Finally, it is shown that such retardation effects cannot usually be avoided when

using the Mode I double-cantilever beam test to ascertain experimentally the fatigue
behaviour of composites, so that a means of estimating a ‘valid’ (low retardation)
relationship is needed. The present chapter presents one such approach that is based
on the use of the Hartman–Schijve delamination growth equation.
Finally, it is shown that such retardation effects cannot usually be avoided when
using the Mode I double-cantilever beam test to ascertain experimentally the fatigue
behaviour of composites, so that a means of estimating a ‘valid’ (low retardation)
relationship is needed. The present chapter presents one such approach that is based
on the use of the Hartman–Schijve delamination growth equation.
> Read full chapter
 > Read full chapter

Fibre-reinforced
Fibre-reinforced
polymer polymer
(FRP) com-
(FRP) com-
posites used
posites
in rehabilitation
used in rehabilitation
L.C. HOLLAWAY, in L.C.
Strengthening
HOLLAWAY,andin Strengthening
Rehabilitation and
of Civil
Rehabilitation
Infrastructures
of Civil
Using
Infrastructures Using
Fibre-Reinforced Polymer
Fibre-Reinforced
(FRP) Composites,
Polymer (FRP)
2008 Composites, 2008

2.5 The advanced

2.5 The
polymer
advanced
composite
polymer composite
To form a structural
Topolymer
form a structural
composite,polymer
long fibres
composite,
are introduced
long fibres
intoare
theintroduced
resin into the resin
matrix. This combination
matrix. of
This
twocombination
dissimilar materials
of two dissimilar
leads to amaterials
componentleads that
to has
a component that has
enhanced strength,enhanced
stiffness strength,
and toughness
stiffness
overand
thetoughness
propertiesover
of the
theindividual
properties of the individual
parts. parts.

The mechanical and Thein-service

mechanical
properties
and in-service
of the final
properties
fibre–matrix
of thecomposite
final fibre–matrix
will composite will
be dependent upon bethe
dependent
individualupon
properties
the individual
of the two
properties
component
of the
parts
twowith
component
the parts with the
former property (viz.former
mechanical)
propertybeing
(viz. mechanical)
largely dependent
being largely
upon thedependent
fibre andupon
the the fibre and the
latter property (viz.latter
in-service)
property
being
(viz.largely
in-service)
dependent
being largely
upon thedependent
matrix. Therefore,
upon the matrix. Therefore,
the following will affect
the following
the overall
willmechanical
affect the overall
properties
mechanical
and to aproperties
lesser extent
andtheto a lesser extent the
in-service propertiesin-service
of the composite:
properties of the composite:

• the type of the• fibre used

the(viz.
typecarbon,
of the glass
fibre used
or aramid
(viz. carbon,
fibres); glass or aramid fibres);

• the relative proportions

• the
of the
relative
polymer
proportions
and fibreof(fibre
the polymer
volume and
fraction);
fibre (fibre volume fraction);

• the orientation
• of the fibre
the orientation
(viz. unidirectional,
of the fibre
bidirectional
(viz. unidirectional,
aligned orbidirectional
ran- aligned or ran-
domly orientated); domly orientated);
• the method of• manufacture;
the method of manufacture;

• the temperature
• and duration
the temperature
of the cureand
cycle;
duration of the cure cycle;

• the age of the• polymer composite.

the age of the polymer composite.

2.5.1 The type of2.5.1

fibreThe
used
type of fibre used
As discussed earlier,
Ascarbon,
discussed
aramid
earlier,
andcarbon,
glass fibres
aramid areand
theglass
onesfibres
generally
are the
usedones
for generally used for
plate bonding. Their
plate
strengths
bonding. andTheir
stiffnesses
strengthsareand
different,
stiffnesses
although
are different,
the formeralthough the former
property for the three
property
fibresfor
is of
thethe
three
samefibres
order.
is of
Consequently,
the same order.the Consequently,
higher the the higher the
stiffness of the fibre
stiffness
the greater
of thewillfibre
be the greater
stiffnesswill
of the
be the
composite.
stiffness Fibres
of the can
composite. Fibres can
be hybridised by a be
mixhybridised
of different byfibre
a mixtypes
of different
in the same
fibre fabric.
types inThe
theaim
same
would
fabric. The aim would
be to achieve a balance
be toofachieve
properties,
a balance
for example
of properties,
blending
for example
glass andblending
aramid will
glass and aramid will
combine strength combine
and toughness
strength andandwilltoughness
reduce cost. andHowever,
will reduce
thecost.
stiffness
However,
will the stiffness will
differ from either component
differ from andeither
a consideration
component and must
a consideration
be given to themust
loading
be given
of theto the loading of the
component. In producing hybridised components a greater success will be achieved
by segregating fibres into discrete layers than with fibre mixing in the same layers.
 component. In producing hybridised components a greater success will be achieved
by segregating fibres into discrete layers than with fibre mixing in the same layers.

The fibre used to rehabilitate

The fibre usedRC structural
to rehabilitate
members
RC structural
is generally
members
the high
is generally
stiffness the high stiffness
carbon fibre (modulus
carbonof elasticity
fibre (modulus
values ofin elasticity
the ordervalues
of 220–300
in the GPa).
orderGlass
of 220–300
fibre GPa). Glass fibre
is being used in Canada,
is beingdueused
to economical
in Canada, due andtoenvironmental
economical and considerations
environmental considerations
(Demers et al., 2005).
(Demers
The ultra-high
et al., 2005).
stiffness
The ultra-high
carbon fibre stiffness
composite
carbon
is not
fibrenormally
composite is not normally
used to upgrade RC used
structures
to upgrade
due RCto its
structures
low valuedueof ultimate
to its lowstrain
valuewhich
of ultimate
is of the
strain which is of the
order of 0.4%. order of 0.4%.

2.5.2 The relative

2.5.2
proportions
The relative
of the
proportions
fibre and of
matrix
the fibre and matrix
As the fibre is the load-carrying
As the fibre iscomponent
the load-carrying
of the component
composite material,
of the composite
the greater
material, the greater
the volume of fibrethein volume
the composite
of fibre(i.e.
in the
thecomposite
higher the(i.e.
fibrethe
volume
higherfraction)
the fibre volume fraction)
the stronger will bethe
thestronger
composite.
will be
Forthe
thecomposite.
rehabilitation
Forof
thestructural
rehabilitation
members,
of structural members,
composites with fibrecomposites
weight fractions
with fibreofweight
betweenfractions
55 andof60%
between
would55generally
and 60% bewould generally be
used. used.

2.5.3 The orientation

2.5.3 The
of the
orientation
fibre of the fibre
The properties of long
The fibre–polymer
properties of long
composites
fibre–polymer
will generally
composites
be anisotropic
will generally
unlessbe anisotropic unless
an orientated angleanply
orientated
system ofangle
fibreply
arrays
system
of 0°,of30°,
fibre60°
arrays
or 90° of is0°,used,
30°, 60°
or or 90° is used, or
randomly orientatedrandomly
short fibre
orientated
arrays are
short
used
fibre
in which
arrays case
are used
the composite
in which case will the composite will
exhibit quasi-isotropic
exhibit
properties.
quasi-isotropic
The direction
properties.
and volume
The direction
fractionand of volume
the fibresfraction
in of the fibres in
composites will determine
compositesthe will
strength
determine
and stiffness
the strength
of theand
composite.
stiffness In of flexural
the composite. In flexural
plate bonding solutions,
plate bonding
the fibres solutions,
are unidirectionally
the fibres are aligned
unidirectionally
along the longitudi-
aligned along the longitudi-
nal length of the member.
nal length
In of
order
the tomember.
maintainIn the
orderalignment,
to maintain particularly
the alignment,
duringparticularly during
the manufacturingtheprocedure,
manufacturing
it may be
procedure,
necessaryit to
may
addbea necessary
small percentage
to add aofsmall percentage of
fibres in the transverse
fibresdirection.
in the transverse
For sheardirection.
strengthening,
For shear
again
strengthening,
the unidirectionally
again the unidirectionally
aligned fibres are used.
aligned
Forfibres
the rehabilitation
are used. Foror
thethe
rehabilitation
retrofitting of
or RC
thecolumns,
retrofitting of RC columns,
continuously-wound continuously-wound
fibres in the hoop direction
fibres in the
are hoop
applied
direction
to the column
are applied
at a slight
to the column at a slight
positive angle. These
positive
fibresangle.
confine These
the concrete
fibres confine
in thethe
columns
concreteand,
in as
thethe
columns
tensile and, as the tensile
fibres can resist a much
fibresgreater
can resist
tensile
a much
strength
greater
compared
tensile strength
with thatcompared
of the concrete,
with that of the concrete,
the column will contain
the column
a muchwillhigher
contain
compressive
a much higher
load (see
compressive
Chapter 6loadfor FRP
(see Chapter 6 for FRP
confined columns).confined columns).

2.5.4 The method

2.5.4
of manufacture
The method of
of manufacture
the compositeof the composite
There are a numberThere
of techniques
are a number
usedoftotechniques
manufacture used advanced
to manufacture
polymer advanced
compos- polymer compos-
ites, each of whichites,
will have
each anof which
influence
will on
have
theanmechanical
influence on properties
the mechanical
of the final
properties of the final
component. The maincomponent.
reasons for
Thethis
mainvariation
reasonsare:
for (a)
this
thevariation
resin used,
are: whether
(a) the resin
it used, whether it
is a high temperature
is a cure
high ortemperature
an ambientcurecure;or(b)
anthe
ambient
degreecure;
of compaction;
(b) the degreean of compaction; an
automated hot process
automated
will produce
hot process
a lowerwillvoid
produce
ratio component
a lower voidcompared
ratio component
to a compared to a
product produced at manual ambient temperature. The five methods which are in-
variably considered for use in plate bonding and column wrapping of structures are:
(i) the wet lay-up (site fabrication); (ii) the pultrusion (preformed plates manufactured
under factory conditions and site bonded); (iii) the hot melt, factory-made, pre-im-
pregnated fibre composite (the prepreg) preformed rigid plates manufactured under
controlled temperature and pressure conditions and site bonded with a two-part
cold cure adhesive; (iv) the hot melt, factory-made, pre-impregnated fibre (prepreg)
site fabricated and site cured (in conjunction with film adhesive) under a vacuum
assisted pressure of 1 bar and cured at 65 °C for 16 hours or 80 °C for four hours;
(v) the vacuum-assisted resin transfer procedures (RTM) (site fabricated and cured).
These methods have been discussed and illustrated in Hollaway and Head (2001).
 product produced at manual ambient temperature. The five methods which are in-
variably considered for use in plate bonding and column wrapping of structures are:
(i) the wet lay-up (site fabrication); (ii) the pultrusion (preformed plates manufactured
under factory conditions and site bonded); (iii) the hot melt, factory-made, pre-im-
pregnated fibre composite (the prepreg) preformed rigid plates manufactured under
controlled temperature and pressure conditions and site bonded with a two-part
cold cure adhesive; (iv) the hot melt, factory-made, pre-impregnated fibre (prepreg)
site fabricated and site cured (in conjunction with film adhesive) under a vacuum
assisted pressure of 1 bar and cured at 65 °C for 16 hours or 80 °C for four hours;
(v) the vacuum-assisted resin transfer procedures (RTM) (site fabricated and cured).
These methods have been discussed and illustrated in Hollaway and Head (2001).

The first and fifth techniques

The first and arefifth
a manual
techniques
site operation
are a manualwhereas
site operation
the secondwhereas the second
and third techniques andarethird
factory
techniques
automatedare factory
and siteautomated
bonded and andthesite
fourth
bondedis aand the fourth is a
semi-automated factory/site
semi-automated methodfactory/site
and site bonded.
methodInand all site
cases,bonded.
except Incase
all (iv),
cases, except case (iv),
it is advisable to post-cure
it is advisable
the adhesive
to post-cure
as the the
polymer
adhesive
used as in
thethis
polymer
operationusedisin this operation is
site cured and therefore
site cured
its glass
and transition
therefore its
temperature,
glass transition
assuming
temperature,
the ambientassuming the ambient
temperature at cure temperature
of the adhesive,
at curesayof20
the°C,
adhesive,
will be nosaygreater
20 °C, than
will be50no°C.greater
If, than 50 °C. If,
however, an adhesive however,
film werean adhesive
utilised, film
suchwere
as might
utilised,
be the
such case
as when
mightbonding
be the case when bonding
a site cured, hot melt
a site
prepreg
cured,composite
hot melt prepreg
to a structural
compositemember
to a structural
(case (iv) above),
member (case (iv) above),
a site elevated temperature
a site elevated
and pressure
temperature
would and
be pressure
used to cure
would and becompact
used to cure
the and compact the
prepreg and the adhesive
prepregfilm andintheoneadhesive
operation;
filmainvacuum
one operation;
of 1 bar for a vacuum
compaction
of 1 bar
in for compaction in
this case would be this
applied.
case Method
would be(iv) applied.
has beenMethod
described
(iv) has
in Hollaway
been describedet al. (2006)
in Hollaway et al. (2006)
and is illustrated asand
a site
is illustrated
procedureasinathe siteexample
proceduregiven
in the
in Chapter
example13, given
Section
in Chapter 13, Section
13.7.1. All the above13.7.1.
methodsAll thehave
above
beenmethods
used forhave
the rehabilitation
been used forof thestructural
rehabilitation of structural
members by externallymembersbonded by externally
composites, bonded
whether
composites,
these are by whether
the utilisation
these areofby the utilisation of
precast plates or composite
precast plates
wraps.
or Another
compositesystem
wraps.which
Another
has been
system used
which
is the
hasnear
been used is the near
surface mounted (NSM)
surfacebars
mounted
which (NSM)
are manufactured
bars which by arethe
manufactured
pultrusion technique
by the pultrusion technique
and bonded, by anandadhesive
bonded,
paste,
by an
intoadhesive
groovespaste,
cut into
intothegrooves
soffit or cut
vertical
into the
sides
soffit
of or vertical sides of
reinforced concretereinforced
beams. Theconcrete
advantage
beams.
of this
Thesystem
advantage is that
of the
thiscomposite
system is that
is not
the composite is not
exposed to environmental
exposedinfluences.
to environmental
De Lorenzis
influences.
et al. (2000,
De Lorenzis
2002) and
et al.El-Hacha
(2000, 2002) and El-Hacha
and Rizkalla (2004)and
giveRizkalla
further(2004)
information
give further
on thisinformation
system. on this system.

2.5.5 The temperature

2.5.5 The
andtemperature
duration of and
cureduration
cycle of cure cycle
The factory automated
The factory
production
automated
methods,production
mentionedmethods,
above, mentioned
are manufactured
above, atare manufactured at
various elevated temperatures
various elevated
depending
temperatures
upon thedepending
thickness,uponthe volume
the thickness,
of the part
the volume of the part
and the manufacturing
and the
techniques
manufacturing
used. Fortechniques
instance,used.
the temperature
For instance,ofthe
thetemperature
die for of the die for
the manufacture ofthethemanufacture
pultrusion plate
of the
technique
pultrusion
willplate
be oftechnique
the orderwill
of 120–135
be of the order of 120–135
°C and the Tg of the
°Cpolymer
and the will
Tg ofbethe
of polymer
the orderwill
of 125–140
be of the °C.order
If necessary,
of 125–140 the°C. If necessary, the
pultruded componentpultruded
would component
then be post-cured
would then
for abe
certain
post-cured
time depending
for a certain
ontime
the depending on the
temperature used attemperature
post-cure; used
however,
at post-cure;
this operation
however,is not
this
usually
operation
undertaken.
is not usually
A undertaken. A
hot curing polymer is used in the pultrusion manufacture. A site fabricated technique
such as the wet lay-up method would utilise a cold cure polymer which would also
act as the adhesive.
 hot curing polymer is used in the pultrusion manufacture. A site fabricated technique
such as the wet lay-up method would utilise a cold cure polymer which would also
act as the adhesive.

2.5.6 The age of2.5.6

the polymer
The age composite
of the polymer composite
All polymers (the component
All polymersof(the
the component
composite protecting
of the composite
the fibre),
protecting
will degrade
the fibre), will degrade
over time, depending
overupon
time,the
depending
environment
uponinto
the which
environment
the composite
into which
is placed.
the composite is placed.
As degradation continues
As degradation
over thecontinues
life of the over
composite
the lifeso
ofwill
the the
composite
mechanical
so will the mechanical
properties decreaseproperties
in value. decrease in value.

FRP composites in FRP

platecomposites
bonding can in be
plate
either
bonding
unstressed
can beoreither
prestressed
unstressed
at the
or time
prestressed at the time
of bonding of the composite
of bondingtoofthe thesystem
composite
to betorehabilitated
the system to (Garden
be rehabilitated
et al., 1998).
(Garden et al., 1998).
The advantage, from Thea advantage,
structural point
fromof a structural
view, of using
pointa of
prestressed
view, of using
systema prestressed
is that system is that
a more efficient use a more
is made efficient
of theusecomposite
is madematerial.
of the composite
The prestressing
material.force
The prestressing force
applied at the timeapplied
of bonding
at thecould
time beof up
bonding
to 40%couldof the
beultimate
up to 40% strength
of the ofultimate
the strength of the
composite which implies
compositethatwhich
at the implies
failure ofthat
theatupgraded
the failurestructural
of the upgraded
system the structural system the
FRP composite willFRPbe close
composite
to its failure
will be value.
close to
Theitstwo
failure
platevalue.
bonding
The two
systems
platehave
bonding systems have
been illustrated in been
Chapter
illustrated
13, in thein Chapter
examples13, given
in the
in examples
Sections 13.7.1
given and
in Sections
13.8.1 13.7.1 and 13.8.1
respectively. respectively.
metals in both strength-to-weight ratio, tailored design, and unitized manufactura-
bility are increasingly recognized. Nonetheless, competition remains intense with
continuing developments in structural metals such as aluminum alloys: improved
toughness and corrosion resistance; new lightweight alloys (such as aluminum lithi-
um); low-cost aerospace-grade castings; mechanical alloying leading to high-tem-
perature alloys; and superplastic forming. For titanium, powder preforms, casting,
and superplastic-forming/diffusion bonding are to be mentioned. Advanced joining
techniques such as laser and friction stir welding, automated riveting techniques,
and high-speed (numerically controlled) machining also make metallic structures
more affordable. And the use of hybrid metal–composite combinations (such as the
GLARE1 material used on Airbus A380) which seems to have the best of both worlds
also gains popularity with certain designers.
metals in both strength-to-weight ratio, tailored design, and unitized manufactura-
bility are increasingly recognized. Nonetheless, competition remains intense with
continuing developments in structural metals such as aluminum alloys: improved
toughness and corrosion resistance; new lightweight alloys (such as aluminum lithi-
um); low-cost aerospace-grade castings; mechanical alloying leading to high-tem-
perature alloys; and superplastic forming. For titanium, powder preforms, casting,
and superplastic-forming/diffusion bonding are to be mentioned. Advanced joining
techniques such as laser and friction stir welding, automated riveting techniques,
and high-speed (numerically controlled) machining also make metallic structures
more affordable. And the use of hybrid metal–composite combinations (such as the
GLARE1 material used on Airbus A380) which seems to have the best of both worlds
also gains popularity with certain designers.
stress transfer from the matrix. Primary interruption, leading to the failure of good
interfacial adhesion, will lead to high moisture absorption and poor resistance to
moisture absorption. Low melting points contribute to microcracks in the polymer
composites. These weak mechanical properties are disadvantages to using a natural
fiber as a reinforcement material in composite making [31] (Figs. 14.4 and 14.5).
 stress transfer from the matrix. Primary interruption, leading to the failure of good
interfacial adhesion, will lead to high moisture absorption and poor resistance to
moisture absorption. Low melting points contribute to microcracks in the polymer
composites. These weak mechanical properties are disadvantages to using a natural
fiber as a reinforcement material in composite making [31] (Figs. 14.4 and 14.5).

Figure 14.4. Cross-section
Figure 14.4.
image
Cross-section
of treated Napier
imagegrass
of treated
usingNapier
SEM. grass using SEM.

Figure 14.5. Surface
Figure 14.5.
of treated Napier
Surfacegrass
of treated
fiber Napier
using SEM.
grass fiber using SEM.

The SEM image showsThe SEM

the cross-section
image showsofthe Napier
cross-section
grass fiber.of Napier
It showsgrass
a single
fiber. It shows a single
fibrillation where the
fibrillation
removal where
of lignin
thehas
removal
occurred,
of lignin
leaving
hasthe
occurred,
cross-section
leavingofthe
thecross-section of the
fiber smooth, and fiber
with asmooth,
gap between
and with
the afiber
gap and
between
the cell
thewall.
fiberThe
andmorphology
the cell wall. The morphology
showed the presenceshowed
of lumen
the presence
surrounding
of lumen
the cell
surrounding
wall of the the
fibercell
[16].
wall
This
of the fiber [16]. This
analysis explains the
analysis
shape explains
and structure
the shape
of the
and
fiber
structure
bundlesofinside
the fiber
thebundles
material.inside the material.

Using SEM as a characterization

Using SEM as technique
a characterization
exposestechnique
the arrangement
exposesand
the packing
arrangement and packing
of the fiber matrix,of
thereby
the fiber
indicating
matrix, thereby
the strength
indicating
of thisthe
material.
strength
The
ofcompressed
this material. The compressed
fiber has a similar structure to a particle board produced from nonwoody material
[14] (Tables 14.2 and 14.3).
The coefficient of thermal expansion
environments. Such materials, termed functionally graded materials (FGMs), were
first introduced by a group of scientists in Sendai, Japan in 1984 [1, 2].
 environments. Such materials, termed functionally graded materials (FGMs), were
first introduced by a group of scientists in Sendai, Japan in 1984 [1, 2].

Functionally graded Functionally

materials are
graded
inhomogeneous
materials arematerials
inhomogeneous
in which materials
the materialin which the material
properties are varied
properties
continuously
are varied
from continuously
point to point.from For example,
point to point.
a plateFor
structure
example, a plate structure
used as a thermal barrier
used asmay
a thermal
be graded
barrier
through
may be thegraded
plate thickness
through thefrom plate
ceramic
thickness
on from ceramic on
the face of the plate
the
that
face
is of
exposed
the plate
to high
that istemperature
exposed to to high
metal
temperature
on the other
to metal
face. on the other face.
This is achieved byThis
varying
is achieved
the volume
by varying
fractionthe of volume
the constituents
fraction ofi.e.,
theceramic
constituents
and i.e., ceramic and
metal in a predetermined
metal inmanner.
a predetermined
The ceramic manner.
constituent
The ceramic
of the material
constituentprovides
of the material provides
the high temperaturetheresistance
high temperature
due to itsresistance
low thermal dueconductivity.
to its low thermal
The ductile
conductivity.
met- The ductile met-
al constituent, on the
al constituent,
other hand,on prevents
the other
fracture
hand,caused
preventsby fracture
stresses caused
due to high
by stresses due to high
temperature gradienttemperature
in a very short
gradient
period
in aofvery
time.
short
A mixture
period of of time.
the ceramic
A mixture
andofa the ceramic and a
metal with a continuously
metal with
varying
a continuously
volume fraction
varying canvolume
be easily
fraction
manufactured
can be easily
[2–6].
manufactured [2–6].
This eliminates interface
This eliminates
problemsinterface
and thusproblems
the stressand distributions
thus the stress
are smooth.
distributions are smooth.

In this section, axisymmetric

In this section,
bending
axisymmetric
of through-the-thickness
bending of through-the-thickness
functionally gradedfunctionally graded
circular plates are studied
circular using
plates the
are Mindlin
studied using
plate theory,
the Mindlin
i.e., account
plate theory,
for thei.e., account for the
transverse shear strains.
transverse
Due shear
to nonsymmetric
strains. Duegrading
to nonsymmetric
of the material
gradingthrough
of thethematerial through the
thickness, the bending-stretching
thickness, the bending-stretching
coupling exists. General
coupling solution
exists.ofGeneral
the Mindlin
solution of the Mindlin
plate problem for arbitrary
plate problem
variation
for of
arbitrary
the constituents
variation ofisthe
derived
constituents
in termsisofderived
the in terms of the
isotropic Kirchhoffisotropic
plate solution.
Kirchhoff
Particular
plate solution.
solution Particular
are developedsolution
for aare
number
developed
of for a number of
boundary conditions. boundary
The effect
conditions.
of material
Thedistribution
effect of material
through distribution
the thickness
through
and the thickness and
boundary conditions boundary
on deflections
conditions
andonstresses
deflections
are presented.
and stresses are presented.
(sizing) must be strong enough to transfer the shear, and the matrix material must
be ductile enough to take up the large associated shear deformation.
 (sizing) must be strong enough to transfer the shear, and the matrix material must
be ductile enough to take up the large associated shear deformation.

Figure 17.3. Axial loading

Figure 17.3.
of fibre-reinforced
Axial loading of
composite.
fibre-reinforced
(a) Idealcomposite.
straight fibres.
(a) Ideal
Axialstraight fibres. Axial
strain compatibilitystrain
in fibre
compatibility
and matrix,innofibre
shear
and
transfer.
matrix,(b)
noWavy
shearfibres.
transfer.
Axial
(b)strain
Wavy fibres. Axial strain
compatibility in fibre
compatibility
and matrix,inshear
fibre stress
and matrix,
compatibility
shear stress
at thecompatibility
interface. at the interface.

With regard to fatigue

Withloading,
regard to
thefatigue
situation
loading,
sketched
the situation
in Figure 17.3
sketchedis even
in Figure 17.3
more is even more
pronounced due topronounced
the cyclic stretching
due to theorcyclic
contraction
stretching
of the
or contraction
wavy fibres, of which
the wavy fibres, which
may lead to cyclic interface
may leaddelamination.
to cyclic interface
In the
delamination.
case of interface
In thedelamination,
case of interface
the delamination, the
interface propertiesinterface
(providedproperties
by the sizing)
(provided
mustbyhave
thesufficient
sizing) must
fracture
have toughness
sufficient fracture toughness
to prevent crack propagation.
to prevent crack
Frompropagation.
Figure 17.3 itFrom
is observed
Figure 17.3
that the
it isrequirements
observed that the requirements
to the matrix are large
to the
(shear)
matrix
deformation
are large (shear)
capacity
deformation
and ductility
capacity
as well and
as ductility
proper as well as proper
attachment to the attachment
fibres (coherence).
to the fibres
Polymer(coherence).
matrix resins
Polymer
have matrix
provenresins
well suit-
have proven well suit-
ed for application in
edrotor
for application
blades withinregard
rotor blades
to bothwith
mechanical
regard toproperties
both mechanical
and properties and
processability. The processability.
polymer matrixThe resin
polymer
can bematrix
a thermoset
resin can
or abethermoplastic.
a thermoset orFor a thermoplastic. For
wind turbine rotorwind
blades,
turbine
the overall
rotor blades,
dominating the overall
resin isdominating
a thermoset resin
dueistoa low
thermoset due to low
viscosity, which allows
viscosity,
for high
whichprocessing
allows forspeedhigh and
processing
high impregnation,
speed and high giving
impregnation, giving
lower-cost processability
lower-cost
and high
processability
performance.and highBesides,
performance.
thermosets Besides,
do not thermosets
require do not require
external heating inexternal
the gel phase.
heatingThe in the
different
gel phase.
typesThe
of thermoset
different types
polymers
of thermoset
used polymers used
are polyethylene, vinylester
are polyethylene,
(VE), epoxyvinylester
(EP), and (VE),
to epoxy
a limited(EP),
extent
and topolyurethane
a limited extent polyurethane
(PUR). An irreversible
(PUR).
cross-binding
An irreversible
of thecross-binding
polymer chains of the
consolidates
polymer chains
the resin
consolidates
into the resin into
an amorphous polymeran amorphous
forming the polymer
matrix.forming
The main therequirements
matrix. The main for the
requirements
resin for the resin
are high ductility, high
are high
toughness,
ductility,low
high
viscosity
toughness,
(<500 cps),
low viscosity
excellent
(<500 cps),
processability
excellent processability
(gel time  20 min), (gel
lowtime
shrinkage,
 20 min),
andlowcompatibility
shrinkage, withand compatibility
various fibres,withsizing
various fibres, sizing
and adhesives. Also,and
lowadhesives.
moistureAlso,
absorption
low moisture
is soughtabsorption
and – as is counting
sought andfor all
– as counting for all
constituents – low constituents
cost. All thermoset
– low cost.
resins Allare
thermoset
classifiedresins
as hazardous
are classified
chemicals
as hazardous
in chemicals in
case of skin and eyecase
contact.
of skin and eye contact.

Polyester resins, orPolyester

more correctly
resins,unsaturated
or more correctly
polyester
unsaturated
resins (UP),
polyester
are lowresins
viscosity
(UP), are low viscosity
and show excellentandmechanical
show excellent
performance
mechanical
whenperformance
cured at roomwhen
temperature.
cured at room
A temperature. A
main drawback is themain
large
drawback
volumetric
is the
shrinkage
large volumetric
(both chemical
shrinkage
and(both
thermal)
chemical
givingand thermal) giving
detrimental residual stresses in the cured laminates, especially affecting the fatigue
performance of the composites (Zangenberg, 2013). Another concern is the use of
styrene, which is the precursor to polyethylene and facilitates the cross-binding dur-
ing consolidation. It evaporates easily and it is suspected to have a potential toxicity,
and is believed to have a cancer-causing potential. However, handled safely in closed
processes, UPs also perform well as a resin for some blade manufacturers. UPs were
the resin of choice in the early days of rotor blade manufacturing. Pricewise, UP is
the most cost-competitive resin material. Polyester composites exhibit the lowest
fatigue resistance of the typical resin systems for rotor blades.
 detrimental residual stresses in the cured laminates, especially affecting the fatigue
performance of the composites (Zangenberg, 2013). Another concern is the use of
styrene, which is the precursor to polyethylene and facilitates the cross-binding dur-
ing consolidation. It evaporates easily and it is suspected to have a potential toxicity,
and is believed to have a cancer-causing potential. However, handled safely in closed
processes, UPs also perform well as a resin for some blade manufacturers. UPs were
the resin of choice in the early days of rotor blade manufacturing. Pricewise, UP is
the most cost-competitive resin material. Polyester composites exhibit the lowest
fatigue resistance of the typical resin systems for rotor blades.

VE is produced based VE isonproduced

an EP resin.
based
It has
on an EPimproved
resin. Itmechanical
has an improved
performance
mechanical performance
compared to polyester,
compared
and ittoshows
polyester,
equally
andgood
it shows
properties
equallywith
good
lowproperties
viscosity. with low viscosity.
Like polyester, it cures
Like polyester,
out at lowerit cures
exothermal
out at heating
lower exothermal
than EP. Itheating
is dissolved
thaninEP.a It is dissolved in a
reactive solvent (peroxide),
reactive solvent
such as(peroxide),
styrene, andsuch
hence
as styrene,
has similar
and health
hence drawbacks
has similar health drawbacks
as polyester. The mechanical
as polyester. performance
The mechanical
of VEperformance
composites isofnormally
VE composites
found is normally found
improved compared improved
to UP systems,
comparedbutto
a close
UP systems,
control but
of the
a close
processing
controlparameters
of the processing parameters
is still required to obtain
is still required
the excellent
to obtain
properties.
the excellent properties.

EP resin is the dominating

EP resin is resin
the for
dominating
rotor blades.
resinDuefor to
rotor
a lower
blades.
shrinkage
Due to ita lower
is shrinkage it is
possible to maintainpossible
a higherto maintain
fibre content,
a higher
and fibre
all things
content,
beingand
equal,
all things
the blade
being equal, the blade
weight can be reduced
weightwithout
can becompromising
reduced without thecompromising
performance. The the drawbacks
performance. areThe drawbacks are
the material costs (at
theleast
material
twicecosts
the cost
(at least
per kilo
twice ofthe
UP)cost
andper
thekilo
factofthat
UP)external
and the fact that external
heating is requiredheating
during is therequired
gel phase.during
Epoxies
the gel
arephase.
found Epoxies
in manyare variations,
found in many variations,
with higher viscosities
withtohigher
be used viscosities
for handtolayup,
be used forfor
repair,
handorlayup,
as glue,
for and
repair,
in low
or as glue, and in low
viscosity for vacuumviscosity
infusion forprocesses.
vacuum infusion
EP has superior
processes. mechanical
EP has superior
properties
mechanical
in properties in
the full cross-linked
thestate
full compared
cross-linked to state
UP andcompared
VE systems,to UPand
andalso
VE shrinks
systems,less
and also shrinks less
than UP and VE. The thancuring
UP and or consolidation
VE. The curingoforEPconsolidation
is an exothermal
of EPreaction
is an exothermal
and reaction and
the generated exothermal
the generated
heat canexothermal
be utilisedheat
in accelerating
can be utilised
thein
curing
accelerating
process.the curing process.
However, for thicker However,
laminates,
for the
thicker
heatlaminates,
can causethe
thermal
heat can
damage
causeand
thermal
reducedamage
the and reduce the
performance of theperformance
composites.of Like
thethe
composites.
concurringLike
thermoset
the concurring
resins, EP
thermoset
causes resins, EP causes
serious skin irritation
serious
and skin
can result
irritation
in permanent
and can result
hypersensitivity.
in permanentForhypersensitivity.
rotor blade For rotor blade
design purposes, the design
slopepurposes,
parameter theofslope
the S–N
parameter
curve may
of the
be S–N
takencurve
as m = 10
may befortaken as m = 10 for
EP and m = 9 for polyester
EP and m = 9
without
for further
polyester
verification
without further
(Germanischer
verification
Lloyd,
(Germanischer
2010), Lloyd, 2010),
which indicates thewhich
improvement
indicates using
the improvement
an EP resin system.
using an EP resin system.

PUR is a thermosetPURresin
is that
a thermoset
has excellent
resinmechanical
that has excellent
properties.
mechanical
It is very
properties.
reactive It is very reactive
and gives strong adhesive
and gives bonds,
strongandadhesive
the resin
bonds,
can be andformulated
the resin can
to abelarge
formulated
variety to a large variety
of applications. Used
of applications.
for vacuum infusion,
Used for PURvacuum
is low
infusion,
viscosityPUR
andisdifficult
low viscosity
to and difficult to
handle because of handle
the extreme
because
sensitivity
of the extreme
to moisture.
sensitivity
This together
to moisture.
with This
shorttogether
gel with short gel
time are the main time
limitations
are theformain
its use
limitations
in wind for
turbine
its use
blades,
in wind
as the
turbine
moisture
blades, as the moisture
content is difficult content
to control is difficult
for suchto large
control
structures
for such – especially,
large structures
the use – especially,
of balsa the use of balsa
wood as core material
wood puts
as core
a limitation
materialon puts
theaapplication.
limitation on the application.
> Read full chapter
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Delamination
Delamination
in adhesively
in adhesively
bonded bonded
joints joints
B.R.K. BLACKMAN,
B.R.K.
in Delamination
BLACKMAN,Behaviour
in Delamination
of Composites,
Behaviour
2008
of Composites, 2008

16.2.1 Why adhesively

16.2.1 Why
bond?
adhesively bond?
When one materialWhen has toone
be material
joined tohas another
to be injoined
a component
to another orinstructure
a componentthen or structure then
clearly the designerclearly
has a the
selection
designerof joining
has a selection
methodsoftojoining
choosemethods
from including
to choose from including
welding, brazing, bolting,
welding,riveting,
brazing,adhesive
bolting, bonding
riveting, or adhesive
a combination
bondingof orthese.
a combination of these.
For polymer matrixFor fibre-composite
polymer matrix materials
fibre-composite
the choice materials
is usuallythebetween
choice isbolting
usually between bolting
or adhesive bonding.
or adhesive
Several factors
bonding.haveSeveral
led to factors
adhesive have
bonding
led to becoming
adhesive bonding
a becoming a
popular joining technology
popular joining
for composite
technology parts.forAdhesives
compositewill parts.
readily
Adhesives
bond the will readily bond the
thermosetting polymer
thermosetting
matrix composite
polymer materials
matrix composite
commonly materials
employed commonly
by the employed by the
aerospace industryaerospace
and will also
industry
successfully
and will bond
alsocomposites
successfullytobond many composites
of the dissim-to many of the dissim-
ilar substrate materials
ilar substrate
employed materials
in the automotive
employed industry.
in the automotive
With more industry.
advanced With more advanced
surface treatmentssurface
adhesives
treatments
will also adhesives
bond thermoplastic
will also bond matrix
thermoplastic
composites.matrixThe composites. The
requirement to drill
requirement
or punch a to holedrill
in orthepunch
substrate
a hole is avoided
in the substrate
with adhesives
is avoided with adhesives
leading to a more even
leadingstress
to adistribution
more even stressand also distribution
the avoidanceand also
of damage
the avoidance
to of damage to
the composite (Kinloch
the composite
1987). In addition,
(Kinloch 1987).
significant
In addition,
weight significant
savings canweightbe savings can be
achieved by the useachieved
of adhesive
by the
bonding.
use of adhesive
Adhesivesbonding.
are also commonly
Adhesives are used also
to commonly
repair used to repair
composite parts andcomposite
the designparts
andandintegrity
the design
of repair
and joints
integrity
hasofbeen
repair
thejoints
subjecthas been the subject
of considerable research.
of considerable
Inevitablyresearch.
joint failures
Inevitably
do occur jointand
failures
thesedo can
occur
be caused
and these can be caused
by poor joint design
byor
poor
adhesive
joint design
selection,
or adhesive
the use of
selection,
no (or inappropriate)
the use of no surface
(or inappropriate) surface
pre-treatments or pre-treatments
by exposure to certain
or by exposure
types of to
loading
certainand/or
types hostile
of loading
service
and/or hostile service
environments (e.g.,environments
impact or cyclic
(e.g.,
fatigue
impactloading
or cyclic
andfatigue
hot-wet loading
conditions).
and hot-wet
Most conditions). Most
adhesive manufacturers
adhesive
nowmanufacturers
formulate a range
now formulate
of adhesives a range
specifically
of adhesives
marketedspecifically marketed
towards the composites
towards
bonding
the composites
sector including
bonding a wide
sectorrange
including
of epoxy,
a wide
acrylic
rangeand
of epoxy, acrylic and
urethane adhesives.urethane adhesives.

> Read full chapter

> Read full chapter

Novel Multilayered
Novel Multilayered
Structures
Structures
and Ap- and Ap-
plications
plications
Deepak Langhe, Michael
DeepakPonting,
Langhe,in
Michael
Manufacturing
Ponting, and
in Manufacturing
Novel Applications
and Novel
of Applications of
Multilayer PolymerMultilayer
Films, 2016
Polymer Films, 2016
6.7.3 Multicomponent Fiber Webs – PA6 and PET Fibers
 6.7.3 Multicomponent Fiber Webs – PA6 and PET Fibers
The 2D multilayer Thecoextrusion
2D multilayer
process coextrusion
was used to process
produce wasa used
layeredto PA6/PET
produce a layered PA6/PET
composite with vertical
composite
layer stacks
with vertical
separatedlayerbystacks
PS layers.
separated
PA6 and by PS
PET layers.
polymers
PA6 and PET polymers
were selected for their
wereweakselected
adhesion
for their
withweak
estimated
adhesion interphase
with estimated
thickness interphase
of 3 nm or thickness of 3 nm or
less. Twelve verticalless.
layerTwelve
multipliers
verticalandlayer
fourmultipliers
horizontaland layer
four
multipliers
horizontalwere layerused
multipliers were used
to create a compositeto create
structurea composite
with 16 stacks
structure
of 256
withalternating
16 stacks of layers
256of alternating
PA6 and layers of PA6 and
PET and each verticalPETlayer
and stack
each was
vertical
separated
layer stack
by PSwashorizontal
separated layers.
by PSThehorizontal
PA6/PETlayers. The PA6/PET
composition of thecomposition
vertical layers of was
the maintained
vertical layers at was
50/50maintained
and the volume
at 50/50 ratio
andofthe volume ratio of
the vertical layers to
thePSvertical
is 2:1. layers
A high-pressure
to PS is 2:1. water
A high-pressure
jet separatedwaterthe PA6jet separated
and PET the PA6 and PET
layers, achieving thelayers,
composite
achievingfiberthematrix.
composite
The fiberfiberwidths
matrix.ranged
The fiber
fromwidths
0.1 μm ranged
to from 0.1 μm to
6.6 μm and the thicknesses
6.6 μm and weretheinthicknesses
0.1–0.6 μm.were Occasionally,
in 0.1–0.6the μm.layers
Occasionally,
were notthe de-layers were not de-
laminated during the laminated
separationduringprocess
the separation
resulting intoprocess
widerresulting
fiber sizeintodistribution.
wider fiber size distribution.
An orientation process
An orientation
was also incorporated
process was to also
improve
incorporated
the mechanical
to improve properties
the mechanical properties
of the fiber matrix.ofThe thefibers
fiber from
matrix. theThe
stretched
fibers from
composites
the stretched
were separated
composites using
were separated using
high pressure water high
jetspressure
to achieve water
the cross-section
jets to achievedimensions
the cross-section
of 0.3–2.4
dimensions
μm and of 0.3–2.4 μm and
0.1–0.4 μm, with more0.1–0.4than μm,80%withfibers
more with
than
cross-sectional
80% fibers with dimensions
cross-sectional
less than
dimensions
1 less than 1
× 1 μm. The SEM images
× 1 μm.ofThe theSEM
fibersimages
and fiber of the
sizefibers
distributions
and fiberare size
shown
distributions
in Figureare shown in Figure
6.17. The orientation6.17.of The
fiberorientation
composite of exhibited
fiber composite
almost one exhibited
order of almost
magnitude
one order of magnitude
improvement in the improvement
Young’s modulus in theandYoung’s
tensile
modulus
strength. andThe
tensile
fiberstrength.
composite The fiber composite
created using extruded
created samples
using showed
extrudedYoung’s
samplesmodulus
showedand Young’s
tensile
modulus
strength andof tensile strength of
0.33 ± 0.02 GPa and 0.3354 ±± 0.02
9 MPa,GParespectively.
and 54 ± 9 MPa,In contrast,
respectively.
oriented In fibers
contrast,showed
oriented fibers showed
Young’s modulus and Young’s
tensile
modulus
strength andvalues
tensile
as strength
high as 6.1 values
± 0.2asGPa
highand as 480
6.1 ±± 0.2
21 GPa and 480 ± 21
MPa, respectively [39].
MPa, respectively [39].
Figure 6.17. SEM images
Figure of
6.17.
theSEM
obtained
images
PA6/PET
of the fiber
obtained
system.
PA6/PET
At magnifications
fiber system.ofAt magnifications of
(a) 2500× and (b) 4000×;
(a) 2500×
(c) fiber
and thickness
(b) 4000×;distribution;
(c) fiber thickness
(d) fiber
distribution;
width distributions.
(d) fiber width distributions.