Fibre reinforced polymer composite

materials for building and construction

 Fibre reinforced polymer composite
materials for building and construction
M. Motavalli, ... D.M.
Gsell,
Motavalli,
in Textiles,
... D.Polymers
Gsell, in and
Textiles,
Composites
Polymersfor
and
Buildings,
Composites
2010for Buildings, 2010

Abstract: Abstract:
Fibre reinforced polymers
Fibre reinforced
(FRPs), a polymers
relatively (FRPs),
new classa relatively
of non-corrosive,
new class of non-corrosive,
high-strength, lightweight
high-strength,
material,
lightweight
have overmaterial,
the past have
approximately
over the past
15 years
approximately 15 years
emerged as practicalemerged
materials
as practical
for a number materials
of structural
for a number
engineering
of structural
applications.
engineering applications.
This chapter introduces
This chapter
constituent
introduces
materials,
constituent
FRP composite
materials,laminates
FRP composite
and multi-laminates and multi-
layer laminate theory,
layerand
laminate
the durability
theory, of andcomposite
the durability
materials
of composite
for the construction
materials for the construction
and building industries,
and building
as well as
industries,
future developments.
as well as futureFurthermore,
developments. someFurthermore,
of the some of the
more common FRPmore applications
commoninFRP civilapplications
engineeringinstructures
civil engineering
and design
structures
rules areand design rules are
described in detail,described
includinginexternally
detail, including
bonded externally
FRP plates,bonded
sheets FRP
and wraps
plates,for
sheets and wraps for
the strengthening the
of reinforced
strengthening
concrete,
of reinforced
steel, aluminium
concrete,and steel,
timber
aluminium
structural
and timber structural
members, FRP barsmembers,
for the internal
FRP bars reinforcement
for the internal
of concrete,
reinforcement
and application
of concrete, of and application of
FRP profiles. FRP profiles.

> Read full chapter

> Read full chapter

Structurally
Structurally
deficientdeficient
civil engineering
civil engineering
infrastructure:
infrastructure:
concrete,concrete,
metallic, metallic,
ma- ma-
sonry andsonry
timber
andstructures
timber structures
L. DE LORENZIS, ...L. L.C.
DE LORENZIS,
HOLLAWAY,...in
L.C.
Strengthening
HOLLAWAY,andin Strengthening
Rehabilitation and
of Civil
Rehabilitation of Civil
Infrastructures Using
Infrastructures
Fibre-Reinforced
UsingPolymer
Fibre-Reinforced
(FRP) Composites,
Polymer (FRP)
2008 Composites, 2008

Steel and wrought

Steel iron
and beams
wrought iron beams
FRP strengtheningFRP
has strengthening
also been usedhas
to increase
also beenthe
used
flexural
to increase
strength
theofflexural
steel strength of steel
beams, for which different
beams, for
constraints
which different
governconstraints
the use of FRP
governstrengthening:
the use of FRP strengthening:

• The modular ratio

• of FRP
Thetomodular
steel is lower
ratio than
of FRPfortoFRP
steeltoiscast
lower
iron;
than
conse-
for FRP to cast iron; conse-
quently a large amountquentlyof strengthening
a large amount
is required
of strengthening
to significantly is required
affect a to significantly affect a
structure's elastic response.
structure's elastic response.
• It is desirable •to allow yield
It is of
desirable
the steeltoat
allow
ultimate,
yield ofbutthe
this
steel
is only
at ultimate,
possiblebut this is only possible
if premature failure of the if premature
adhesive joint
failure
canofbe
theprevented,
adhesive joint
for example,
can be prevented,
by for example, by
additional mechanical restraints
additional(Sen
mechanical
et al., 2001).
restraints (Sen et al., 2001).
• •
Thin-walled steel beams may require additional restraint against buckling after
strengthening.
systems such as the PileMedic® system have not been used for as long but offer
the potential of comparable performance, possibly at a lower cost. Studies are also
currently underway in Texas and West Virginia to extend the use of FRP wrapping for
repairing steel elements. Findings from these research studies will further broaden
the applicability of the emerging methods.
 systems such as the PileMedic® system have not been used for as long but offer
the potential of comparable performance, possibly at a lower cost. Studies are also
currently underway in Texas and West Virginia to extend the use of FRP wrapping for
repairing steel elements. Findings from these research studies will further broaden
the applicability of the emerging methods.

FRP use for pile repair

FRP may
use for
be pile
promoted
repair by
mayresearch
be promoted
on theby
following
researchtopics:
on the following topics:

● Evaluating FRP
● pile repair
Evaluating
systems FRP
that pile
are already
repair systems
in placethat are already in place

● Characterization
● FRP-concrete
Characterization
barrier properties
FRP-concrete
for use
barrier
in design
properties for use in design

● Integrated design
● guideline
Integrated design guideline

11.5.1 Evaluating
11.5.1
FRP repair
Evaluating
systems
FRP repair systems
FRP was first used FRPfor corrosion
was first used
repairforofcorrosion
columns nearly
repair of
20 columns
years agonearly
in the20
1990s.
years ago in the 1990s.
Such extended outdoorSuch extended
exposure tooutdoor
temperature
exposurechange,
to temperature
humidity, change,
wet/dry cycles
humidity, wet/dry cycles
will inevitably lead will
to deterioration
inevitably leadin to
thedeterioration
FRP-concrete inbond.
the FRP-concrete
This deterioration
bond. This deterioration
needs to be detected needs
and quantified
to be detected
duringandroutine
quantified
inspection
during routine
using non-destructive
inspection using non-destructive
test methods. Unfortunately,
test methods.the Unfortunately,
two most promisingthe twonon-destructive
most promising test
non-destructive
methods test methods
that are suitable forthat
rapid
areinspection,
suitable fornamely,
rapid inspection,
thermal imaging
namely,andthermal
groundimaging
pene- and ground pene-
trating radar (GPR),trating
have inherent
radar (GPR),
shortcomings
have inherent
for detecting
shortcomings
or quantifying
for detecting
bond
or quantifying bond
degradation. degradation.

Dolan et al. (2009) Dolan

reported
et al.
that(2009)
thermal
reported
imaging
thatwas
thermal
able to
imaging
capturewas
initial
ablevoids,
to capture initial voids,
but not identify bond
but deterioration
not identify bond
in their
deterioration
comprehensive
in their
National
comprehensive
Cooperative
National Cooperative
Highway Research Highway
Program Research
study on FRP-bond
Program study
durability.
on FRP-bond
This wasdurability.
because thermal
This was because thermal
conductivity is insensitive
conductivity
to quantitative
is insensitive
differences
to quantitative
in bond.differences in bond.

GPR detects bond GPR

anomalies
detectsfrom
bond
theanomalies
contrast in from
dielectric
the contrast
properties
in dielectric
betweenproperties
air, between air,
water and the FRP material.
water andThis
the contrast
FRP material.
is diminished
This contrast
in conductive
is diminished
materials
in conductive
such materials such
as CFRP; a higher electrical
as CFRP; conductivity
a higher electrical
leads conductivity
to higher attenuation
leads to higher
and smaller
attenuation and smaller
echoes (Halabe et al.,
echoes
2010).
(Halabe et al., 2010).

Therefore, there is Therefore,

a need to develop
there is alternative,
a need to develop
easy-to-use,
alternative,
non-destructive
easy-to-use,
test
non-destructive test
methods to facilitate
methods
speedytoon-site
facilitate
bondspeedy
evaluation.
on-site bond evaluation.

11.5.2 Characterization
11.5.2 Characterization
of FRP-concreteof FRP-concrete
New applications for
New FRP
applications
may includeforcorrosion
FRP may control
includein corrosion
which FRPcontrol
is bonded
in which
to FRP is bonded to
the expected splashthe
zone
expected
in newsplash
pre-stressed
zone inpiles
new prior
pre-stressed
to driving.
piles
Life
prior
cycle
to cost
driving. Life cycle cost
analysis may find this
analysis
to bemay
less find
expensive
this tocompared
be less expensive
to, for example,
compared using
to, for
stainless
example, using stainless
steel pre-stressed piles
steel (Winters
pre-stressed
et al.,
piles
2014).
(Winters et al., 2014).
The economics for FRP corrosion repair require its optimal use. This can be achieved
from a knowledge of its oxygen barrier properties. Research in this field is at its infan-
cy. Additional studies need to be undertaken to characterize the oxygen permeation
properties of FRP-concrete systems using laminates such as the PileMedic® system,
wet lay-up systems with more than two FRP layers and the effect of coatings. This
data can lead to a better estimation of the post-repair corrosion rate and optimize
FRP use.
 The economics for FRP corrosion repair require its optimal use. This can be achieved
from a knowledge of its oxygen barrier properties. Research in this field is at its infan-
cy. Additional studies need to be undertaken to characterize the oxygen permeation
properties of FRP-concrete systems using laminates such as the PileMedic® system,
wet lay-up systems with more than two FRP layers and the effect of coatings. This
data can lead to a better estimation of the post-repair corrosion rate and optimize
FRP use.

11.5.3 Integrated
11.5.3
design
Integrated design
FRP design for strength
FRP design
and barrier
for strength
propertiesand isbarrier
not integrated;
propertiescurrently,
is not integrated;
it is onlycurrently, it is only
possible to design possible
for strength
to design
and check
for strength
if this can
andaccommodate
check if this can
transverse
accommodate
corro- transverse corro-
sion expansion. Integration
sion expansion.
of barrier
Integration
properties of will
barrier
allow
properties
the full benefit
will allow
of FRP
the full
in benefit of FRP in
corrosion repair tocorrosion
be realized.
repair
There
to isbea realized.
need to develop
There is such
a needanto
integrated
develop suchdesign
an integrated design
method and an accompanying
method anduseran accompanying
guide with illustrative
user guidenumerical
with illustrative
examples. numerical
Such examples. Such
a development willabedevelopment
an importantwillstep
be antowards
important
the cost
stepeffective
towardsusetheofcost
FRP.effective use of FRP.
 -
KFRP,design
 -
KFRP,design

y,link Yield strain ofy,link

shear Yield
reinforcement
strain of shear reinforcement

fy,link Yield strengthfy,link

of shear
Yield
reinforcement
strength of shear reinforcement

Es Modulus of Eelasticity
s Modulus
of steel bar
of elasticity of steel bar

M Moment resisting
M capacity
Momentof beam
resisting capacity of beam

T Tensile force Tof flexural

Tensile
reinforcement
force of flexural reinforcement

Z Moment armZ Moment arm

As Cross-sectional
As area ofCross-sectional
flexural reinforcement
area of flexural reinforcement

ftk Tensile strength

ftk of flexural
Tensilereinforcement
strength of flexural reinforcement

fyk Yield strengthfyk of flexural

Yieldreinforcement
strength of flexural reinforcement

fck Concrete compressive

fck Concrete
strength compressive
based on cylinder
strength
testbased on cylinder test

b Width of beam
b Width of beam

x Depth of neutral
x axis Depth of neutral axis

Vd Design shearVdforce Design shear force

Ls Shear span Ls Shear span

N Number of shear
N links
Number
that resist
of shear
shearlinks that resist shear

Inclination of shear crack

Inclination of shear crack

s Spacing of shear
s link Spacing of shear link

Vy,link Shear force of

Vy,link
beam Shear
due toforce
yielding
of beam
of shear
due reinforcement
to yielding of shear reinforcement

As,linkCross-sectional
As,link
area ofCross-sectional
shear link area of shear link

VKFRP Shear force resisted

VKFRP by
Shear
KFRPforce
laminate
resisted by KFRP laminate

N- Number of KFRP
N- laminate
Numberto of
resist
KFRPshear
laminate
(from to
oneresist
side shear
of beam)
(from one side of beam)
KFRP KFRP

sKFRP Spacing of KFRP

sKFRP laminate
Spacing of KFRP laminate

VCB Shear capacity

VCBof control
Shearbeam
capacity of control beam

VSB Shear capacity

VSBof KFRP
Shear
laminate
capacity
strengthened
of KFRP laminate
beam strengthened beam

ft,link Tensile strength

ft,link of shear
Tensile
reinforcement
strength of shear reinforcement

V- Shear capacity
V- of KFRP
Shear
laminate
capacity
strengthened
of KFRP laminate
beam strengthened beam
SB,KFRP SB,KFRP
> Read full chapter
careful control of curing, however, leads to a significant higher level of variation in
performance.
 careful control of curing, however, leads to a significant higher level of variation in
performance.

Figs. 7.1 and 7.2 illustrate

Figs. 7.1the
andapplication
7.2 illustrate
of pultruded
the application
FRP laminates
of pultruded
andFRP
wet laminates
lay-up and wet lay-up
composites, respectively,
composites,
for therespectively,
strengtheningfor the
of internal
strengthening
ceilings.of internal ceilings.

Figure 7.1. Adhesively

Figure
bonded
7.1. Adhesively
pultruded bonded
strips.Source:
pultruded
Reprinted
strips.Source:
from: Karbhari,
Reprinted from: Karbhari,
V.M., 2005. Building
V.M.,
materials
2005. Building
for the renewal
materials
of civil
for the
infrastructures.
renewal of civil
Reinf.
infrastructures.
Plast. Reinf. Plast.
49 (1) 14–25, with 49
permission
(1) 14–25,from
withElsevier.
permission from Elsevier.

Figure 7.2. Wet lay-up

Figure
of fabric
7.2. Weton lay-up
soffit affords
of fabric
efficient
on soffitstrengthening.Source:
affords efficient strengthening.Source:
Reprinted from: Karbhari,
ReprintedV.M.,
from:
2005.
Karbhari,
Building
V.M.,
materials
2005. Building
for the renewal
materials
of civil
for the renewal of civil
infrastructures. Reinf.
infrastructures.
Plast. 49 (1) Reinf.
14–25,Plast.
with 49
permission
(1) 14–25,from
withElsevier.
permission from Elsevier.

In both the described

In both
techniques,
the described
the weakest
techniques,
link is the
represented
weakest link
by aiscold-cured
represented by a cold-cured
resin, used as adhesive
resin,inused
the first
as adhesive
case andinasthe
matrix/adhesive
first case and as inmatrix/adhesive
the second one.in the second one.
While the resin is responsible
While the resin
for the
is responsible
overall integrity
for the
of overall
the rehabilitate
integrity of
of structure,
the rehabilitate of structure,
since it must assuresince
an effective
it must assure
stress transfer
an effective
among
stress
thetransfer
concrete
among
structure
the concrete
and structure and
the FRP reinforcement,
the FRPit can
reinforcement,
undergo both it can
chemical
undergo
andboth
physical
chemical
degradation
and physical
by degradation by
environmental conditions
environmental
and mechanical
conditions stresses.
and mechanical stresses.

The choice of the first

Thetechnique,
choice of the i.e.,first
employing
technique,
precured
i.e., employing
(plane) FRP,
precured
or the second
(plane) FRP, or the second
one, i.e., (the moreone,
flexible
i.e., and
(the cheaper)
more flexiblewet lay-up
and cheaper)
configuration,
wet lay-up
is made
configuration,
on the is made on the
basis of the scheme basis
andof geometry
the scheme of the
andconcrete
geometry structure
of the concrete
to rehabilitate
structure
(flat to
vs rehabilitate (flat vs
irregular, vaulted or
irregular,
cylindricalvaulted
surfaces);
or cylindrical
on the accessibility
surfaces); onof the
the accessibility
interventionof the intervention
area; on the available
area;
timeon for
thethe
available
intervention
time forvs.the
theintervention
curing timevs.required
the curing
to time required to
the cold-cured adhesive, in the first case, or to the matrix-adhesive cold-cured
resins, in the second one (Karbhari et al., 1997; Karbhari and Zhao, 1998). As
already underlined, precured FRP’s generally present higher values of the in-service
properties (and strength and stiffness values) compared to wet lay-up produced
FRP, and therefore a more robust resistance to hostile environments; thus they
are preferred when the civil infrastructures are required to withstand harsh and
varying environmental exposure for long periods of time (Hollaway, 2010). Precured
FRP’s are often employed as efficient substitutes of beton-plaque techniques. The
deterioration mechanism experienced by the concrete structure has a minor effect
on the choice of the most appropriate strengthening systems based on FRP.
the cold-cured adhesive, in the first case, or to the matrix-adhesive cold-cured
resins, in the second one (Karbhari et al., 1997; Karbhari and Zhao, 1998). As
already underlined, precured FRP’s generally present higher values of the in-service
properties (and strength and stiffness values) compared to wet lay-up produced
FRP, and therefore a more robust resistance to hostile environments; thus they
are preferred when the civil infrastructures are required to withstand harsh and
varying environmental exposure for long periods of time (Hollaway, 2010). Precured
FRP’s are often employed as efficient substitutes of beton-plaque techniques. The
deterioration mechanism experienced by the concrete structure has a minor effect
on the choice of the most appropriate strengthening systems based on FRP.
Generic Rules for CDC Debonding
 Generic Rules for CDC Debonding
DERIC JOHN OEHLERS,
DERIC RUDOLF
JOHN OEHLERS,
SERACINO,
RUDOLF
in Design
SERACINO,
of FRP and
in Design
Steel Plated
of FRP and Steel Plated
RC Structures, 2004
RC Structures, 2004

5.4.1 Angle and

5.4.1 Angle and U-sections
U-sections

Fibre reinforced polymer

Fibre reinforced
U-shapedpolymer
plates, asU-shaped
in sectionplates,
A-A inasFig.
in section
1.12, areA-Aoften
in Fig. 1.12, are often
formed in the wet lay
formed
up process
in the using
wet laybi-directional
up process usingfibresbi-directional
in order to enhance
fibres inboth
order to enhance both
the flexural and shear
the capacities,
flexural andasshear
it is felt
capacities,
that theas portion
it is felt
ofthat
the U-plate
the portion
bonded
of the U-plate bonded
to the tension face to
of the
the tension
beam will face
beofgood
the beam
at improving
will be good
the flexural
at improving
capacitythe
whilst
flexural capacity whilst
the portion of the U-plate
the portion
bonded
of the
toU-plate
the sidesbonded
will beto
good
the sides
at increasing
will be good
the shear
at increasing the shear
capacity as well as capacity
inhibitingasthe
welldebonding
as inhibitingof the
the tension
debonding faceofcomponent.
the tension face component.

As a further example
As of
a further
this form
example
of construction,
of this form the
ofbeam
construction,
in Fig. 5.11
the was
beam in Fig. 5.11 was
strengthened by adhesively
strengthened
bonding
by adhesively
metal angle
bonding
sections
metal
to both
angleofsections
the bottom
to both of the bottom
corners. The anglecorners.
plates were
The terminated
angle platesclose
weretoterminated
the supports
close
andtoeventually
the supports and eventually
detached due to CDC
detached
debonding.
due to CDC debonding.

Figure 5.11. CDC debonding

Figure 5.11.ofCDC
angle
debonding
section of angle section

The CDC analyses The

described
CDC analyses
in Section
described
5.2 can be
in Section
applied 5.2
directly
can be
to applied
this form directly to this form
of construction by of
simply
construction
treating by
thesimply
portion
treating
of the plate
the portion
bondedoftothetheplate
sides
bonded to the sides
separately from those
separately
bondedfrom
to the
those
tension
bonded
facetoasthe
illustrated
tension in
face
Figs
as 5.4
illustrated
to 5.7. in Figs 5.4 to 5.7.

> Read full chapter

> Read full chapter

Metaheuristic
Metaheuristic
Applications
Applications
in Bridgein Bridge
Infrastructure
Infrastructure
Maintenance
Maintenance
Schedul-Schedul-
ing Considering
ing Considering
Stochastic
Stochastic
Aspects of
Aspects of
Deterioration
Deterioration
Manoj K. Jha, ... Shobeir
ManojPirayeh
K. Jha, Gar,
... Shobeir
in Metaheuristic
Pirayeh Gar,
Applications
in Metaheuristic
in Structures
Applications
and in Structures and
Infrastructures, 2013
Infrastructures, 2013
23.6.2 Material Properties
 23.6.2 Material Properties
The AFRP bars usedThe in AFRP
this research
bars usedareinArapree®,
this research
with are
a 10-mm
Arapree®,
diameter
with aand
10-mm
sanddiameter and sand
blast coating. Uniaxial
blasttension
coating.tests
Uniaxial
revealed
tension
the rupture
tests revealed
stress, the
strain,
rupture
and modulus
stress, strain, and modulus
of elasticity of the bars
of elasticity
equal toof1380 MPa,
the bars equal0.02 GPa,
to 1380 MPa,
and 69 GPa,
0.02 GPa,
respectively.
and 69 GPa,
As respectively. As
a comparison withaconventional
comparison steelwith conventional
rebars, the strength
steel rebars,
and modulus
the strength
of elasticity
and modulus of elasticity
of AFRP bars are approximately
of AFRP bars are 3.5 times
approximately
and one-third
3.5 times
thatand
of steel,
one-third
respectively.
that of steel, respectively.
The specified cylinderThe compressive
specified cylinder
strength
compressive
of concretestrength
for theoffirst
concrete
panel, for
second
the first panel, second
panel, and seam were panel,
foundandequal
seamto were
41, found
35, andequal
38 MPa,
to 41,respectively.
35, and 38 MPa,
The specified
respectively. The specified
cubes’ compressivecubes’
strengthcompressive
of Sika grout
strength
was found
of Sikaequal
grouttowas
35 MPa.
foundAcceptable
equal to 35 MPa. Acceptable
consistency in the consistency
strength of material
in the strength
was achieved
of material
between
was the
achieved
precast
between
panels,the precast panels,
panel-to-panel seam, panel-to-panel
and haunch.seam, and haunch.
materials relationships and are generally determined by the testing of coupons.
Tests are normally carried out in conjunction with a jig designed to impose a pure
and uniform form of the stress state under study to a significant volume of the
material. The coupons themselves need to be designed to take account of the specific
fibrous and possibly laminated nature of the material. The value of any particular
property determined is dependent on the coupon test arrangement relative to the
fibre orientation(s) and the fibre volume fraction within the coupon.
 materials relationships and are generally determined by the testing of coupons.
Tests are normally carried out in conjunction with a jig designed to impose a pure
and uniform form of the stress state under study to a significant volume of the
material. The coupons themselves need to be designed to take account of the specific
fibrous and possibly laminated nature of the material. The value of any particular
property determined is dependent on the coupon test arrangement relative to the
fibre orientation(s) and the fibre volume fraction within the coupon.

So, where should one

So, seek
whereadvice
should in one
order seek
to get
advice
started?
in order
Fortunately
to get started?
there isFortunately
now a there is now a
fairly comprehensive
fairly
standards
comprehensive
capability standards
worldwide.capability
Most industrialised
worldwide. Most countries
industrialised countries
have their own standards
have theirinstitutions
own standards (ASTM,institutions
BSI, DIN, JIS,
(ASTM,
etc.),BSI,
andDIN,
over JIS,
the etc.),
past and over the past
30 years or so these
30organisations
years or so these haveorganisations
invested a great havedeal
invested
of effort
a great
in addressing
deal of effort in addressing
the specific test method
the specific
standardisation
test method needs
standardisation
of high performance
needs of high
fibre performance
reinforced fibre reinforced
plastics. Somewhatplastics.
more recently
Somewhat the International
more recentlyStandards
the International
Organisation
Standards
(ISO)Organisation (ISO)
has attempted to distil
has attempted
the best practices
to distil from
the best
the practices
national standards
from the national
into their standards into their
own specifications.ownStandards
specifications.
are essentialStandards
reading
arebut
essential
can oftenreading
be pretty
but candry.often
It be pretty dry. It
must also be emphasised
must also thatbesuch
emphasised
standardsthat aresuch
intended
standards
to standardise
are intended a testto standardise a test
method so that, if method
it is followed,
so that,it should
if it is followed,
be possibleit should
to repeatbe the
possible
test intoanother
repeat the test in another
laboratory, in another
laboratory,
location,inusing
another different
location,
equipment,
using different
with a equipment,
different operator
with a different operator
with the expectation
with
of obtaining
the expectation
very similar
of obtaining
results.very
Thissimilar
is not,results.
however,This theissame
not, however, the same
as achieving the desired
as achieving
or correct
the result.
desired or correct result.

Many companies have Manydeveloped

companiestheir
have
owndeveloped
standardtheir
test own
methods,
standard
some test
of methods,
which some of which
have fed into new, have
or modified
fed intonational
new, or modified
and international
nationalstandards.
and international
In addition,
standards. In addition,
work in universitieswork
and in
other
universities
researchand
organisations
other research
is undertaken
organisations
into is
test
undertaken
method into test method
development. The development.
results are normally
The results
published
are normally
in technical
published
reports,
in PhD
technical
theses,
reports, PhD theses,
and/or academic journals,
and/or academic
and oftenjournals,
address and
cutting-edge
often address
aspects
cutting-edge
well aheadaspects
of well ahead of
standardisation, which,
standardisation,
by its naturewhich,
is a fairly
by its
unwieldy
nature and
is a fairly
time unwieldy
consuming
andsystem.
time consuming system.