti- be more than 10°F (5.6°C) above ambient air
lation air from within engine room. temperature. If it is not practical to design the
If doors are added to rear of base, make sure that engine room ventilation system to allow air with
total enclosure is not airtight. This prevents pres- 10°F (5.6°C) or less temperature rise to reach
surizing engine room (reducing generator venti- engine air intakes directly, it is advisable to run
lation air flow) when doors are closed and air ducts from air cleaners to points where fresh, cool
source valve is positioned to provide outside air air enters the engine room.
to generator. Combustion air inlet ducting, if used, should be
An air duct size of 2.0 sq. ft. (0.19 m2) is ade- so placed that it is in the path of the cool air
inflow. It should not be directly in front of the air
quate for 3508, 3512, and 3516’s on up to 40 ft.
intake ducts or close enough to allow salt spray
(12.2 m) bases. The ducting to the air cleaners
or mist entering the engine room to enter engine
from air source valve can match the sizes of the
intake ducts. Presence of salt in the intake air can
optional air cleaner inlet rectangular adapters.
damage an engine. Its presence in any significant
quantity should be carefully avoided.
Combustion Air Intake
Wire-reinforced, flexible hose must not be used
A diesel engine uses large quantities of air for as ductwork since it is susceptible to abrasion
combustion and requires that air enter its intake and abuse.
system with minimum restriction. Normal require-
ments for combustion will fall very close to Figures 11.10 and 11.11 suggest ways of arrang-
2.5 cfm (0.07 m3/min) per bhp for a Caterpillar ing air intakes to take full advantage of the engine
Diesel Engine. High intake air temperature or room’s ventilating system. The air inlet must
high intake restriction raises engine exhaust tem- be located so exhaust fumes do not enter the
perature. Engine damage may result. engine. These fumes cause premature plugging
of air cleaner elements and reduce combustion
The air cleaner service indicator is actuated when efficiency.
the restriction reaches 30 in. H2O (762 mm and
7.5 kPa). Above this value, engine performance On land rigs, also see Section Land Rig Ventila-
begins to be noticeably affected. This restriction tion Systems.
also includes any air inlet piping pressure drop.
Thus, air inlet duct restriction should be held to Air Cleaners
a minimum to prevent undue shortening of the air
The standard Caterpillar petroleum engine
cleaner service intervals. An air intake duct
arrangements include dry paper, element-type
restriction of less than 3 in. (76 mm and 0.75 kPa)
air cleaners, Figure 2.10. (A dry paper element
H2O is suggested.
is the only type air cleaner which may be used.)

Figure 11.10 Figure 10.11

ENGINE ROOM AIR FLOW

1. Engine 5. Ventilating cold air vertical stack-type discharge
2. Air cleaner with duct connection 6. Ventilating cold air peripheral slotted
3. Intake air duct 6. duct-type discharge
4. Ventilating cold air intake 7. Engine intake air pickup
165 LEBW1414-00
Their filtration efficiency exceeds 99%, providing CAUTION: Under no circumstances should the
good protection to the engine. engines be operated without air cleaners.
Pressure drop across a typical air cleaner will beThe air inlet should be shielded against direct
6.0 in. H2O (1.5 kPa) when clean. The on-engine entrance of rain or show. The most common
piping system might typically add another practice is to provide a cap or inlet hood which
3.0 in. H2O (0.75 kPa) pressure drop. incorporates a coarse screen to keep out large
objects. This cap should be designed to keep air
Soot filters are included with electric drill rig
flow restriction to a minimum. Some users have
engines. Soot filters extend the dry paper ele-
piped to a front air intake location which gives a
ment life and reusability by catching the major-
direct air inlet and an internal means of achiev-
ity of oily, sooty deposits which would plug the
ing water separation.
dry paper element.
Precleaners and prescreeners incorporated into
Heavy-duty air cleaners are recommended for
the intake cap design are also available. They
desert or dusty atmosphere, Figure 11.12. Heavy-
can be used where special conditions prevail or
duty air cleaners have a mechanical precleaning
to increase the air cleaner service life. These
section that lengthens the air cleaner life under
devices can remove 70% to 80% of the dirt. The
dusty conditions. Check that the additional size
prescreener is designed to protect the inlet sys-
of heavy-duty air cleaners do not cause physical
tem when trash is encountered.
interference with other equipment.
Heavy-duty air cleaners with exhaust-powered Ducting for Remote Air Cleaners
dust ejectors are available on 3400 Series and Ducting: Ducting should be constructed of
smaller engines. No changes should be made to formed steel or aluminum tubing. Elbows may
exhaust system, such as adding mufflers, because be of these materials or molded rubber. Where
they reduce or nullify dust ejector efficiency. vibration could present a fatigue problem, hump-
Oil bath and oil-soaked screen-type air cleaners type connections of rubber or other flexible syn-
are not acceptable since filtration efficiency rarely thetic material must be used. The hump-type joint
exceeds 95%. There is the constant danger of allows vibration isolation as well as minor mis-
improper servicing resulting in even lower filtra- alignment due to manufacturing tolerances and
tion efficiency or oil carryover into the engine air engine or air cleaner movement.
intake system. Oil carryover causes aftercooler Piping diameter should be equal to or larger than
plugging and possible turbocharger failure due the air cleaner inlet and outlet and the engine
to increased exhaust temperatures. air inlet. A rough guide for pipe size selection
would be to keep maximum air velocity in the
piping in the 2,000 fpm to 3,000 fpm (10 m/s to
15 m/s) range.
Consideration must be given to wall thickness of
metallic components to ensure the clamp load
of rubber joints will not deform piping. Sealing
surfaces must be smooth to ensure proper fit
and achieve a good airtight seal with mating
parts. Fiberglass and molded plastic elbows are
acceptable if they have sufficient strength to
accept clamping loads and provide airtight leak
proof ducting.

Remote-Mounted Air Cleaners

Air Inlet: CAUTION: When air cleaners are
remote-mounted and air is piped to the turbo-
charger inlet, care must be taken to ensure air
flow is introduced uniformly into the turbocharger
compressor. Air striking the compressor wheel
Figure 11.12
LEBW1414-00 166
at an angle can result in pulsations causing pre-
mature failure. Air flow must enter the turbo-
charger through a smooth, straight pipe. Allow
at least 2 in. of pipe (51 mm) between the point
of attachment to the turbocharger and the bend
radius center point, Figure 11.13.

Figure 11.13

When fabricated elbows are required, they should

be constructed of sections not exceeding 15°
(0.1745 rad) to allow a smooth flow of inlet air.
To protect turbocharger components, care must
be taken to remove all welding slag and splatter
from the inside surface.
When rubber elbows or joints are used, they
should always be double clamped. “T” bolt type
clamps providing 360° seal are recommended
because of their higher clamping load capability.
CAUTION: When using rubber or synthetic
elbows or joints, review location to ensure that
temperatures do not exceed the capability of
the material.
Where there is a width restriction, a plenum
chamber can be fabricated as a space saver,
Figure 11.14.

Figure 11.14

167 LEBW1414-00
 CRANKCASE VENTILATION

Normal combustion pressures of an internal com- with a gradual slope from engine (1/2 in. per ft.
bustion engine cause a certain amount of blowby [41.7 mm/m]), Figure 12.1.
past piston rings into the crankcase. To prevent All offshore rigs should have crankcase venting
pressure buildup within the crankcase, vent tubes systems. Land rigs with engine driven blower
are provided to allow gas to escape. fans, generators driven off the front of the engine,
Caterpillar does not recommend venting crank- or cold weather enclosures should also have
case fumes into the engine room. Fumes will clog crankcase fumes venting systems, Figure 12.2.
air filters and increase air inlet temperature with Crankcase fumes must not be discharged into
resulting engine damage. They can also cause air ventilating ducts or exhaust pipes. They will
problems with electrical equipment. become coated with oily deposits creating a fire
Crankcase fumes should be discharged through hazard.
venting systems to atmosphere. A separate vent The crankcase pipe should vent directly to the
line for each engine is required. atmosphere and be so directed that rain or spray
Crankcase fumes vent pipes must be large cannot enter and run back into the engine.
enough to minimize backpressure. If the equiv-
alent length of straight pipe is equal to 20 ft.
(6.1 m) or less, the size used for the fumes out-
let on the engine will be satisfactory. For lengths
greater than 20 ft. (6.1 m) use the next larger
size pipe. As a general rule, the 3508, 3512, and
3516 Engines require a 2 in. (50 mm) I.D.
crankcase fumes disposal line. Over 100 ft. of
length (30.5 m), a 3 in. (75 mm) I.D. crankcase
fumes disposal line is used.
Loops or low spots in a crankcase vent pipe must
be avoided to prevent condensation in the pipe
and restriction of normal discharge of fumes. Figure 12.2
Where horizontal runs are required, install the pipe

Figure 12.1
LEBW1414-00 168
To minimize the amount of oil discharge through
the vent pipe, a drip collector with drain may be
installed near the engine, Figure 12.3.
Under no circumstances should crankcase pres-
sure vary more than 1 in. (25.4 mm) of water from
ambient barometric pressure. Higher crankcase
pressures will tend to worsen any existing oil
leaks. Measurement should be made with engine
at 180°–200°F (68°–79°C) at engine dipstick.

Figure 12.3

169 LEBW1414-00
Figure 12.4 illustrates a powered fumes disposal A damper could be placed at the end of the
system. The valves with each engine should be manifold at the cleanout port and set to provide
adjusted to provide no more than 1 in. (25.4 mm) 1 in. H2O (25.4 mm H2O) vacuum in engine
of water column crankcase vacuum. Adjust valves crankcase instead of bleed valve at each engine.
with only one engine operating. Fan capacity pro-
vides a 4:1 dilution of fumes volume. A backup
fan should be available.

Figure 12.4

LEBW1414-00 170
 DC POWER SYSTEMS CONTROLS

DC drives are used on some older electric drill
rigs. The following information is useful when con-
sidering repowers on these rigs.
DC drives consist of an engine, DC generator,
DC motor, and control equipment. Under certain
conditions, the DC motor can become a gener-
ator and drive the engine-driven generator as a
motor, preventing safety shutoffs from stopping
the engine. This can occur when two generators
are paralleled on a drawworks motor or when two
engines are driving each of two motors on a mud
pump or drawworks.
To protect against these possibilities, the engine
must be equipped with low oil pressure, high
water temperature, and overspeed switches con-
nected to the DC control system generator exci-
tation cutout section. One set of contactors is
sufficient regardless of the number of DC gener-
ators driven per engine, Figure 13.1.

HIGH WATER
TEMPERATURE

LOW OIL
PRESSURE

Figure 13.1

171 LEBW1414-00
When tripping pipe in or out of the hole, regen-
erative power surges can occur as the traveling
block nears the crown block. These power surges
drive the generator and engine above the engine
governed speed (overrun).
Regenerative power surges can cause nuisance
tripping of the engine overspeed device. Overrun
can be kept below the engine overspeed shutoff
setting by controlling the rate of drop-off of DC
generator excitation. The rate of excitation drop-
off should be spread over as much as five sec-
onds to minimize this power surge.
Figure 13.2
LEBW1414-00 172
It is recommended that a separate engine be
operated for each drawworks motor. This pro-
vides more engine frictional hp to help resist these
power surges during tripping.
To conserve fuel and increase engine life, the
driller’s console controls can be equipped to sig-
nal the air actuated governor to return to low
speed when the generators on that engine aren’t
being used, Figure 13.2.
 AC POWER SYSTEMS CONTROLS

The following items, normally supplied by oth- load sharing accuracy of the Woodward 2301A
ers, are not all-inclusive but generally have an electric governor.
influence on engine operation.
Electrical Instruments
Voltage Regulators Frequency meter: A dial-type meter is preferred
Operation characteristics of voltage regulators for accuracy of frequency readings below rated
affect engine performance when the AC loads speed. Reed-type instruments are susceptible to
are dominant, such as jacking an offshore rig or frequency harmonics.
during load bank testing. The DC load controls Voltmeter: Where three or more generating units
(SCR modules) include DC excitation controls are in an installation, it is recommended only one
that are adjusted to match load application to voltmeter per system be used. Individual gener-
engine capability. ators can be connected to this single meter
Where the AC loads can be dominant, Caterpillar through the synchroscope switch at the time of
recommends the volts-per-hertz type regulator paralleling. A single voltmeter minimizes meter
rather than the constant voltage type. When run- errors. A voltmeter continuously monitoring the
ning at rated speed, there is no difference in oper- bus voltage should also be included.
ating characteristics of the two types of voltage Ammeter: No special requirements other than at
regulators; however, during overload conditions, least one ammeter and a three-phase selector
the constant voltage type tends to stall the engine switch should be included per generator.
while the volts-per-hertz regulator allows the
engine to lug. Because of this characteristic, con- kW meter: A kW meter is recommended for par-
stant voltage regulators are sometimes referred allel operation involving either rectified systems
to as hard regulators. or larger generator sets.
A hard regulator maintains constant voltage as PF meter (power factor): PF meters are recom-
generator frequency varies. When an engine is mended under certain conditions of parallel oper-
subject to an overload, it begins to slow down. ation; for example, where operating personnel
Constant line voltage keeps the electrical load frequently adjusts generator controls. Tinkering
above the engine’s capability, and the engine results in generator misadjustment and subse-
generally will not recover. Thus, the constant quent high ampere readings. When this happens,
voltage regulator works against the engine and adjusting the generator controls until the amperes
prevents engine recovery. are rebalanced does not necessarily bring the
generators back into balance.
The volts-per-hertz regulator maintains a voltage
level proportional to frequency. Thus, as the With a PF meter, proper generator voltage adjust-
engine slows down due to an overload, reduction ment procedure is as follows:
in generator voltage reduces electrical load. This 1. In single-unit operation, use volt meter to deter-
assists engine recovery. An engine-generator set mine proper generator voltage adjustment.
equipped with a volts-per-hertz regulator can also
pick up larger block loads with a smaller fre- 2. In parallel operation, use PF meter instead of
quency dip. a voltmeter or ammeter because generator
voltages are properly adjusted only when all
Parallel operation requires the generators to be units show the same power factor.
equipped with either a voltage droop or cross-
current compensation system. A voltage droop KVAR meters perform the same function as
system is standard on the optional Caterpillar PF meters. However, when the governors are not
voltage regulators. adjusted to carry the same kW load (or different
size generating units are used), calculation is
Voltage droop or cross-current compensation required to determine proper readings.
systems must operate effectively, particularly on
rectified drill rigs, with a very low power factor. PF meters are also recommended for rectified
Circulating current will proportionately reduce the power systems.

173 LEBW1414-00
Safety Considerations short transients will not actuate the system. This
device should signal the load reduction system.
Reverse Power Relay (RPR): This system is
required for parallel operation. The RPR opens Disconnecting the AC load on an SCR drill rig
the circuit breaker when generating units draw usually does not remove an overload because
power from the line rather than supplying power the major electrical load is the SCR powered
to it. equipment. Load reduction can be accomplished
by selectively “phasing-back” noncritical SCR-
Reverse power can occur due to improper gov-
powered loads or by reducing the power output
ernor settings or an engine safety shutoff signal.
setting of all SCR-powered equipment.
CAUTION: shutting off the fuel of an engine oper-
ating in parallel does not stop it because the gen- Ampere overload protection: The ampere over-
erator becomes a motor as soon as it tries to run load device of the circuit breaker should be over-
slower than other paralleled generators. sized if the protection system is temperature
sensitive. Loose connections or high switchgear
As a general rule, the RPR setting should be 6–8%
ambient temperatures can cause premature trip-
of the generator kW rating. At this value, the time
ping of temperature sensitive circuit breakers. An
delay should be less than two seconds. Caterpillar
oversizing of 15% is suggested. (Consult appli-
Diesel Engines require a larger amount to motor-
cable electrical codes.)
ize at rated speed. Exact frictional horsepower
data is available if required. Automatic tripping mechanism of the circuit
breaker: Breakers may be tripped electrically by
Setting the RPR for a lower activation point usu-
either a shunt trip or an undervoltage release
ally causes nuisance trips when paralleling. Also,
device. Caterpillar recommends the undervolt-
many Reverse Power Relays are really Reverse
age release on electrically operated circuit break-
Current Relays, and, as such, their effective kW
ers. A shunt trip will open the circuit breaker as
activation point is reduced by any circulating cur-
long as AC power is still available. If only one
rent between generating units. In fact, with high
engine is running and it stops due to a nonelec-
circulating current (caused by generator misad-
trical fault, the circuit breaker will not open.
justment), it is possible to have a reverse current
(Reverse power has not occurred.) Damage to
trip while generating power.
electrical equipment can occur if another gener-
kW overload protection on SCR rigs: Engines on ator is put on the line without first opening this
AC rectified drill rigs must have some type of kW circuit breaker.
overload protection. This protection should not
Battery voltage alarm: Where electric governors
open the generator circuit breaker, but rather
are used, the control battery should be protected
operate circuitry that reduces DC electrical load;
with a low battery voltage alarm. Battery voltage
otherwise, loss of one generating unit can result
lower than 22 volts on a 24 volt system can cause
in power outages due to underfrequency of the
governor instability or loss of power. (Do not use
remaining generating units tripping their circuit
a battery which will have other high electrical
breakers.
loads — such as engine starting — as an elec-
Devices that sense kW loads above the engine- tric governor power supply.)
generator rating will not provide complete pro-
tection. Although these devices would actuate Paralleling check relay: Such relay prevents
during a gradual overload, they cannot protect untrained people from paralleling generators out
against a large sudden overload resulting from a of phase. Extensive electrical and/or mechanical
paralleled generator set shutting down due to a damage can occur due to paralleling out of phase.
fault. Remaining generating units would be
Emergency Generator Considerations
slowed down in rpm so fast that a kW overload
would not be detected. Automatic start-stop arrangements and cranking
panels are available for all Caterpillar Engines.
If other means of overload protection are not pro-
The Caterpillar automatic start-stop group con-
vided, Caterpillar recommends that an underfre-
tains the electric starting motor(s), engine shutoff
quency sensor be connected to the switchgear
device, high water temperature and low oil pres-
bus. It should be set for 5 Hz below rated fre-
sure shutoff contactors (overspeed is available),
quency and include a two-second time delay so

LEBW1414-00 174
and wiring of the above controls to a junction box a given SCR system. Caterpillar SR 4B Generators
(all mounted on the engine). for SCR service provide generous oversizing.
Caterpillar cranking panels are required with non- Approximate sizing for good performance
electronic engines and provide an electrical sig- requires kVA equivalent to 0.6 PF. See the fol-
nal to crank the engine, disconnect starter when lowing chart.
engine starts, and stops engine if a fault occurs or Generator kVA sizing (at 0.6 PF) for various
if the power outage is over (to be mounted by cus- engine hp’s are shown below:
tomer). Electronic engines contain this circuitry.
(D379) 610 hp 720 kVA
A cranking panel does not contain the AC power
(3508) 860 hp 1016 kVA
failure relay which determines when to start or stop
(D398, 3508B) 912 hp 1075 kVA
the engine automatically. This relay is usually a
(3512) 1100 hp 1240 kVA
part of the customer’s automatic transfer switch.
(D399, 3512) 1215 hp 1435 kVA
Jacket water heaters are also available from (D399, 3512, 3516) 1325 hp 1565 kVA
Caterpillar. They provide fast and reliable start- (3512) 1435 hp 1695 kVA
ing in ambient temperatures below 70°F (21°C). (3512B) 1476 hp 1743 kVA
(3516) 1650 hp 1948 kVA
Electrical equipment required to support opera-
(3516B) 1855 hp 2190 kVA
tion of the emergency generator set should be
(3516B HD) 2150 hp 2550 kVA
powered off the emergency bus. This includes
such things as fuel transfer pumps, ventilating
An undersized generator does not harm the
fans, battery chargers and cooling pumps.
engine — but the rig operation will require the
If an emergency stop control is on the driller’s running of more engines than would otherwise
console, the stop signal from this emergency stop be required when low PF conditions are encoun-
control must prevent the emergency generator tered. This increases fuel consumption and puts
from starting as well as stop the main power plant. unnecessary hours on the engines. While drilling
The best method to assure the reliability of an the larger diameter portions of the well, genera-
emergency system is to periodically test the tor limitations are usually not encountered.
entire system. A simulated power failure should (During this time, the PF is near 0.8 PF because
be conducted monthly, with actual transfer switch the mud pumps are operated quite fast — high
operation to connect the full emergency power pump strokes.)
demand to the generator set. The emergency sys- Generator limitations are normally encountered
tem should function for one hour in the presence during the deeper sections of the well. This is
of an authorized mechanic. where the mud pumps are run at lower speeds
After completion of the run, the system should be (lower pump strokes) — with a resultant low PF
readied for automatic operation and rechecks of on the generator. If the generator is not oversized,
fuel level and battery condition should be made. it will be necessary to run an extra engine in order
to provide sufficient generator capacity.
Generator Sizing Drillers have also commented that oversize gen-
SCR Drill Rigs erators improve the drawworks response. Many
times, hoisting from the deep hole can be just as
AC generators on SCR drill rigs frequently oper- fast with one less engine running as compared
ate at power factors less than 0.8. This can occur to engines with smaller generators. (The over-
when DC motors operate at high DC amps and size generators allow the drawworks motors to
low DC volts. This may occur when beginning to develop more torque, when the DC motors are
hoist (especially when the mud pumps are left at low speeds.)
on), reaming the hole, low pump strokes, etc.
(Many offshore rigs have propulsion machinery
To allow engine capability to be more efficiently that raises the total load to levels far greater than
utilized, generators should be specified with a the drilling machinery alone requires. This propul-
high kVA rating. The SCR system supplier can sion machinery typically operates at higher power
provide information on oversizing required with factors. Combining these loads improves the

175 LEBW1414-00
system PF. Generators on these larger rigs there-
fore may not be as oversize as shown above.)

AC Variable Frequency Drill Rigs

If the variable frequency drive is of the Diode front
end style, oversizing of the AC generator is not
required. High kVA on the AC generator will not
occur. The special requirements for generator
construction to withstand voltage spikes and cur-
rent stresses do still apply.

Generator Space Heaters

Generators must be kept clean and dry to provide
acceptable service life. Generators can have
winding failures when shutdown in humid areas.
Space heaters are available for generators. They
are installed within the generator and are to be
energized when the generator is not on-line to
repel moisture. They must be connected to a
power source. Caterpillar SCR generators have
space heaters as standard equipment. They are
also available for auxiliary or lite plant generators.
Serious consideration should be given to install-
ing and using generator space heaters.

Generator Location
It is recommended that the rig layout place gen-
erator sets as far as practical from mud tanks
because some dust acts as a desiccant (attracts
moisture). Moisture and chemicals can cause
premature generator failure. Drillers should con-
sider wind direction when making a setup also.
Generator space heaters should be considered
as an aid where moisture and dust cannot oth-
erwise be controlled. NOTE: Heaters can only
aid moisture control for a stand-by or at rest gen-
erator.
Generators should be protected from direct rain.

LEBW1414-00 176
 OILFIELD INSTRUMENTS

Instrumentation and control systems are an inte-

OPERATING LIMIT PLATE
gral part of the oilfield installation. Attention to
START
design, installation, and testing ensures a reliable CONTROL &
installation that reduces maintenance costs. SHUTOFF
OVERRIDE
Suitable instrumentation enables the operator to
monitor oilfield engine systems and make cor-
rections before failures occur.

Premium Oilfield Instrument Panel

This engine-mounted oilfield instrument panel,
available on 3508, 3512, and 3516 engines, 3508, 3512, 3516
monitors five critical engine systems for non-elec- Figure 15.1
tronic engines, Figure 15.1. All instruments were
selected for reliability, durability and accuracy
under engine room environmental conditions. Premium Oilfield Instrument Panels
The panel offers calibrated mechanical gauges for 3500B Engines
plus a pyrometer and a self-contained electrical 3500B engines incorporate both analog gauges
tachometer. It allows the operator to: and digital readout of selected values.
(1) Monitor essential systems for normal oper- The two modules included with every instrument
ating conditions. panel are the main display module and gauge
(2) Determine trends of changing conditions cluster module. The main display module con-
which could be due to deterioration of one or trols all the instruments and gauge cluster mod-
more engine systems. ule displays:
(3) Troubleshoot essential engine systems. • Engine oil pressure
Periodic monitoring and recording of data, begin- • Engine coolant temperature
ning with initial service, provides an engine his- • System voltage
tory. As normal engine operating conditions
change, preventive maintenance can eliminate • Engine fuel pressure
potential failures and downtime. The second gauge cluster module displays:
The operator can determine operating limits by • Right hand and left hand air inlet restriction
referring to the operating limit plate attached to
the instrument panel. These limits are based on • Right hand and left hand exhaust temperature
the engine running at oilfield continuous rated • Fuel filter differential pressure
speed and load after warm-up and using SAE 30,
• Oil filter differential pressure
API-CH-4, oil. At initial startup, gauge readings
should be well within stated limits. If gauges reg- There is an option to add a third gauge cluster
ister at or outside operating limits, any malfunc- module. The third gauge cluster module displays:
tion or installation problem should be corrected. • Inlet air pressure (boost)
Information required to diagnose and correct any
malfunction or installation problem is contained • Separate circuit aftercooler coolant tem-
in the Service Manual for each engine model. perature
Routine operating instructions are contained in • Engine oil temperature
the Operation Guide for each engine model.
• Inlet air temperature
The optional individual cylinder exhaust pyrom-
eter group comes with the third gauge cluster.

177 LEBW1414-00
Instruments vary by engine rating. Jacket water aftercooled
engines operate at a significantly higher inlet
Following is a description of the various standard manifold air temperature than do separate cir-
and optional gauges. cuit cooled engines.
Tachometer Exhaust Temperature Gauge (Pyrometer)
The tachometer indicates engine rpm. The pyrometer measures exhaust gas tempera-
tures, normally after the turbocharger. On Vee
Jacket Water Temperature Gauge
engines with two turbochargers, a single instru-
This gauge indicates the temperature of the ment is supplied with dual temperature readout
jacket water as it leaves the engine. Jacket water for both banks. On engines with single tur-
temperature must be maintained between mini- bochargers, one instrument with a single read-
mum and maximum limits. out is provided. DO NOT USE EXHAUST
Temperature gauge capillary tubes must be TEMPERATURE AS A LOAD SETTING INDI-
routed to avoid hot spots, such as manifolds or CATOR WITH TURBOCHARGED AND TURBO-
turbochargers, which will cause false readings. CHARGED/AFTERCOOLED ENGINES. The
pyrometer should be used only to monitor
Aftercooler Water Temperature Gauge changes in the combustion system and to warn
of required maintenance.
This gauge indicates the temperatures of the
water entering the aftercooler circuit. Emissions The optional exhaust temperature gauge system,
compliant engines may monitor this. where available, adds the readings at each cylin-
der exhaust outlet.
Intake Manifold Air Temperature Gauge
This gauge indicates air temperature between
the aftercooler and the cylinder. The limits will

3500B ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT PANEL

Figure 15.2
LEBW1414-00 178
Engine Oil Temperature Gauge
This gauge indicates oil temperature after the
lube oil cooler. On most engines, the oil is cooled
by engine jacket water. A high jacket water tem-
perature or a clogged oil cooler will prevent the
engine lube oil from being properly cooled.

Engine Oil Pressure Gauge

This gauge indicates the pressure of the filtered
oil. Oil pressure will be greatest after starting a
cold engine and will decrease slightly as the oil
warms up. Oil pressure is greater at operating
speeds than at low idle rpm. The specified min-
imum oil pressure is for an engine running at con-
tinuous rated speed. Plugged oil filter elements
will decrease engine oil pressure. The oil filter
service indicator (where provided) should be
checked regularly for premature filter plugging.
STOP THE ENGINE IMMEDIATELY IF OIL PRES-
SURE DROPS RAPIDLY.

Fuel Pressure Gauge

The fuel pressure gauge indicates the pressure
of the filtered fuel. A power reduction will occur
if the fuel pressure drops too low. Plugged fuel
filters decrease fuel pressure. High fuel pressure
can burst fuel filter housings, damage gaskets,
and cause erratic speed control because of
increased friction drag in injection pumps.

Air Restriction Gauge

The air restriction gauge measures the vacuum
caused by the air filter restriction. Clogged air
cleaners will result in reduced air flow causing
high exhaust temperature and sometimes exces-
sive smoke. The air restriction gauge should be
checked regularly, and air filters should be
changed when restriction limits are reached.

Oil Filter Differential Gauge

This gauge measures the difference in pressure
between the filtered and unfiltered sides of the oil
filter; a high reading will indicate plugged oil filters.
Where supplied, this gauge should be checked
regularly.

Ammeter
Where supplied, an ammeter measures electri-
cal current to or from the battery.

179 LEBW1414-00
 SHUTOFFS AND ALARM SYSTEMS

Shutoffs EMERGENCY SHUTOFF

LOCAL REMOTE
3508, 3512, and 3516 oilfield engines that are
non-electronic controlled are equipped with a MONITOR
GAUGE
hydramechanical low oil pressure, high water
temperature and overspeed shutoff. Shutdown is
accomplished by moving the fuel rack to shutoff
position.
The high water temperature shutoff will not pro-
vide protection when the water level is below the
sensing element.
These engines include an air inlet shutoff. During
an overspeed or when the remote shutoff is actu-
ated, this device shuts off the air inlet at the same 3508, 3512, 3516
time the fuel rack is moved to the off position. Figure 16.1
This provides protection when operating in a
gaseous fuel atmosphere, Figure 16.1.
Electronic Engine Shutoffs
A monitoring gauge is included that will indicate
shutoff is operable. Shutoff systems for electronic engines are incor-
porated within the Engine Control Module (ECM).
Remote shutoff provisions are also available. A Shutoff of fuel is accomplished internally, and air
routine shutoff option shuts only the fuel off. The inlet shutoff utilizes air inlet shutoff valves.
engine can then be restarted remotely after a sev-
eral minute delay. An emergency shutoff option Compound Drives
shuts off both fuel and air. The air inlet shutoff
must be manually reset before the engine can be For compound drives, an engine oil pressure
restarted. actuated 3-way valve may be added to discon-
nect the air clutch from the compound. This pre-
Other Non-Electronic Engines vents motoring of the engine by other engine(s)
on the compound, Figure 16.2.
A mechanical shutoff is available for most other
engine configurations. It will automatically shut If air clutches are not used, this dump valve may
down the engine is case of low oil pressure or be used to actuate the torque converter or fluid
high water temperature. This system is hydrauli- coupling dump valve. An air cylinder will also be
cally operated and contains a shutoff control required, Figure 16.2.
group which forces the engine fuel control to The 3-way valve should be an Amot model
shutoff if an extreme limit is reached. 4057-CE or equivalent. It will actuate on 20 psi
It may be necessary to manually override the (137.9 kPa) oil pressure and includes an emer-
shutoff when starting engine. gency manual override in case engine is to be
started through the compound. This will not be
CAUTION: Sensing devices must not trigger activated by overspeed or the emergency shut-
engine shutdown in applications where engine off button.
provides equipment mobility.

LEBW1414-00 180
Alarm Contactors Practically any additional engine function involv-
ing speed, temperature, and pressure control can
Low oil pressure and high water temperature
be sensed at extreme limits by special alarm or
alarms are most commonly used and are rec-
shutoff systems. Extent of usage should depend
ommended for every engine. These are preset
entirely on the type and extent of monitoring and
temperature and pressure switches to be con-
automation desired.
nected to the rig’s electrical system. They will
activate a customer-supplied audio or visual Switches normally available from Caterpillar will
alarm when extreme temperature and pressure operate on AC or DC voltage from 6 volts to
limits are reached. Engines equipped with expan- 240 volts, Figure 16.3. See also section on DC
sion tanks for heat exchanger cooling contain a Power Systems for alarm contactors required when
low water level alarm switch. driving DC generators. These contactors (SPDT
switches) disconnect the generator’s excitation.

Figure 16.2

181 LEBW1414-00
Contactor Switch Ratings
Temperature Sensing
Rating with alarm or switch:
115-volt AC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5A
230-volt AC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5A
600-volt AC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1A
120-volt DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5A
240-volt DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25 A
48-volt DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.25A
32-volt DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.9A
24-volt DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5A
12-volt DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5A
Pressure Sensing
Rating with alarm or switch:
125, 250, or 480-volt AC . . . . . . . . . 20A
250-volt DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25A
Speed Sensing*
Rating with alarm or switch:
Mechanical Switch
28-volt DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5A
115-volt DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1A
120, 240, 480-volt AC . . . . . . . . . . . 10A
125-volt DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5A
*Terminals are not under a cover.
Electronic Switch
12-32-volt DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3A
Figure 16.3
Alarm Panels
The most common type of user supplied alarm
panel contains alarm indicating lights for all
engines. Caterpillar recommends the following
features in alarm panels:
1. Fault light lock-in circuitry — keeps fault light
on when intermittent faults occur.
2. Lockout of additional alarm lights — prevents
subsequent alarm lights from going on after
the activated engine shutoff stops the engine.
This aids in troubleshooting. Figure 16.4
3. Alarm silence — allows engineman to
acknowledge the alarm without having to
continually listen to the alarm horn. Alarm
light is left on.
LEBW1414-00
4. If more than one engine is connected to an
alarm panel, a fault in a second engine should
activate the alarm, even though the alarm
horn may have been silenced after a fault on
another engine.
5. Circuit Test — provides for periodic checking
of alarm panel functions.
Recommended Minimum Alarms
Radiator cooled engines:
(Jacket water aftercooled)
A. Low oil pressure — Figure 16.5
B. High water temperature — Figure 16.4
C. Overspeed — Figure 16.6
Heat exchanger or grid-cooler cooled engines:
(Jacket water aftercooled)
A. Low oil pressure
B. High water temperature
C. Overspeed
D. Low water level
Engines equipped with electric governors should
have a low control battery voltage alarm. A reverse
power alarm or circuit breaker tripped alarm
should be considered on AC generating units. A
low sea water pressure alarm for the engine cool-
ing systems should be included. If any other
engine room function is monitored, the fault indi-
cator should be built into this control panel or
located next to it.
World Class Contactors
Pressure and temperature contactors are avail-
able. They meet the requirements of the marine
classification societies. They are adjustable,
Figure 16.7.
TEMPERATURE CONTACTOR
182
 PRESSURE CONTACTOR
Figure 16.5

OVERSPEED CONTACTOR
Figure 16.6

OIL PRESSURE

WATER TEMPERATURE

SOCIETY APPROVED CONTACTOR

Figure 16.7

183 LEBW1414-00
 STARTING SYSTEMS

An engine starting system must be able to crank Damage can result if water enters and is retained
the engine at sufficient speed for fuel combustion in the starting motor solenoid. To prevent this,
to begin normal firing and keep engine running. engines stored outside should be provided with a
flywheel housing cover. If possible, the starting
These are two common types of engine starting
motor should be mounted with the solenoid in an
systems:
up position which would provide drainage and
A. Electric prevent water from collecting in the solenoid.
B. Air
Engines which are subject to heavy driven load
Hydraulic starting is usable with Cat engines, during cold start-up should be provided with a
but is not available from Caterpillar. heavy-duty starting motor.
The choice of systems depends upon availabil-
Batteries
ity of the energy source, availability of space for
storage of energy, and ease of recharging the Batteries provide sufficient power to crank engines
energy banks. long and fast enough to start. Lead-acid types
are common, have high output capabilities, and
Startability of a diesel engine is affected primar-
lowest first cost. Nickel-cadmium batteries are
ily by ambient temperature, lubricating oil vis-
costly, but have long shelf life and require mini-
cosity, and size of the cranking system. The diesel
mum maintenance. Nickel-cadmium types are
relies on the heat of compression to ignite fuel.
designed for long life and may incorporate thick
This heat is a result of both the cranking speed
plates which decrease high discharge capability.
and length of time for cranking. When the engine
Consult the battery supplier for specific recom-
is cold, a longer period of cranking is required to
mendations.
develop this ignition temperature.
Ambient temperatures drastically affect battery
Heavy oil imposes the greatest load on the crank-
performance and charging efficiencies. Maintain
ing motor. Both the type of oil and temperature
90°F (32°C) maximum temperature to assure
can drastically alter its viscosity. An SAE 30 oil
rated output. Impact of colder temperatures is
will, for example, approach the consistency of
described, Figures 17.3 and 17.4.
grease at temperatures below 32°F (0°C). Proper
engine oil viscosity should be provided accord- Locate cranking batteries for easy visual inspec-
ing to recommendations in the engine operation tion and maintenance, away from flame or spark
manual. sources and isolated from vibration. Mount level
on nonconducting material and protect from
Electric Starting splash and dirt. Use short slack cable lengths and
minimize voltage drops by positioning batteries
Electric starting is the most convenient to use. near the starting motor.
Storage of energy is compact, however, charging
the system is slow and difficult in case of emer- Charging Systems
gency. Electric starting becomes less effective as
temperature drops due to loss of battery charge Normally, engine-driven alternators are used for
capacity and an increase in an engine’s resistance battery charging. When selecting an alternator,
to cranking under those conditions. It is the least give consideration to current draw of electrical
expensive system and is most adaptable to remote accessories to be used and to the conditions in
control and automation, Figs. 17.1 and 17.2. which the alternator will be operating. An alter-
nator must be chosen which has adequate capa-
Do NOT crank the engine more than 30 seconds, bility to power accessories and charge the battery.
or the starter will overheat. If the alternator will be operating in a dusty, dirty
environment, a heavy-duty alternator should be
selected.

LEBW1414-00 184
 OIL PRESS START
SWITCH SWITCH

MAG
SWITCH

STARTING
MOTORS

+
BATTERY
–

DC DUAL STARTING SYSTEM

Figure 17.1

Engine-driven alternators have the disadvantage DIRECT INJECTION COMBUSTION SYSTEM

of charging batteries only while the engine is run- ALTERNATOR
ning. Trickle chargers are available but require LIGHTS, ETC.
an AC power source. Battery chargers using AMMETER

AC power sources must be capable of limiting

peak currents during the cranking cycle or must KEY GAUGES, ETC.
have a relay to disconnect the battery charger dur- SWITCH
ing the cranking cycle. In applications where an
engine-driven alternator and a battery trickle
charger are both used, the disconnect relay must
be controlled to disconnect the trickle charger dur-
ing cranking and running periods of the engine.
MAGNETIC
SWITCH
STARTING
12V
MOTOR

+
–
BATTERY
TYPICAL WIRING DIAGRAM (Mobile Equipment)
Figure 17.2
185 LEBW1414-00
 Battery Performance
Specific Gravity vs. Voltage
Sp. Gravity % Charge V per Cell Freezes °F (°C)
1.260 100 2.10 –70 (–94)
1.230 75 2.07 –39 (–56)
1.200 50 2.04 –16 (–27)
1.170 25 2.01 – 2 (–19)
1.110 Discharged 1.95 +17 (–8)

Figure 17.3

Temperature vs. Output

°F (°C) % 80°F Ampere Hours Output Rating
80 (27) 100
32 (0) 65
0 (–18) 40

Figure 17.4

Maximum Recommended Total Battery Cable Length

Cable Size Direct Electric Starting
AWG MM2 12 Volt 24-32 Volt
Feet Meters Feet Meters
0 50 4.0 1.22 15.0 4.57
00 70 5.0 1.52 18.0 5.49
000 95 6.0 1.83 21.0 6.40
0000 120 7.5 2.29 27.0 8.24

Figure 17.5

Suggested Minimum Battery Cold Cranking Amps

Battery Voltage 12 24-32 1-motor
Minimum °F –20 30 60 –20 0 60
3304 1450 1225 925 725
3306 1450 1225 925 725
3406 1225 925
3408 1300 1225 925
3412 1300 1225 925
3508 1300 1225 925

Figure 17.6

NOTE: Use aids below 0°F (–18°C)

LEBW1414-00 186
Starting System Wiring Air Starting
Power carrying capability and serviceability are Air starting, Figure 17.7, offers higher cranking
primary concerns of the wiring system. speeds than electric starting and is the most com-
Select starter and battery cable size, Figure 17.5. mon system used on drill rigs. It usually results
For correct size and correct circuit for starting in faster starts with less cranking time. Remote
system components, see typical wiring diagrams. controls and automation are more complex and
Wiring should be protected by fuses or a manual cumbersome. Storage of energy is bulky, but
reset circuit breaker (not shown on the wiring recharging the system is relatively fast. Air for
diagrams). Fuses and circuit breakers should recharging is always available. A small emergency
have sufficient capacity and be readily accessi- receiver (not supplied by Caterpillar) can be hand
ble for service. pumped to starting pressure under emergency
conditions or an auxiliary diesel engine-driven
Other preferred wiring practices are: air compressor package can be used. System
• Minimum number of connections, especially repairs can often be done on site with minimum
with battery cables. tool requirement. Moisture condensation may
take place within the air system, causing inter-
• Positive mechanical connections. nal corrosion and freezing. Figures 17.8 and 17.9
• Permanently labeled or color-coded wires. contain information required to size air starting
systems.
• Short cables to minimize voltage drop.
Recommended air pressure range is 90-150 psi
• Ground cable from battery to starter is pre- (620-1034 kPa).
ferred. If frame connections are used, tin
the contact surface. Current path should
not include high resistance points such as
painted, bolted, or riveted joints.
• Protect battery cables from rubbing against
sharp or abrasive surfaces.

AIR STARTING SYSTEM WITH PRELUBE

Figure 17.7
187 LEBW1414-00
 Free Air Consumption f3/s (m3/s)
For a Bare Engine at 50°F (10°C)
100 psig 125 psig 150 psig
Engine (690 kPa) (862 kPa) (1034 kPa) P min psig*
Model To Starter To Starter To Starter (kPa)
3304 5.8 (0.1641) 6.8 (0.1924) 7.7 (0.2179) 35 (242)
3306 5.9 (0.1670) 6.9 (0.1953) 7.8 (0.2207) 36 (248)
3406 6.2 (0.1755) 7.3 (0.2066) 8.3 (0.2349) 40 (276)
3408 6.4 (0.1811) 7.5 (0.2122) 8.6 (0.2434) 39 (269)
3412 9.0 (0.2601) 10.3 (0.2914) 11.8 (0.3339) 30 (207)
3508 9.3 (0.26) 10.8 (0.30) 12.6 (0.36) 45 (310)
3512 9.8 (0.28) 11.4 (0.32) 13.3 (0.38) 50 (344)
3516 10.5 (0.30) 12.1 (0.34) 14.1 (0.40) 65 (448)

NOTE: Add to the 3516 1 cu. ft./sec. (0.0283 m3/s) of air consumption for the air operated oil prelubrication pump.
This pump will normally operate 2 to 10 seconds before the engine begins to crank.
*Minimum air storage tank pressure required to sustain cranking at 100 rpm. Higher pressure required to initiate cranking.
Figure 17.8

Air Receiver Volume Required For One Second of Cranking Time

With Pressure Drop From 250 to 125 psi (1724 to 862 kPa)
Engine Model cu. ft./sec. (m3/s) Engine Model cu. ft./sec. (m3/s)
3304 0.535/0.0151 3508 1.42/0.0402
3306 0.506/0.0143 3512 1.33/0.0376
3516 1.30/0.0368
3406 0.518/0.0147
3408 1.90/0.054
3412 1.82/0.051

Figure 17.9

The air supply line between storage tank and air Many applications require sizing air receivers to
motor should be short and direct, and of a size provide a specified number of starts. This can be
equal to the discharge opening of the air receiver. accomplished using the following equation:
Black iron pipe is preferable and must be prop- English System
erly supported to avoid vibration damage to the
compressor. Flexible connections between com- Vs 2 T 2 14.7 psi
Vt = __________________
pressor outlet and piping are required. Pt – Pm
The shipyard or rigup yard must thoroughly clean SI System
the air piping prior to first engine start. Rust or
debris can destroy the air starter. Vs 2 T 2 101 kPa
Vt = __________________
Pt – Pm
Air storage tank should meet American Society
of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) — or other rec- Vs = Starter air consumption (ft /sec or m /sec),
3 3

ognized source of specifications — pressure ves- Figure 17.8.

sel specifications and should be equipped with a Vt = Air storage tank capacity (cubic feet or
safety valve and pressure gauge. Safety valves cubic meters)
should be regularly checked to guard against
possible malfunction. A drain cock must be pro- Pt = Air storage tank pressure (psig or kPa)
vided in the lowest part of the air receiver tank T = Cranking time
for draining condensation. Pm = 90 psig (620 kPa) when sequential
crank cycles are used. Use P minimum,
Figure 17.8, when a single crank cycle is
used.
LEBW1414-00 188
The quantity of free air required per start (Vs) one or more commonly used starting aids such
depends on three factors: as jacket water heaters and/or ether.
A. Cranking time required per start Adequate starts can usually be obtained with
properly maintained systems above 60°F (15°C)
Cranking time per start depends on engine
ambient temperatures without aids.
model, engine condition, ambient air temper-
ature, oil viscosity, fuel type, and design crank- Jacket water heaters maintain water at a tem-
ing speed. Five to seven seconds is typical perature high enough to start engine. kW rating
for an engine at 80°F (26°C). Restarts of hot of the jacket water heater depends on Cooling
engines usually take less than two seconds. Systems — Jacket Water Heaters for additional
details.
B. Rate of free air consumption
Ether is a volatile and highly combustible agent.
Rate of free air consumption depends on
Small quantities of ether fumes added to the
these same variables, and also on pressure
engine’s intake air during cranking reduce com-
regulator setting. Correct pressure regulator
pression temperature required for engine start-
setting is 90 to 150 psi (620 to 1033 kPa),
ing. This method can be used for starting of an
with the higher pressure used to improve
engine at practically any ambient temperature.
starting under adverse conditions. 5 to 15 ft /s3
Ether starting aids are available on the smaller
(0.14 to 0.42 m3/s) is typical for engines
Caterpillar engines.
from 50 to 1200 hp (37 to 895 kW).
CAUTION: When other than fully sealed ether
C. Operation
systems are used, ensure adequate ventilation
The air supply must be shut off as soon as for venting fumes to the atmosphere to prevent
engine starts or the sensing system must accidental explosion and danger to operating
close the solenoid air valve to prevent wast- personnel.
ing starting air pressure.
The high pressure metallic capsule-type is rec-
Water vapor in the compressed air supply may ommended for mobile applications. When placed
freeze as air is expanded below 32°F (0°C). A in an injection device and pierced, ether passes
dryer at the compressor outlet or a small quan- into the intake manifold. This has proven to be
tity of alcohol in the starter tank is suggested. the best system since few special precautions are
This formula may be used to estimate the time required for handling, shipping, or storage.
required for an air compressor to raise the pres- Ether must be used only as directed by the man-
sure in an air receiver to a specified limit: ufacturer of the starting aid device. The ether sys-
Pt 2 R tem must be such that a maximum of 3.0 cc of
T = ________ ether will be released each time the button is
Pa 2 N pushed. Caterpillar ether systems are designed
T= Time in minutes to release 2.25 cc of ether each time the system
is activated. Excessive injection of ether can
Pt = Final pressure of tank (psia or kPa) damage an engine. Ether should not be released
Pa = Atmospheric pressure (psia or kPa) into a running engine.
R= Volume of air receiver (ft3 or m3) Lighter fuels, such as kerosene, can ease the
unaided cranking requirements slightly by low-
3
N = Net free air delivery of compressor (ft /min
ering the compression temperature required for
or m3/min)
starting. These lighter fuels also slightly reduce
horsepower delivered at any given fuel rack setting.
Starting Aids
Excessive parasitic loads should be disconnected
The diesel engine depends on heat of compres- during engine cranking.
sion of air in the cylinder to ignite fuel. Below
some minimum temperature, even a reasonably Prelubrication Systems
sized cranking system will not turn the engine
fast enough or long enough to ignite fuel without If the 3516 engine is started or operated at low
idle until oil pressure is attained, prelubrication
is NOT required.
189 LEBW1414-00
The 3516 oilfield engine includes a prelubrica- Driven Load Reduction Devices
tion system to provide lubricating oil to critical Effect of driven equipment loads during cold
components before cranking and starting the weather engine starting must be considered.
engine. Caterpillar furnishes an air cranking/air Hydraulic pumps, air compressors, and other
prelubricating system, Figure 17.7 and 17.10. mechanically driven devices typically demand
This consists of an air-driven prelubrication pump more horsepower when they are extremely cold
that draws oil from the engine sump and forces at start-up. The effect of this horsepower demand
it into the engine. This pump is driven by an air may be overcome by providing a means of
motor which, through sequence valving, runs declutching driven loads until the engine has
until a predetermined engine oil pressure shuts it been started and warmed up for a few minutes.
off and turns on the air cranking motor. This is not always easy or practical, so other
Oilfield engine applications that use the 2301A means of relieving the load at cold start-up may
Electric Governor do not require prelubrication be required if the engine-load combination can-
pumps because a properly wired 2301A Governor not be started with sufficient ease using engine
maintains engine speed at low idle speed until starting aids described earlier.
adequate oil pressure is in the lube system. When Some air compressors provide for shutoff of
the engine starts and accelerates to low idle, it the air compressor air inlet during cold starting.
will stay at that speed until an electric switch is This greatly decreases drag on the engine and
closed by engine oil pressure. The engine will improves cold startability. This approach can only
then accelerate to rated speed. be used when the air compressor manufacturer
Any solenoids used in the starting system must provides this system and fully approves of its use.
be DC to ensure starting during an AC power Otherwise, air compressor damage could result.
outage.

AIR START AIR PRELUBE

Figure 17.10

LEBW1414-00 190
 ELECTROLYTIC AND GALVANIC ACTIVITY PROTECTION

Introduction The two-wire circuit has an insulated return wire

from the load to source as well as the lead wire
Electrolytic and galvanic activity can cause serious from the source to load, Figure 18.1. Frames of
damage to an engine. Troubleshooting requires various electrical devices should be connected
highly skilled personnel. The best procedure is to the hull if mounting of the device to the hull
to attempt to provide adequate safeguards for does not provide a sufficient ground.
engines during rig construction. Troubleshooting
is further complicated by the fact that damage Be aware that the ground between the hull and a
done by electrolytic or galvanic activity is usu- metallic item resting on the hull can be weak-
ally identical, but required solutions for either ened or destroyed by moisture, corrosion or poor
cause usually aggravates the other. area of contact.
Electrical systems should be so designed that no LOAD LOAD
continuous electrical potential is imposed upon + +
any cooling system components. Presence of any S
S –
electrical potential may cause cooling system –G G
materials to be damaged by electrolytic processes.
A. SINGLE-WIRE GROUNDED B. TWO-WIRE GROUNDED
Galvanic activity in salt water circuits produces a (NOT RECOMMENDED) (NOT RECOMMENDED)
corrosive action with metal, resulting in deteriora-
tion of system components. Proper material selec- LOAD S = SOURCE
tion and cathodic protection should be employed +
S
by installing sacrificial zinc rods in sea water flow –
passages at numerous locations. In order to main-
tain this protection, zinc rods must be inspected C. TWO-WIRE FLOATING
(RECOMMENDED)
regularly and replaced when deteriorated.
PLANNED ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
Large amounts of electrical current are present
on offshore electric drilling rigs. Minute stray cur- Figure 18.1
rents should be minimized to protect engines.
DC and AC circuits should have insulated (float-
ing) grounds.
The recommended floating circuit has no con-
nection to ground and it can be described as
insulated from ground.

191 LEBW1414-00
Metallic items in contact with the hull must be
made of metal similar to that of the hull metal.
For example, a steel pump housing should be in
direct contact with the hull in order to be grounded
to the hull*. However, a dissimilar metal, such as
brass, should be isolated from the hull because
moisture between the brass and hull will cause
galvanic corrosion. The brass should be con-
nected to the hull via a wire.
*Unless the types of steels have a significant volt-
age potential difference (e.g. mild steel will cor-
rode if it is coupled to stainless steel).
Figure 18.2
LEBW1414-00 192
Because engines are in direct contact with the
hull, the following procedure can be followed to
assure that stray currents return to the power
source with minimal travel through metallic com-
ponents, Figure 18.2.
The ground wire has a high resistance path back
to the battery because of the insulating material
between the metallic plate and battery. This helps
minimize the amount of current flow.
Insulating material between the metallic place
and hull prevents stray currents from returning
through the hull to the battery. These currents
must return through the ground wire.
 FUEL CONSERVATION ON PETROLEUM ENGINES

Rapidly increasing fuel prices coupled with

decreasing fuel availability is receiving increased
attention by contractors and oil companies.
Methods to reduce fuel consumption are under
three sections:
1. General Conservation Practices
2. Minimizing Prime Mover Fuel Consumption
3. Modifying Drilling Practices/Machinery to
Reduce Prime Mover Fuel Consumption

General Information Figure 19.1

The amount of flywheel kilowatts (horsepower)
produced by burning a liter (gallon) of diesel fuel General Conservation Practices
depends on engine type, condition, and loading. Fuel will be saved by converting small diesel
If an engine is operated at more than half load, engine-driven auxiliaries, such as mud mix pumps,
a liter (gallon) of diesel fuel can produce approx- superchargers, etc., to electric motor-driven units.
imately 3.3–4 kW•h/l (17–20 hp-h/gal). In As an engine-driven device, these auxiliaries are
contrast, the same engine lightly loaded will the only load on that particular engine. Thus,
only produce approximately 2.7–3.6 kW•h/L when at light load, fuel consumption per flywheel
(14–18 hp-h/gal) or much less if operating at kilowatt (horsepower) delivered is high.
no load.
On rigs that require winterizing, engine exhaust
Engine fuel consumption data is stated as: and jacket water heat can be recovered and reduce
Fuel quantity consumption per hour at vari- boiler fuel consumption.
ous loads. This is expressed in L/h or gal/h. Take measures to prevent theft of fuel.
The engine burns fuel at no load due to the inter- Eliminate spillage and leakage losses.
nal demands of water and oil pumps, friction
losses, other mechanical devices, etc. Turn off auxiliary loads when not needed. Oper-
ation of unneeded auxiliary loads may represent
This accounts for a major part of the slope up to 5-10% of total rig load.
in B curve, Figure 19.1. These internal losses
become a smaller portion of the total as the engine
is loaded. Thus, the engine is more efficient.
Minimizing Prime Mover
Fuel Consumption
Curve A, Figure 19.1, adds the power required to
operate the radiator fan. It is not normally included The following items should be considered in regard
in the engine’s fuel curve due to the wide selec- to prime movers. The secret is to get all the
tion of radiators used in the oil field. energy out of each drop of fuel and avoid fuel
waste due to poor maintenance and adjustment.
Note that a radiator fan that takes 5% of the engine
fuel consumption to drive at full load may take Engine should be maintained to assure optimum
16% of the engine fuel consumption at 20% load. fuel consumption. Exhaust smoke under steady-
The percentage would be much higher at no load. state conditions indicates incomplete combus-
tion of fuel, hence, increased fuel consumption.
It could be caused by such things as dirty air
cleaner elements, dirty aftercooler cores, tur-
bocharger malfunctioning, incorrect fuel injec-
tion timing, faulty fuel injection nozzle, etc. A
qualified serviceman should be called upon to
provide a specific diagnosis.

193 LEBW1414-00
Turbochargers may also not be properly matched particularly at light load. This temperature reduc-
to the engine. This can happen with engines that tion causes the radiator core to contract. Repeated
are operating at a speed other than that shown on temperature fluctuations could result in prema-
the manufacturer’s nameplate. ture core failure unless the radiator can accom-
modate these fluctuations.
In such cases an improper turbocharger match
increases fuel consumption by 1–5%, in addition When operating on cool or cold days, the radia-
to creating other possible adverse operating con- tor ambient capacity, in the low speed operation,
will increase. A low temperature is always reached
ditions, i.e., excessive exhaust temperature, slower
engine acceleration, etc. where the engine can be cooled at full load with
the fan in low speed operation. Thus, during win-
Reduce radiator fan power requirements. Radia-
ter operations (and most summer operations) the
tors of the same ambient capability can have
fan may never operate in the high speed position.
great differences in fan power due to fan rpm and
Figure 19.3 shows these approximate values.
fan diameter differences. A large diameter fan at
a lower rpm can deliver the same cfm, but at Radiator Ambient Capability
greatly reduced power demand. Approximately
Engine Fan Ambient
Radiators are available with fans which draw 1.5 Load Speed Capability
to 6% of the engine rating. The effect of radiator 100% 100% 125°F (52°C)
fan power is quantified, Figure 19.2. 100% 50% 80°F (27°C)
Considering that drilling engines spend much of 50% 50% 125°F (52°C)
their time at reduced load levels, a further reduc- Figure 19.3
tion in fan power can be achieved by using a two-
speed drive (electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic) For additional assurance of reliability, the two-
to operate fan. This savings is illustrated in speed drive can be arranged such that fan belts
Figure 19.2 under the column labeled Controlled can be reattached to the engine crankshaft pul-
Speed Fans. This column also reflects the fact ley if necessary.
that the engine does not operate all year round at Radiator louvers are a desirable feature in cold
design ambient conditions. climates, but they do not reduce the fan power
Controlled speed fan would run continuously at demand.
low speed until hot weather/high load conditions Use of a heavy distillate or crude fuel can reduce
cause engine water temperature to rise, signalling fuel costs. Fuel consumption will reduce in an
the fan drive to run at high speed. CAUTION: approximate inverse proportion to the ratio of the
Controlled speed fans may be prohibited by some heat content of this fuel to regular fuel. However,
emission regulations. such a fuel cost reduction frequently results in
A single-speed fan drive that is turned on or off increased engine operating costs. Depending upon
may not be desirable. The radiator supplier would contaminants or operational difficulties encoun-
have to be consulted to determine if the radiator tered, engine life could be severely reduced.
core can tolerate the repeated temperature cycling A fuel analysis is certainly recommended. This
that occurs. When the fan is off, the radiator out- should be compared to permissible and recom-
let water is at engine water temperature and will mended fuel specifications which can be provided
be cooled toward ambient as the fan turns on — by the engine supplier. Fuel treatment equipment

Increase in Rig Fuel Consumption Due to Radiator Fan

Controlled Speed Fan (2:1)
Engine Load 5% Fan 2.5% Fan
5% 2.5%
20–40% 12–16% 6–8% 1% 0.5%
30–50% 10–14% 5–7% 1% 0.5%
40–60% 8–10% 3–6% 1.5% 0.75%
60–100% 5–8% 2.5–5% 1.5–3% 0.75–1.5%

Figure 19.2
LEBW1414-00 194
may be commercially available that conditions different sizes — hence, their fuel rates now are
fuel to meet permissible or recommended fuel dramatically different at specific load points.
specifications. It may be necessary to start and This understanding of fuel curves leads to the fol-
stop the engine on diesel fuel. lowing conclusion.
Used lube oil can be blended into the fuel supply When using fuel consumption as one of the
when proper precautions are taken. However, the criterions in selecting engine sizes, types, and
reduction of fuel consumption would be in the quantities, fuel consumption at normal oper-
range of 0.5% — and, fuel filters would have to be ating loads, not at the rated full load point, is
changed more frequently. It also discolors the fuel of greatest importance. An approximation of
so that it cannot be returned to the supplier. engine load versus time at various well depths
is also required.
Modifying Drilling Practices/
Machinery to Reduce Prime Mover
Fuel Consumption
The first drilling practice to be discussed is the
number and size of engines used to power a rig.
An SCR rig will be assumed.
The importance of engine sizing is shown by
engine fuel curves, Figure 19.1.
The curve is not flat. More importantly, this is a
curve for a given prime mover. Such curves are
not the same for all manufacturers and/or mod-
els. In a given engine family, a V8, V12, and V16
will not have identical fuel curves. Between engine
manufacturers, a V8, V12, and V16 will differ.
Fuel curves give testimony to engine configura-
tion differences such as: naturally aspirated, roots
blower, turbocharging, natural gas engines, diesel
engines, gas turbine engines, engine size, etc.
Figure 19.4 represents such variations. All these
engines, for purposes of dramatizing the compar-
ison, have the same full load fuel consumption.

Figure 19.5

Calculating or estimating fuel consumption requires

the following:
1. Engine fuel curves — tabulated in the same
format (and down to no load operation).
2. An actual or typical well profile that plots
power required versus days of operation.
Figure 19.4 3. A format to calculate and display the required
information.
An additional point is illustrated in Figure 19.5.
The left side shows that two engines have the Fuel curves for Caterpillar Petroleum Engines are
same fuel curve — expressed as % load. The right in the TMI or Engine Performance Book.
side illustrates that these same two engines are

195 LEBW1414-00
Well profile data is required to establish the basis As a general rule, tripping hp (tripping out, trip-
for estimating engine fuel consumption. Well ping in, and running casing) for the entire well
depth and fuel cost are values you provide. averages 10–20% of the drawworks rated hp. Any
The well profile itself can be based on your expe- operating auxiliary load has to be added.
rience, on-site evaluation, documented by data Wait, Misc., is time spent, throughout the entire
recording systems, or a combination of all of these. well, waiting on cement, logging, etc.
It is suggested that separate drilling activities The profile also assumes no generator limitations
should be tabulated for each diameter hole being were encountered which would have required
drilled, hoisting time, and a grouping for nondrilling more engines running than indicated.
times such as logging, waiting on cement, etc. Finally, it is a known fact well profiles vary widely.
Engine operating techniques reflect the fuel con- Specific well profiles should be utilized if more
sumption consequences of the number of engines accurate results are required. It may be neces-
you operate. Granted that we recommend (and sary to record kW and kVA values on some drill
hopefully the industry concurs with) operating rigs to gain reliable representative data.
engines efficiently — but what are the conse-
quences of operating more engines than required? Engine Sizing Versus Generator Sizing
Engine operating techniques are tabulated under As you reflect on what has been just presented,
three headings: two objections, or qualifications, may come to
mind. They will be discussed separately. The first
A. Run all engines — regardless of need. one is expressed in the following statement:
B. Run one engine more than required — this “But my SCR rig already operates efficiently
prevents a power interruption or reduction if because it operates in power limit.”
a generating unit should go off the line.
This statement requires a word of caution — the
C. Run minimum number of engines — realiz- SCR system’s power limiter or overload control
ing that a temporary power reduction or out- activates for either kW or kVA overloads. A rig
age will occur if a generating unit should go operating with the power limiter light on does not
off the line. mean the engines are being efficiently operated.
DRILL RIG LOAD PROFILES Larger kVA generators (or other remedial action)
may be needed because generators may be at
kVA limit and engines at only 30–50% load!
A difficulty in efficiently sizing and operating an
SCR (or DC) rig is the assumption made by most
people that “x” amperes represent “y” power.
This is not true.
This fact is represented by system power factor.
If power factor is 1.0, then “x” amperes represent
“y” power. At power factors below 1.0, power is
less than the amperes indicate.
Considering that power factor on a SCR rig can,
under steady-state conditions, be from 0.3 to 0.9,
generator sizing is important. During hoisting,
Top Hole days hp power factor varies from 0.0 to 0.95.
Nontechnically, the engine supplier’s concern
Drilling days hp
regarding power factor is that engine power capa-
Drilling days hp bility cannot be utilized due to generator limita-
tions during low power factor operation. This
Tripping days hp
necessitates running additional engines. Running
Wait, Misc. days hp of additional engines increases rig fuel consump-
Figure 19.6
tion and unnecessarily increases annual hourly
usage of engines and total operating costs.
LEBW1414-00 196
There may be cases where the minimum num- This leads to the realization that a DC motor can
ber of engines cannot be operated because of a work hard at low rpm (draw high amperage and
high generator kVA requirement. produce high torque) and not load the engine
(but load the generator) when operating at low
Before examining these variables, it is first neces-
DC voltage/low rpm.
sary to review some characteristics of DC motors.
DC Motor Effects Upon Generator Selection
DC Motor Characteristics
DC motors do not have power factor identified
The rpm of DC motors is primarily controlled by
with them. However, their DC amperes come
the voltage to the motor (recognizing that motor
from an AC generator — with an SCR system
type — series, shunt — and control system —
providing rectification. This AC current does have
field weakening, etc. — are related factors).
power factor (pf) associated with it.
Ampere draw of the motor controls torque out-
The speed/voltage characteristic of the DC motor
put of the motor. In other words, torque comes
is thus the major determinant of the system’s
from the interaction of magnetic fields, and the
power factor. (System power factor is a weighted
strength of these fields is proportional to amperes,
average of the DC motor system’s effect on the
not to DC voltage.
generator’s power factor and that of the AC aux-
Thus, kilowatt (horsepower) load on a DC motor iliary load. The AC auxiliary load generally is only
is the product of volts and amperes: about 20% of the DC load, so its effect on power
kW V2A factor is minimal).
= ______
(DC Output) 1000 Figure 19.7 shows a method to calculate AC gen-
erator power factor due to current draw of a DC
V2A
[ hp
= ]
______________
(DC Output) 0.746 2 1000
motor powered through an SCR system.

Input power would be higher in inverse proportion

to motor efficiency.

METHOD TO CALCULATE AC GENERATOR pf DUE TO DC MOTORS

1. Determine DC kW
• from meter V2A
• or formula kW = ______
DC 1000
2. Determine AC Amp of DC motor
• use formula AC
amp
= DC
amp
2 0.816
3. Determine kVA AC Volts 2 AC amp 2 1.73
• use formula kVA = ________________________
1000
4. Determine pf kW (from Step 1)
• use formula pf = _______________
kVA (from Step 3)
Figure 19.7

197 LEBW1414-00
 DC MOTOR SPEED Figure 19.8 graphs the effect of motor rpm (or
VERSUS AC GENERATOR POWER FACTOR DC voltage) on the power factor of the driving
1.0 AC generators. For a constant rpm (DC voltage),
power factor is the same from no load to full load.
.8 Methods to Improve System Power Factor
The best way to improve system power factor is
.6
to ensure that DC motors are run at as high an
Power
rpm as possible.
Factor
Every DC ampere presents a 0.85 kVA load on
.4 the generator, regardless of DC power. Operating
a DC motor at high rpm reduces ampere load,
hence kVA.
.2
On the rotary table, this means keeping the draw-
works transmission in as low a gear as possible.
0
180 (200) 450 (600) 750 (1000)
DC Voltage (= Loaded rpm)
Figure 19.8

ROTARY TABLE OPERATION

114 hp (85 kW) at DC Motor _______ rpm at _______ DC Amp = _______ pf at _______ kVA
960 118 .9 92
860 131 .8 104
750 151 .7 120
640 177 .6 140
530 214 .5 168
425 267 .4 208
325 349 .3 300
210 540 .2 420
150 756 .14 640

Figure 19.9

1600 hp (1194 kW) TRIPLEX MUD PUMP

140 Strokes Maximum
120 Strokes Rated
Customer Needs 300 gpm @ 2500 PSI = 515 hhp
(18.9 L/s @ 17237 kPa = 384 HkW)

DC Motors Geared DC Motors Geared

for 140 spm for 100 spm
Liner Required Motor AC AC Motor AC AC
Size Pump Strokes rpm pf kVA rpm pf kVA
5 (127) 97 690 .66 577 970 .92 419
5 1/2 (140) 81 579 .56 690 810 .76 502
6 (152) 68 486 .45 822 680 .64 598
6 1/2 (165) 58 414 .4 966 580 .55 701
6 3/4 (171) 54 385 .37 1035 540 .51 753
7 (178) 50 357 .34 1118 500 .47 813
7 1/4 (184) 47 336 .32 1189 470 .44 864
7 1/2 (191) 44 314 .30 1274 440 .35 1079

Figure 19.10

LEBW1414-00 198
To illustrate the effect of rpm, let us assume Load While Drilling
a rotary table operating under the following kVA
conditions: hp/kW Minimum Average Maximum
rpm = 30 Rt 114/85 92 209 640
Torque = 20,000 lb-ft (27 138 N•m) MP1 515/384 577 966 1274
Power = 114 hp (85 kW) 629 hp 669 1174 1914
(469 kW)
Regardless of the rpm of the driving DC motor, + Aux. load
engine load will stay at 114 hp (neglecting losses). Rt = Rotary Table
But, motor rpm will change the kVA (pf) and, MP1 = #1 Mud Pumps
hence, the size of generator required. This is illus- Figure 19.11
trated in Figure 19.9.
In the extreme case of 150 rpm, it does not take Accordingly, ironclad rules for sizing generators
a large engine to produce 114 hp (85 kW), but it cannot be given. Estimates of generator sizing
does take a large generator to produce 640 kVA. are shown, Figure 19.16.
This phenomena of increasing AC generator kVA Generator Sizing
as the DC motor slows down may seem to reek Engine Size Generator Size
of magic, but it is just another way of saying that 600 hp (450 bkW) 750 –1000 kVA
DC motor amperes are increasing as the DC 900 hp (670 bkW) 1100–1300 kVA
motor is required to provide the same power at 1200 hp (900 bkW) 1500–1800 kVA
lower rpms (lower DC voltage). 1500 hp (1120 bkW) 1600–2000 kVA
2000 hp (1490 bkW) 2000–2500 kVA
If DC motors are operated at half DC voltage or
Figure 19.12
less, an alternative method of raising AC gener-
ator power factor is to operate both drawworks This discussion illustrates that operating a rig in
motors in series (assuming this option is avail- power limit does not ensure efficient engine uti-
able from the SCR system supplier). This dou- lization. The goal is to operate the minimum num-
bles the voltage out of the SCR system and ber of engines without encountering generator
proportionally raises the power factor. System limitations.
speed, however, is limited to half motor speed.
The same considerations apply to mud pumps. Drawworks Capability
Operating speed should be as high as possible. Let us now turn to the second objection or qualifi-
If pumps must be operated at less than half speed cation. It is expressed by the following statement:
(rather than putting in smaller liners) the SCR
system supplier may be able to supply equip- “My rig cannot operate on one engine dur-
ment to allow the motors to operate in series. ing deep drilling as one engine underpowers
the drawworks.”
When mud pumps are purposely oversized to
reduce cost of fluid end maintenance, the mud Many times rig operating personnel are reluctant
pump will run much lower than rated strokes. In to operate a minimum number of engines under
that case specify a motor drive system ratio such deep hole conditions. They express the concern
that motors run at or near their rated rpm. Both that, should they need to operate the drawworks
mud pump drive types are shown in Figure 19.10. in a hurry, one engine would not be able to “come
off bottom,” and time would be lost while start-
In summary, Figure 19.11 shows that required ing additional engines.
engine power can be determined by knowing only
load demand (based on Figures 19.9 and 19.10). With proper equipment selection, this objection
However, generator sizing also requires knowing can be, at least partially, overcome. The key to
equipment speed. The kVA values in Figure 19.12 understanding this possibility is to draw a dis-
are for constant power levels but with various tinction between drawworks power and draw-
equipment rpms. works torque. Static hook load capacity is
determined by generator kVA, not engine power.

199 LEBW1414-00
 STARTING TORQUE COMPARISON
Torque When Engine Load
Drive Type Coming Off Slips When Coming Off Slips

Low High*

Direct Drive

Rated Rated

Torque Converter

Rated NIL**

Steam

Rated NIL**

DC/SCR

**Engine load is at the rated value for the engine at low idle — but the load value is low compared to rated rpm.
**Engine load would be zero except for line losses, etc.

Figure 19.13

LEBW1414-00 200
This was discussed earlier under DC motor char- These factors are illustrated by using a hypo-
acteristics where it was pointed out that motor thetical hoisting scheme. This drawworks has the
torque comes from the strength of motor mag- following characteristics:
netic fields. 1492 kW (2000 hp) Capacity
To dramatize the stall torque characteristics, it is Two 746 kW (1000 hp) Motors
useful to compare torque characteristics of sev- Each Motor
eral drives when coming off the slips — mechan- At Rated At Stall
ical, torque converter, steam, and DC (SCR). See rpm Conditions
Figure 19.13.
DC amp 995 1200
The startling thing shown in Figure 19.13 is that AC amp 812 979
developing rated torque on a DC motor at the kVA 845 1020
moment when coming off the slips does not load kW (hp) 746 (1000) 0
the engine. The engine is loaded in proportion to
the speed to which the motor is accelerating. Thus, Figure 19.14 plots drawworks current, power,
the electric drive is comparable to a steam rig. and hoisting time for a heavy load. Total time to
pull a stand of pipe is 45 seconds. (This is not
Ideally an electric rig will initially accelerate the based on calculation but is sufficient to illustrate
traveling block, when coming off the slips, at a the desired phenomena.)
constant rate regardless of power capability of the
engine. This constant rate is determined by gen- In Part A of Figure 19.14, note that drawworks
erator kVA capacity. Motors will accelerate at this DC amperes are indicated as doing three things:
constant rate to the rpm at which developed power 1. Hold weight of pipe against gravity under
equals engine capability. The SCR system kW limit static or constant rpm conditions.
will then begin to reduce motor ampere draw.
2. Overcome hole friction.
The motor will now accelerate at a slower rate or
maintain a constant rpm, depending on load. 3. Accelerate pipe.
(Note that on a direct drive or torque converter
rig, it would also be necessary to accelerate the
engines.)
Drawworks
Amperes

2000
3 1400 2 A
1000
1000 1
0
Drawworks

1492 kW
(2000 hp)
Power

3 2 B

1
0

800
DC Motor Total

Motor Constant Motor rpm

Revolutions

Acceleration

C
400

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Figure 19.14 Time

201 LEBW1414-00
 Drawworks
Amperes
2000 3
1800 A
2
1000
600 1
0
Drawworks

1492 kW
(2000 hp)
Power

B
3 2

0 1

800
DC Motor Total
Revolutions

C
400

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Time
Figure 19.15

In this example 1000 amps are required to hold
the weight of the pipe. The remaining 1400 amps
are initially available to accelerate pipe.
In Part B, drawworks power is indicated as being
proportioned among the same three functions.
Note that drawworks power starts at zero and
reaches rated power after 15 seconds. Once the
drawworks motor reaches rated rpm, the kilo-
watts (horsepower) drop (and motor amps) to
that required for a constant speed condition.
If we accept 45 seconds as a reasonable estimate
of heavy load hoisting time, we can count the DC
motor revolutions as shown in Part C. For this
transmission gear and lines strung, it takes 632
turns of the motor to pull pipe the required 90 ft.
(27.4 m). Note that during acceleration, pipe is
being lifted, although at a slower rate.
To perform according to Figure 19.14, the draw- will build to the rating of the engine. Acceleration
works has to be fully powered both with horse- will now continue at a slower rate as the SCR sys-
power (kilowatts) and kVA (amps), which would tem power limiter or overload control phases
be two 3512s with 1250 kVA generators.
Figure 19.15 shows the drawworks under a lighter
load condition but in the same drawworks gear.
Note that acceleration time has been reduced
from 15 seconds to 7 seconds due to the combi-
nation of having 1800 amps available for accel-
eration as compared to the 1400 amps in the
LEBW1414-00
previous example, and due to the lighter load to
accelerate. Hoisting time has been reduced only
3 seconds, from 45 seconds to 42 seconds. Part C
indicates this by counting motor revolutions.
Figure 19.16 shows an underpowered drawworks
with the same heavy load as in Figure 19.14. The
drawworks is now powered by one 3512 and a
1250 kVA generator.
1250 kVA translates into 1470 DC amps. Com-
paring Figure 19.14, Part A, to Figure 19.16,
Part A, we see that this undertorqued drawworks
has only 470 amps available for acceleration while
the fully powered drawworks has 1400 amps
available for acceleration. Hence, this under-
torqued drawworks will accelerate much slower
than before.
After an estimated 25 seconds, the horsepower
back the SCR system. This reduces generator
amps sufficiently to hold generator and engine
at full load. Note the engine is not loaded for
approximately 25 seconds.
202
 Drawworks
Amperes
2000
3
2 A
1000
1
0
Drawworks

1492 kW
(2000 hp)
Power

3 2 B

1
0

800 Constant
DC Motor Total

Motor Accel. Slower Accel. Motor

Revolutions

to Power Limit rpm

C
400

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Figure 19.16 Time

Thus, total trip time could be about 60 seconds. is equal to one and one-half engines, they prefer
This time is broken down as follows: to run three engines. It is felt that if only two
engines were operated, loss of either of two gen-
O – X seconds Acceleration to engine
erator sets would overload and stall out the
power limit
remaining generator set.
X–Y Acceleration at slower rate
Y–Z Constant rpm This does not happen with modern SCR systems
due to the power limiter or overload control built
Figure 19.17 overlays Figures 19.14, 19.15 and
into the SCR system. This controller will phase-
18.16. Part A shows the important variable is the
back one or more of the SCR-controlled loads suf-
percentage of available DC amperes available
ficiently to prevent engine (or generator) overload.
for acceleration. Oversize generators provide
increased acceleration torque. Thus, the faster Miscellaneous Considerations
the drawworks accelerates, the sooner the engine
can be loaded. Oversize generators come close With optimum usage, engines accumulate fewer
to providing identical drawworks performance as hours per year but at a somewhat heavier load.
that obtained with additional engines operating. This heavier load may result in a somewhat lower
For these figures to be totally representative, avail- time between overhauls as expressed in engine
able engine power and generator kVA should be service meter hours. However, time between
reduced by the on-line auxiliary loads left running. overhauls as expressed in calendar years will be
greater.
In summary, oversized generators not only pro-
vided for operation of mud pumps at reduced Additionally, there will be conditions where engines
power factors, but they also reduce the need to are presently so lightly loaded that the increase in
fully horsepower the drawworks, as long as the load may still leave the engine moderately loaded
drawworks is close to being fully torqued. and service life will be only slightly affected.
A final benefit of increasing engine load is that
Concern Over Power Outages the resulting warmer jacket water temperatures
An additional concern expressed by some drilling greatly aid in combating harmful effects of some
personnel is the domino effect. That is, if the load fuel contaminants.
203 LEBW1414-00
 2 3512 w/1250 kVA
1 3512 w/1250 kVA
Drawworks 1 3512 w/1500 kVA
Amperes 2000 1 3512 w/1800 kVA
A
1000
1000
0
Drawworks

1492 kW
(2000 hp)
Power

800
DC Motor Total
Revolutions

Z Z Z Z

C
400
Y Y O-X Max. Motor Accel.
Y Y X-Z Accel. Power Limited
X X Y-Z Constant Motor rpm
X
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Figure 19.17 Time

During deep drilling, where the investment in the • Turn off unneeded auxiliaries.
well is accumulating to a considerable amount • Keep engines properly maintained.
and uncertainty regarding the exact nature of
down hole conditions is also increasing, it is a • Use proper turbocharger matches.
general practice to operate with 80% or less • Reduce radiator fan power requirements.
engine load.
• Operate the minimum number of engines.
Summary • Size system for operating kVA.
The main means available to improve fuel con- • Operate DC motors in series.
servation are:
• Increase motor rpm.
• Use electric motor-driven auxiliaries.
• Utilize oversize generators for improved hoist-
• Use engine heat on winterized rigs. ing and mud pump performance.
• Prevent theft of fuel.
• Eliminate spillage and leakage losses.

LEBW1414-00 204
 DAILY ENGINE REPORT

RIG NO. LOCATION DATE

ENGINE NO. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
ENGINE IDENTIFICATION
Hours Run
Oil Added — gal
Fuel Used — gal
rpm
Air Temperature — left
Air Temperature — right
Exhaust Temperature — left
Exhaust Temperature — right
Oil Temperature
Jacket Water Temperature
Aftercooler Water Temperature
Oil Pressure
Fuel Pressure
Engineman Signature:
Hours Run
Oil Added — gal
Fuel Used — gal
rpm
Air Temperature — left
Air Temperature — right
Exhaust Temperature — left
Exhaust Temperature — right
Oil Temperature
Jacket Water Temperature
Aftercooler Water Temperature
Oil Pressure
Fuel Pressure
Engineman Signature:
Hours Run
Oil Added — gal
Fuel Used — gal
rpm
Air Temperature — left
Air Temperature — right
Exhaust Temperature — left
Exhaust Temperature — right
Oil Temperature
Jacket Water Temperature
Aftercooler Water Temperature
Oil Pressure
Fuel Pressure
Engineman Signature:
Remarks: Work done, parts used, cause of failure, periodic inspection, etc., identify each engine worked on.

Figure 20.1
205 LEBW1414-00
 ENGINE SUPPORT SYSTEMS LAYOUTS

Figure 21.1

LEBW1414-00 206
A. Ducting widens as it descends to engine serv- — Diesel Fuel Day Tank mounted on outside
ice walkway. wall of module.
B. Exhaust is only overhead engine connection — Engine bases supported at 3 point mount
— all others under engine. location.
C. Raised platform completely around engines.
Solid plate, with > 1 in. (25 mm) clearance
around base.
D. Engines raised 1 ft. (0.3 m) to allow passage
underneath to be used for routing piping —
fuel, air, water.
1. Pedestals and spring isolators at 3 point
locations.
2. Walkway
Figure 21.2

207 LEBW1414-00
 CATERPILLAR PETROLEUM ENGINE SYSTEM ANALYSIS — DESIGN REVIEW
Reference: Cat Petroleum Engine Application and Installation Guide
LAND MECHANICAL RIG
GENERAL INFORMATION
A. Rig number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Owner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Rig-up performed by . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Rig-up location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F. First location at . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
G. Special conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
..................................................
H. Selling dealer or OEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I. Engine model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . rpm
S/N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
DRIVE SYSTEM DATA
201. Torque converter model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
202. Fluid coupling model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
203. Air clutch model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
204. Transmission model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
MOUNTING
208. Are substructure pin joints tight? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
209. Can engine twist or bend? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
GOVERNOR
301. Hydra-mechanical with air throttle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
302. UG8L with air throttle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
MAIN ENGINE AUXILIARY DRIVES
401. Auxiliary equip driven . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
COOLING
501. Radiator manufacturer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
502. Type: Blower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Suction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vertical discharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
503. Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
504. Additional heat load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
505. Antifreeze required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
506. Expansion tank supplied . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
LUBRICATION
601. Drain plug accessible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
602. Type oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FUEL
701. Type of fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
702. Fuel line size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
703. Fuel centrifuge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
704. Shutoff/check valves used each engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
EXHAUST
801. Expansion joint used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
802. Muffler used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
803. No exhaust recirculation to radiator/air cleaner . . . . . . . . . . .
VENTILATION
901. Radiator air ducted for space heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
AIR INTAKE SYSTEM
902. Can mud enter air cleaner? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
903. Are remote mounted air cleaners used? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
904. Are elbows proper size, Figure 11.13? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CRANKCASE BREATHER
1001. Required with blower fan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1002. Diameter of pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
OILFIELD INSTRUMENTS
1301. Are premium panels used? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SHUTOFF AND ALARM SYSTEMS
1401. Is air inlet shutoff used? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1402. Is alarm panel used? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1403. Are alarms used? LOP . . . . HWT . . . . OSS . . . .
LEBW1414-00
J. Drive Type.
All engines in one compound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Independent mud pump drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Independent rotary drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chassis mounted drawworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Make . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
K. Reviewed by . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
At . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
L. Reviewed with . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
M. Auxiliary power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
..................................................
205. Engine rpm on mud pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
206. Engine rpm on drawworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
207. Clutch air pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
210. Does engine overhang substructure? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
211. Is substructure laterally braced? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
303. 3161 with air throttle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
304. Cat electronic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
402. PTO location on engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
507. Rad. fan hp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . net engine hp . . . . . . . . . . . .
508. Water lines slope up to radiator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
509. Piping as large as engine connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
510. No air recirculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
511. Shutterstats used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
512. Radiators offset from engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
513. Rad. adequately supported by engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
514. Dual core radiator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
603. S•O•S to be used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
705. Return line goes back to fuel tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
706. Water trap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
707. Fuel cooler required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
804. Exhaust system supported separate from engine . . . . . . . . .
805. Outlet protected from rain entry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
905. Is ducting to air cleaner airtight? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
906. Are durable flexible connections used? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1003. No low spot in line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1004. Powered disposal system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1302. How is engine load monitored? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1404. Can engine disengage from compound when failure occurs,
Figure 16.2? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
208
 CATERPILLAR PETROLEUM ENGINE SYSTEM ANALYSIS — DESIGN REVIEW
Reference: Cat Petroleum Engine Application and Installation Guide
OFFSHORE ELECTRIC RIG
GENERAL INFORMATION
A. Rig name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . rpm
B. Type rig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S/N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Owner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . L. DC or SCR system manufacturer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M. Generator manufacturer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Shipyard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Type . . . . . . . . . .AC . . . . . . . . . . . . .DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F. Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Quantity . . . . . . .AC . . . . . . . . . . . . .DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
G. Selling dealer or OEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rating . . . . . . . . .kW . . . . . . . . . . . . .Hz . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
H. First location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . N. Installation drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
J. Special conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . O. Connection drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.................................................. P. Reviewed by . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
K. Engine model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . At . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
BASE AND SUPPORT
101. Base manufacturer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104. Adequate substructure beams
102. 3-point mounting used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . under all 3 points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
103. Spring isolators used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
GOVERNORS Check type of governor and answer appropriate questions.
301. Cat electronic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0–200 Ma control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Are units paralleled for AC? . . . . . . . . . . . . .
302. Ross Hill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Powered by control battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . HOC control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
303. 2301A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Low DC voltage alarm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Two battery chargers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
304. Low idle speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . .rpm Wiring per Figure 6.10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Minimum 16 gauge stranded wire . . . . . . . .
Installation in switchgear per
Cat recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
COOLING HEAT EXCHANGER COOLING
501. Cooling Circuit Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519. Auxiliary JW pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
JWAC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520. Auxiliary expansion tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
502. Full-load heat rejection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521. Used per Figure 7.25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
503. Sea water temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522. Piping free of air traps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
504. Sea water flow per engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523. Piping below expansion tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
505. Sea water pump capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524. Who is modifying engine water lines? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
506. Cat heat exchanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Remote Radiator or Keel Cooler
507. Cat H.E. piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525. Cooing circuit type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
508. Pressure at engine inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Remote radiator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
509. Pressure at engine outlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Keel cooler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
510. Pipe size to engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526. Ambient temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
511. Sea water strainers used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527. System external resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
512. Pressure regulating valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528. Allowable external resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
513. Pressure gauges at engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529. Pressure at JW pump inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
514. Watermaker used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(answer 515-524) 530. Are engines interconnected? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
515. Manufacturer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531. Is piping free of air traps? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
516. Number of circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532. Expansion provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
517. Are engines interconnected? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533. De-aeration provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
518. Circuit type: Figure 7.15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534. Dual core radiator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 7.16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 7.17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
LUBRICATION
601. Drain manifold used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604. S•O•S to be used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
602. Fill manifold used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605. Duplex filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
603. Type of oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FUEL
701. Type of fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 706. Water trap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
702. Fuel tank’s elevation above engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707. Return line goes back to tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
703. Day tank used to relieve 708. Shutoff/check valves used on
pressure head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . each engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
704. Fuel line size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709. Crankcase oil mixed with fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
705. Fuel centrifuge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710. Fuel cooler required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

209 LEBW1414-00
EXHAUST
801. Individual exhaust runs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
802. Backpressure (Figure 10.10) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
803. Insulated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
804. Thermal exp. allowed:
Vertical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Horizontal . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
VENTILATION
901. Type ventilation Figure 10.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 10.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 10.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
902. Ambient temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CRANKCASE BREATHER
1001. Separate line/engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1002. Line size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
DC POWER SYSTEMS
1101. Engine alarm switches connected to DC panel . . . . . . . . . . .
AC POWER SYSTEMS
1201. RPR Trip in 2 sec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1202. Overload protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1203. Generators oversized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SHUTOFF AND ALARM SYSTEMS
1401. Air inlet shutoff used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1402. Alarm panel used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1403. Alarms used: HWT . . . . . . . . , LOP . . . . . . . . , LWL . . . . . . ,
OSS . . . . . . . . . . . . , HOT . . . . . . . . . . . . , HIAT . . . . . . . . . . . .
ELECTROLYTIC AND GALVANIC ACTIVITY PROTECTION
1601. Batteries grounded per Fig. 17.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
EMERGENCY GENERATOR CONSIDERATIONS
2001. Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2002. Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2003. Governor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2004. Cooling: Radiator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Heat exchanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2005. Jacket water heater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2006. Fuel day tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2007. Radiator ducts oversized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(in and out) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2008. External obstructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2009. Will exhaust gas recirculate? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
LEBW1414-00
805. Rain-spray protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
806. No exhaust recirculation to air inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
807. Will muffler water spray
enter engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
903. Temperature rise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
904. Air required/engine (formula) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
905. Air supplied . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1003. Line sloped . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1004. Drip collector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1102. Does driller’s console idle
engine when unloaded? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1204. Generator controls set for engine
capacity or generator capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1404. Additional alarms:
Low battery . . . . . . . . . . . , Low air pressure . . . . . . . . . . . ,
Low S.W. pressure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . , RPR. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2010. Air inlet extension used if
engine can be started with
watertight doors closed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2011. Spring isolators used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2012. Emergency generator support equipment on
emergency circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2013. Starting: Electric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2014. Cranking panel used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2015. Auto transfer switch used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
210
 CATERPILLAR PETROLEUM ENGINE SYSTEM ANALYSIS — DESIGN REVIEW
Reference: Cat Petroleum Engine Application and Installation Guide
LAND ELECTRIC RIG
GENERAL INFORMATION
A. Rig number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I. DC or SCR system mfr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Owner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J. Generator mfr . . . . . . . . .DC . . . . . . . . . . . . .AC . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Type . . . . . . . . . . . . .AC . . . . . . . . . . . . .DC . . . . . . . . . .
D. Rig-up performed by . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Quantity . . . . . . . . . . .AC . . . . . . . . . . . . .DC . . . . . . . . . .
E. Rig-up location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rating . . . . . . . kW . . . . . . , Hz . . . . . . . , pf . . . . . . . . . .
F. First location at . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . K. Installation Drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
G. Special conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . L. Connection Drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.................................................. M. Reviewed by . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
H. Engine model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . At . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . rpm N. Reviewed with . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
S/N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . O. Selling dealer or OEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
BASE AND SUPPORT
101. Base manufacturer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106. Base will be supported on: Planks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
102. Coupling manufacturer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
103. Roof over engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hard pan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
104. Service platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107. Subbase used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
105. 3-point mounting used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108. Substructure used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
GOVERNORS Check type of governor and answer appropriate questions.
301. Cat electronic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0–200 Ma control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Are units paralleled for AC power? . . . . . . .
302. 3161 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Air supply pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HOC control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
303. Ross Hill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Powered by control battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . Two battery chargers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
304. 2301A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Powered by control battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . Minimum 16 gauge stranded wire . . . . . . . .
305. Low idle speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . .rpm Low DC voltage alarm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wiring per Figure 6.10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Installation in switchgear per
Cat recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
COOLING
501. Radiator Manufacturer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505. Antifreeze required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
502. Types: Blower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506. Radiator fan hp . . . . . . . . . . . NET engine hp . . . . . . . . . . .
Suction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507. Water lines slope up to radiator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vertical discharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508. Piping as large as engine connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
503. Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Altitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509. No air recirculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
504. Expansion tank supplied . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510. Dual core radiator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
LUBRICATION
601. Drain plug accessible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603. S•O•S to be used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
602. Type oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FUEL
701. Type of fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705. Return line goes back to fuel tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
702. Fuel line size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 706. Water trap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
703. Fuel centrifuge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707. Fuel cooler required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
704. Shutoff/check valves used each engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
EXHAUST
801. Expansion joint used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803. Is exhaust system supported separate from engine? . . . . . .
802. No exhaust recirculation to radiator/air cleaner . . . . . . . . . . . 804. Outlet protected from rain entry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
VENTILATION
901. Radiator air ducted for space heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
AIR INTAKE SYSTEM
902. Remote-mounted air cleaners used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904. Is ducting to air cleaner airtight? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
903. Are elbows proper size, Figure 11.13? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 905. Are durable flexible connections used? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CRANKCASE BREATHER
1001. Required with blower fan or 1002. No low spot in line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
front-mounted generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1003. Diameter of pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
DC POWER SYSTEM
1101. Engine alarm switches connected to DC Panel . . . . . . . . . . . 1102. Does driller’s console idle when unloaded? . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
AC POWER SYSTEM
1201. RPR trip in two seconds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1204. Generator controls set for NET engine hp or
1202. Overload protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . generator capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1203. Generators oversized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SHUTOFF AND ALARM SYSTEMS
1401. Air inlet shutoff used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1404. Additional alarms:
1402. Alarm panel used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Low battery . . . . . . . . . . . . , Low air pressure . . . . . . . . . . ,
1403. Alarms used: LOP . . . . , HWT . . . . , OSS . . . . RPR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

211 LEBW1414-00
 Available electronically in the Technical Information section of
https://oilandgas.cat.com

Materials and specifications are

subject to change without notice.

LEBW1414-00
Supersedes LEBW5119 CATERPILLAR and CAT are trademarks of Caterpillar Inc. PRINTED IN U.S.A.