MECHANICS OF MACHINERY

Subject Code: ME 3 01

Module 1 contd…
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Topics to be discussed
1. Straight Line Mechanisms
[a] Exact Straight Line Mechanisms
[b] Approximate Straight Line Mechanisms
2. Steering Mechanism
[a] Condition for correct steering
[b] Ackermann Steering Mechanism
3. Hooke’s Joint
4. Geneva Mechanism
5. Mechanical Advantage
6. Transmission angle
7. Coupler Curves
Straight Line Mechanisms AB=BP=PD=DA ;
𝑂4 𝐷 = 𝑂4 𝐵;
Exact Straight line mechanisms 𝑂4 𝑂2 = 𝑂2 A
1. Peaucellier Mechanism : This linkage can
convert an input circular motion to the exact
straight line motion. The construction of this
mechanism is such that the point which is
connected to the crank moves in a circular path
and the point traversing the straight line is
selected as the output point. The linkage has a
rhombic loop formed of the equal length
members, 5, 6, 7 and 8. Two equal length length
links are connected to the opposite corners of
the rhombus at one end and to a common fixed
point at the other ends. The point A of the
rhombus is connect to fixed point 𝑂2 through
the link 2. The length of the link 2 is equal to the
distance between points 𝑂2 and 𝑂4 . By the
constraints of the geometry point A moves in a
circular path and as the point A moves in a circle
point P traverses an exact straight line path
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normal to the line joining 𝑂2 and 𝑂4 .
Exact Straight line mechanisms

𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝐶 = 𝑂2 A
2. Scott-Rusell Mechanism: The complexity
of the mechanisms to generate exact straight
lines can be reduced by introduction of one
or more slider crank linkages. It is possible
to generate an exact straight line using the
slider crank mechanism but the range of
motion is limited. One such example is Scott-
Russell Mechanism as shown in the figure.
Based on the geometry of the linkage the
output motion is a simple sine function of
the drive link or a simple harmonic motion.
It is evident from the figure that this
mechanism is made up of isosceles triangles,
AB, AC and A𝑂2 are of equal lengths.

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Exact Straight line mechanisms

Hart's straight line mechanism is one of

the mechanisms that provides exact straight
line motion without sliding guides. This was
invented by Harry Hart in 1874.
It can be used to convert rotary motion to a
perfect straight line by fixing a point on one
short link and driving a point on another link in
a circular arc. This mechanism consists of six
links which are having only revolute pairs, such
that 𝐶𝐹 = 𝐸𝐷; 𝐶𝐷 = 𝐸𝐹; 𝑂𝑂1 = 𝑂1 𝐴.
It can be found that point B, traces a straight
line perpendicular the line joining 𝑂 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑂1 .
The condition for straight line motion is
𝐶𝑂 𝐶𝐴 𝐸𝐵
= =
𝐶𝐹 𝐶𝐷 𝐸𝐹

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Approximate Straight line mechanisms

Watt's linkage (also known as the parallel

linkage) is a type of mechanical linkage P
𝐿2
invented by James Watt in which the central 𝐿1
moving point of the linkage is constrained to
travel on an approximation to a straight line.
This was first used in Watt’s steam engine. It is 𝐿3
a simple four bar mechanism of double-rocker
type with the two rockers connected through a
coupler. When the two rockers move the mid- Link ratios are: L1 = L3.
Point P is in the middle of L2
point of the coupler moves in an almost
straight line path for the motion close to
coupler's mean position. If something is hinged
to the middle point of the coupler of Watt's
linkage it will be constrained to move in
straight line path close to the coupler's mean
position. It is also used in automobile
suspensions, allowing the axle of a vehicle to
travel vertically while preventingCollege ofsideways
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motion.
Watt's linkage contd…
Watt’s linkage can also be used to prevent axle movement in the
longitudinal direction of train. This involves two watt’s linkages on each
side of the axle, mounted parallel to the driving direction as shown in
figure

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Approximate Straight line mechanisms

Robert’s approximate straight line mechanism is a symmetrical four bar linkage.

The construction of the mechanism is such that, it has an extension to the
coupler at the coupler midpoint. This extension is perpendicular to the line
joining the two adjacent joints. The end point of the coupler extension generates
an approximate straight line for the motion between the fixed pivots. This
mechanism is used for linear guidance of the tracing point.

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Approximate Straight line mechanisms

Chebyshev linkage is a mechanical linkage that

converts rotational motion to approximate
straight line motion. The mechanism was
invented by a Russian mathematician Pafnuty
Chebyshev, who studied theoretical problems in
kinematic mechanisms. One such problem was
the construction of a linkage that converts a
rotary motion to an approximate straight line
motion.
The linkage confines the point P i.e. midpoint of
link 3, on a straight line at the two extremes and
at the centre of travel. The links are 𝐿1 , 𝐿2 , 𝐿3 ,
𝐿4 𝑎𝑠 𝑠𝑕𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑒.
The link ratios are 𝐿1 : 𝐿2 : 𝐿3 = 2: 2.5: 1 = 4: 5: 2

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 Steering Mechanism
The steering mechanism is used in
automobiles for changing the directions
of the wheel axles with reference to the
chassis, so as to move the automobile in
the desired path. Usually, the two back
wheels will have a common axis, which
is fixed in direction with reference to the
chassis and the steering is done by
means of front wheels.
In automobiles, the front wheels are placed over the front axles (stub axles),
which are pivoted at the points P & Q as shown in the figure When the vehicle
takes a turn, the front wheels, along with the stub axles turn about the pivoted
points. The back axle and the back wheels remain straight.
Always there should be absolute rolling contact between the wheels and the road
surface. Any sliding motion will cause wear of tyres. When a vehicle is taking turn,
absolute rolling motion of the wheels on the road surface is possible, only if all
the wheels describe concentric circles. Therefore, the two front wheels must turn
about the same instantaneous centre I, which lies on the axis of the back wheel.
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Condition for correct steering
In order to avoid skidding (i.e. slipping of the
wheels sideways), the two front wheels must
turn about the same instantaneous centre I
which lies on the axis of the back wheels as
shown. If the instantaneous centre of the two
front wheels do not coincide with the
instantaneous centre of the back wheels, the
skidding on the front or back wheels will
definitely take place, which will cause more
wear and tear of the tyres.
Thus, the condition for correct steering is that all the four wheels must turn
about the same instantaneous centre. The axis of the inner wheel makes a
larger turning angle than the angle subtended by the axis of outer wheel.
As in the given figure, a = wheel track, L = wheel base, w = distance between
𝐴𝐸 𝐴𝐸
the pivots of front axles. From ∆𝐴𝐸𝐼 cot 𝜃 = =
𝐸𝐼 𝐿
𝐵𝐸 𝐵𝐴+𝐴𝐸 𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐸 𝑤
From ∆𝐵𝐸𝐼 cot ∅ = = = + = + cot 𝜃
𝐸𝐼 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
𝒘
Thus condition for correct steering is 𝐜𝐨𝐭 ∅ − 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝜽 =
𝑳
This is the fundamental equation for correct steering. If this condition is satisfied, there
will be no skidding of the wheels when the
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Hooke’s Joint (Universal joint)
Hooke’s joins is used to connect two nonparallel but intersecting shafts. In its
basic shape, it has two U –shaped yokes ‘a’ and ‘b’ and a center block or cross-
shaped piece, C as in figure 1. The universal joint can transmit power between
two shafts intersecting at around 300 angles (α). However, the angular velocity
ratio is not uniform during the cycle of operation. The amount of fluctuation
depends on the angle (α) between the two shafts. For uniform transmission of
motion, a pair of universal joints should be used as shown in figure 2.
Intermediate shaft 3 connects input shaft 1 and output shaft 2 with two universal
joints. The angle α between 1 and 3 is equal to angle α between 2 and 3. When
shaft 1 has uniform rotation, shaft 3 varies in speed; however, this variation is
compensated by the universal joint between shafts 2 and 3. One of the important
applications of universal joint is in automobiles, where it is used to transmit
power from engine to the wheel axle.

Fig 2
Fig
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Hooke’s Joint (Universal joint)

Universal joints in a driveshaft

The universal joint can be used as a single joint or it can be used in pairs.
When used as a single joint, only angular misalignment is accommodated.
Since nearly every installation requires the coupling to also accommodate
offset misalignment, universal joints should be used in pairs. Using
universal joints in pairs also corrects for non-uniform angular velocity
caused by the rotational characteristics of a single joint.
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Geneva Wheel Mechanism
Geneva mechanism is a simple and widely used timing mechanism that
provides intermittent motion from a continuously rotating input. It consists of
a rotating drive wheel (Driver) with a pin that reaches into a slot of the driven
wheel (Geneva wheel) advancing it by one step. In the most common
arrangement, the driven wheel will have four slots and thus advances by one
step of 90 degree for each rotation of drive wheel. If the driven wheel has n
slots, it advances by 360/n degrees per rotation of drive wheel. Geneva
mechanism can be combined with other mechanisms to modify the motion
curves and dwell motion ratios obtained from Geneva mechanism alone.
Geneva mechanism find several applications in instruments, watches,
projectors, machine tools, printing and pressing machinery, packaging and
automatic machinery, transfer lines. A wide variety of applications are derived
from the Geneva mechanism such as indexing in automatic machinery,
peristaltic pump drives in integrated circuit manufacturing, intermittent
advance of films in motion-picture projectors and discrete motion drives with
high load capacity in robotic manipulators. Geneva mechanism is also used in
rotary indexing machine to provide synchronous motion and index a
worktable to present parts to workstations for processing.
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Geneva Wheel Mechanism
The main disadvantage of Geneva mechanism is the discontinuity in the acceleration
at the start and the end of the intermittent motion. At these points, the normal
acceleration of the rotating crankpin is transmitted to the wheel with an impact,
leading to large jerks and undesirable vibrations in the mechanism.

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Mechanical Advantage of Mechanisms
𝑳𝟑 coupler

𝑳𝟐 𝜸 𝑳𝟒
input output
link link

𝑳𝟏 [𝒇𝒊𝒙𝒆𝒅]
One of the major criteria of in the design of a mechanism to be considered is
the ability of the particular mechanism to transmit torque or force. Hence the
torque ratio which is a function of the speed or angular velocity ratio
between output and input links of the mechanism is the design criteria. The
torque ratio is also a function of geometric parameters, which, in the case of
a linkage, will generally change during the course of the mechanism motion.
If the mechanism is assumed to be a conservative system (i.e., energy losses
due to friction, heat, etc., are negligible compared to the total energy
transmitted by the system), and if it is assumed that there are no effects of
inertia forces, power in (𝑃𝑖𝑛 ) is equal to power out (𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 ). Thus the torque in
times the angular velocity in is equal to the torque out times the angular
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Mechanical Advantage of Mechanisms

where 𝑇𝑖𝑛 and 𝐹𝑖𝑛 are torque and force exerted on the linkage, and 𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 and
𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑡 are those exerted by the linkage; where 𝑉𝑖𝑛 and 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 are the velocities of
the points through which 𝐹𝑖𝑛 and 𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑡 , respectively, act.

The representation shows Power and energy are conserved through the mechanism
whereas , Force, velocity and torque are not conserved.
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Mechanical Advantage of Mechanisms
By definition Mechanical advantage is the ratio of the magnitude of 𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑡 to 𝐹𝑖𝑛
𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑀. 𝐴. =
𝐹𝑖𝑛
In terms of input and output torque
𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑟𝑖𝑛 𝑇
𝑀. 𝐴. = × , 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐹=
𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑇𝑖𝑛 𝑟

Also 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛; 𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 × 𝜔𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑇𝑖𝑛 × 𝜔𝑖𝑛
𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝜔
i.e. = 𝑖𝑛
𝑇𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑜𝑢𝑡
Hence Mechanical advantage of a linkage can be expressed as
𝝎𝒊𝒏 𝒓𝒊𝒏
𝑴. 𝑨. = ×
𝝎𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒕

In case of the 4-bar mechanism, at the extreme positions of the output link
𝝎𝒐𝒖𝒕 becomes zero. i.e. mechanical advantage at those positions are infinity
which indicates that only very small input torque is required to provide a
large output torque. These positions are also known as toggle positions,
where 𝜸 will be either 0 or 180 degree.
Transmission angle
The transmission angle is an important criterion in the design of mechanisms
by means of which the quality of motion transmission in a mechanism can be
judged. It helps to decide the best mechanism among a family of possible
mechanisms for most effective force transmission. It is the angle formed
between the output link and coupler link which is 𝝁 as shown in figure below.
𝑽𝑩𝑨

𝑽𝑩

Definition: Transmission angle is a smaller angle between the direction of

velocity difference vector 𝑉𝐵𝐴 of the driving link and the direction of absolute
velocity vector 𝑉𝐵 of output link both taken at the point of connection. In the
case of 4-bar linkage it is the angle between
College of the follower link and the coupler.
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Transmission angle
The definition relate to a joint variable and depend on the choice of driver
and driven links. It varies throughout the range of operation and is most
favourable when it is 90° . The recommended transmission angle is 90° ± 50° .
From figure it can be found that
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
−𝟏
𝒅 + 𝒂 − 𝒃 − 𝒄 − 𝟐𝒂𝒅 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟐
𝝁 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬
−𝟐𝒃𝒄
Transmission of motion is impossible when transmission angle is
0° 𝑜𝑟 180° . If transmission angle is zero, no torque can be realized on output
link i.e. the mechanism is at its dead centre position and will lock or jam. Very
small or very large transmission angle results in large error of motion, high
sensitivity to manufacturing error, noisy and an unacceptable mechanism.
If 𝝁 deviates significantly from 90° the torque on output link decreases. The
deviation is a measure of reduction in effectiveness of force transmission. So
the aim in linkage design is to proportion the links so that the deviations are
as small as possible, especially in the presence of joint friction. So to obtain a
linkage with optimum variation of transmission angle the angle is set close to
90°
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