Human Resource Training & Development

Human Resource Development & Training
1.1 INTRODUCTION
One of the key activities in the human resources management (HRM) function is deciding
what staffing needs we have and whether to use independent contractors or hire employees
to fill these needs. Besides recruiting, training the best employees, ensuring they are high
performers, dealing with performance issues, and ensuring personnel and management
practices to conform to various regulations are equally important HR activities. Activities
also include managing our approach to employee benefits and compensation, employee
records and personnel policies. Usually small businesses (for-profit or non-profit) have to
carry out these activities themselves because they can't yet afford part - or full-time help.
However, they should always ensure that employees have - and are aware of personnel
policies which conform to current regulations. These policies are often in the form of
employee manuals.
Normally people distinguish between HRM (a major management activity) and HRD
(Human Resource Development, a profession). HRD includes the broader range of activities
to develop personnel inside of organisations, including, e.g. career development, training,
organisation development, etc. There is a long-standing argument about where HR-related
functions should be organised into large organisations, e.g., "should HR be in the
Organisation Development department or the other way around?" Over the past many
years, the HRM function and HRD profession have undergone tremendous change. Many
years ago, large organisations looked to the "Personnel Department," mostly to manage
the paperwork around hiring and paying people. More recently, organisations consider
the "HR Department" as playing a major role in staffing, training and helping to manage
people so that people and the organisation are performing at maximum capability in a
highly fulfilling manner.
Human Resource Development (HRD) can be defined as a set of systematic and planned
activities designed by an organisation to provide its members with opportunities to learn
necessary skills to meet current and future job demands.
Prof. T. V. Rao defines HRD as a process in which the employees of an organisation are
continuously helped in a planned way to: a
ps
• acquire or sharpen their capabilities required to perform various obligation, tasks and
functions
• develop their capabilities as individuals so that they may be able to discover theii
potentialities and exploit them to the fuller extent for their own and/or organisation;!;
development purposes; and
Unit 1 Introduction to Human Resource Development
• to develop an organisational culture where superior subordinate relationships, team

work and collaboration among different sub-units are strong and contribute to
organisational wealth, dynamism and pride of the employees.
1.2 ESTABLISHMENTOFHRDASAPROFESSION: MAJOR HISTORICAL

EVENTS
______________________________________________________________
While the term HRD has only been in common use since 1980s, the concept has been
around a lot longer than that. To understand its origin, it is helpful to briefly recount the
history of this field to understand its modern definition.
Early Apprenticeship Training Programs:
The apprenticeship training programs in the early eighteenth century reflected the origins
of HRD. During this time small shops operated by skilled artisans produced virtually all
household goods, such as furniture, clothing and shoes. To meet a growing demand for
their products, the craft shop owners had to hire additional workers. Without vocational
or technical schools, the shopkeepers had to educate and train their own workers. These
trainees or apprentices learned the craft of their master, usually working in the shop for
several years for little or no wages, until they became proficient in trade. Apprentices who
mastered all necessary skills were considered 'yeomen1, and could leave their masters and
establish own craft shops; however they remained with their masters because they could
not afford to buy the tools and equipment needed to start their own craft shop. The master
craftsman formed a network of private 'franchises' so they could regulate such things as
product quality, wages, hours and apprentice testing procedures. These craft guilds grew
to become more powerful political and social forces within their communities, making it
even more difficult for yeomen to establish independent craft shops.
Early Factory School:
With the advent of industrial revolution during the late 1800s, machines began to replace
the hand tools of artisans." Scientific" management principles recognised the significant
role of machines in better and more efficient production systems. Specifically, semiskilled
workers using machines could produce more than the skilled workers in small craft shops.
Factory school programs differed from early apprenticeship programs. They tended to be
shorter in duration and had a narrower focus on the skills needed to do a particular job.
Early Vocational Education Programs:
A man named Dewitt Clinton founded the first recognised privately funded vocational
school in 1809, and also referred to as manual school, in New York City. The purpose of
the manual school was to provide occupational training to unskilled young people who
were unemployed or who had criminal records. Manual schools grew in popularity, because
they were a public solution to a social problem: what to do with "misdirected" youths.
Regardless of their intent, these early forms of occupational training established a model
for vocational education.
Human Resource Development & Training The
Hum
an
Relations Movement:
One of the by-products of the factory system was the frequent abuse of
unskilled workers, including children, who were often subjected to unhealthy
4
working conditions, long hours and low pay. The terrible conditions spurred a
national anti-factory campaign. The campaign gave rise to the 'human relations'
movement advocating more humane working conditions. The human relations
movement provided a more complex and realistic understanding of workers
as people instead of 'cogs' in a factory machine. The movement continued in
the 1940s, with World War II as the backdrop.
Abraham Maslow published his theory on human needs, stating that people can
be motivated by non-economic incentives. He proposed that human needs
are arranged in terms of lesser to greater potency (strength), and distinguishes
between lower order (basic survival) and higher order (psychological)
needs. Theories like Maslow's serve to reinforce the notion that varied needs
and desires of workers can become important sources of motivation in the
workplace.
In 1942, the American Society for Training Directors was formed to

establish some standards within this emerging profession. At the time, the
requirements for full membership in ASTD included a college or University
degree plus two years of experience in training or related field, or five years
of experience in training.
Emergence of Human Resource Movement:
During the 1960s and 1970s, professional trainers realised their roles
extended beyond classroom. Coaching and counselling employees ensured
employee involvement in many organisations. Training and development
competencies therefore expanded to include interpersonal skills such as
coaching, group process facilitation and problem solving. This additional
emphasis on employee development inspired the ASTD to rename itself as
the American Society for Training and Development.
Âctivity A;
Enumerate the various historical events which led to the establishment of HR as

aprofession and elucidate one important point of each.
1.3 ROLES OF AN HR PROFESSIONAL

The following are the roles of the HR professionals with the changing nature of organisations
and several environmental challenges. Based on the ASTD study results, Pat McLagan
states that contemporary HRD professionals perform nine distinct roles, which are described
below:
• The HR systems designer: He/she assists the HR management in the design and
development of HR systems which affect organisation performance. Outputs include
HR program designs, intervention strategies, and implementation of HR programs.
4• HR strategic adviser: He/she consults strategic decision-makers on HRD issues

that directly affect the articulation of organisation strategies and performance goals.
Outputs include HR strategic plans and strategic planning education and training
programs.
The organisation change agent: He/she advises management in the design
and implementation of change strategies used in transforming organisations. Outputs
include more efficient work teams, quality management, intervention strategies,
implementation and change reports.
The organisation design consultant: He/she advises management on work
systems design and efficient use of human resources. Outputs include intervention
strategies, alternative work designs and implementation.
The instructor/facilitator: He/she presents materials and leads and facilitates
structured learning experiences. Outputs include the selection of appropriate
instructional methods and techniques and the actual HRD program itself.
The learning program specialist (or instructional designer): He/she identifies the
need of the learner, develops and designs appropriate learning programs and
prepares material and other learning aids. Outputs include program objectives,
lesson plans and intervention strategies.
The performance consultant (or coach): He/she advises line management on
appropriate interventions designed to improve individual and group performance.
Outputs include intervention strategies, coaching design, and implementation.
The career counsellor: He/she assists individual employees in assessing
their
compet
encies
and
goals
in
order
to
develo
p a
realisti
c
career
plan.
Output
s
include
individ
ual
assess
ment
session
s,
worksh
op
facilitat
ion and
career
guidan
ce.
The researcher assesses HRD practices and programs using appropriate statistical
procedures to determine their overall effectiveness and communicates the results to the
organisation. Outputs include research design, research findings and recommendations
and reports.
JS$ Activity B;
Match the following:
Role of HR Managers Core activity

HR system designer Suggests interventions to line managers
HR Strategic adviser Assists employees in developing a realistic career plan
Learning program specialist Leads and facilitates structured learning experiences
Organisation design consultant Designs appropriate learning programs

Organisation change agent Advises organisation on work system design
Facilitator/instructor Advises management in the design and implementation
of change strategies
Performance Coach Assist HR management in the design and development
of HR systems
Career counsellor Consults strategic decision-makers on HRD issues
1.4 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

AND HRD/TRAINING__________________________________________
In most organisations, however, training or human resource development is a part of a

larger human resource management department. In some organisations, training can be a
stand alone function or department. Human Resource Management (HRM) can be defined
as an effective selection and utilisation of employees to best achieve the goals and strategies
of the organisation as well as the employees. The most comprehensive way to present the
HRM function is to examine the activities carried out by a larger department, such as the
HRM division headed by a Vice President as depicted in the Figure 1.1.
Unit 1 Introduction to
Human Resource
Vice President (HR)
i
1
HR Research
!
Staffing Employee
1
HRD
1
Comp & Ben
& Director Relations Director Director
Planning Director Director
Fig. 1.1: Structure

ofHR department
•V
;
Major HR Functions
HRM can be divided
into primary and
secondary functions.
Primary functions are
directly involved with
recruiting, maintaining
and developing
employees. Secondary
functions either provide
support for general
management activities
or are involved in
determining or
changing the structure
of the organisation.
These functions are
detailed below.
Primary HRM
Functions
• Human Resource
Planning (HRP): HRP
activities are used to
predict how changes in
management strategy
will affect future
human resource
needs. These activities
are
becoming increasingly
important with rapid
changes in external
market demands.
• Staffing
(recruitment and
selection) activities are
designed for the timely
identification
of the potential
applicants for current
and future openings
and for assessing and
evaluating applicants
in order to make a
selection and
placement decision.
• Equal
employment
opportunities are
intended to satisfy
both legal and moral
responsibilities of the
organisation through
the prevention of
discriminatory
policies,
procedures and
practices. This includes
decisions affecting
hiring, training,
appraising
and compensating
employees.
• Compensation and
benefits management is
responsible for
establishing and
maintaining
an equitable internal
wage structure, a
competitive benefits
package, as well as
incentives to the
individual, team or
organisational
performance.
• Employee
Relations activities
include developing a
communication
system through
which employees
can address their
problems and
grievances. In a
unionised
organisation, labour
relations will include
the development of
working relations with
each labour union, as
well as contract
negotiations and
administration.
• Training and development activities are intended to ensure that organisational members
have the skills or competencies to meet current and future job demands.
• Health, safety and security activities seek to promote a safe and healthy work
environment. This can include actions such as safety training, employee assistance
programs, and health and wellness programs.
Secondary HRM Functions
1. Organisation/job design activities are concerned with interdepartmental relations and

the organisation and definition of jobs.
2. Human Resource Information System (HRIS) is necessary to make enlightened human

resource decisions. The HRIS has all the data of the employees which is useful in
many of the management decisions.
3. Performance Management System is used for establishing and maintaining

accountability throughout the organisation.
Major Human Resource Development Functions
Human Resource Development can be a stand alone function or it can be one of the
primary functions within the HR department. An ASTD sponsored study sought to identify
the HRD roles and competencies needed for an effective HRD function. The study identified
four trends affecting modern HRD:
4. Greater diversity in the workforce.
5. More people involved in knowledge work, which requires judgement, flexibility and
personal commitment rather than submission to procedures.
6. Greater expectations of meaningful work and employee involvement.
7. A shift in the nature of the contract between organisations and their employees.
The ASTD study documented a shift from the more traditional training and development
topics to a function that included career development and organisation development issues
as well. The study depicted the relationship between HRM and HRD functions as a "human
resource wheel".
I
Performance
Compensation/Benefits
Selection
HR Results:
T
and& Staffing
D
Focus: Management
Focus: ensuring
Productivity
matching
Focus: people
Identifying,
System
compensation
and
Quality andFocus:
and
their Innovation
ensuring, career needs
through Organisation
benefits
and
Readiness ensuring
fairness
capabilities
planned and
for with
learning-change
jobs
helping Development Focus:
individual
consistency
and keyand
career paths
develop ensuring healthy
organisation
competencies that enable inter and intro-unit
goals are linked
individuals to perform and relationships and
current or future jobs helping
groups initiate and
manage
Employee Assistance change
Focus: providing Career Development
personal problem Focus: ensuring an
solving/counselling to alignment of individual
individual employees career planning and
organisation career
management processes
to
achieve an optimal
HR Research and Organisational/Job
Information Design
Systems Focus: Focus: defining how
ensuring an HR tasks,
information base authority and systems
will
be organised andmatch
of individual and
organisational needs
HR planning
Focus: determining
the organisation's
major human
resource
needs, strategies
and
philosophies
Fig. 1.2 : Human Resource Wheel
The HR wheel identifies three primary HRD functions: a) training and development,
b) organisation development, c) career development. We will now discuss the functions in
details.
i
10 Traini knowledge and skills needed to do a particular task or job, though attitude change
ng may also be attempted. Developmental activities, in contrast, have a longer-term
and focus on preparing for future work responsibilities, while also increasing the
capacities of employees to perform the currentjobs.
Devel
opme T & D activities begin when a new employee enters the organisation, usually in the
nt form of employee orientation and skills training. Employee orientation is the process by
which new employees learn important organisational values and norms, establish
Trainin working relationships and learn how to function within their jobs. The HRD staff
g and and recruitment specialist generally share the responsibility for designing and
Develo conducting the orientation process, and beginning the initial skills training. Skills and
pment technical training programs then focus to teach the new employee a particular skill or
focus area of knowledge.
on
changi Once new employees have become proficient in their jobs, HRD activities should
ng or focus more on developmental activities- specifically, coaching and counselling. In the
improv coaching process, individuals are encouraged to accept responsibilities for their
ing the action, to address work-related problems, and to achieve and sustain superior
knowle performance. Coaching involves treating employees as partners in achieving
dge personal and organisational goals. Counselling techniques are used to help
skills, employees deal with personal problems that may interfere with achievement of these
and goals. Counselling programs may address such issues as stress management,
attitude smoking cessation, or fitness and nutrition.
s of
individ HRD professionals are also responsible for co-ordinating management training
uals. and development programs to ensure that managers and supervisors have the
Trainin knowledge and skills necessary to be effective in their positions. These programs may
g include supervisory training, job rotation, one-day seminars, or college and
typicall university courses.
y
involve Organisation Development
s
Organisation Development (OD) is defined as the process of enhancing the
providi
effectiveness of an organisation and the well-being of its members through planned
ng
interventions that apply behavioral science concepts. OD emphasises both macro
emplo
and micro organisational changes: macro changes are intended to ultimately
yees
improve the effectiveness of the organisation, whereas micro changes are directed
the
to individuals, small groups, and teams. For example, many organisations have
sought to improve organisational effectiveness by introducing employee
involvement programs that require fundamental changes in work expectations,
reward systems and reporting procedures.
Unit 1 Introduction to Human Resource Development •
The HR professional involved in an OD intervention is required to function as a change

agent. Facilitating change often requires consulting with and advising line managers on
strategies that can be used to effect the desired change. In today's changing nature of HR,
the HR professional may also become directly involved in carrying out the intervention
strategy. For example, he/she facilitates a meeting of the employees responsible for planning
and implementing the actual change process.
Career relatively unique set of issues, themes and tasks." Career development involves two distinct
Develo processes: career planning and career management. Career planning involves activities
pment performed by an individual, often with the assistance of counsellors and others to assess
his or her skills and abilities in order to establish a realistic plan. Career management
Career involves taking the necessary steps to achieve that plan and generally focuses more on
Develo what the organisation can do to foster employee career development. There is a strong
pment relationship between career development and T&D activities. Career plans can be
is an implemented; at least in part, through an organisation's training programs.
"ongoi
ng The other functions of the HR wheel are given in details below:
proces
s by HR Planning
which
HR planning focuses on determining the organisation's major human resource needs
individ
strategies and philosophies. The effective employment of people is reflected through
ual's
successful Human resource planning. The changes and pressures brought about by
progre
economic, technological and social factors compel organisations of all kinds to study the
ss
costs and human aspects of labour much more seriously and carefully than ever before.
throug
The general purposes of HR planning include: determining recruitment and training needs,
h a
management development, balancing the cost between utilisation of the plant and workforce.
series
of Organisational Job/Design and Role Analysis
stages,
each of Each and every organisation has its own structure which it has framed on the basis of its
which objectives and goals. Role analysis is used to define roles more clearly so that ambiguity in
is the expectations may be avoided. The individual and the organisation both will be satisfied
charact when the role and person's capacity match with each other thereby resulting in minimum
erised human resource wastage. Organisational job/design focuses on defining how tasks, authority
by a and systems will be organised and integrated across organisation units and individual jobs.
11
12 Human Resource Development & Training » • M- uv,. ......
The tasks, authority and systems will be organised depending on the nature of the
organisation.
Selection and Staffing
Selection and Staffing focuses on matching people and their career needs and capabilities
with jobs and career paths. Human resource planning identifies the personnel needs. Once
these needs are established a job analysis is done, which clarifies the characteristics of
jobs being done and the individual qualities necessary to do these jobs successfully. This
information is then used to recruit a pool of qualified applicants. The process of narrowing
this set is one of the major objectives of selection. The applicants are assessed against the
criteria established in job analysis in order to predict which job applicants will be successful if
hired.
Performance Management System
Performance Management System is used to ensure individual and organisation goals are
linked and that what individuals do every day support the organisational goals. The prime
objective of Performance Appraisal is to make employee realise as to where he stands in
terms of performance. HRD looks at performance appraisal system as a tool to help
employee overcome his weaknesses, improve his strengths. Many organisations use the
techniques of confidential reports for giving objective feedback. It is only useful to evaluate
the performance of employees if it is based on objective and continuous evaluation of
performance against given norms. After evaluating the performance appraisal format, the
need for training employees, counselling or any follow up should always be conducted in
order to make the system positive and objective.
Compensation and Benefit
Compensation and Benefit focuses on ensuring compensation and benefits fairness and
consistency. Traditionally, organisations design pay systems by evaluating jobs. The
characteristics of a particular job are determined, and pay is made comparable to what
other organisations pay for jobs with similar characteristics. This job evaluating method
tends to result in pay systems with high external and internal equity. However, it fails to
reward employees for all of the skills that they have, discourages people from learning
new skills, and results in a view of pay as an entitlement.
Some organisations, have designed pay systems according to people's skills and abilities. By
focusing on the individual, rather than the job, skill-based pay systems reward learning and
growth. Typically, employees are paid according to the number of different jobs that f
Unit 1 Introduction to Human Resource Development ;• produci
ng an
equitabl
they can perform. Skill-based pay systems have a number of benefits. They contribute to
e wage
organisational effectiveness by providing a more flexible workforce and by giving employees a
rate.
broad perspective on how the entire plant operates. This flexibility can result in leaner
staffing and fewer problems with absenteeism, turnover, and work disruptions. Skill-based pay Employ
can lead to durable employee satisfaction by reinforcing individual development and by
ee Relations
Employee relations activities include developing a communication system through which
employees can address their problems and grievances. In a unionised organisation, labour
relations will include the development of working relations with each labour union, as well as
contract negotiations and administration.
Human Resource Information Systems (HRIS)

The focus of HRIS is to ensure an HR information base. Human Resource Information
System is a system that lets us keep track of all our employees and information about
them. It is usually done in a database or, more often, in a series of inter-related databases.
These systems include the employee name and contact information and all or some of the
following: department, job title, grade, salary, salary history, position history, supervisor,
training completed, special qualifications, ethnicity, date of birth, disabilities, veteran's status, visa
status and more. They include reporting capabilities. Some systems track applicants before
they become employees and some are interfaced to payroll or other financial systems.
£> Activity C;
Tick whether the following statements are True or False.
8. Training and development are one and the same. T () F ()
9. Organisation Development intervention is focused

only on macro changes in the organisation. T () F ()
3. Career Development is an "ongoing process by which

Individual's progress through a series of stages, each of
which is characterised by a relatively unique set of issues,
themes and tasks." T C) F ()
13
14 Human Resource Development & Training
10. Organisational design and role analysis are closely related.
11. HR planning focuses on determining the organisation's major

human resource needs strategies and philosophies.
12. Organisational designs pay systems by evaluating jobs.
13. HRIS does not keep track of applicants before they become
employees.
1.5 CONTRIBUTION OF HRD SUB-SYSTEMS TO DIFFERENT

DEVELOPMENT DIMENSIONS __________________________________
Each of the sub-systems or mechanisms discussed above contributes to the achievements of

not only HRD goals but to its various development dimensions as indicated in Table
1.1. For example, performance appraisal focuses primarily on helping the individual to develop
his or her present role. Potential appraisal focuses primarily on identifying the employees'
likely future roles within the organisation.
Training is the most significant sub-system contributing to all HRD development dimensions.
Training is a means of developing the individual's ability to perform his or her present job role
or future job roles. Training can also strengthen inter-personal relationships (through training
in communications, conflict resolution, problem solving and transactional analysis etc.) and
increase team work and collaboration (through management and organisational
development). It is the mechanism for developing team collaboration and self-renewing
skills. The contribution of HRD sub-system to different development dimensions has been
presented in Table 1.1.
HRD: Process Approach
Human Resource Development is not a quantitative method but a process approach to the
personnel needs of an organisation that takes into account the fears, frustrations, hopes,
aspirations, ambitions and apprehensions that guide and condition the actions of the
individuals. It also endeavours to look at the motives and objectives of the individual at
work.
It believes that human potential is limitless and that it is the duty of the organisation to help
individual in identifying his/her strength and making full use thereof. The concept of human
resource development aims at a better understanding of people, their needs and hopes, It also
seeks to generate awareness among them of their role as a resource to the organisation
Unit 1 Introduction to Human Resource Development Jevelopment
Mmensions
for attainment of its goals and objective, thus minimising the areas of conflict between the two Tra
and promoting an integrated approach.
ndividual Fe
Table LI: The Contribution ofHRD Sub-systems to Development Dimensions Co
Pe
Individual in be Performance Training Feedback and
present role appraisal and Rewards appraisal
uturerole development Feedback and
'•~& . Performance
Coaching
tyadic Feedback and Performance Training
relationships performance appraisal
coaching
Teams and Organisation Training Team rewards
teamwork development
Collaboration Organisation Training
among different development
units/teams
Self-renewing Performance Organisation Training
capacity and Appraisal Development
health of
organisation
Success of HRD Program

In order to make the HRD Programme successful, the following prerequisites are essential: •
Top Level Commitment
Top executives need to devote considerable time for HRD. The subordinates will be
observing as to how the top management is reacting to HRD. If they observe that due to
some reasons enough weightage is not given to HRD, they too would withdraw from
the activity.
15
Plans for Utilisation of Manpower Skills
Through training, new skills develop an employee's development will take place. If the
employee finds that he cannot use his new knowledge, he may feel frustrated, and he may
resign and join some other organisation where he can use his knowledge.
Conditions for Growth and Development
The management must ensure to create conditions for the growth and development of
its employees. These conditions would range from the physical infrastructure to the
structure, system, processes etc.
Investment in Programmes
The management has to invest time, finance and energy in programmes to make
organisational role a source of living and enjoyment.
Openness and Trust
There should be a reasonably good degree of openness and trust in the organisation and
preparedness on the part of the top management to create more openness, trust and
mutuality among employees.
1.6 SUMMARY
This unit focuses on several historical events that contributed to the establishment of human
resource development. Most early training programs (such as apprenticeship) focused on
skills training. At the turn of the century, more emphasis was placed on semi-skilled workers in
response to the Industrial Revolution. It was during World War n that training departments as we
know them today were introduced in many large companies. The establishment of the
professional trainer led to the formation of a professional society (the ASTD). This
culminated in the 1980s when the ASTD, in partnership with academic community, officially
recognised the professional designation of human resource development.
HRD, as a larger human resource management system, includes training and development,
career development, and organisation development programs and processes. HRD I
managers and staff must establish working relationship with line managers in order to f
coordinate HRD programs and processes throughout the organisation. To be effective, ?
HRD professionals must be able to serve in a number of roles. These roles will help the
Unit 1 Introduction to Human Resource Development • Career
Develo
pment:
HRD professionals to meet challenges facing organisations in the new century. These
It is
challenges include changing workforce demographics, competing in a global economy,
ongoin
eliminating the skills gap, meeting the need for lifelong learning, and becoming a learning
g
organisation.
process
by
1.7 KEYWORDS which
individual progress through a series of stages, each of which is characterised by a relatively
unique set of issues, themes and tasks.
Organisational Development: It is defined as the process of enhancing the effectiveness of

an organisation and the well-being of its members through planned interventions of an
organisation that apply behavioural science concepts.
1.8 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
Ql. What human resource functions should be performed regardless of the organisation's size?
Q2. This unit involves HR's changing role in business. Describe each role that is involved in
human resource management.
Q3. Which challenges to HRD professionals discussed in this unit will directly affect your
present or future working environment? What additional challenges do you foresee
affecting HRD?
Q4. Briefly describe an HRD effort in an organisation that you are familiar with. Was it
successful? If so, why? If not, what contributed to its failure?
Q5. Elaborate the contribution of HRD sub-systems to different dimensions. Q6.
Elucidate the evolution of the human resource movement.
Source: 1) Human Resource Management, RandyDesimone, Jon Werner and David Harris, Thomson,
South-Western Publisher. 2) Human Resource Development and Training, SCDL
17
2.1 HRD AND ORGANISATION EFFECTIVENESS

Liberalisation of the economy and its movement towards globalisation has brought in new
challenges for Indian business in terms of business strategies, technology, quality concerns, cost
effectiveness, management systems and so on. All these, in turn, have brought new
challenges for human resource (HR) function.
In the post-liberalisation period, with several businesses being threatened by global

competition, the focus of HRD has shifted to establishing direct links with business
improvement. If the corporation does not survive, there is little it can do to take care of its
employees. There will be no careers, no rewards, no job rotations, no training, and in fact. no
jobs. Hence, business survival has become a significant and a non-negotiable goal and all
HRD efforts have to be redirected towards business goals. HRD system, relevance and
synergy have become more important than before and the business goals have become sharply
focused. It is this shift which has necessitated a re-look at the HRD function and its
implementation.
In the post-liberalisation era, competence building, commitment building and culture

buildings have become important concerns of corporations. Good HRD practices can
influence financial and other performance indicators of corporations by generating employee
satisfaction, which in turn can influence customer satisfaction. Most successful corporations
believe that it is their people who provide them a competitive advantage. The mission
statements, annual reports, value outlines, vision statements and training calendars of these;
corporations reflect the great value that they attach to their employees.
Any practice that deals with enhancing competencies, commitment and culture building can
be considered as an HRD practice. The practice can take the form of a system, process,
an activity, a norm, a rule, an accepted or expected habit or just a way of doing things. Human
resource development (HRD) has been defined as essentially consisting of these three Cs:
Competencies, Commitment and Culture. All three are needed to make an organisation function
well. Without competencies many tasks of the organisation may noi be completed cost-
effectively or with optimal efficiency. Without commitment, they may not be done at all or are
done at such a slow pace that they lose relevance and without .;,• appropriate culture,
organisations cannot last long. Culture provides the sustaining fav; and spirit of organisations
to live. It provides the oxygen needed for them to survive. utility comes to the fore
especially when organisations are in trouble.
Competency Although most HR professionals draw a distinction between 'compete and

'competences', this is by no means universal and the two terms are often i
interchangeably. 'Competency' is now generally defined as the behaviours that employee^ must
have, or must acquire, to input into a situation in order to achieve high levelsd
performance, while 'competence' relates to a system of minimum standards otfl
Unit 2 Training and Organisation Environment : efforts
and the
manner
demonstrated by performance and outputs. Competencies are a signal from the organisation to in
the individual of the expected areas and levels of performance. They provide the individual with a which
map or indication of the behaviours that will be valued, recognised and in some these
organisations rewarded. Competencies can be understood to represent the language of activitie
performance in an organisation, articulating both the expected outcomes of an individual's s are
carried out.
Competencies are not merely related to a single individual. They can also relate to pairs of
individuals. Competency may also relate to a team or a group of individuals. It may also be
related to the organisation as a whole. Originally, competency frameworks consisted mainly of
behavioural elements - an expression of the softer skills involved in effective performance.
Increasingly however, competency frameworks have become broader and more ambitious in
scope and include more technical competencies. This development has been given greater
momentum by the use of the PC and the intranet. In today's organisations, competencies may
deal with various areas and functions: technology, organisation and management,
behavioural, conceptual etc. They may include a variety of skills and abilities ranging from
simple awareness, knowledge, and information to highly sophisticated and complex ones.
Attitudes, values and habits also become competencies though they more often deal with
patterns of working.
Strengths and Weaknesses

The main benefits of a competency-based system are as follows:
• Employees have a set of objectives to work towards and are clear about how they
are expected to perform their jobs.
• The appraisal and recruitment systems are fairer and more open.
» There is a link between organisational and personal objectives.
• Processes are measurable and standardised across organisational and geographical
boundaries.
Criticisms of a competency-based system are as follows:
• It can be over-elaborate and bureaucratic.
• The language used to describe competencies may be off-putting.
• It is difficult to strike the right balance between reviewing the competencies often
enough for them to remain relevant but not so often as to become confusing.
21
• If too much emphasis is placed on 'inputs' at the expense of 'outputs', there is a risk
that it will favour employees who are good in theory but not in practice and will fail to
achieve the results that make a business successful.
• Competencies are based on what good performers have done in the past and this
approach works against rapidly-changing circumstances by setting one particular
group of attitudes in stone and not finding people with the right skills and attitudes for
new ways of working. It also runs the risk of producing clones rather than a team
with mixed skills who balance each others' strengths and weaknesses.
• They can become out of date very quickly due to the fast pace of change in
organisations and it can therefore be expensive and time consuming to keep them up-
to-date.
• Some behavioural competencies are basically personality traits which an individual
may be unable (or unwilling) to change and it is not reasonable to judge someone on
these rather than what he or she actually achieves.
Commitment
Developing commitment has a lot to do with motivation and work habits. Commitment is
indicated by work effort, zeal, involvement and enjoyment of the work or the job
Commitment building and its management are very much an HRD function. Management of
commitment should go beyond incentives and rewards. Commitment building should he
continuous and should become part of life. Commitment building should be at the level of
individuals, dyads, teams, the work unit, and the entire organisation. Various HR systems,
processes and activities contribute to developing commitment among employees. At the more
visible level, rewards, recognition and similar interventions can lead to greater
commitment and motivation. At the less visible level, managerial style, work culture, the
behaviour of seniors towards their juniors, etc. influence commitment. Unlike competencies which
once developed are difficult to lose, it is easy to lose commitment, though it can be as easily
gained. For instance, a particular personnel policy may de-motivate some employees to
the extent that they stop giving their best. At the same time, a particular reward system or
practice may have a high motivational value. Often, an individual does not respond to all
interventions in the same way in terms of commitment. Thus, salary increases may have a
high motivational value at one time, while even higher compensation increases may not cut much
ice on another occasion. It is the j ob of an HR manager to be in constant touch with the
employees and be aware of the HR systems, tools and interventions that can keep their
motivation and commitment levels high.
Culture A strong culture can have a lasting effect and provide sustenance to an organis It gives a
sense of pride and identity to individuals and teams. It enhances predictability
Unit 2 Training and Organisation Environment
reduces transactional costs and also contributes to commitment. However, the culture and
values associated with an organisation need to be appropriate and well articulated. The
instruments of culture building include organisational climate surveys, total quality
management (TQM) interventions, value-clarification exercises, vision-mission workshops,
organisational-renewal exercises and various other organisation developmental
interventions. Good HRD practices are those that contribute to one or more of the Cs-
Competencies, Commitment and Culture - described above. They need to be identified
and implemented cost-effectively; reviewing and revising them from time to time and
enhancing their appropriateness.
»•• Culture
Commitment
Competence
I Fig. 2.1: The Three Cs of Organisation Effectiveness 14. Co

# Activity A; mpeten
cy and
Tick whether true or false:
competence is one and the same.
T()F()
15. Competencies are related only to a single individual. T ()
F ()
16. Competencies, commitment and culture are not interrelated. T ()
F ()
17. Commitment building and its management are very much an
HRDfunction.
T()F()
5. Unlike competencies which once developed are difficult to lose,
it is easy to lose commitment. T ()
F ()
23
2.2 TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT CONCEPT

Importance of developing men can well be highlighted from the following Chinese
saying: "If you wish to plan for a year sow seeds, if you wish to plan for ten years
plant trees, if you wish to plan for a life-time develop men." Employee development
is the process whereby people learn the skills, knowledge, attitudes and behaviours
needed in order to perform their job effectively. Training and development is the
heart of a continuous effort designed to improve employee competency and
organisational performance. Some managers use the terms training and
development interchangeably. However, other sources make the following
distinction training provide learners with the knowledge needed for their present jobs.
Showing a worker how to operate a lathe or a supervisor how to schedule daily
production are examples of training. On the other hand, development involves
learning that goes beyond today's job and has a more long-term focus. It prepares
employees to keep pace with the organisation as it changes and grows. T & D
activities have the potential to align a firm's employees with its corporate strategies.
In virtually every market, customers are demanding higher quality, lower costs, and
faster cycle times. To meet these requirements, firms must continually improve
their overall performance. Rapid advances in technology and improved processes
have been important factors in helping businesses meet this challenge. However, the
most important competitive advantage for any firm is its workforce- one that must
remain competent through continuous T & D programs. To many, this may seem like
a tremendous amount of money. However, successful organisations realise that
well-structured and significant employee T & D programs correlate strongly
with long-term success.
Improved performance, the bottom-line purpose of T & D, is a strategic goal

for organisations. Toward this end, a number of forward-thinking firms have
become or are striving to become learning organisations. A learning organisation is a
firm that recognises the critical importance of continuous performance-related T &
D and takes appropriate action. Such a firm views training as a strategic investment
rather than as a budgeted cost, Once undervalued in the corporate world, training
programs are now credited with strengthening customer satisfaction, contributing
to partnership development, enhancing research and development activities and
finally, reinforcing the bottom line.
An effective training system has two key characteristics: First, it is based on

systematic approach to training need assessment system, and second, it utilises
the training need information in a cost-effective manner for improving
performance on the job. The design and delivery of the training programs determine
the transfer of new knowledge and skills and moreover, how the manager
measures its effectiveness in real-work situations. According to Professor
Baldwin, Professor, Indiana University Business School, even ina
Unit 2 Training and Organisation Environment develo
ped
country like the USA "Not more than 10 percent of training expenditure actually
results in transfer to the job."
In a study funded by the U.S Department of Education with the Bureau of Census,
training's potential in influencing productivity, relative to other key factors, was
emphasized. The
results were:
• Increasing capital stock by 10%, increases productivity by 3.2%
• Increasing an individual's work hours by 10%, increases productivity by 6%
• Increasing an individual's educational level by 10% increase, productivity by
8.6%
One survey found that a majority of U.S firms plan to increase their funding for
workforce development. What accounts for the increased interest? It is the annual
coverage of the "100 Best Companies to Work for in America." Fortune magazine
noted that extensive and ongoing training and development is second only to stock
options as a primary means of attracting and retaining talented workers. In a survey of
information technology workers, more than 80% of respondents said that receiving
feedback, having individual development plans, and having access to non-technical
skills training would make them less likely to leave the organisation. On nearly
every survey, training ranks in the top three benefits that employees want from their
employers and they search for firms that will give them the tools to advance in
their professions. Top performing professional/technical employees tend to put
development opportunities first on their list of wishes. It is clear that T & D is not
merely a nice thing to provide. It is a strategic resource to energise their
organisations in the twenty-first century.
J& Activity B;
a) Explain the difference between training and development
b) Write down two characteristics of training.
25
2.3 FACTORS INFLUENCING TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

One of the constant factors that both impacts and is impacted by T & D is change. Other
issues that often determine whether a firm achieves its T & D objectives are discussed
below:
• Top Management Support

The key to success of all the training programs is the top management support. This
can be proved with a small case. The Managing Director of one of a big IT companies
in India can attest this. His boss, the CEO of the company was insistent that the firm's
20 Vice Presidents understand a new initiative. The Managing Director asked him to
give a short speech at the introductory session so that the participants would know
that the new program was important to the Chief Executive. On the day of the program
launch, however, the CEO did not show up to give the presentation. The message to
the Vice Presidents was clear; the CEO didn't think the change was important enough
to become an active participant. The result is the change never got off the ground.
Without top management support, a T& D program will not succeed. The most
effective way to achieve success is for executives to take an active part in the training
and provide the needed resources.
• Commitment from Specialists and Generalists
In addition to top management, all managers, whether they be specialists or generalists,
should be committed to and involved in the T & D process. The primary responsibility
for training and development lies with the line managers, from the Managing Director
and the CEO of the board on down. T & D professionals provide only the technical
expertise.
• Organisational Complexity
With the rapid changes in the economy, many organisations are becoming flatter.
Even though flatter organisations give the appearance of a simpler arrangement of
people and tasks, however this may not be necessarily so. The tasks of the individuals
and teams are now both enlarged and enriched. Also there is an influx of different
cultures on the job. The result is many workers across different sectors are spending
more time on the job and performing more complex tasks than ever before. Also, the
interactions between individuals and groups have become more complicated. Many
organisations have changed resulting from downsizing, technological innovations, and
customer demands for new and better products and services. The result is often that
fewer people must accomplish more work at a more complex level. Supervisors and
operative employees performing in self-directed teams are taking up much of the
26
i
Unit 2 Training and Organisation Environment slac
k
fro
m dwindling middle-management ranks. All these changes translate into a greater
need for T & D.
• Learning styles
The general function of T & D involves knowledge and skill acquisition. Employees
at all levels must continually upgrade their expertise in dramatically changing and
increasingly competitive environment. Although much remains unknown about the
learning process, some generalisations stemming from the behavioural sciences have
affected the way firms conduct training. Some examples follow:
• Learners progress in an area of learning as far as they need to, in order to
achieve their purposes. Research indicates that unless there is relevance, meaning,
and emotions attached to the material taught, the learner will not learn.
• The best time to learn is when the learning can be useful.
• Depending on the type of training, a wise move may be to space out the training
sessions.
i Computer technology, the Internet and intranets have made these
approaches
; economically feasible. The ability to deliver knowledge to employees on as-
needed basis, anywhere on the globe and a pace consistent with their
learning j. styles, greatly enhances the value of T & D.
Stephen Covey, author of 'The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People,' suggests
that organisations create a culture where every learner becomes a teacher and every
teacher becomes a learner. The firm supplies not only individual knowledge but also
creates institutional knowledge so that when an employee leaves the organisation,
another individual still possesses the same knowledge.
• Technology Advances
Perhaps no factor has influenced T &D more than technology. The computer and the
Internet, in particular, are dramatically affecting the conduct of all business functions.
Technology has played a huge role in changing the way knowledge is delivered to
employees, and this change is constantly being extended.
27
JS$ Activity C;
1. State two points which show top management support in the effective
implementation of training programmes.
2. Write down two examples of technological advances which have influenced training
and development.
2.4 TRAINING AND THE HR STRATEGY

Training has several possible roles in the implementation of HR strategy. First, it is a way
to create a supply of talent within the organisation. By aligning the individual objectives
with the organisational goals, individual developmental plans are prepared for promotion,
transfers or even substantive change in existing jobs. In short, training creates a pool of
qualified applicants in the right numbers and with the right skills for higher level
jobs inside an organisation.
Second, training can be an important and useful tool for equipping individuals with the
knowledge, skills and attitudes they need to implement organisation strategy. Training of
this kind is geared to help managers and workers see and even experience why
changes stemming from strategic objectives are necessary. The issues discussed in
such training sessions are current and perhaps sensitive. Exercises are designed around
real problems so that when training is over, the solutions are of practical value on the
job.
Third, training can help an organisation that is moving towards implementation of a

new strategy in a new environment. As a consequence of pressures inside and
outside an organisation, individuals face new problems and forces for change. These
pressures call for new skills from job holders and can change expectations about
desirable job performance.
Unit 2 Training and Organisation Environment decentr
alised.
Success
Fourth, training is a potential tool for giving individuals the skills they need to
ful
think strategically. One implication of a rapidly changing environment is that
implem
everybody must think strategically, especially when decision-making is highly
entatio
n of long-term organisational strategy is not the sole responsibility of top managers,
though formulation might be. What employees and managers do on a daily basis can
and does affect successful implementation of strategy through actions taken with
customers, suppliers, distributors and other such stakeholders of the organisation.
Training can serve any or all of these purposes. Hence, it is a powerful tool of
great potential value in the implementation of HR strategy. Training conducted by an
organisation has enormous implications for the future.
18. Training is a potential alternative to recruitment, and vice versa. Needed skills can
be
acquired from outside through recruitment, or cultivated from inside through training.
19. Training can be integrated with the selection process so that an employee's
learning
time on a new j ob is reduced. The result - increased efficiency.
20. Training can admittedly increase the risk of turnover, especially when it builds
skills
transferable from one job to jobs in other organisations.
21. Training is a vehicle for career progress that can help move people in a way that
is
consistent with their career plans and/or career management programs of the
organisation.
22. Training tends to build expectations for change, and thereby helps foster new
attitudes.
It thus influences organisation development efforts and can be used as a tool in such
efforts.
23. Training builds skills, and can thus influence and be influenced by-job redesign
initiatives
that might depend on the range of skills possessed by job incumbents.
24. Training can convey information about how to deal with personal problems. It
thus
serves to change the behaviour of supervisors when they encounter "problem
employees". In this way, training can influence employee assistance programs.
25. Training can increase individual productivity by giving employees skills they did
not
have before. Such productivity improvement efforts are generally opposed by unions
unless they are accompanied by corresponding increases in pay and job security. On
the other hand, unions typically support upgrading skills so that people stay current
and occupationally mobile. 29
Human Resource Development & Training 9.

T
ra
ining can create the expectation for increasing compensation benefits as
I
employees improve their productivity and knowledge.
JS$ Activity D;
1. Write down two points which show that training is a powerful tool of great
potential value in the implementation of HR strategy.
30 2. Give two reasons why training is a potential alternative to recruitment, and vice
versa.
2.5 TRAINING AND CORPORATE STRATEGY ______________

The short-medium and long-term effects of training can only be experienced to the
fuller
extent strategy of the organisation is linked to the external
if factors, people, tasks, reward systems, information systems, decision processes
training and
is not structure. An organisation's activities in the education and training of management can
only be
manage used to alter the organisation variables; they should be regarded as an aspect of
d strategy.
profess Secondly, because these activities in the education and training of management have
ionally the
but power to make a positive contribution to the implementation of strategy, training
also is objectives
linked and training initiatives should be reviewed periodically by top management and
clearly specifically
with when a major switch in strategy is planned.
the -(
corpora
te These premises are applicable equally to broader aspects of training and indicate
mission that training plans should be related closely to corporate strategy and built into a training
or policy. The policy should describe in details the organisation's commitment to training,
purpos the needs of both business and individuals, together with opportunities for individual
e. The development. Also included should be details of budgeting, priorities, roles and processes.
The assessment
Unit 2 Training and Organisation Environment to
empha
sise
of training needs should be considered also from the top of the organisation
skill
downwards rather than being a mainly individually oriented bottom-upwards.
curren
Each training strategy differs based on the goal of the business. Training needs in cy and
four business strategies- concentration, internal growth, external growth and develo
disinvestment are stated below. A concentration strategy focuses on increasing market pment
share, reducing costs or creating and maintaining a market niche for products and of their
services. Southwest Airlines has a concentration strategy. It focuses on providing short- existin
haul, low-fare, and high-frequency air transportation. It utilises one type of aircraft g
(Boeing 737), has no reserved seating, and serves no meals. This has enabled workfo
Southwest to keep costs low and revenues high. An internal growth strategy focuses rce.
on new market and product development, innovation and joint ventures. For Compa
example, the merger between two publishing companies, McGraw-Hill and nies
Richard Irwin, created one company with strengths in the U.S and international focusin
college textbook markets. For example, General Electric, a manufacturer of lighting g on
products and jet engines, acquired the National Broadcast Corporation (NBC), a interna
television and communications company. A disinvestment strategy emphasises l
liquidation and divestiture of businesses. For example, General Mills recently sold its growth
restaurant business. strateg
y need
Preliminary research suggests a link between business strategy and amount and type to train
of training. Training issues vary greatly from one strategy to another. For example, emplo
divesting companies need to train employees in job-search skills and focus on cross- yees
training remaining employees who may find themselves in jobs with expanding on
responsibilities. Companies focusing on market niche (a concentration strategy) need cultura
l issues, creative thinking and analysis, people skills and soon. Companies focusing on
external growth (acquisition) need to train employees in team building, cross-cultural
training and integrating training systems.
The company's mission and goals may be useful for understanding the strategy. The
mission is the company's reason for existing. It may specify the customers served, the
needs satisfied, or the value received by the customer. A good example of how a
training function can contribute to business strategy is evident in the changes made
by SunU, the training and development organisation of Sun Microsystems, a
manufacturer of computer workstations and workstation software. SunU realigned its
training philosophy and the types of training conducted to be more linked to the
strategy of Sun Microsystems. Sun Microsystems was in a constantly evolving
business due to new technologies, products and product markets (an internal growth
strategy). SunU found that its customers wanted training services that could be
developed quickly, could train many people and would not involve classroom
training. Due to the internal growth strategy, Sun Microsystems was also interested
in maintaining and improving the knowledge and competence of its current
workforce.
31
As a result of the need to better align the training function with the needs generated by the
business strategy, SunU took several steps. First, SunU developed a new approach to
determine the knowledge and skills that the employees needed to meet business goals.
SunU identified several basic competencies (such as customer relations). A team of trainers
at SunU constantly reviews these competencies and discusses them with the key senior
managers. For example, in the customer service competency, vice presidents and directors
of sales and marketing are interviewed to identify training needs. As a result of this process
SunU learned more about the business needs and was able to develop relevant training.
To help deliver training quickly to a large number of trainees without relying on the classroom,
SunU developed videoconferencing programs that allow training to be delivered
simultaneously to several sites without requiring trainees to travel to a central location. To
help maintain and improve the knowledge and abilities of its employees, SunU developed
a desktop library that enables all employees to access CD-ROMs containing up-to-date
information on technologies and products as well as profiles on customers and competitors.
2.6 THE CHANGING ROLE OF TRAINING___________________________

Training is moving from a primary focus on teaching employees specific skills to a broader
focus on creating and sharing knowledge. Fig 2.2 shows the changing role of training.
Link
UseFocus
training
training
on to
create
to
training
business
and
skills
share
andknowledge
needs
knowledge
32 Fig. 2.2 : The changing role of training

Unit 2 Training and Organisation Environment Source
:
Based on J.J Martocchio and T.T Baldwin, "The Evolution of Strategic
Organisational
Training: New Objectives of Strategic Organisational Training New
Objectives and a Research Agenda" Research in Personnel and Human
Resource Management vol.15, ed. G.R Ferris (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press,
1997): 1-46
Focus on Teaching Skills and Knowledge: Traditionally, training was viewed

as a means to teach employees specific skills and behaviours. This role of training will
continue into the future. This view of training suggests that business conditions are
predictable, they can be controlled by the company and the company can control and
predict the knowledge and skills that employees will need in the future.
Link Training to Business Needs: As the competitive challenges indicate

unpredictability in the external environment in which companies operate it is likely to
continue. This means that because problems cannot be predicted in advance, training
needs to be delivered on an as-needed basis to help employees deal with specific
business problems as they occur. Several training methods (e.g. action learning) have
been developed to teach employees skills while they focus on specific business
problems. These methods are developed and based on the business needs and are
directly related to them.
Use Training to Create and Share Knowledge: Many companies believe that to
gain a competitive advantage the key is to develop intellectual capital. Intellectual capital
includes cognitive knowledge (know what), advanced skills (know how), system
understanding and creativity (know why), and self-motivated creativity (care why).
Traditionally, training department has focused their resources on cognitive and
advanced skills. But the real value of training may be in having employees
understand the manufacturing or service process and the interrelationships
between departments and divisions (system understanding) as well as motivating
them to be innovative and deliver high quality products and services (care why).
Particularly for companies in service industries such as software development,
medical care, communications, and education, system understanding and self-
motivated creativity are critical. Training is viewed as part of a larger system to create
and share knowledge. For example, Andersen Consulting is well known for devoting
time and money to train its employees. Andersen invests between 3 and 5 percent of its
payroll dollars in training. However, Andersen Consulting also has a knowledge
sharing database which links more than 80,000 employees in 36 countries. This
information system can be used to share training content, find information about potential
clients, or post work problems on an electronic bulletin board.
33
2.7 SUMMARY
The unit begins with the emphasis of human resource development for
organisation effectiveness. Human resource development (HRD) has been
defined as essentially consisting of these three Cs: Competencies, Commitment and
Culture. All three are needed to make an organisation function well. Without
competencies, many tasks of the organisation may not be completed cost-effectively or
with optimal efficiency. Without commitment, they may not be done at all or are
done at such a slow pace that they lose relevance. Without an appropriate culture,
organisations cannot last long. The unit further focuses on the distinguishing points of
training and development and explains both the terms in details. Some of the factors
influencing training and development are contribution by top management,
commitment by specialists and generalists, organisational complexity,
technological advance and learning styles.
Training has several possible roles in the implementation of HR strategy. First, it is a way
to create a supply of talent within the organisation. Second, training can be an
important and useful tool for equipping individuals with the knowledge, skills and
attitudes they need to implement organisation strategy. Third, training can help an
organisation that is moving toward implementation of a new strategy in a new
environment. Fourth, training is a potential tool for giving individuals the skills they need
to think strategically. Training can serve any or all of these purposes. Hence, it is a
powerful tool of great potential value in the implementation of HR strategy.
Training conducted by an organisation has enormous implications for the future.
The unit further focuses on how different strategies (concentration, internal growth,
external growth and disinvestment) influence the goals of the business and create
different training needs. Finally, the unit concludes with how the role of training has
changed over a period of time and has focused on teaching skills and knowledge, to
link training to business
needs and finally to use training to create and share knowledge.
*
f
*
2.8 KEYWORDS________________________________________________
Competence: Competence relates to a system of minimum standards or is
demonstrated by performance and outputs.
Competency: Competency is defined as the behaviours that employees must have,

or must acquire, to input into a situation in order to achieve high levels of
performance.
$
Commitment: Commitment is indicated by work effort, zeal, involvement and
enjoyment
of the work or the job.
*
3.1 TRAINING NEEDS AND OBJECTIVES

Every simple, easy to learn, there was little need for employees to upgrade or alter their
organis skills. But the rapid changes taking place in highly sophisticated and complex
ation society have created increased pressures for organisations to readopt the products
needs and services produced, the manner in which they are produced and offered, the types
to have of jobs required and the types of skills necessary to complete these jobs.
well-
trained In a rapidly changing society, employee training is not only an activity that is desirable
and but also an activity that an organisation must commit resources to if it is to maintain a
experi viable and knowledgeable work force.
enced
Objectives of Training at Organisational Level
people
to The objectives for the training of employees are as follows:
perfor ,^
m the
activiti 26. To increase Productivity - An instructor can help employees increase their level
es that of
have to performance on their present assignment. Increased human performance often leads
be to increased operational productivity and increased company profit.
done.
27. To improve Quality - Better informed workers are less likely to make
As operational
jobs mistakes. Quality increases may be in relationship to a company product or service
have or in reference to the intangible organisational employment atmosphere.
becom
e more 28. To help a company fulfill its future Personnel Needs - Organisations that have a
comple good
x, the internal programme for development will have to make less drastic manpower changes
import and adjustments in the event of sudden personnel alterations. When the need arises,
ance of organisational vacancies can be easily staffed from maintaining an adequate instructional
emplo programme for both its non supervisory and managerial employees.
yee
trainin 29. To improve Organisational climate - An endless chain of positive reactions i ou,:
g has from a well planned training programme.
increas e) To improve Health and safety - Proper training can help prevent industrial
ed. accident A safer atmosphere leads to more stable mental attitudes on part of
When employees, Managerial mental status would also improve, if supervisors
jobs know they can better themselves through company designed development
were programmes.
Unit 3 Training Needs Analysis g)
Per
f) Obsolescence Prevention - Training and development programmes foster the
son
initiative
al
and creativity of employees and help to prevent manpower obsolescence due to
Gro
age,
wth
* temperament, or motivation or the inability of a person to adapt himself to
-
technological changes.
Em
ployees on a personal basis gain individually from their exposure
to educational expressions. Management development programme seems to
give
. participants a wider awareness, an enlarged skill and enlightens realistic
philosophy " and make personal growth possible.
The need for training arises due to various reasons

30. To impart to new entrants the basic knowledge and skills they need for an
intelligent
performance of definite tasks.
31. To assist employers to function more effectively in their present positions by
exposing
them to the latest concepts, information and techniques and developing the skills they
will need in their particular fields.
32. To build up a second line of competent officers and prepare them to occupy
more
responsible positions.
33. To broaden the minds of senior managers by providing them with opportunities for
an
interchange of experiences within and outside with the view of correcting the narrow
ness of the outlook that may arise from over specialisation.
34. To impart customer education for the purpose of meeting the training needs
of
corporation which deal mainly with the public.
35. To reduce supervision time, reduce wastage and spoilage of raw materials and
produce
quality products.
36. To reduce defects and minimise accident rates.
37. To maintain the validity of an organisation as a whole and raising the morale of
its
employees.
(9) To take care of Labour turnover arising from normal situations like death or
physical
incapacity, from accidents, superannuations, voluntary retirement, promotion
within
the organisations and change of occupation.
38. Old employees need refresher courses to enable them to keep abreast of the
changing
methods, technique, sophisticated tools and machinery.
39
39. To absorb newer technology in production.
& Activity A;
a) Write two objectives of training with reasons.
b) What type of training is required to build up a second line of competent officers?
3.2 TRAINING NEEDS ANALYSIS___________________________________

A training need analysis is basically a data-gathering process used to identify and
compare an organisation's level of actual performance to the projected (desired) level of
performance. A training need exists when there is a gap between what is required of a
person to perform their work competently and what they actual know.
A "training needs assessment" or "training needs analysis", is the method of

determining if a training need exists and if it does, what training is required to fill the
gap.
«'<:.
The results of training needs analysis will highlight the subject matter needed to be
covered during the training course. The knowledge and skills gained during the training
will increase abilities and allow participants to perform their jobs at an acceptable
level. The needs assessment can be quite simple and obvious. For example, when a new
information system is introduced, it is assumed that no one has the knowledge to
operate it and the training need is noted. However, if the organisation was switching
systems, the need may not be so obvious. By conducting training needs analysis you
can target the group that needs to be trained as well as hone on exactly what training
is required.
The purpose of conducting a needs assessment is to prevent a quick fix approach

to business problems. A TNA done correctly will ensure the solution, addresses the
real issues and effectively focus the appropriate resources, time and effort towards
targeted solutions.
Unit 3 Training Needs Analysis
• To
The reasons for doing training needs assessment determi

ne whether training is needed
• To determine causes of poor performance

i To determine content and scope of training
i To determine desired training outcomes
• To provide a basis of measurement
I To gain management support
The Needs Assessment Process

The assessment can be as detailed and involved as needed. Factors to consider
when considering the level of details are time, money, number of people involved,
criticalness of skill, anticipated return on investment, resources available, etc. A
comparison of some of the factors between in-depth and a mini-assessment are as
follows:
Table 3.1: The comparison of training needs assessment
In-depth Mini
Type of Information Quantitative Qualitative
Methods Multi-tiered approach Interviews
Surveys
Observation Focus groups
Interviews
Focus groups
Document reviews
Scope Widespread organisational Fewer people involved
involvement
Broad ranging objectives Short term focus
Length Several months to a year Few days to a week
Cost Expensive Inexpensive
Focus Linked to defined outputs Immediate, quick results
Exposure/Visibility High profile and risk Lower risk
41
Determine whom to assess ? .,v

Again this depends on the goal and depth of the analysis. Categories of people can
include: Table 3,2 : Categories of people to assess

Target population managers Clients
Direct reports (those who report to target population) Competitors
Co-workers and peers Industry experts or observers
Senior management Human resource personnel
Target population Vendors
Activity B ;
a) Write down two reasons for doing training needs assessment.
b) Write down two differences between in-depth and mini-assessment.
3.3 LEVELS OF NEEDS ANALYSIS

Needs can exist at any of at least three levels, considering the organisation,
thejob/tasl and the individual. To ensure an effective HRD effort, needs must be
measured on each level. As a result three types of assessment must be conducted:
organisational analysis, w task analysis and person analysis. Each level of assessment
measures different aspects of organisation. Organisational/Strategic analysis suggests
where in the organisation training is needed and under what conditions it will occur.
Task analysis explains what must be
Unit 3 Training Needs Analysis Organi
sationa
l needs
done to perform a job or complete a process successfully. Person analysis reveals
analysi
who needs to be trained, and what kind of training they need.
s: An
organisational needs analysis requires a broad or "whole system" view of the mi
organisation and what it is trying to accomplish. The organisational characteristics studied ddl
may include goals and objectives, reward systems, planning systems, delegation and e
control systems and communication systems. According to Irwin Goldstein, the ma
components of an organisational analysis are as follows: na
ge
a. Organisational Goals: Understanding the organisation's goals and strategy me
provides nt,
a starting point in identifying the effectiveness of the organisation. Areas where as
the has
organisation is meeting its goals probably don't require training effort, but should ha
be pp
monitored to ensure that opportunities for improvement and potential problems en
are ed
identified early. Effective areas can be used as models, and as a source of ideas in
for ma
how things can be done more effectively in other areas. Areas where goals are ny
not org
being met should be examined further and targeted for HRD or management ani
efforts. sati
on
b. Organisational Resources : An awareness of the organisation's resources
s
is
dur
particularly useful in establishing HRD needs. Obviously, the amount of
ing
money
rec
available is an important determinant of HRD efforts. In addition, knowledge
ent
of
do
resources such as facilities, materials on hand and the expertise within the
wn
organisation
sizi
also influence how HRD is conducted. For example, if there are no classrooms
ng
or
an
conference facilities within the organisation, the scheduling and location of a
d
training
rest
program can become very difficult and expensive. In this case, it may be necessary
ruc
to
turi
use an onsite location, such as a conference centre or hotel, or to schedule the
ng
program
eff
in the company cafeteria after working hours.
ort
c. Organisational Climate: The climate within the organisation is an important s,
factor mi
in the success of training programmes. If the climate is not conducive for the ddl
programme, e
designing and implementing, a program will be difficult. For example, if managers ma
and na
employees do not trust one another, employees may not participate fully and freely ger
in s
a training programme. Similarly, if the problem exists between senior and ma
y resist or not fully co-operate in the training
effort, middle managers may not resist or not fully co-operate in the training
effort
seriously reducing training effectiveness. Research shows that an organisation's
transfer
of training climate will affect whether employees use the skills they acquire in
training
programs back on the job.
43
d. Environmental Constraints: Environmental constraints include legal, social,

political and economic issues faced by the organisation. Demand for certain
type of training programs can be affected by these constraints. For example, in
late 1991, the charges of sexual harassment made by Anita Hill during the
Senate confirmation hearing for Supreme Court justice nominee Clarence
Thomas heightened awareness of this volatile social issue. Many organisations
responded by offering workshops to educate managers and employees on
what sexual harassment is and how it should be addressed. Knowledge of
the pertinent legal issues can ensure that the HRD effort is in compliance and
will not itself be a source of problems. For example, equal employment
opportunity goals should be considered when determining how people will be
assigned to a training programme, especially if the programme is a prerequisite for
entry into a particular job. Similarly, economic issues such as increased competition
can also have an effect on training programmes. If an organisation decides to
reduce staff as a part of cost-cutting programme, training may be necessary to
ensure that the employees who remain will be able to perform the tasks that
were performed by the laid-off workers.
Methods of strategic / organisational analysis
Organisational analysis depends on particular organisation. Goldstein provides a

list of questions to ask during an organisational needs analysis, which also
summarise some important issues:
40. Are there any unspecified organisational goals that should be translated into
training
objectives or criteria?
41. Are the various levels in the organisation committed to the training objectives?
42. Have the various levels or participating units in the organisation been involved
with
developing the program, starting with the assessment of the desired end results of
training?
43. Are key individuals in the organisation ready to accept the behaviour of the
trainees
and also to serve as models of the appropriate behaviour?
i
44. Will trainees be rewarded on the job for the appropriate learned behaviour?
j
45. Is training being utilised as a way of overcoming organisational problems or
conflicts «
that actually require other types of solutions?
>
46. Is management willing to commit the necessary resources to maintain the
top organisation and workflow while individuals are being trained?
Table 3.3 : Sources of data for organisational needs analysis

Sr. No. Data Source Recommended HRD/Training Need Implications
1 Human Resource Inventory Where HRD/Training is needed to fill gaps
caused by retirement, turnover etc. This
provides an important demographic
database regarding possible scope of
training needs
2 Skills Inventory Number of employees in each skill group,
knowledge and skill levels, training time per
job etc. This provides an estimate of the
magnitude of specific needs for HRD/
Training. Useful in cost-benefit analysis of
HRD projects.
3 Attitude surveys Good for locating discrepancies between
organisational expectations and perceived
results.
4 Customer complaints Valuable feedback, look especially for
patterns and repeat complaints.
5 Analysis of efficiency index • Cost accounting concepts may represent
Costs of labour • Quality of ratio between actual performance and
product desired or standard performance.
• Waste ..........
• Downtime
• Late deliveries
• Repairs
6 Exit Interviews Often information not otherwise available
can be obtained in these. Problem areas and
supervisory training needs.
7 MBO or work planning and Provides performance review, potential
Review Systems review and long-term business objectives.
Provides actual performance data on a
recurring basis so that baseline
measurements may be known and
subsequent improvement of performance
can be identified and analysed.
8 Changes in System New or changed equipment may present
HRD or training problems.
Source: M.L Moore & P. Dutton (1978). Training Needs Analysis: Review and critique. Academy
of Management Review.
45
It wouldn't be possible to conduct a complete organisational analysis on a regular

basis, resource and time limitations often make this difficult. At the very least, HRD
managers and professionals should continuously monitor the organisation's
environment, goals and effectiveness by taking advantage of information already
collected by the organisation. This responsibility is increasingly expected of all
managers and supervisors (and many employees) as the environment becomes
increasingly more turbulent and competition more fierce.
JS$ Activity C;
a) Explain two components of organisational analysis.
b) State two methods of organisational analysis along with its training needs
implications.
3.4 TASK ANALYSIS

Task analysis sometimes called operational analysis is a systematic collection of data
about a specific job or group of jobs to determine what an employee should be taught
to achieve optimal performance. Results of a task analysis typically include the
appropriate standards of performance and the knowledge, skills, abilities and other
characteristics (KSAOs that employees need to possess in order to meet the
standards).
Table 3.4: Approaches to conducting Task Analysis
Sr. No. Authors Steps
Wexley& Latham (1991) Job Description Task Identification

Course Objectives
:ampbell(1988) Identify components of effective performance

Identify components that could be improved by
training
Identify what employees should do Identify
what employees actually do
McGehee & Thayer (1961) Identify standards of performance

Identify tasks
Identify how each task must be performed
Identify knowledge, skills and attitudes needed to
perform each task
Goldstein, Macey & Prein Overview of the job

(1981) Interview job experts and determine tasks and
KSAOs needed to perform tasks
Rate tasks and KSAOs
Determine which tasks should be trained and which
should be emphasized
5 Goldstein (1993) Task Description Develop task statements

Determine relevant task dimensions
Develop KSAO statements Link KSAOs
to tasks
4
7
An Example of a Task Analysis

A task with finding a way to analyse training needs and deliver an inexpensive program to
analysi quickly train expert engineers to instruct new engineers. Outside consultants began
s the need analysis process by meeting with the branch managers, department
perfor heads and employees from five TI branches to determine the following
med to information:
develo
p a• Mission of the department
train- • Perceived training needs
the-
• Current and previous efforts in staff development
trainer
progra • Role, responsibilities and team arrangements within the different branches
m at
Texas The organisational analysis enlightened the training team about the significant issues
Instru involved and team members used this information in persuading the top managers
ments to commit to a five-step approach to task analysis:
Corpor
47. List typical tasks
ation
(TI) 48. Survey staff .
provid
es a|
good 49. Observe the classroom
illustra
tion of 1
the
50. Conduct structured interviews
ideas
includ i
ed in
the
51. Prepare and present a final report
task The list of tasks was developed by examining literature on training delivery,
analysi including
s company technical reports and American Society for Training and Development's
proces Model*
s as for Excellence study. TI managers reviewed the initial list of tasks and, added
stated several f
by tasks and reworded task statements. The list was then organised into five areas
Goldst of
ein responsibility and given to employees to review and supplement. This step ensured that
(1993) all
. the professionals had input into defining their jobs from the perspectives and it
resultedin
The all 7-item list of tasks that trainers would typically be expected to perform.
trainin j|
g staff
at TI For the staff survey, all members of the department received a questionnaire listing
was the * tasks and asking them to rate each task according to: a) its importance to their
faced job and
Unit 3 Training Needs Analysis b) their
interest in receiving more training related to the task. Each item was given a mean
rating score on importance and interest. The results were examined to determine
whether differences existed for the five branches (they did not).
Classroom observations of experienced and new TI trainers in the department

were conducted to provide additional information on instructional delivery.
Teams of two observers viewed instructors for one hour and met with each instructor
to provide feedback. Individuals from each branch participated in structured
interviews to maintain consistency between survey findings and the classroom
observations. This allowed the training team to gather more information about each
branch and to "validate" the data gathered earlier. The interview results were
consistent with data from other sources.
The final step was preparation of the final report. This consisted of examining the
results and developing an executive summary outlining strengths and
recommendations for training in each of the five areas of the task list, along with
data for each of the data collection
methods.
The needs analysis was described as a success because it allowed input and
participation at all levels of the department, ensuring co-operation and
comprehensiveness. As a result, the training team was able to identify and rank
training needs based on sound information rather than relying on intuition.
This example reinforces several points about task analysis

• Input from managers, supervisors, and employees can ensure support for
needs
analysis and pave the way for support for training
• Multiple methods not only provide unique information but also enable the
analyst to
confirm findings and identify and resolve discrepancies
• Ratings of tasks allow for quantitative analysis of which tasks may benefit from
training
and which should be addressed
» Viewing needs from a broad perspective, rather than focusing only on

performance discrepancies results in a better understanding of training needs
and can build support for training programmes
Task analysis focuses on the job, rather than on the individual doing the job.
Information from task analysis and organisational analysis gives a clear picture of
the organisation and the jobs that are performed within it and knowledge of the two
provides a sound foundation forplanning and developing training efforts. However 49
despite this planning, two questions
50 Human Resource Development & Training • . . ; • • . .
remains: who needs training and what kind of training do they need? The answers to
these questions can be found in person analysis.
J&Z Activity D;
a) Write down two approaches to conduct task analysis.
b) State two factors which reinforce the process of task analysis.
3.5 PERSON ANALYSIS

Person analysis is directed at determining the training needs of the individual
employee Typically, person analysis has involved an employee and that
employee's immediate supervisor. Depending on the nature of the individual's
work that employee's peers, customers and subordinates may also be in a position
to provide information that can he used to identify person-level needs. Infact, an
increasingly common performance evaluation approach, called 360 degree
performance appraisal, uses as many of these sources as possible to get a complete
picture of an employee's performance. Immediate supervisors play an important role
in person analysis. Not only are they in a position to observe employee
performance, but it is also their responsibility to do so. Also, access to HRD
programs in many organisations require the supervisor's nomination and support.
Many methods of person assessment require an effective supervisor to implement them
properly.
The sources of person analysis data include performance evaluation, direct

observation sheets, tests, questionnaires, specially designed situations and critical
incidents as sources of information available for person assessment. In addition, for
individuals recently hiret1 into an organisation, the information collected as part of
the selection process can also be used to determine any developmental needs that
the individual has.
Unit 3 Training Needs Analysis In
whatev
* er
Components of person analysis
manner the data for person analysis is collected, an effective person analysis should
consist of two components: summary person analysis and diagnostic person analysis,
Summary person analysis involves determining the overall success of individual
employee performance. Diagnostic person analysis tries to discover the reasons for
an employee's performance. Effective performance may be the source for ideas on
how to improve or guarantee high quality employee performance, while analysis of
ineffective performers can identify what interventions (HRD or otherwise) are
needed to improve performance.
Performance appraisal in the person analysis process
Performance appraisal can be a valuable tool for collecting person analysis data.
However, while it may be tempting to think performance appraisal by itself can be
the sole source of person analysis information, this view is shortsighted. In reality, using
performance appraisal in needs analysis requires managers to "have access to a
variety of different pieces of information and make a number of complex decisions."
A model of performance appraisal in the person analysis process begins with the
following steps:
• Perform or have access to a complete, accurate performance appraisal.

» Identify discrepancies between the employee's behaviour and/or traits and
those required for effective performance.
• Identify the source of the discrepancies.

« Select the intervention appropriate to resolve the discrepancies.
Two important steps should be further considered: First, one should not assume
that performance appraisal information is necessarily complete or accurate. Many
performance appraisals are flawed by either poor appraisal process or errors
committed during the appraisal. Examination of an organisation's appraisal process
and practices can help assess Itiequality of the appraisal. Second, there are a variety of
possible sources for performance orskill discrepancy. The cause can be either within
the employee (motivation, or attitudes) orin the environment (such as lack of
support, outdated equipment, or obstructive work rales), Therefore, identifying the
source of the discrepancies will likely involve integrating information from
organisational analysis, task or job analysis and any individual skill or ability
testing completed by the employee. Unfortunately, conditions for conducting
performance appraisal and person analysis are often less than ideal, with many
potential problems such as: enormous costs and complexity involved at an
organisation-wide level, there could be rating errors and biases in making casual
attributions etc.
51
Research says that employees and supervisors alike express intense dissatisfaction
with their existing (top-down) performance appraisal systems. So rather than
relying on supervisors to conduct appraisals, peers, subordinates and customers
may be also in a position to effectively observe and evaluate an employee's
performance. This is called as the 360 degree performance appraisal which is gaining
greater usage in organisations. The main advantage of using peer, subordinate and
customer input in performance appraisal is that individuals observe the employee
from different perspectives, which put them in a position to add information, which
other sources cannot. Some of the limitations of 360 degree feedback include
lenient ratings by peers and subordinates, lack of agreement from different
sources. From a needs perspective, one potentially limiting factor of much of the
performance appraisal literature is that it has frequently focused on the ratings done
for administrative purposes. Arecent survey suggests that employees are much more
positive towards peer and upward appraisals when ratings are made for
developmental purposes rather than administrative purposes. For example, peers
may be reluctant to honestly evaluate one another's performance ratings if the ratings
will be used to make pay or layoff decisions, but they may be more willing to do
so if the ratings will be used only for developmental purposes.
Overall, multiple source performance appraisal has much potential both for
needs assessment and as a tool for enhancing individual performance. It is
important to try to verify any information gathered and to monitor the research
being done on the properties of multisource performance data to sure the quality if the
information gained is high enough to accurately identify HRD/training needs.
Developmental needs
Person analysis data are also used to define developmental needs, which can be
identified j during the periodic performance evaluation. The primary use of
developmental data is for | maintaining and increasing the knowledge, skills and
abilities of each employee. However, the information can also be important to career
development by preparing the employee for future job responsibilities. A skills
inventory can also help determine a person's need for training. This assesses
employees KS AOs by examining their education, training, experience, certification,
performance reviews and recommendations. Many organisations I today use a human
resource information system (HRIS) to compile this information for easy retrieval.
Prioritising Training/HRD needs
Assuming that a needs analysis reveals multiple needs, management and the HR staff
will have to prioritize these needs. As in any organisational function, limited
resources ait
usually available for the HRD effort. Decisions must be made about what
resources-including facilities, equipment, materials, skilled personnel, travel and
consultant fees - will be used in the training programs. A central question to ask in
this process is, what are the potential gains or return on investment from various
options? The projected impact on organisational performance must always be
kept in mind when prioritizing HRD needs.
The following questions will assist trainers in identifying important issues, even when it is
not possible to conduct all the analyses described in this unit.
52. What are the operating problems? (Don't ask, what is the training need?
53. Are the operating problems caused or contributed by human behaviour? If yes,
describe the present behaviour and the desired performance.
54. Could the employees perform correctly if they had to? Have they performed the task
correctly lately?
4. Is the employees' manager currently requiring the desired performance from

employees? If not, what assurance do you have that the new behaviour will be reinforced
on the job after training has been completed?
55. What evidence shows that the present performance is a problem? What would be
some observable signs that the problem has been solved (e.g observing employees
using particular skills) ?
56. What other issues might be contributing to the problem?
57. Based on this analysis, is training needed? If yes, what skills should be learned?
58. If training is needed, will managers commit themselves to active involvement in the
training process before, during and after the training?
# Activity E;
a) Write down the components of person analysis.
53
b) State two limitations of 360 degree performance

appraisal. f
54 3.6 SUMMARY
This unit focused on the needs assessment phase of the training process. Needs
assessment should be performed on three levels: organisational, task and
person. The organisational level asks these questions: where in the
organisation there is a need for training/HRD? Under what conditions will it be
conducted? And how is training linked to and supporting team or organisational
performance? Organisational analysis focuses on the organisation's goals and its
effectiveness in achieving those goals, organisational resources, the climate for
training and any environmental constraints. The purpose of organisational analysis
is to what potential roadblocks to training success exist.
underst
and The task analysis asks the question, what tasks and KS AOs should be included in
what training? This analysis involves five steps: 1) describing the job 2) identifying
the the tasks within the job 3) identifying the KSAOs needed to perform the job
organis 4) identifying areas that can benefit from training and 5) prioritising the areas
ation is that can benefit from training.
trying
The person analysis level asks these questions: Who needs to be trained? and
to
what for? Individual performance deficiencies and developmental needs can be
accom
used to suggest the content of the training program. This information can also serve
plish,
to identify which employees should participate in the training/HRD programs.
where
trainin Because of limited HRD resources, it is necessary to prioritise training needs. This
g may ensures that resources have the greatest impact on the organisational goals.
be Whenever possible, numerous individuals should be encouraged to
needed participate in prioritising needs.
to
enhan
ce 3.7 KEY WORDS________________________________________________
effecti Human resource inventory : Where HRD/Training is needed to fill gaps
veness caused by retirement, turnover etc. This provides an important demographic
and database regarding possible scope of training needs.
Unit 3 Training Needs Analysis pl
a
n
Person analysis: Person analysis is directed at determining the training ni
needs of the individual employee. n
g
Strategic/organisational analysis: An organisational needs analysis
?
required a broad or "whole system" view of the organisation and what it is
H
trying to accomplish. The components are: organisational goals, resource,
o
climate and environmental constraints.
w
Training needs analysis: A training need analysis is basically a data- c
gathering process used to identify and compare an organisation's level of actual a
performance to the projected (desired) level of performance. n
t
Task analysis: Task analysis sometimes called operational analysis is a y
systematic collection of data about a specific job or group of jobs to i
determine what an employee should be taught to achieve optimal performance. n
g
3.8 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS H
________________
R
Ql. Explain in details the training needs and objectives. D
p
Q2. Why is needs assessment information critical to the development and r
delivery of an effective HRD program? o
g
Q3. What is the relationship between organisational needs analysis and strategic r
ams to an organisation's strategic plan make it easier to justify requests
for resources to develop and deliver HRD programs?
Q4. Briefly describe the pros and cons of performance appraisal
information when conducting a person needs analysis.
Q5. Why should HRD needs, once identified be prioritized? What are the
benefits, if any, of obtaining the participation of a variety of
organisation members in the prioriu'sation process?
55
4.1 LEARNING AND INSTRUCTION
Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behaviour, cognition or affect that

occurs as a result of one's interaction with the environment. This definition highlights several
significant aspects of learning. First, change is the focus of learning, either by acquiring
something new (like skill in conducting meetings) or modifying something that already exists
(like a soldier achieving greater accuracy in shooting a rifle). Second, the change must be
long lasting before we can say learning has really occurred. If an administrative assistant can
recall the commands needed to create a macro operation in a word processing program on the
second day of training program but cannot remember them four days later back on the job,
learning has not occurred. Third, the focus of learning can include behaviour, affect, cognitions, or
any combination of the three. Learning outcomes can be skill-based (climbing a utility pole),
cognitive (procedures for applying for a research grant) or affective (becoming more safety
conscious). Finally, learning results from an individual's interaction with the environment.
The search of Basic Learning Principles
4I Research over the past 100 years has yielded a number of principles thought to govern
learning. The cornerstone of learning theory is the concept of association. Association is
the process by which two cognitions become paired together ("dozen" and "twelve items" j so
i that thinking about one evokes thoughts about the other. Three principles that influence the
learning of associations include:
4each59.other.Contiguity: Objects that are experienced together tend to become associated with
For example, learning vocabulary in a foreign language usually involves
pairing a new word with an object or picture of an object (like the German word
'Katze' and a picture of a cat)
60. The Law of Effect: The law of effect states that a behaviour followed by a pleasurable
consequence is likely to be repeated. For example, when a superior compliments a
police officer who values recognition for the way he or she handled a difficult arrest.
the officer associates the compliment with the arrest method and likely uses that
method to make difficult arrests in the future.
61. Practice: Repeating the events in an association will increase the strength of the
association. For example, the more times someone rappels down a cliff, the more
adept he or she becomes at rappelling. But practice alone is not enough to guarantee
a strong association. The effect of practice is strengthened with reinforcement, such
as receiving a pleasurable consequence.
58
Unit 4 Learning Principles and Conditions An
alternat
ive to the association view of learning was offered by a group of researchers known
as Gestalt psychologists. These researchers proposed that learning does not occur by
trial and error or by associating facts and ideas, but rather happens suddenly in the
form of an insight (sometimes called an "a-ha!" experience.) Insight is seen as
sudden reconceptualization of one's experiences that results in a new idea or in
discovering the solution to a problem. For example, learning to solve a puzzle (e.g.
Rubik's cube) may occur in the form of a series of sudden flashes in which new ideas
come closer and closer to getting all sides of the cube to be of the same colour. It
should be noted that" sudden insight" as a mechanism for learning has been called
into question. Some critics seek to explain 'insight' by stating that people simply
transfer what they have learnt in one set of situations to another setting. If this is true,
then insight may not be a particularly useful model for how people learn. That is,
although considerable learning may indeed occur through hidden insights, knowledge
of this may not be very useful in designing effective learning experiences.
Limits of learning principles in Improving Training Design

Unfortunately, these general principles: reinforcement and practice are not as helpful
as one might expect when it conies to improving the training design. Research
demonstrates that these principles were conducted in tightly controlled laboratory
settings using artificial tasks, which limit the applicability of the findings to many 'real
world' training settings.
Kobert Gagne convincingly demonstrated the limited benefit of learning principles to
increase training effectiveness in a landmark article," Military Training and Principles of
Learning." Gagne showed that practice and reinforcement failed to improve
performance of three representative military tasks: gunnery (a motor skill), turning
a radar set (a procedural task), and diagnosing malfunctions in complex electronic
equipment (troubleshooting). Rather than relying on the prevailing learning principles,
Gagne argued that training could be improved by using three principles:
62. Task analysis: Any task can be analysed into a set of distinct component tasks.
63. Component Task Achievement: Each component task must be fully achieved
before
the entire task may be performed correctly.
64. Task sequencing: The learning situation should be arranged so that each of
the
component tasks is learnt in the appropriate order before the total task is attempted.
59
Human Resource Development & Training Âct

ivity
A; •*•-
a) Write down the three basic learning

principles.
I
60 b) Write down the principles by which training can be improved.
4.2 INSTRUCTIONAL PSYCHOLOGY AND COGNITIVE

PSYCHOLOGY:
T ology was developed and it has since become an active field of theory and research on
H how the learning environment may be structured to maximise learning. Traditional
E learning theorists focus on what must be done before learning takes place. Robert
Glaser characterised instructional psychology as 'focusing on the acquisition of human
C competence' with the following four components:
U 65. describing the learning goal to be obtained.
R
R 66. analysing the initial state of the learner (what the learner knows or can perform
E prior
N to learning)
T '
£
'
67. identifying the conditions (instructional techniques, procedures and materials)

Wthat
A allow the learner to gain competence.
V.
E
68. assessing and monitoring the learning process to determine progress and whether
alternative techniques should be used.
O
F Glaser further identified five principles that guide researchers investigating instructional
I issues. These include:
L
E • attention to performance and learning. I
A*
R
N
I
N
G
R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
____________________________________________________________
Begin
ning
in the
1960s,
the
field
of
instruc
tional
psych
Unit 4 Learning Principles and Conditions
• a focus on specific knowledge domains (such as learning to diagnose medical

conditions) rather than artificial laboratory tasks.
• a prescriptive approach that explains how competence can be achieved.
• theory oriented to the individual and
• an approach recognising that learning is a dynamic process and that performance
levels change during instruction, possibly requiring a corresponding change in the
instructional technique.
These principles stand in sharp contrast to the way traditional theorists studied learning.
Since the late 1970s, instructional psychology (and much of psychology in general) has
been heavily influenced by developments in cognitive psychology adopting the language,
methods and models that portray human beings as information processors. Amajor goal
of cognitive psychology is to develop models and theories that explain how people function.
These methodologies and theories can help create 'integrated understanding of how
cognitive processes produce intelligent behaviour,' such as learning. Oneofthefoundational
ideas of cognitive psychology is cognitive architecture, which is defined as "fixed system of
mechanisms that underlies and produces cognitive behaviour.'' Two main views of cognitive
structures have dominated the field, each which focuses at different levels of analysis.
Symbolic architectures rely heavily on the notion that human beings process information in
the form of symbols and language (e.g. scheme that are stored in memory structures, such
as long-term memory). This approach draws many of its ideas from Computer science.
On the other hand, connectionist architecture is focused on the way information is processed
at the neural level (e.g. information exists within interconnected groups or neurons and is
processed by the spread of activation or inhibition among the groups) and draws its ideas
from research in neurobiology.
Although symbolic and connectionist architectures specify different structures and have
different assumptions about how human process information, they should not be seen as
mutually exclusive. It is likely that information processing occurs at both levels and that
phenomena that are not explained by one approach may be explained by the other.
Therefore, both views can provide useful ideas about learning and how we can create
situations that increase the chances, learning will occur. One implication of HRD is that an
HRD program should be based on the cognitive architecture that best explains how a
particular task or skill operates and is learned. Basing the program on an inappropriate
architecture may lead to poorer performance both during the HRD intervention and on the
job, Instructional and cognitive psychology hold much promise for maximising learning in
the design and implementation of HRD programs. As the nature of work continues to shift
from manual skill to more complex mental processes, the findings from these fields will
help pave the way for effective HRD efforts in the coming years.
1
61
Unit 4 Learning Principles and Conditions influ

ence
how
Trainee Characteristics: A learner or trainee's personal characteristics will
he or she learns new tasks and new information. Three such characteristics are
(rainability, personality and attitudes.
Trainability
Trainability is a concept that focuses on the trainee's readiness to learn and
combines the trainee's level of ability and motivation with his or her perceptions of the
work environment. A simple formula to convey this is:
Trainability=f (Motivation x Ability x Perceptions of the work environment)

This formula illustrates that a trainee must have both the motivation and the ability to
learn, if either is lacking, learning will not occur. The equation also shows that one at a
very high level cannot completely overcome a very low level of the other. In addition, if
the employees perceive little support in the work environment for learning new knowledge
or skills (including support from supervisors and coworkers),'they will be less likely
to learn and use them. Thus, it is important to note that trainability is not just a
function of the individual trainee, but also of the work environment in which the
learner will be asked to use what was "• presented in the HRD intervention. Placing
employees in programs they are not motivated to attend or are not prepared to do well
is a waste of time and resources. Over the past several years, the notion of pre
training motivation has received considerable research attention. Findings of recent
research include:
1
''f
. • The way trainees perceive training (e.g., as remedial or advanced or as an
unpleasant
m task versus an opportunity) affects levels of learning, perceptions of efficacy,
anxiety a "W and perceptions of fairness.
, » The way in which individuals view their own ability (as a fixed entity or an
acquirable ^ skill) affects anxiety level, efficacy perceptions and the learning of
declarative (factual) ,1 knowledge.
• Experiencing negative events on the job prior to training can increase
trainee's
motivation to learn and their performance in training.
• A number of other factors have been found to increase individual's
motivation to
participate in and learn from training. Factors investigated include involvement in
decisions about training, perceptions that participation in training will lead to benefits
(e.g. increased job performance and career advancement opportunities), and
perceptions of support or lack of obstacles to use what has been learned in the work
environment.
63
• Characteristics of the organisation (e.g. politics, rules and guidelines regarding

training participation) have been linked to participation in developmental
activities.
The findings are useful in that they suggest ways in which organisations can
increase the motivation to participate in and learn from HRD programs and
interventions. For example, to ensure that trainees perceive the value of what is
being presented in the program, they must see training as an opportunity, as a way
to address the need they have and as a way to achieve valued outcomes. Further,
trainees must perceive the organisation and their immediate work environment as
supporting participation in training and in using what has been learned.
Trainability testing is one approach that can be used to ensure that trainees have both
the motivation and the ability to learn. This approach focuses on measuring the
motivation and/or relevant abilities of candidates for training and selecting for training
only those who show a sufficient level of trainability. For example, some military
researchers developed a questionnaire that measured motivational and personality
factors to predict success in combat training. The questionnaire measured such things
as independence, sociability and motivation to serve in a combat unit. The
combination of the questionnaire responses and j other predictors was strongly
related to training success.
Another approach to trainee testing is to allow candidates to complete part of their

training program and use their performance on that section as a predictor of how
well they will > perform throughout the remainder of the training. For example,
Arthur Siegel described a method called miniature training and evaluation testing, in
which U.S Navy Recruits were trained on a sample of important tasks and tested on
their ability to perform these tasks. Using eleven training and evaluation modules or
situations, the approach yielded better predictions of success for several jobs than
the test normally conducted by the Navy.
Personality and Attitudes
Ray Noe suggested that an employee's attitude toward career exploration and
job involvement affect learning and its applications to the job. Other research showed
that job involvement, expectations for training program and trainee confidence are
all related to success in training. Personality is the stable set of personal
characteristics that account for consistent patterns of behaviour. Personality traits
that are related to employee learning include locus of control, the need for
achievement, activity, independence and sociability. Murray Barrick and Michael
Mount reported the results of a meta analysis showing that two personality
dimensions, extraversion and openness to experience are valid predictors of success
in training.
Unit 4 Learning Principles and Conditions approac
h to
maximi
To summarise, assessing the employee's relevant abilities, motivation and personality
sing
prior to HRD programs can be important in maximising the chances that will occur. This
learning fits with Glaser's notion that knowing the initial state of the learner is an
important part of effective training.
& Activity C;
a) Write down me three primary areas which maximise learning.
b) Complete the formula given below:
Trainability = f(________________x Ability x_
4.4 TRAINING DESIGN

Training design involves adapting the learning environment to maximise learning.
Training design issues include a) the conditions of practice that influence learning and
b) the factors that impact retention of what is learned.
Conditions of practice: At least six issues have been studied that relate to practice
and learning. They include active practice, massed versus spaced practice
sessions, whole versus part learning, overlearning, knowledge of results and task
sequencing.
Active practice suggests that learners should be given an opportunity to repeatedly

perform the task or use the knowledge being learned. Besides active physical practice
researchers have also been interested in whether mental practice, the "cognitive
rehearsal of a task in the absence of overt physical environment", can improve task
performance. While early research on the topic yielded mixed results, a meta
analysis of many studies concluded that mental practice is effective for both
cognitive and physical tasks (though more for cognitive tasks). This study also
showed that effect of mental practice on performance decreases as the time interval
between practice and performance increases.
Massed versus spaced practice sessions concern whether to conduct training in one
session or divide it into segments separated by some period of time. For example, it
is better to study for an exam over a period of several days (spaced practice) or in
one cram session (massed practice). In general, information and skills can be learned
any way, but spaced
65
practice sessions with a reasonable rest period between them lead to better
performance and longer retention of what is learned a massed practice session. For
difficult, complex than tasks, an initial massed session followed by spaced practice
sessions has led to improved performance.
Whole versus part learning concerns the size of the unit to be learned that is,
should trainees practice an entire task (or study certain material as a whole) or should
the task or material be learned in separate parts of chunks? It was argued that
procedural material (material organised in a series of steps) should be analysed and
divided into subunits, with the trainees mastering each subunit before performing the
entire procedure.
Actually, the answer to which method is most effective appears to depend on the nature
of the task to be learned. When the subtasks are relatively easy to perform and are
well organised (interrelated), the whole method is superior. Otherwise, the part
method has proven to be more effective.
Overlearning is defined as practice beyond the point at which the material or task
is mastered. For example, an instructor teaching cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR)
in a first-aid course would be using overlearning if trainees were required to repeatedly
practice the CPR procedure even after they had successfully 'revived' the training
dummy.
The rationale for overlearning is threefold. First, overlearning may improve performance in
a variety of different situations. By developing stronger associations between the parts of a
task or unit of knowledge, it is less likely that situational changes will interfere with
learning. Second, overlearning provides additional practice in using the skill or knowledge
when there is little opportunity for doing so in the job setting. For example, overlearning
the procedure to handle an engine flameout would be useful in airline pilot training because
pilots don't often face this situation when flying. Third, overlearning should make what is
learned more 'automatic' thereby improving performance in stressful or emergency
situations. Research indicates that overlearning does in fact increase retention of what is
learned. Quite obviously, its major drawback is that overlearning can increase the time
and expense of training.
Retention of what is learnt b)
The goal of training goes beyond ensuring that the trainee learns the task or material being
presented. It is equally important that newly learned material is retained. Three additional
issues that influence retention are the meaningfulness of material, the degree of original
learning and interference. The meaningfulness of material is the extent to which it is richin
associations for the individual learner. For example, a new way of soldering circuits might
be quite significant to an electronics enthusiast, yet absolutely meaningless to professional
athlete or a hair stylist. The training should be designed to be more meaningful to employees
66
Unit 4 Learning Principles and Conditions to
encoura
ge learning retention. Overviews of learning topics presented at the beginning of training sessions
can help trainees understand course content as a whole. Using examples and terminology familiar
to trainees and mnemonic devices (such as creating a word out the first letters of items in a list)
will also increase meaningfulness by providing more
associations.
The degree of original learning also influences learning retention. The more effectively that
information is initially learned, the more likely it will be retained. While this is not surprising, it does
reinforce the research on overlearning, massed versus spaced practice and whole versus part
learning as ways to ensure initial learning.
Interference can also affect the extent to which learning is retained. There are two types of
interference. First, material or skills learned before the training session can inhibit recall of the
newly learned material. For example, an accountant who is an expert on the rules and tax code for
Maharashtra may have difficulty remembering recent instruction regarding the tax code and
procedures for Uttar Pradesh. Second, information learned after a training session may also
interfere with retention. For example, a firefighter trained to operate the power ladder on the city's
old fire truck may have difficulty retaining that knowledge, if a different sequence of steps must
be learned for the same operation on a newer fire truck.
Both the types of interference are similar in that the learner is required to make different
responses to the same situation. The more responses one learns, the greater the chances are for
interference in learning to occur.
& Activity D;
a) Write down the six issues that relate to practice and learning.
b) State the three factors that influence retention.
67
4.5 TRANSFER OF TRAINING

Transfer of training is a recurring theme in the HRD literature. In addition to learning and
retaining new material, employees must also use it on the job to improve performance. The
transfer of training to the job situation is critically important to the success of HRD efforts.
Transfer of training can have different forms. Positive transfer occurs when job performance
improves as a result of training. Zero transfer occurs when there is no change in job
performance as a result of training. Negative transfer occurs when job performance is worse
as a result of training. While negative transfer may seem an unlikely possibility at first, recall the
detrimental effect, interference can have on learning and performance. Tennis, players, for example,
may actually find that their tennis shots become less accurate after learning how to play
racquetball. Although the two sports seem familiar, an accurate tennis shot requires a locked wrist,
yet racquetball players use their wrists during the swing. Another distinction should be made is
between "near transfer" and "far transfer". Near transfer has to do with the ability to directly
apply back on the job what has been learned in training, with very little adjustment or
modification, whereas far transfer has to do with expanding upon or using what has been learned in
training in new or creative ways. Other writers have referred to this as a distinction between
skill reproduction and skill generalisation.
There are certain principles and the results of recent research offer many ideas for maximising the
transfer of training. These include the use of identical elements, general principles, stimulus
variability and the degree of support for transfer in the work environment.
Identical elements: The principle of identical elements first proposed by Thorndike and
Woodworth in, 901, suggests that die more similar the training and the performance situations are in
terms of the stimuli present and responses required, the more likely it is that transfer of training will
occur. For example, if customer service representatives are expected to handle complaints from
angry, impatient customers, practice with such customers (possibly by using role-playing) can
improve the transfer of training. But if the only examples used in training are customers who are
polite, reasonable and patient, transfer of training to the job is less likely. Similarity has two
dimensions: physical fidelity and psychological fidelity, Physical fidelity is the extent to which the
conditions of the training programme such as equipment, tasks and surroundings, are the same
as in the performance situation. Psychological fidelity is the extent to which trainees attach
similar meanings to both the training and performance situations. Psychological fidelity would be
encouraged in a learning experience that imposes time limits on training tasks that are similar to those
that exist back on the job.
Unit 4 Learning Principles and Conditions was and
adjust
the aim
"'* General Principles: Rather than focusing on identical elements, the general principles
accordi
theory suggests that learning the fundamental elements of a task will ensure transfer of
ngly.
training. This was demonstrated in a project that taught trainees to accurately hit an
Howeve
> underwater target by learning the principle of refraction of light. Because light bends when
r, it is
crossing the air-water boundary, the target is not exactly where it visually appears to be.
often
Understanding this principle allowed trainees to correctly judge where the target really
difficult to identify and include in
training those principles that maximise positive transfer. It is still not clear whether training
I programs apply general principles theory to a certain group pf tasks will actually result in
skilled performance on those tasks.
Stimulus Variability: Transfer can be enhanced when training contains a variety of

stimuli, such as multiple examples of a concept or involving the trainee in several different
practice situations.
Support in the Work Environment: The extent to which a trainee perceives support for
using newly learned behaviour or knowledge on the job also affects transfer of training. For
example, if a supervisor who is trying to become more participative is ridiculed by peers and
receives the cold shoulder from subordinates, it is unlikely that this person will continue to use
these newfound skills. Supervisory support is an important aspect of work environment
support. It is a multidimensional concept with components such as encouragement to
attend training, goal setting, reinforcement and behaviour modeling all having been shown to
increase transfer. Support at organisational level also seems to be important. Irwin Goldstein
studied employee perceptions of the transfer of training climate, which they defined as "those
situations and consequences which either inhibit or help to facilitate the transfer of what has
been learned in training into the job situation. Climate perceptions affected learning and
behaviour back on the job. Tracy, Tannenbaum and Kavanagh investigated the effect of both
transfer of training climate and the presence of continuous learning work environment (where
organisation members share perceptions and expectations that learning is an important part
of everyday work life) on employee behaviour after training. This work suggests that an
organisation that adopts the practices of a 'learning organisation', which include a continuous
learning environment, stands a better chance of having what is learned transfer back to the
job.
Robert Marx proposed a model of improving transfer based on counselling techniques

used to prevent relapse by substance abusers. The approach teaches trainees and
supervisors to anticipate and prevent regressions to old behaviour patterns. A recent field study
of research scientists who went through coaching skills training programmes found, that the
relapse prevention tactics had the greatest effect when individual scientists also reported a
strong transfer climate in the department.
69
JSZActivityE; ' " • •"• •" "^-.. • • • • • •• • •• >'...." • * > , : • • • • • ••
a) Write down the difference between positive, zero and negative transfer.
b) Write down the principles that maximise the transfer of training.
4.6 LEARNING STRATEGIES AND STYLES

Research on learning styles and strategies can be important factors in determining learning
outcomes.
Kolb's Learning Styles
David Kolb, a learning theorist on experiential learning argues that learning process is not the same
for all the people. Due to of the complex nature of learning progress, there are opportunities for
individual differences and preferences to emerge. Alearning style represents how individual choices
made during the learning process affect what information is selected and how it is processed. Kolb
theorisies that an individual's learning style is based on that person's preferred modes of learning.
A mode of learning is the individual's orientation towards gathering and processing information
during learning. Kolb proposed four basic modes of experiental learning:
1. Concrete Experience (CE): An intuitive preference for learning through direct

experience, emphasising interpersonal relations and feeling as opposed to thinking. For
example, someone using this mode to learn about job politics would personally use various
political tactics in different group situations to get a sense of how each one feels, while also
gauging others' responses during each interaction.
mUnit 4 Learning Principles and Conditions
2. Abstract Conceptualisation (AC) : A preference for learning by thinking about an issue in theoretical
terms. For example, a person using this mode to learn about job politics would analyse political tactics
and their implications, perhaps consulting or constructing a model that includes abstract
representations of the components of political activities.
;'.; Reflective Observation (RO) : A preference to learn by watching and examining different points of
3.
view to achieve an understanding. For example, people using this mode to learn about job politics would
! most likely observe others involved in political activities and reflect on what they've seen from a variety
of perspectives.
Active Experimentation (AE) : A preference for learning something by actually doing it and judging its
practical value. For example, someone using this mode to fr learn about job politics might experiment
with various political tactics, determining their effectiveness by the amount of influence they had on other
people.
Kolb argues that an individual's learning style often combines two modes of learning, such as abstract
conceptualisation and active experimentation (thinking and doing). Each learning style emphasises some learning
abilities and deemphasises others. Based on his own work and the work of earlier theorists, Kolb defined four
learning styles:
69. Convergent : Acombination of abstract conceptualisation and active experimentation

(thinking and doing), with a focus on problem solving, decision making and the practical
application of ideas.
70. Divergent : A combination of concrete experience and reflective observation (feeling

and watching), emphasising imagination, an awareness of values and the ability to
generate alternative courses of action.
71. Assimilation : A combination of abstract conceptual! sation and reflective observation

(thinking and watching) that stresses inductive reasoning, the integration of disparate
observations into an explanation and the creation of theoretical models.
d) Accommodative : A combination of concrete experience and active experimentation (feeling

and doing), this style is usually demonstrated by accomplishment, executing I plans and
involvement in new experiences.
S Kolb says that learning styles are developed as a result of life experiences, both past and |
present as well as hereditary influences . He also notes that while individuals may have a i
dominant learning style, they may also use other learning styles in particular situations. To
71
help individuals identify their learning style, Kolb developed a self descriptive questionnaire called
the Learning Style Inventory (LSI). The LSI, which is currently marketed by a consulting
firm, McBer and Company, assesses an individual's orientation toward the four modes of learning
process (CE, RO, AC, and AE). It's scores also reflect the individual's tendencies towards
abstractness over concreteness and action over reflection.
Kolb's theory and the LSI can help HRD professionals, supervisors and employees to identify
and appreciate the number of different approaches to learning. As a result, training and
development programmes can be tailored to individual preferences in both traditional HRD
programs and those using computerised instruction.
J&> Activity F;
a) In your opinion, which of the four learning styles best describes you? What sort of
implications are there for group members having different learning styles?
b) Write down the foundation on which learning styles are developed.
4.7 SUMMARY
Understanding the learning process and how learning can be maximised are critical issues in
designing and implementing HRD programs. Learning is relatively permanent change in behaviour
or cognition that occurs as a result of one's interaction with the environment. Traditional research
on the learning process identified three principles of learning: contiguity, the law of effect, and
practice. Although these principles enhance our understanding of the learning process, they are
not sufficient for designing programs that maximise learning.
Unit 4 Learning Principles and Conditions maximiz
e
learning.
Trainee characteristics play a significant role in the learning process. Three trainee
These
characteristics that affect the extent to which trainees learn are trainability, personality and
conditio
attitudes. Trainability is a combination of motivation, ability and the work environment. The
ns
higher the level of trainability, the more likely it is that trainees will learn.
include
Knowledge of training design issues in particular, the conditions of practice should also be used to active
practice, massed versus spaced practice sessions, whole versus part learning, overlearning,
knowledge of results and task sequencing, hi general, trainee learning can be improved by
overlearning, feedback and practice sessions spaced over time with sufficient rest periods
between them.
The information or skills an employee learns are of little value to the organisation, if the
employee does not retain or use them in the job. Retention of what is learned is influenced by
such factors, as the meaningfulness of material, the degree of original learning and
interference. Factors that affect learning transfer to the work situation include identical
elements, general principles, stimulus variability and support in the work environment.
4.8 KEYWODRS
Assimilation: A combination of abstract conceptualisation and reflective observation
(thinking and watching) that stresses inductive reasoning, the integration of disparate
observations into an explanation and the creation of theoretical models.
Accommodative: A combination of concrete experience and active experimentation (feeling

and doing), this style is usually demonstrated by accomplishment, executing plans and involvement
in new experiences.
Active Practice: Active practice suggests that learners should be given an opportunity to
repeatedly perform the task or use the knowledge being learned.
Active Experimentation (AE): A preference for learning something by actually doing it and
judging its practical value.
Abstract Conceptualization (AC): A preference for learning by thinking about an issue

intheoretical terms.
Component Task Achievement: Each component task must be fully achieved before the
entire task may be performed correctly.
Cognitive Architecture: Cognitive architecture is defined as "fixed system of mechanisms

that underlies and produces cognitive behaviour."
73
Connectionist Architecture: Connectionist architecture is focused on the way information is

processed at the neural level (e.g. information exists within interconnected groups or neurons
and is processed by the spread of activation or inhibition among the groups) and draws its ideas
from research in neurobiology.
Concrete Experience (CE): An intuitive preference for learning through direct experience,
emphasising interpersonal relations and feeling as opposed to thinking.
Convergent: A combination of abstract conceptualisation and active experimentation (thinking
and doing), with a focus on problem solving, decision making and the practical application of
ideas.
Divergent: A combination of concrete experience and reflective observation (f eeling and
watching), emphasising imagination, an awareness of values, and the ability to generate
alternative courses of action.
Instructional Psychology: Robert Glaser characterised instructional psychology as

'focusing on the acquisition of human competence" with the following four components:
describing the learning goal to be obtained, analysing the initial state of the learner (what the
learner knows or can perform prior to learning), identifying the conditions (instructional techniques,
procedures and materials) that allow the learner to gain competence, and assessing and
monitoring the learning process to determine progress and whether alternative techniques should be
used.
Identical Elements: The principle of identical elements suggests that the more similar the
training and the performance, situations are in terms of the stimuli present and responses required,
the more likely it is that transfer of training will occur.
Massed versus Spaced Practice : Massed versus spaced practice sessions concern whether
to conduct training in one session or divide it into segments separated by some period of time.
Overlearning: Overlearning is defined as practice beyond the point at which the material or task
is mastered.
Reflective Observation (RO): A preference to learn by watching and examining different points of
view to achieve an understanding.
Symbolic Architecture: Symbolic architectures rely heavily on the notion that human beings
process information in the form of symbols and language (e.g. schema that are stored in
memory structures, such as long-term memory).
Unit 4 Learning Principles and Conditions multiple
example
s of a
Support in the work Environment: The extent to which a trainee perceives support for using concept
newly learned behaviour or knowledge on the job also affects transfer of training. or
involvin
Stimulus Variability: Transfer can be enhanced when training contains a variety of stimuli, such as
g the trainee in several different practice
situations.
Ir
The Law of Effect: The law of effect states that a behaviour followed by a pleasurable
consequence is likely to be repeated.
Task Analysis: Any task can be analysed into a set of distinct component tasks.
Task Sequencing : The learning situation should be arranged so that each of the
component tasks is learned in the appropriate order before the total task is attempted.
Trainee Characteristics: A learner or trainee's personal characteristics will influence how he
or she learns new tasks and new information. Three such characteristics are trainability,
personality and attitudes.
Trainability: Trainability is a concept that focuses on the trainee's readiness to learn, and
combines the trainee's level of ability and motivation with his or her perceptions of the work
environment.
Whole versus Part Learning: Whole versus part learning concerns the size of the unit to be
learned that is, should trainees practice an entire task (or study certain material as a whole) or
should the task or material be learned in separate parts of chunks?
4.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

Q1. Explain the role of that trainability plays in the effectiveness of an HRD program or
intervention. Briefly describe the options available to assess the trainability of
employees.
Q2. Few HRD professionals would disagree that practice plays an important role in learning
and retention. Using your knowledge of the conditions of practice, what sort of practice do
you think would be most effective for training mechanics in a new installation procedure for
automobile air conditioners?
Q3. Identify and discuss the factors that can affect whether training transfers back to the job.
Which two factors do you feel are the most important to ensure transfer? Support your
choices.
75
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this unit is to focus on the second phase of the HRD processes:
designing training and HRD interventions. At this point, an organisation following
effective HRD practices will have completed Phase I of the training and HRD process-
needs assessment and will have data that indicate:
72. where training or HRD program is needed.
73. what kind of training or HRD program is needed.
74. who needs to be trained.
75. the conditions under which training will occur.
In addition, the needs identified will have been prioritised so that senior management
and the HRD staff know which programs or issues require attention and resources.
Sometimes the availability of the needs assessment data may be limited. Although
HRD practitioners may feel it is difficult to design effective training programs, sometimes
they must improvise and make the best of suboptimal options. Armed with the needs t
assessment data, the focus now turns to design an effective HRD program. The key
activities involved in designing a training program are:
• setting objectives
• selecting the trainer or vendor
• developing a lesson plan
• selecting program methods and techniques
• preparing materials
• scheduling program
78
Unit 5 The Training Program: Selection, Design and Delivery
Assessment Design Implementation Evaluation
Define objectives Select evaluation criteria
Determine
evaluation
design
Develop/acquire
materials
Select trainer/ leader Conduct

Deliver the HRD program or evaluation of
intervention program or
intervention
Select methods and

techniques Interpret results
Schedule the
program/ intervention
J
outcom
Fig. 5.1: Training and HRD Process Model e. In
additio
Defining the objectives of the HRD intervention
n to
Robert Mager defines an objective as a "description of a performance you want formin
g the
learners basis
to be able to exhibit before you consider them competent." The objectives are used as for
the selectin
basis for determining which methods should be used to achieve the specified g the
program content and methods, objectives
] are used by the organisation to evaluate the program's success, and they also
help
1 participants to focus their own attention and efforts during the program. In short,
objectives
79
tell you where the program is going and how to know when you have reached your
desired target. Mager further states that useful objectives describe the performance
the learners (trainees) should be able to do, the conditions under which they must
do and the criteria (how well they must use it) used in judging its success.
Program objectives that lack performance, conditions and criteria are often
ambiguous and can cause those who interpret the objectives differently to feel
frustrated and come into conflict with one another. Two ways to ensure that
objectives are clear are to choose words carefully and have the objectives
reviewed by others (such as managers and potential participants).
Writing objectives for behaviours that can be directly observed by others (like
giving a patient an injection) can be easier than writing objectives for behaviours that
are unobservable (like judging whether a painting is of high quality). When
dealing with a broad or "unobservable" objectives, it is necessary to specify
observable behaviours that indicate whether an unobservable outcome has achieved.
Thus, an objective for judging whether a painting is of high quality can be written as
"to be able to judge whether a painting is of high quality by orally listing the
characteristics the painting possesses that indicate its quality."
Mager notes that, in many cases, simply presenting trainees with objectives for
learning or performance may be enough to elicit the desired behaviour. That is
people sometimes do not meet the performance expectations because they were
never clearly told what the expectations were or how they were supposed to
meet them. Clear objectives provide this information and represent the
organisation's expectations, which can play a key role in shaping employee
performance.
Some useful questions to consider when writing objectives include:

• Is your main intent stated (concerning what you want the trainee to do?)
• Have you described all the conditions that will influence trainee performance?
• Have you described how well the trainee must perform for his or her
performance to
be considered acceptable?
It is remarkably easy to write objectives for training or educational courses that

contain phrases with little or no meaning (Mager calls these "gibberish" objectives).
For example, after reading this textbook, we might wish from you to
"demonstrate a thorough comprehension of the systems or process model of
training". An effective behavioural objective will spell out clearly what is
expected of the learner or trainee. In the above example, what is expected of the
learner or trainee. In this example, what does it mean to "demonstrate a thorough
comprehension of....?" This fuzzy statement needs to be clarified to be of real value
as a learning objective.
As another example, of the following two statements, which do you think is the better (as
in more specific) objective?
76. In atleast two computer languages, be able to write and test a program to calculate
arithmetic means.
77. Discuss and illustrate principles and techniques of computer programming.
Our choice (and Mager's) in statement 1, as it describes as intended outcome, that is

something the learner is expected to be able to do. The second statement is more like a
training program or course description. It is not clear concerning precisely what the learner
would do to demonstrate competence in this area. Many management authors state that
good objectives become more difficult as one moves from knowledge and skill based
training intended to change attitudes and emotions. Further, Danny Langdon has recently
promoted the idea of moving beyond objectives to what he terms developing "proformas."
A key point Langdon makes is that objectives can fail to make clear all of the issues going
on in the organisation that can influence individual performance. His approach suggests six
issues that should be emphasised: inputs, process, outputs, consequences, conditions and
feedback. Langdon highlights issues taking place during the process of training, as well as
ongoing feedback that is received from various parties interested in training. Developing a
proforma does not take the place of writing objectives, yet it does provide considerably
more detail about how training and issues within the organisation interact to produce (or
fail to produce) desired organisational outcomes.
Âctivity A;
a) Evaluate the following statement as a program objective for a diversity-training

program. Rewrite the objective to conform more closely to the principles spelled out
above concerning effective program objectives.
"Develop a thorough understanding of the corporate culture of our organisation,

including our policies on harassment, ethnic and gender diversity and equal access to
individual counselling and promotion opportunities."
b) Write down the difference between a proforma and an objective.
5.2 CREATING OR PURCHASING TRAINING PROGRAMS____________

After a manager or HRD professional has identified the program objectives, a
series of decisions must be made regarding the development and delivery of the
program. One of those decisions is whether to design the program internally,
purchase it (or portions of it) from outside vendor, or use some combination of
the two. There are a number of factors which should be considered while
making a purchase decision. For example, suppose, a small manufacturer plans
to computerise its billing operation. Given the nature of training needed, it is
likely that the firm's management would contract with an outside vendor:
78. the firm would probably not have the expertise to design the
program in-house
79. management would not likely have the time to design the training
program andc) it is
not likely that the firm has an HRD department. In general, when the number of
people
needing the HRD intervention is small, it is more likely that the project will be
outsourced.
That is, those needing the intervention may be sent outside the organisation for the
program.
This could in the form of the organisation providing the resources for
professional
development or tuition reimbursement.
Other factors that may influence an organisation's decisions include personal

contacts or past experience with an outside vendor, geographical proximity
to the vendor, local economic conditions, and the presence of government
incentives to conduct training. Once an organisation decided to purchase a
program or part of a program from an outside vendor, a vendor must be
chosen. One rational way to do this is to determine the match between the
vendor's product or capability with the organisation's needs and objectives. The
criteria for these decisions vary among organisations, but in general they
include:
80. cost: price relative to program content and quality

81. credentials: including certificates, degrees, and other documentation of the
vendor'
s
experti
se
82. b
ackgro
und:
numbe
r of
years
in
busine
ss and
experie
nce in
the
particu
lar
content
area
83. experience: vendor's prior clients, success with those clients, references.
84. philosophy: comparison of the vendor's philosophy to that of the organisation
85. delivery method: training methods and techniques used
86. content: topics included in program or materials
h) actual product: including appearance, samples or whether a pilot program is available
i) results: expected outcomes ,
j) support: especially in terms of implementation and follow-up
k) request for proposal: the match between a vendor's offer and the requirement spelled
out in the organisation's request for proposal. (RFP)
Some of these factors will carry greater weight with particular managers. For example,
some managers want to work only with the 'best' providers, so they may weigh the vendor's
experience and client list more heavily. Other managers may be swayed by ' Star power',
as evidenced by the vendor's identity as a leading expert (such as management professor
Dave Ulrich for training programs concerning strategic human resource management).
In summary, training vendors offer organisations a wide choice of options in designing and
developing training and HRD programs.
# Activity B;
1 a) Write down two reasons as to why an organisation will contract with an outside
I vendor.
Write down two factors while hiring the services of training vendors.
5.3 SELECTING THE TRAINER AND PREPARING A LESSON PLAN

Selecting the trainer can be a fairly easy process, when an organisation has a large,
multifaceted training staff with the competencies and subject-matter expertise to train in
high demand areas. Training competency involves the knowledge and varied skills needed
to design and implement a training program. The typical skills of effective trainers are
ability to communicate their knowledge clearly, use various instructional techniques, have
good interpersonal skills and have the ability to motivate others to learn.
Trainers who lack subject- matter expertise may rely too heavily on a textbook or other
training material and not be able to explain important concepts and/or how these are
applied to the job. Besides contracting with an outside vendor, less qualified trainers can
be aided through:
t^
1. teaming skilled trainers with in-house subject-matter experts to form an instructional
team
?
2. using a training technique that does not require human training, such as programmed
instruction or computer-aided instruction programs.
3. train-the-trainer programs, which involve identifying in-house content experts who

lack training skills and training them to become effective trainers.
*
Overall, the selection of me trainer is an important decision for any HRD effort. Sometimes,
1. 2. 3.
even a competently designed program that has the potential to address a significant j
organisational need can be a failure if an incompetent, unmotivated or disinterested, trainer 4.
delivers it. An ideal trainer would be someone with the requisite competencies as a trainer, \
as well as peer recognition for his or her subject-matter expertise. If the trainer does not
have the necessary subject-matter expertise in the design phase, so that an effective matching of
training content with training design and delivery can take place.
Preparing a Lesson Plan
Program objectives are necessary for pinpointing desired outcomes of a training orHRD
program, but these statements alone are insufficient for determining content of the training
program, as well as the training methods, techniques and materials. To translate program
objectives into an executable training session, the development of a lesson plan is
recommended. A lesson plan is a trainer's guide for the actual delivery of the training
content. Creating a lesson plan requires the trainer to determine what is to be covered and how
much time to devote to each part of the session. Gilley and Eggland suggest thata lesson
plan should specify:
84
f* content to be covered
• sequencing of activities
• selection or design of training media
• selection or development of experiential exercises or both
• timing and planning of each activity
• selection of the method of instruction to be used
• number and type of evaluation items to be used
Some organisations have program designers whose responsibility may include defining
training objectives and developing lesson plans. Individuals with educational backgrounds
in instructional design (usually from colleges of education) are often hired for such positions.
To assist trainers, a standardised lesson plan form is shown below recommended by Nadler
andNadler.
Program Title Objectives of
the lesson Preparation
required:
1. Physical environment
I 2, Equipment and materials
1 Instructor
4. Trainee(s)
Time Major Topics Instructor Activity Trainee Activity Instructional Strategies
Intended to be achieved
I Fig. 5.2 : A General Lesson Plan Template

Some: From LNadler & Z.Nadler (1994). Designing training programs: The critical events
model
\ Md) Houston: Gulf Publishing, 145.
86 Human Resource Development & Training . . . . . . . . .
As seen in the template above, the lesson plan serves as a blueprint for
conducting the training program. Sometimes the HRD intervention (including
the general lesson plan) is designed before the trainers are selected. This would
most likely occur in large organisations.
JS$ Activity C;
a) Write down two ways in which less qualified trainers can be aided
through.
b) Write down the essential components of a lesson plan.
5.4 STRATEGIES AND LEARNING TACTICS

Ideally, before thinking about strategies and tactics, the trainer should give
consideration to the availability and skill level of those who are going to be
involved in the delivery of training. However, even though the trainer may work
sequentially through all stages which make up a systematic approach, it is
impossible to prevent thoughts about strategies and
tactics coming into mind at a comparatively early stage in the process.
1*1
A number of classifications have been used to distinguish between different
strategies all of which have some areas of commonality. Strategies have been
categorized as centralized and decentralized, as trainer-centered and learner-
centered, as on-job and off-job training etc. There has been a considerable
emphasis placed on the learner and on learning skills and therefore it is
appropriate to review strategies within the context of the learner-based: trainer-
based classification.
St,
Trainer-centered strategy is best describe in terms of the course. It is

structured by the trainer who leads the learners or trainees through a series of
lessons, exercises, activities and experiences towards the achievement of a set of
objectives. The pace, tactics, sequence etc. of the training is decided and
controlled by the trainer. Learner-centered stratec}
Unit 5 The Training Program : Selection, Design and Delivery
places the onus of responsibility for learning upon the trainee. The trainee is
involved much more in pace-setting, sequencing, choice of materials and
general management of the learning with the trainer operating more as a
resource or a manager of resources upon whom the trainee is able to draw.
Both strategies have their respective strengths and weaknesses. Trainer-centered

strategy reflects the traditional approach with which everyone feels
comfortable. Line managers and senior management have something to relate to
when decisions on strategy have to be made. Trainers find it easier to plan,
administer and control the learning using tactics and material which have prove
their success. Trainees often value a well-structured programme which directs
their learning and provided them with the opportunity of mixing with their
peers, sharing experiences and using others as a yardstick against which to
measure their own progress.
One of the disadvantages of the trainer-centered strategy is that, the learner

is moved along at a pace which is often dictated by timetable constraints if all
objectives are to be taught. This could result in some trainees not being able to
learn the material as well or to the level which is expected. In addition, a trainer-
centered strategy is reliant upon the skills of the trainer. The trainer has to be not
only technically competent but skilled in making decisions about pace,
contents, tactics etc. in using interpersonal skills to motivate, give feedback,
counsel etc.
The term learner-centered does not mean that the responsibility for training is
taken away from the trainer. One of the advantages of the learner-centered
strategy is that the trainer is responsible for and controls training albeit by
adopting a different role which is likely to include managing resources, acting
as a facilitator etc. The emphasis on the learner is expressed in terms of pace,
sequence, choice of materials and more direct contact with the trainer when the
trainee feels in need of advice, information or feedback.
In the same way, a trainer centered strategy makes demands on the skills of
the trainer, the learner-centered strategy relies considerably on the motivation,
disposition and skill of the learner to adapt to a learning situation which may
be unfamiliar and seemingly unstructured. Not everyone is able to pace their
own learning. Additionally, there is a substantial amount of work involved in
setting up, management and updating of the resource materials that are needed to
support this kind of strategy. The trainer also has to change roles and may not
like nor be able to adapt to a new role.
The strategy that is chosen will depend very much on what is being trained,
87
knowledge of the target population and the constraints which the training
designer has to work to. It could be that both strategies are used as part of the
training plan, for example trainees may
undertake some form of learner-centered training such as working through a

learning package as a prerequisite to attending a course. Also, constraints such as
time and availability of trainees may lead to members of the same target
population being trained by the use of different strategies.
Having decided upon the appropriate strategy, the trainer is in a position to select
the most appropriate methods or tactics with which to apply the strategy. As with
the strategies, the tactics have their relative advantages and disadvantages which
the trainer needs to bear in mind at this stage of the design process.
& Activity D;
a) Write down two differences between trainer-centered and learner-centered
strategy.
b) Write down the title of a training program where both trainer and learner
centered strategy are used.
5.5 TRAINING DELIVERY METHODS

Training methods can be classified by whether they take place on the job
versus away from employee's normal work setting. We will first discuss on-the-
job methods, and then discuss classroom approaches, which typically take
place away from the job (such as conference room or classroom). Yet, a third
category of training method includes those that use a self-paced or
individualised approach. For example, computer training can take place on the
job (e.g., CD-ROM, Web-based, or distance learning) that may be done in a
variety of different settings. Table-5.1 lists the on-the-job, classroom and self-
paced training methods.
Table 5.1: On-the-job, classroom and self-paced training methods
Methods Techniques
On-the-job • Job-instruction training
• Job rotation
• Coaching
• Mentoring
Classroom • Lecture
• Conference/Discussion
• Audio-visual
87. static media(e.g. handouts, books)
88. dynamic media (e.g. film, video)
89. telecommunication (e.g., satellite transmission, internet)
• Experiential techniques
90. Case Study
91. Business Games
92. Role-play
93. Behaviour Modelling
• Self-Paced
94. Computer-aided instruction (e.g. Multimedia, CD-ROM)
95. Intranet/Internet
96. Intelligent computer aided instruction
97.
On-the-job-training (OJT): OJT involves conducting training at a trainee's

regular workstation (Desk, machine etc).This is the most common form of training;
most employees receive atleast some training and coaching on the job. OJT has two
distinct advantages over classroom training. First, OJT facilitates the transfer of
learning to the job because the trainee has an immediate opportunity to practice the
work tasks on the job. Transfer of learning is enhanced because the learning
environment is the same as the performance environment. Second, OJT reduces
training costs because no training facilities are needed. There are however, several
limitations to OJT too. First, the job site may have physical
89
constraints, noise and other distractions that could inhibit learning. Many of these
cannot be changed because of the nature of the job. Second, using expensive
equipment for training could result in costly damage or disruption of the
production schedule. Third, using OJT while customers are present may be
inconvenient for them and may temporarily reduce the quality of service. Fourth,
OJT involving heavy equipment or chemicals may threaten the safety of others who
are working in close proximity. Precautions should be taken by the trainer to
minimise the potential problems from these four areas. There are at least four
identifiable OJT techniques, including job instruction training (JIT), job rotation,
coaching and mentoring.
Job Instruction Training (JIT): JIT is defined as a sequence of instructional
procedures used by the trainer to train employees while they work in their assigned
job. The content of a JIT program is distinguished by its simplicity. JIT has a
simple four-step process that helps the trainer to prepare the worker, present the
task, allow for practice time and follow-up. Preparing the workers is important
because they need to know what to expect. Preparation may include providing
employees with a training manual, handouts or other training or job aids that can be
used as references. Presenting the task should be carried out in such a way that the
trainee understands and can replicate the task. Some trainers demonstrate the task
before asking the trainee to repeat the process. Practice time is important for the
trainee to master a particular set of skills. Finally, the trainer needs to conduct a
follow-up session; the trainer should apply coaching techniques when appropriate.
Job Rotation: In job rotation, the trainee is expected to learn by observing and
doing than by receiving instruction. Rotation, as the term implies, involves a series of
assignments to different positions or departments for a specified period of time.
During this assignment, the trainee is supervised by a department employee, usually a
supervisor who is responsible for orienting, training and evaluating the trainee.
Throughout the training cycle, the trainee is expected to learn about how each
department functions including key roles, policies and procedures. At the end of each
cycle, the accumulated evaluations will be used to determine the preparedness of the
trainee and where the person will be permanently assigned. Job rotation is
frequently used for the first-level management training, particularly for new
employees. When this technique is used, it is generally assumed that managers
need to develop a working knowledge of the organisation before they become
successful managers.
Coaching and Mentoring: Coaching typically occurs between an employee and
that person's supervisor and focuses on examining employee performance and
taking actions to maintain effective performance and correct performance
problems. In mentoring, a senior manager is paired with a more junior employee
for the purpose of giving support, helping the employee learn the ropes, and
preparing the employee for increasing responsibility.
JS$ Activity E;
a) Write one advantage and one limitation of OJT.
b) Write down the four steps of JIT.
5,6 CLASSROOM TRAINING APPROACHES

Classroom training is conducted outside of the normal work setting, i.e. any training space
away from work site, such as company cafeteria or a meeting room. While many
organisations capitalise on whatever usable space they have available to conduct training
sessions, some larger organisations (including McDonald's, Motorola and Pillsbury) maintain
facilities that serve as freestanding training centres. These training centres operate as a
company college with curricula that include courses covering a wide range of skill and
content areas. Conducting training away from the work setting has several advantages
over OJT. First classroom training permits the use of variety of training techniques such as
video, lecture, discussion, role-playing and simulation. Secondly, the environment can be
designed or controlled to minimise distractions and create a climate conducive to learning.
Thirdly, classroom settings can accommodate large number of trainees than the typical
on-the-job setting, allowing for more efficient delivery of training. However, there are 2
potential disadvantages. They are increased costs (such as travel and rental or purchase
and maintenance of rooms and equipment) and dissimilarity to the job setting, making
transfer of training more difficult. Five primary categories of classroom training include:
• lecture
• discussion
• audio-visual media ;
• experiential methods
• self-paced or computer based training
'
The Lecture Method: This method involves the oral presentation of

information by a subject matter expert to a group of listeners. Transmitting
factual information to a large audience in a relatively short amount of time
makes the lecture method a popular one. When used in conjunction with
visual aids, such as slides, charts, maps and handouts the lecture can be an
effective way to facilitate the transfer of theories, concepts and other factual
material. However, the lecture method is largely criticised particularly because
it emphasised one-way communication, thus promoting passivity and boredom
and is therefore poorly suited for facilitating transfer of training and
individualised training. The lecture has little value in facilitating attitudinal and
behavioural change.
The Discussion Method: This method involves the trainer/facilitator in

two-way communication with the trainees and the trainees in communication
with each other. Given this dynamic, the discussion technique can overcome
some of the limitations of the straight lecture method. The success of this
method is depended upon the ability of the trainer to initiate and manage class
discussion by asking one or more of the following type of questions:
• Direct questions can be used to illustrate or produce a very narrow

response.
• Reflective questions can be used to mirror what someone else has said to
make sure w
the message was received as intended.
I
• Open-ended questions can be used to challenge the trainees to

increase their
understanding of a specific topic.
Besides addressing the participant's questions, the trainer must also act as a
gatekeeper, giving everyone an opportunity to express their point of view and
not letting the discussion dominated by a few vocal participants. Dividing the
large class into smaller discussion groups, which can then share their ideas
with other groups, can increase the opportunity for discussion.
Audio-visual Media: Both the lecture and discussion methods are limited in
their ability to adequately portray dynamic and complex events. Audiovisual
me ways. The audiovisual methods can be divided into three groups: Static
dia media, dynamic media and telecommunications.
ca
n
bri
ng
co
m
ple
x
ev
ent
s
to
lif
e
by
sh
ow
ing
an
d
de
scr
ibi
ng
det
ail
s
tha
t
are
oft
en
dif
fic
ult
to
co
m
m
uni
cat
e
in
ot
he
r
Unit 5 The Training Program : Selection, Design and Delivery
Static Media: Static media typically involves fixed illustrations that use both words and
images, for example, printed materials, slides and overhead transparencies. Printed materials,
such as handouts, charts, guides reference books and textbooks allow trainees to keep
material, referring to it before, during and after the training session. Slides are often used in
ways similar to printed materials, but by projecting computer-or camera- generated images
onto a screen, they can serve as a common focus for discussion. Slides can be synchronised
with audiotapes to form a standardised presentation. Overhead transparencies can be
more flexible than slides because the trainer can also write on the transparency sheets
turning the screen into a sort of a chalkboard. The use of PowerPoint slides has increased
dramatically in the past few years.
Dynamic Media: Techniques that present dynamic sequences of events are considered
dynamic media and include audiocassettes and compact discs (CDs), film, videotape and
videodisc. There are literally thousands of commercially produced films and videos available
to HRD professionals through film libraries, professional societies and retail outlets.
Videotape is used as a visual aid for behaviour modeling training by recording actual role
plays and then asking group members to critique their experience while they watch the
video. For example, a sales training program may include a videotaping segment, so that
trainees can observe themselves performing an in-class exercise on how to close a sale.
This approach also provides an opportunity for the trainer to reinforce desired behaviours.
One potential limitation of this technique is that trainees feel intimidated by the camera and
may even resent the process. To offset this limitation, the trainer must be supportive and
create a 'safe' environment during the program.
Telecommunication: The transmission of training programs to different locations via

telecommunication is now possible with the advent of satellite, microwave, cable (CATV),
and fibre-optic networks. Telecommunication technology allows organisations to conduct
conferences between remote locations. This technique is known as teleconferencing or
videoconferencing. Teleconferencing helps organisations to reduce trainers' travel and facility
costs and it increases the availability of training to remote locations.
Given the choices available, the HRD professionals must select the most appropriate
audiovisual method for each particular HRD program. Kearsely made five primary
recommendations concerning media selection:
• Identify the media attributes required by the conditions, performance or standards of

each instructional objective.
Identify participant characteristics that suggest or preclude particular media.

• Identify the characteristics of the learning environment that favour or

preclude a
particular media.
• Identify practical considerations that may determine which media are

feasible.
• Identify economic or organisational factors that may determine which media are
feasible.
JSZ Activity F:
a) Write down the five categories of classroom training.
b) Write down one reason why discussion method is better over lecture
method.
5.7 EXPERIENTIAL METHODS

Experiential learning advocates, such as David Kolb, argue that effective learning
requires active engagement on the part of the learner. Experiential training
methods commonly used in organisations include case studies, games and
simulations, role playing and behaviour modelling. These methods fall more
toward the exploratory level of the learning continuum rather than the passive
learning mode like the one in lecture and audio-visual methods.
Case Studies: Case studies help participants to learn analytical and
problem-solving skills with the help of a case about people in an organisation
who are facing a problem. Cases may be based on actual events involving real
people in the organisation or they can be fictional. Proponents of the case study
method argue that this form of problem-solving within a management setting
offers illustrations of the concepts, participants are expected to learn and use,
improves communication skills, facilitates linkage between theory and
practice. The case study method, also vigorous critics who argue that it can
caus
e
grou
pthi
nk,
focu
ses
too
muc
h on
the
past,
limit
s the
teac
hing
role
of
the
train
er,
redu
ces
«
i the learner's ability to draw generalisations, reinforces passivity on the part of the learner
i and promotes quantity of interaction among participants at the expense of the quality of
interaction. Sometimes the participants may get caught up in the details of the situation, at the
expense of focusing on larger issues and concepts they are trying to learn. To overcome these
limitations the trainer should make expectations clear and provide guidance when needed.
Business games and simulations: Like the case method, business games are intended to
develop or refine problem-solving and decision-making skills. This technique tends to focus
primarily on business management decisions(such as maximising profits).It is estimated that
23% of the organisations use non-computer based games or simulations, with 9% using
computer- based games or simulations.
Role-plays: In role-playing technique, trainees are presented with an organisational
situation, assigned a role or character in the situation and asked to act out the role with one or
more trainees. The role-play should offer the trainee an opportunity for self-discovery and
learning. For example, a management development program could include a role-play
situation emphasising interpersonal conflict between a manager and subordinate. The value of
this technique is enhanced by conducting a feedback session following the role-play in
which trainees and the trainer critique the role player's performance.
Behaviour Modelling: Social learning theory suggests that many of our behaviour patterns are
learned from observing others. This theory forms the basis for behavioral modeling. In
organisations, employees learn all kinds of behaviours (some work related and some not),
from observing supervisors, managers and coworkers who serve as role models. Under
normal conditions, role models can have tremendous influence on individual behaviour. In
this technique, trainees observe a model performing a target behaviour correctly (usually on
film or video). This is followed by discussion of the key components of the behaviour,
practicing the target behaviour through role playing and receiving feedback and
reinforcement for the behaviour they demonstrate. Behaviour modeling is widely used for
interpersonal skill training and is a common component of many management training
programs.
& Activity F:
a) Write down two disadvantages of using case study method.
9
5

b) ations use computer-based training (CBT) via CD-ROM in their training programs, with
Write other multimedia-based efforts certainly pushing the number of computer-based training
down approaches much higher than this. The interaction between the learner and the
the computer in many CBT programs mirrors the one-on-one relationship between
process participant and tutor. Questions and responses can go back and forth, resulting in
of
immediate feedback. Advanced forms of CBT, like intelligent computer-aided instruction,
behavi
our can even analyse the pattern of a student's responses and errors, draw conclusions and
modelli tailor the lesson the learner receives accordingly. Three approaches to CBT include
ng. computer-aided instruction (CAT), intranet training and intelligent computer-assisted
instruction (ICAI).
Computer-aided Instruction: CAI programs can range from electronic workbooks,

using the drill and practice approach, to compact disc read-only memory (CD-ROM)
presentation of a traditional training program. CAI packages are available at a relatively
low cost for a wide range of material, from teaching basic skills such as reading and typing, to
highly technical scientific, engineering and machine maintenance topics. CAI has several
advantages over other training methods considering the interactive nature of CAI. Based on
5.8 the trainee's responses, the computer will present various levels of material until the
SELF
trainee reaches mastery. A second advantage is CAI's self-pacing feature that allows trainees to
PACE
control the speed of instruction and makes them self-sufficient learners. Athird advantage is
D
the logistics of CAI that make it more accessible through an internal distribution system (e.g.
LEAR
NING the HR department). Finally, CAI offers an instructional management and reporting system
that automatically tracks student progress and the allocation and use of instructional resources,
It is including terminals, instructors and classrooms. The effectiveness of CAI can be measured
estimat by changes in productivity and profits.
ed that
54% of Internet and Intranet based training (EBT): There are five distinct uses of internet
organis training. Intranets are computer networks that use Internet and the World Wide Web
technology, software tools and protocols for finding, managing, creating and distributing
UnitS The Training Program: Selection, Design and Delivery ; • , ..s.f - - / * •,- -• - presen
tation
(novic
information within an organisation. Much technology based training today is referred to as
e,
e-learning for electronic learning, and most of this makes use of either internet or intranet
imme
technology and systems. Intranet based training uses internal computer networks for training
diate,
purposes. Through DBT, HRD professionals are able to communicate with learners' conduct,
etc.).
needs assessment and other administrative tasks, transmit course material and other training
ICAI
documents, and administer tests at any time and throughout the organisation, whether an
progra
employee is in India or located overseas. IBT has most, if not all, of the features of a
m is
multimedia CD-ROM program, plus the capability for users to communicate quickly. Given
able to
the multimedia format, which uses large video and audio files, the primary limitation to date
discer
has been the network bandwith- the size of a network's transmittal capacity. However,
n the
with rapid advances in technology (greater bandwith and improved abilities to compress
learner
data), this limitation is increasingly being overcome.
's
Intelligent Computer-Assisted Instruction (ICAI): ICAI goes beyond the CAI in capabil
terms of flexibility and the ability to qualitatively evaluate learner performance whereas a ity
typical CAI program may allow the learner to select from among several levels of from
the learner's response patterns and by analysing the learner's errors. The goal of ICAI
systems is to provide learners with an electronic teacher's assistant that can patently offer
advice to individual learners, encourage learner practice and stimulate learner's curiosity
through experimentation. ICAI programs' are based on advances in artificial
intelligence, which involves engineering some aspects of the human thought process into a
computer. Artificial intelligence research is uncovering ways to improve ICAI programs
capability to use natural language to interact with the learner and to understand the learner
(by tracking learner response and learning from them). Given the rate of progress in compute
hardware, software, artificial intelligence and knowledge engineering (designing and
organising information and finding effective ways to present it), it would not be surprising
to see ICAI programs become common in training and educational programs in the not-
too-distant future.
& Activity G;
a) Write down the three types of computer-based training.
97
98
b) Write down one peculiarity of 1C AI.
5.9 SUMMARY
This unit describes several important activities in details related to selection, design and
delivery of training programs. The key activities involved in designing a training program
are: setting objectives, selecting the trainer or vendor, developing a lesson plan, selecting
program methods and techniques, preparing materials, scheduling program and delivery.
The design of the training program is based on the objectives which are set for the training
program. The three primary training methods are OJT, classroom and self-paced/computer
based training. Each method has a number of techniques appropriate for particular situations.
The trainer needs to select the best combination of techniques that will maximise trainee
learning. Once the trainer designs and schedules the program, the final step is the actual
implementation of the program.
5.10 KEYWORDS________________________________________________
Behaviour Modelling: It is widely used for interpersonal skill training and is common
component of many management training programs.
Business Games: Business Games are intended to develop or refine problem-solving

and decision-making skills.
Case Study Method: It helps participants to learn analytical and problem-solving skills
with the help of a case about people in an organisation, who are facing a problem.
Dynamic Media: Techniques that present dynamic sequences of events are considered
as dynamic media and include audiocassettes and compact discs, film, videotape and
videodisc.
Job Rotation: It involves a series of assignments to different positions or departments j

for a specific period of time. ,
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Human Resource Development evaluation is defined as "the systematic collection of
descriptive and judgmental information necessary to make effective training decisions related
to the selection, adoption, value and modification of various instructional activities." This
definition makes several important points, when conducting evaluation; both descriptive
and judgmental information may be collected. Descriptive information provides a picture
of what is happening or has happened, whereas judgmental information communicates
some opinion or belief about what has happened. For example, the statement "25% of the
first-line supervisors attended a budgeting workshop in the last year" contains only
descriptive information; it simply states the facts. Similarly, a statement that "20% fewer
supervisors attended this workshop than in the previous twelve months" also contains
descriptive information. However, the statement, "the turnout for the budgeting workshop
over the last six months is disappointingly low compared to last year's turnout" provides
judgmental information - someone's opinion based on facts. Both descriptive and judgmental
information are needed in an HRD evaluation. Evaluation is conducted to help managers,
employees and HRD professionals make informed decisions about particular programs
and methods. For example, if part of a program is ineffective, it may need to be changed
or discarded. Or if, a certain program proves valuable, it may be replicated in other parts
of the organisation. Evaluation can serve a number of purposes within the organisation:
98. To determine success in accomplishing program objectives - Every HRD program

should state objectives in a generally accepted format (i.e. measurable, specific,
challenging etc.). Evaluation provides input to determine if objectives are being (or
have been) met.
99. To identify the strengths and weaknesses in the HRD effort - Probably the most
common purpose of evaluation is to determine the effectiveness of an HRD program's
various elements (methods of presentation, learning environment, program content,
learning aids, schedule and the facilitator. Each component makes a difference in the
HRD effort and must be evaluated to make improvements in the program.
100. To compare the costs to the benefits of an HRD program - With today's business
focus on the bottom line, determining a program's cost-effectiveness is crucial. This
evaluation compares the cost of the program to its usefulness or value, measured in
monetary benefits. The return on investment is the most common measure. This
evaluation measure provides management with information needed to eliminate an
unproductive program, increase support for programs which yield a high payoff, or
to make adjustments in a program to increase benefits.
Unit 6 Assessing the Effectiveness of Training
5S 101. To decide who should participate in future programs - Sometimes evaluation

is provides information to help prospective participants decide if they should be involved
in in the program. This type of evaluation explores the application of the program to
lis determine success and barriers to implementation. Communicating this information
an to other potential participants helps decide participation.
or
102. To test the clarity and validity of tests, cases and exercises - Evaluation sometimes
provides a testing and validating instrument. Interactive activities, case studies and
tests used in the learning process must be relevant. They must measure the skills,
knowledge and abilities the program is designed to teach.
103. To identify which participants were the most successful with the program - An
evaluation may identify which participants excelled or failed at learning and
implementing skills or knowledge from the program. This information can be helpful
to 7) To gather data to assist in marketing future program - In many situations, HR
determi department are interested in knowing why participants attend a specific program,
ne if an particularly if many programs are offered. An evaluation can provide information to
individu develop the marketing strategy for future programs by determining why participants
al attended the program, who made the decision to attend, how participants found out
should about the program and if the participants would recommend it to others.
be
promote 104. To determine if the program was the appropriate solution for the specific need -
d, Sometimes evaluation can determine if the original problem needed a training solution.
transferr Too often, a training program is conducted to correct problems that cannot be
ed, corrected by training. There may be other reasons for performance deficiencies such
moved as procedures, work flow, or the quality of supervision. An evaluation may yield
up the insight into whether or not the training program was necessary, and if possible even
career point management towards the source of the problem.
ladder,
or given
105. To establish a database that can assist management in making decisions - The
central theme in many evaluations is to make a decision about the future of an HRD
addition
program. This information can be used by those in positions of responsibility, including
al
instructors, HRD staff members, managers (who approve programs) and executives
assignm
(who allocate resources for future training and development). A comprehensive
ents.
evaluation system can build a database to help make these decisions.
10
3
Building credibility is a key aspect of conducting an evaluation. If the HR department fails to

conduct evaluation, the training program may not be taken too seriously within the
organisation. Thus, evaluation is a critical step in the HRD process. It is the only way one can
know whether an HRD program has fulfilled its objectives.
The frequency of HRD evaluations
Given their importance, one might expect that HRD programs are regularly and carefully
evaluated. Unfortunately this is not the case. Recent research shows that the commonly used
form of evaluation was participant reaction, which is useful for only a few of the decisions that
must be made about the HRD programs. Many organisations do not conduct evaluations frequently
for the following reasons: a) Those associated with HRD programs may be afraid of criticism and
program cuts if the evaluation shows that the program was not effective, b) Conducting an
evaluation is not an easy process. It requires time, resources and expertise that the HRD staff may
not have or may not be willing to expend, c) Many factors beyond the program itself
(including the economy, equipment, policies and procedures, other HR efforts and resource
availability) can affect whether employee performance improves, thus making it difficult to
evaluate the impact of the training.
Evolution of Evaluation Efforts
Goldstein suggests that efforts at training evaluation have evolved through the following four
stages since the 1960s:
Stage 1: focuses on anecdotal reactions from trainers and program participants. Research says
that it appears that many organisations still operate at this level.
Stage 2 : involves borrowing experimental methodology from academic laboratories to use for
program evaluation. Organisational constraints (including time, resources and the inability to
randomly select participants or use control groups that receive no training) make application of
these designs difficult, thus discouraging evaluation efforts.
Stage 3: creatively matches the appropriate research methodology to existing organisational

constraints, thus making program evaluation more practical and feasible.
j^
•A
Stage 4: recognises that the entire training and HRD process affects the organisation, and shifts
the focus of evaluation from post program results to the entire HRD process.
If Unite Assessing the Effectiveness of Training
£f Activity A:
a) Write down two purposes of evaluation.
b) Write down two reasons why organisations don't conduct evaluations frequently.
6.2 LEVELS OFEVALUATION____________________________________

The question of what to evaluate is crucial to evaluation strategy. The answer depends on
the HRD program, the organisation and the purposes of evaluation. The information collected
and used for evaluation can usually be grouped for into different categories or levels. For
agiven category or level, some methods of evaluation are more appropriate than others. A
model of evaluation outlines the criteria focus for the evaluation effort. As an HRD program
can be examined from a number of perspectives, it is important to specify which perspectives
will be considered.
By far, the most widely used evaluation approach to date has been the framework laid out
by Donald Kirkpatrick. We will discuss this first. While the different models and frameworks
share some features, they also differ in significant ways.
Kirkpatrick's Evaluation Framework

Kirkpatrick argues that training efforts can be evaluated according to four criteria: reaction,
learning, job behaviour and results.
1. Reaction (Level 1): Did the trainees like the program and feel it was useful ? At this
level, the focus is on the trainee's perceptions about the program and its effectiveness.
This is an useful information. Positive reactions to a training program may make it
easier to encourage employees to attend future programs. But if trainees did not like
the program or think they didn't learn anything (even if they did), they may discourage
Unit 6 Assessing the Effectiveness of Training The
CIRO
• adding a fifth level (beyond results) to specifically address the organisation's Approa
return ch
on investment.
Another four-level approach, originally developed by Warr, Bird and Rackham, is a
rather unique way to classify evaluation processes. Originally used in Europe, this
framework has a much broader scope than the traditional use of the term 'evaluation'
in the United
States.
As with the other approaches, four general categories of evaluation are described
which formthelettersCIRO.
Context Evaluation
• Input evaluation
• Reaction evaluation
Outcome evaluation
Context evaluation involves obtaining and using information about the current
operational situation (or context) to determine training needs and objectives. This
evaluation determines if training is needed. During this process, three types of
objectives may be evaluated:
106. Ultimate objectives (the particular deficiency in the organisation that the
program will
eliminate or overcome)
107. Intermediate objectives (the changes in employees' work behaviour that
will be
necessary for the ultimate objectives to be attained)
108. Immediate objectives (the new knowledge, skills or attitudes that
employees must
acquire to change their behaviour and reach the intermediate objective)
Context evaluation involves collecting information about aperformance deficiency,
assessing the information to establish HRD needs and, on the basis of those findings,
setting objectives
at three levels.
Input evaluation involves obtaining and using information about possible training
resources to choose between alternative inputs or HRD. This type of evaluation
involves analysing the resources to choose between alternative inputs to HRD. This
type of evaluation involves analysing the resources available (both internal and
external) and determining how they can be deployed so that there is maximum
chance of achieving the desired objectives.
in?
Factors such as budget and management requirements may limit

the options available. Thus, input evaluation refers to the process of
collecting evidence and using it to decide on the HRD methods.
• ' '!'
Reaction evaluation involves obtaining and using information about

participant's reactions
to improve the HRD process. The distinguishing feature of this type of
evaluation is that it
relies on the subjective input of the participants. Their views can
prove extremely useful
when collected and used in a systematic and objective manner.
i
Outcome evaluation involves obtaining and using information about the

results or outcomes of HRD, and is usually regarded as the most
important part of evaluation. If outcome evaluation is to be
successful, it requires careful presentation before the program begins.
There are four stages that form outcome evaluation. They are as
follows :
109. defining trend objectives

110. selecting or constructing some measures of those objectives
111. making the measurements at the appropriate time
112. assessing the results and using them to improve later programs.
A successful HRD program produces some initial change in the

participant, an immediate outcome, which is reflected in changes of
knowledge, skills or attitudes. These changes can be measured
during or at the end of the program. HRD programs are not
conducted primarily for the sake of learning. The main concern is to
bring about positive change in the participant, an immediate outcome,
which is reflected in changes of knowledge, skills or attitudes. These
changes can be measured during or at the end of the program. If
changes occur in the performance of the participants on the job, the
organisation will be influenced in some way. The impact on the
organisation is the ultimate outcome of any HRD program. For
example, there may be improvements in the department's output, In;
costs, scrap rates, accident frequencies, etc. This measurement
represents one of the most difficult areas to evaluate.
Activity B;
a) Write down two suggested modifications made by several

authors to Kirkpatrick's model.
Unit 6 Assessing the Effectiveness of Training 6.3
CIPP
b) List down the four stages of outcome evaluation. MOD
EL
Another evaluation framework, similar to GIRO, is the CIPP model, an acronym for
the four basic types of evaluation in the model- context, input, process and product.
Developed by educators, the CIPP model is useful to evaluate management training and
development. Its developers claim it is practical, effective, efficient, comprehensive
and balanced.
Context evaluation defines the relevant environment, identifies needs and

opportunities and diagnoses specific problems. A needs analysis is a common
example of context
evaluation.
Input evaluation provides information to determine how resources can be best

used to meet program goals. Information from input evaluation helps determine the
general strategy forprogram planning and design and if outside assistance is necessary.
Common results of input evaluation are policies, budgets, schedules, proposals and
procedures.
Process evaluation provides feedback to the individuals responsible for

implementation. It is accomplished by monitoring potential sources for failure,
providing information for preplanned decisions during implementation and
describing what actually occurs. Both formal and informal approaches are used in
data collection. These include reaction sheets, rating scales, and analysis of existing
records.
Product evaluation measures and interprets the results of objectives, including both
intended and unintended outcomes. Evaluation at this level can take place both during
and after the program, and any traditional evaluation procedure may be used at this
level, provided it is good and fit for the situation.
In summary, context evaluation assists in forming goals; input evaluation aids in

planning programs, process evaluation guides implementation; and product evaluation
helps review
decisions.
ina
The Philips Five-level ROI Framework
The ROI process adds a fifth level to the four levels of evaluation developed by Kirkpatrick.
At Level 1, Reaction and Planned Action, program participants' satisfaction is measured;
along with a listing of how they plan to apply what they have learned. While this level of
evaluation is important as a participant satisfaction measure, a favourable reaction does
not ensure that participants have learned new skills or knowledge. At Level 2, Learning,
measurements focus on what participants learned during the program using tests, skill
practices, role plays, simulations, group evaluations, and other assessment tools. A learning
check is helpful to ensure that participants have absorbed the material and know how to
use it. However, a positive measure at this level is no guarantee that the material will be
used on the job. The literature is laced with studies that show the failure of learning to be
transferred to the job. At Level 3, evaluations such as frequency and use of skills are
important to gauge the success of the program's application; it still does not guarantee that
there will be positive impact in the organisation. At Level 4, Business Results, the
measurement focuses on the actual results program participants achieve as they successfully
apply the program material. Typical Level 4 measures include output, quality costs, time
and customer satisfaction. Although the program may produce a measurable business
impact, there is still a concern that the program may have cost too much. At Level 5,
Return on Investment, the measurement goes further, comparing the monetary benefits
from the program with its costs. Although the ROI can be expressed in several ways, it is
usually presented as a percent or cost/benefits ratio. The evaluation cycle is not complete
until the Level 5 evaluation is conducted.
'<!"'
While almost all HRD organisations conduct evaluations to measure satisfaction, very few
actually conduct evaluations at the ROI levels, perhaps because ROI evaluation is often
characterized as a difficult and expensive process.
Which model is the best? b)

With so many frameworks for evaluation, the question becomes, "Which one is the bestf
There is no right answer. What is best for one organisation may be inappropriate for
another. The most important course of action is to select a model around which the
organisation will focus on its evaluation. The framework developed by Kirkpatrick has
been the most widely used approach in organisations. The five- level ROI framework, an
update of Kirkpatrick's approach, is rapidly gaining acceptance.
In a comprehensive evaluation process, evaluation should occur at each of the five levels. 6.4
The common thread among most evaluation models and frameworks is an emphasis on
ultimate outcomes of improved group or organisation performance. This is the most difficult
110
Unit 6 Assessing the Effectiveness of Training
to obtain, document, and measure. The first three levels are not enough when an ultimate
evaluation is needed. Studies indicate that evaluations at the fourth level, Business Impact,
and fifth level, ROI are the most desired and receive the most support.
What is needed from evaluation process is customer satisfaction. Two major groups of
customers are served in most programs. The first group are the participants who attend,
or become involved with, an HRD program. The participants, as customers, must be
satisfied with the process. They must see some value of participating in the program, and
some usefulness of the skills and knowledge that they can learn. Levels 1 and 2 provide
information to judge the extent to which this group of customers is satisfied. Another
important group is managers. Whether they are the immediate managers, senior managers
or top executives, they are all concerned about the value of training. They want to observe
behaviour changes as participants apply new skills. They want their investment in training
and development to yield a measurable impact on business performance measures and,
more importantly an important return. The data collected at Levels 3,4, and 5 provide the
information desired by the management team, when deciding to continue or justify future
HRD programs- two of the most important purposes for undertaking evaluation.
& Activity C;
a) Write down the four levels of CIPP model.
Which are the most critical levels of evaluation where data is collected?
M PRELIMINARY EVALUATION INFORMATION _______________

Evaluation purposes should be considered prior to developing the evaluation plan because
they will often determine the scope of the evaluation, the types of instruments used and the
\
type of data collected. For example, when an ROI is planned, one of the purposes would
be to compare the costs and benefits of the program. This purpose has the implications for
the type of data collected (hard data), type of data collection method (performance
monitoring), the type of analysis (thorough), and the communication medium for results
(formal evaluation report). Multiple evaluation purposes are pursued for most programs.
A variety of instruments are used to collect data. The appropriate instruments should be
considered in the early stages of developing the ROI. The seven most important instruments
used to collect data are as follws:
• Surveys
• Questionnaires
• Interviews
• Focus Groups
• Tests
• Observation
• Performance Records
The instruments most familiar to the culture of the organisation and appropriate for
the setting and evaluation requirements should be used in the data-collection process.
Training programs are evaluated at five different levels which are as follows:
• Level 1: Measuring Reaction and Identifying Planned Actions
• Level 2: Measuring Learning
• Level 3: Assessing application of the program on the job 4
• Level 4: Identifying Business Results from the Program
• Level 5: Calculate Return on Investment
Data should be collected at Levels 1,2,3 and 4 if an ROI analysis is planned. This
helps ensure that the chain of impact occurs as participants learn the skills and
knowledge, apply them on the job, and obtain business results. 5.
A final aspect of the evaluation plan is the timing of the data collection. In some cases
preprogram measurements are taken to compare with post-program measurements,
while
112
Unit6 Assessing the Effectiveness of Training V• '" •'•'•'•••'• ' .... others
take
multiple measurements. Sometimes, pre-program measurements are not available but
specific follow-ups are still taken after the program. The important issue is to determine the
timing for the follow-up evaluation. For example, evaluations can be made as early as three
weeks after a customer service skills training program for a major airline. However, five years
may be required to measure the return of an employee to attend an MBA program sponsored
by a company. For most professional and supervisory training, a follow-up is usually conducted
in the range of 3-6 months.
These four elements- evaluation purposes, instruments, levels and timing- are all
considerations in selecting data-collection methods and developing a data-collection plan.
Collecting Post-Program data

Data collection is central to the ROI process. In some situations, post program data are
collected and compared to pre-program situations, control group differences, and
expectations. Both hard data, representing output, quality, cost and time and soft data
including work habits, work climate and attitudes are collected. Datas are collected using a
variety of methods including the following:
113. Follow-up surveys are taken to determine the degree to which participants have
utilised various aspects of the program. Survey responses are often developed on a
sliding scale and usually represent attitudinal data. Surveys are useful for Level 3
data.
114. Follow-up questionnaires are administered to uncover specific applications of training.

Participants provide responses to a variety of open-ended and forced response
questions. Questionnaires can be used to capture both Level 3 and Level 4 data.
115. On-the job observation captures actual skill application and use. Observations are
particularly useful in customer service training and are more effective when the observer
is either invisible or transparent. Observations are appropriate for Level 3 data.
4. Post-program interviews are conducted with participants to determine the extent to

which learning has been utilised on the job. Interviews allow probing to uncover
specific applications and are appropriate with Level 3 data.
5. Focus groups are conducted to determine the degree to which a group of participants have
applied the training to job situations. Focus groups are appropriate with Level 3 data.
113
6. Program assignments are useful for simple short-term projects. Participants complete
the assignment on the job, utilising skills or knowledge learned in the program.
Completed assignments can often contain Level Sand Level 4 data.
7. Action plans are developed in training programs and implemented on the job after
the program is completed. A follow-up of the plans provides evidence of a training
program's success. Level 3 and Level 4 data can be collected with action plans.
8. Performance contracts are developed when the participant, the participant's supervisor
and the instructor all agree on specific outcomes from training. Performance contracts
are appropriate for both Level 3 and Level 4 data.
9. Performance monitoring is useful when various performance records and operational

data are examined for improvement. This method is particularly useful for Level 4
data. The important challenge in this step is to select data-collection methods
appropriate for the setting and the specific program, within the time and budget
constraints of the organisation.
Activit D ;
114 a) Which are the two most effective methods/instruments to collect data?
b) 6.5 ISOLATING THE EFFECTS OF THE PROGRAM__________________
Define
perfor An often overlooked issue in many evaluation studies is the process by which the effects of
mance training are isolated. This is also referred to as evaluation design or research design. In this
contrac
t.
Unit 6 Assessing the Effectiveness of Training • S
enior
manage
step of the process, specific strategies are explored that determine the amount of
ment
output performance directly related to the program. As many factors will influence
estimate
performance data after training, this step is essential. It will pinpoint the amount of
s the
improvement directly related to the training program. The result is increased accuracy
impact
and credibility of the ROI calculation. The following strategies have been utilised by
of
organisations to tackle this important issue:
training.
• Acontrol group arrangement is used to isolate training impact. With this strategy, In these
one cases,
group receives training while another similar group does not. The difference in the manage
performance of the two groups is attributed to the training program, when properly rs
set up and implemented; a control group arrangement is the most effective way to provide
isolate the effects of training. an
estimat
• Trend lines are used to project the value-specific output variables if training had e or
not adjust
been undertaken. The projection is then compared to the actual data after training ment to
and the difference represents the estimate of the impact of training. Under certain reflect
conditions, this strategy can be an accurate way to isolate the impact of training. the
portion
• When mathematical relationships between input and output variable are known, of the
a improv
forecasting model is used to isolate the effects of training. With this approach, ement
the related
output variable is predicted using the forecasting model, with the assumption that to the
no training
training is conducted. The actual performance of the variable after training is progra
then m.
compared with the forecasted value to estimate the impact of training. While
perhaps
» Participants estimate the amount of improvement related to training. With this inaccur
approach, participants are provided with the total amount of improvement (on a ate,
pre- and post program basis) and are asked to indicate the percent of the there
improvement that is actually related to the training program. are
• Participant's supervisors estimate the impact of training on the output variables. some
With advanta
this approach, participants' supervisors are presented with the total amount of ges to
improvement and are asked to indicate the percent related to training. having
senior
management involved in this process.
Experts provide estimates of the impact of training on the performance variable.
Aa the estimates are based on the previous experience, the experts must be familiar
with the type of training and the specific situation.
11K
• In supervisory and management training, the participant's subordinates identify

changes
in the work climate that could influence output variables. With this approach,
the
subordinates of the supervisors receive training, determine if other changing
variables
in the work climate could have influenced output performance.
Collectively these strategies provide a comprehensive set of tools to tackle the

important and critical issue of isolating the effects of training.
•
i Converting Data to Monetary Values
To calculate the return on investment, data collected in a Level 4 evaluation are

converted to monetary values and compared to program costs. This requires a value to
be placed on each unit of data connected with the program. Ten strategies are available
to convert data to monetary values; the specific strategy selected usually depends on
the type of data and the situation.
• Output data is converted to profit contribution or cost savings. In this strategy,

output
increases are converted to monetary value based on their unit contribution to profit
or the unit of cost reduction. These values are readily available in most organisations.
• The cost of quality is calculated and quality improvements are directly converted
to
cost savings. This value is also available in many organisations.
• For programs in which employee time is saved, a participant's wages and

benefits
are used for the value of time. A variety of programs focus on improving the time
required to complete projects, processes, or daily activities, the value of time becomes
an important and necessary issue.
JS$ Activity E; .
*
a) Define forecasting model.

!
b) Write down two strategies to convert data into monetary values.

7.1 WHAT IS A TRAINING AUDIT?

Auditing is an approach to organisational change that represents a snapshot taken at
a point in time, supported by historical evidence. Training Audit is an aid to decision
making that carried out regularly, will become central to any strategy to ensure
continuous improvement of training and development in the organisation. ATraining
Audit provides organisations with an overview of the effectiveness and efficiency of its
training/learning function. The purpose of the Training Audit is to identify the strengths
and weaknesses of the training/learning function in terms of its current responsibilities and
future commitments. Since every organisation is unique, each Training Audit is
customised to meet the specific learning needs and requirements of each situation. At
the conclusion of a Training Audit, the department will receive a report with detailed
findings and recommendations.
Outcomes of a well-conducted T & D audit are likely to include:
• Improvement of T & D goals, roles and activities to ensure added value for
the
business.
• Development across the organisation of a shared language and framework
for
discussing and analysing T &D.
• A general enhancement of strategic awareness and strategic thinking among
those
actively involved in the audit process.
To improve performance in the workplace and develop the competences needed to
meet future challenges, T & D must be business-led and strategic. If the T & D
function is responsive to the current business needs and is driven by long-term goals
that give overall coherence and direction to its activities through time, then T& D is
strategic in nature. To make its optimum impact on workplace performance, the T
& D process must have involvement of key parties at all organisational levels.
116. At corporate level - Training & Development considerations must be
integrated
into corporate strategic decision-making and there must be performance-linked T &
D goals and strategy for the organisation. These in turn should be an integral part of
an overall performance management process.
117. At business-unit level - At the business level, the T & D activity should adequately
meet local needs. That activity should be supported by and consistent with the operation
of the performance management process at local level.
Unit 7 Training Audit and Cost Benefit Analysis 3. At
op
erational level - At the operational level, there should be routines and processes
to ensure competent performance and a supportive learning environment
that encourages people to take responsibility for their own learning and
development in the workplace.
It is essential for the audit process to reveal the extent to which, in the organisation, T &
D role and activity are peripheral or adequately business-led or truly strategic.
Normally a few questions can be posed that can lead to an auditing framework
related to T & D's impact on workplace performance.
118. How clear are the organisation's vision and goals and to what extent is there a
shared
commitment to them by external and internal stakeholders?
119. What is the impact of corporate leadership and direction on
management and
development of performance in the business?
120. Does leadership, organisation and management of the T & D function
ensure that
there are clear and relevant T & D goals for performance improvement and that
those with T & D roles and responsibilities are competent to perform them?
121. Is there a recognised performance management process in the organisation and
is the
role of T & D within that process well defined and understood?
122. Does the T & D process ensure that all important performance-related
needs are
identified, agreed and prioritised in line with business goals?
123. Do T & D plans respond in a timely, relevant and cost-effective fashion to
those
U needs?
7. Are T & D plans implemented effectively, consistently, regularly and equitably
across
the organisation?
8. Is there timely and effective monitoring evaluation to enable valid assessment of T
&
D activity's impact on workplace performance?
By using these questions as the basis for audit, it will be possible to identify areas
for improvement. These questions will reflect the most critical features that will
adequately "test the temperature" of T & D. These questions will of course be
conditioned in its functioning by the organisational context and external environment The 123
internal and external pressures, threats, opportunities and possibilities that provide
the ultimate context for decision-making and action must be regularly scanned if
intended outcomes of corporate plans and of T& D are to be achieved.
T&DAuditina wider perspective ?T
Complete objectivity in auditing is impossible. Analysis of even the most quantifiable

measures ultimately depends on human judgement. Furthermore, all measures have
subjective aspects, whether in nature of the data, in the organisation of the data collection
process or in the way data are interpreted and analysed. The audit report must identify
those aspects and explain how they have been tackled. The audit team must achieve a
sensible balance of time and effort between search for information on the critical measures,
and a need to maintain an overriding focus on continuous improvement of T & D in the
workplace. Seeking phony accuracy through too many measures or excessive amounts of
data results in little but the addition of further costs and complexity to the audit process. T
& D activity differs in different ways from one enterprise to another and different T & D
cultures operate across organisations and countries. Finally, there is no one best way of
ensuring that T & D makes an optimum impact on workplace performance. The profiles
provided in each audit step should be viewed as aids to good practice, not as immutable
determinants of it. Every audit team must reach its own conclusions about the profiles and
must decide what the lessons are to be learnt from studying them and responding to them.
Js£ Activity A;
a) Define training audit and its purpose.
b) List out the different areas in an organisation on which the Training Audit has an
impact on.
7.2 CONDUCTING THE TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT AUDIT
I When preparing the audit, one should consider the sequence the tasks that it will
involve. These are discussed here under the following headings:
124
Unit 7 Training Audit and Cost Benefit Analysis
• Det
ermining the scope of the audit
• Selecting the audit team
• EnsurmgoMnrnitment
• Planning the audit
• Piloting the survey
• Collecting and analysing the data
• Establishing findings and conclusions
• Producing the audit report
Determining the scope of the audit

The main aim (scope) of most training and development audits is to assess the organisation-wide
impact of T & D activity on workplace performance and produce recommendations for
improvement. As that impact depends on the quality and operations of personnel, policies
and systems at corporate, unit and operational levels, the audit team must collect data from a
vertical slice of the organisation. Collecting the data from a lateral slice of the organisation is also
essential because the impact is determined by integration of the T & D process with other
business process and functions across the organisation. The scope of the audit in turn would
determine the time and resources required to complete the audit. For the scope mentioned
above around three months would be required to complete it depending on the nature of
resources to carry it out.
Selecting the Audit Team

The audit can be carried out by one individual within the organisation (usually the T & D
manager or equivalent), by an external consultant; by line managers and an external
consultant. Although the last method is most costly in terms of time and resourcing, it offers the best
balance of internal expertise and organisational insights, together with external credibility,
objectivity and knowledge of best practice. Additional members may be included on an adhoc
basis but for ease and speed of operation the core team should not exceed six members.
The auditing manager is the steering head and the other team members are selected
depending on the basis of representation of particular interest groups but on ensuring
capability and commitment, credibility, objectivity and a well-informed auditing process. Thus,
the team could include:
125
124. TheT&D manager or equivalent '

125. A member of the wider human resource/personnel function (if distinct from the T & D
function)
126. An external T & D consultant
127. One or more line managers
Other individuals can be invited to join the team on an adhoc basis to help with specific tasks
involved during the audit process and to give views related to the specific aspects of enquiry.
Ensuring Commitment
Gaining the commitment of top and senior management is the first priority which results in
communicating its main findings to employees and to taking action related to those findings.
Since T & D activity cannot be effective if it does not have employees' support, this audit
cannot be completed without surveying the views and experiences of a significant proportion of the
workforce. The implications of this should be carefully explained to the top management.
First of all, all employees must have from the start a clear understanding of the audit's
purpose and intended outcomes. They must also be convinced that the audit has the full
backing of all levels of management. Secondly, if the audit reveals any serious gaps between
management's intent and perceived reality, then there must be a willingness to tackle those gaps
with whatever actions will remedy them most effectively. Finally, adequate resources must be
authorised, on the basis of an estimated budget that can be confirmed or amended after the first
planning meeting of the audit team.
Communication to all employees
Top management should clearly communicate to all middle managers and through them to all
other employees, the purpose of the audit, its likely time-scale, the beneficial outcomes
anticipated and the contribution that they and employees more widely will be asked to make
during the audit process. A meeting or a series of meetings is the typical approach here, but
whatever approach best fits the particular organisation's culture should be used.
Once commitment of management and any employee representative bodies is assured, the
purpose and parameters of the audit should be communicated to all other employees, whether
by letter, general meetings or team briefings. As has already been indicated, it is
\ Unit 7 Training Audit and Cost Benefit Analysis
D
essential to plan carefully for this communication or it could backfire, leaving employees i
suspicious or fearful about the true intent behind the audit process.
s
Planning the Audit
c
6 The audit team should hold a planning meeting with the following agendas:
u
ssion to achieve full understanding of the audit process.
Agreement on data collection: The data for the past three years should be collected to
ascertain the trends adequately. T & D activities must be compared with targets and
classified by type, by organisational units and by main employee characteristics.
Agreement on methods of obtaining data: Methods will depend on size of sample, on
time and other resources for data collection and on the extent to which judgement, opinions
and perceptions are to be obtained as distinct from more factually based information.
Agreement on a work plan: This should show time-scale, tasks to be performed and
milestones to set towards the deadline for production of the audit report. As a rough guide
because the actual time scale will depend on the availability of personnel and other resources
through time, the size of sample surveyed and timing of the survey:
• One major postal questionnaire survey may take up to eight weeks to plan, organise,
ensure an adequate response rate and record and collate returns.
• An interview schedule will take time to plan and organise, individual interviews are
likely to take on an average of 1-2 hours each to conduct and write up and focus
group discussions will take longer.
• Desk reviews involving collection and scrutiny of documentation and other materials,
will also be time consuming and should run in parallel with the survey and interview
_ schedules.
;JP
• Throughout the data collection and analysis process there will have to be regular
- audit team meetings to discuss and evaluate data.
*.. '
» Once data analysis is complete, there will have to be a number of audit team meetings
., to discuss findings and agree on conclusions.
'it' ,
i Preparation of initial results for management may take a week and preparation of a
full report for management may take between three and four weeks.
127
Agreement on roles and resourcing
The areas of role allocation are as follows: members involved in data collection, data
analysis, production of the audit report and its presentation to management. Resource needs
relating to administrative and secretarial support, materials and equipment and finance will have to
be identified. A budget for the project will have been produced during the meeting with top
management but at this stage specifics must be clarified and concise estimates must be
produced.
Activity B ;
a) Write down the normal scope of a Training Audit.
b) Write down two agendas while planning the audit.
7.3 THE AUDIT PROCESS

Piloting the survey
The questionnaire or interview checklist of the audit process should be piloted on a small scale
to test comprehension and acceptability. One should also be careful while choosing the sample
for the survey. The sample size shouldn't be too large or too small. Any problems should then be
addressed. With questionnaires, it is usually terminology that is the greatest barrier to
acceptance.
Collecting and Analysing the Data
This will proceed over a period of time, with the audit team meeting regularly in order to
consider emerging findings and to identify problematic issues in the audit process. For
T. Unit 7 Training Audit and Cost Benefit Analysis

every ce. All views, perceptions and statements should be well evidenced and comparisons should
audit be made with written information in order to produce further insights. It will be essential to
step, it review historical data recording part intent, actions and their outcomes and to record the
will be credibility that can be placed on those data.
import
ant to Establishing Findings and Conclusions
examin
At the conclusion of every audit step, there should be a note of any actions needed to deal with
e
areas requiring immediate attention and how to achieve best practice or abenchmarking profile in
current
relation to the components covered in that step.
docum
entatio Producing the Audit Report
n
relating Each audit team will have its own approach to the structure and content of the audit report.
to T & As a minimum, however the report should commence with a brief introduction to the
D organisation and its environment, a contextual framework for T & D in the organisation and an
system explanation of the audit process and information sources used.
s,
process In the body of the report there should be a coverage of each of the drivers, vehicles and
es and activity areas of training and development. For each of these components, there should be a
proced narrative assessing it by reference to its associated performance indicators. Such a
ures. In narrative would normally be between two and three A4 pages long and would provide
analysi concise, well-evidenced commentary on such issues as the following ones:
ng data
obtaine • Any examples of good or best practice in the organisation and any areas of concern
d from to the auditors.
people, 1;
no • Any significant gaps between espoused intentions, the situation as it is perceived to
credibil exist by various parties and the situation that is needed if best practice is to be achieved.
1
ity Such gaps constitute major barriers to improvement. On the other hand, absence of gaps
should represents an important opportunity to work together in the future to achieve || best practice
be and innovative excellence.
given
to The report should conclude with an integrative set of recommendations, some of which may
anecdo already have been set in motion in the organisation, others of which will need to be tackled
tal collaboratively by stakeholders. The recommendations would typically identify:
eviden
• Actions needed now, as a matter of urgency, in order to prevent further decline in
129
already unacceptable standards relating to T & D activity to enhance performance.
• Actions to be taken in the coming year in order to ensure a better impact of T & D
on workplace performance.
• Actions to take over the longer term to ensure continuous improvement and attainment
of best practice or a benchmarking profile.
Training Audit if conducted on a regular basis as a central part of HR strategy will enable
the T &D process and operations to be monitored with rigor and reliability. This in turn
should go far to ensure that investment of time, money and other resources in employees'
development is well considered and client focused and has a powerful strategic direction
and impact.
a, I
JS$ Activity C;
a) Write down two important points to consider while collecting and analysing data. f I
130 b) What are the two essential characteristics of an audit report?
7.4 COST BENEFIT ANALYSIS OF TRAINING

ACost nity to demonstrate the benefits in cost saving in order to receive management commitment
Benefit and support to implement. Of course, the most important part of that definition is
Analysi management commitment. This is the most straightforward and usually most useful of
s (CBA) financial measures. It simply involves comparing all costs of a project against its benefits
is the (many of which are estimated). The intention is simple- benefits should exceed costs. An
analysis advantage of using this measure is that it forces you to create a detailed 'budget' of all the
of an costs associated with the training program and to take a hard look at whether there is a
opportu payoff or not.
Unit 7 Training Audit and Cost Benefit Analysis - *• ;
Turnaround in employer's attitude, growing maturity in the training field, the need to justify
training costs due to limited resources in organisations and increased competition among
organisations are some of the reasons for the increasing emphasis on the cost benefit
analysis of training and development. Today, managers want to see concrete deliverables that
significantly impact their company's bottom line through the training program. The onus of
showing this lies on trainers. Trainers of 21st century must show positive and tangible
results from the training program for which they want the company to spend. Today
training is seen as an investment for the future rather than a cost on present. Moreover, it is now
regarded as shortsighted for line management to slash training budgets in an attempt to
reduce operating costs. But, it is certainly possible witfra greater degree of
professionalism, to ensure higher added value from the training budget. In reality, the training
budget is more likely to be made on a 'last year plus inflation' basis. Cost is being incurred and
logically it might be expected that benefit should arise. However, anyone who has managed
the training function (and presumably the training budget) of an organisation will be aware that
training is one of those parasitic areas, that is riding on the backs of the money-making
departments while contribution was not qualified, leading to attack when times were difficult.
How is the effectiveness of T & D being judged commonly today? When the training
manager is called to account for the activity of the training department at the end of the
year, what has been the method of reporting? It may be well that the following are familiar: we
had more trainees than ever before; we had 50% increase in courses run and 40%
increase in the total number of trainees attending, 'we started to run eight new courses this
year'. The list is not complete but the point is made. The visual impact of training is the one
which is stressed. A related problem is the tendency of managers to equate value with
price. Greater the price, higher the assumed value.
One formula of a cost benefit analysis for training is:

Training System costs = participant costs + faculty costs + course material costs
+facility costs + equipment costs + administration costs. But this too focuses only on the
immediate and obvious -direct cost of training. Total training costs include other than not so
obvious costs like participant's ongoing salaries, their travel, stay, meals as well as the costs
of replacing them for the duration of training, overheads during training, costs of R & Din
training needs analysis, housekeeping costs for maintenance of training facilities and
equipment. When we take into account these, they will yield double the usual figures. The true
cost of training must include all such costs and be calculated into a training plan.
131
Another consideration is the realistic assessment of projected costs and expected benefits,
including opportunity costs of training. Are the costs justified or will we get better benefits
from far as possible. All the costs and benefits- direct and indirect, financial and social are
spendin taken into account. Some of these may well defy quantification yet can be "Seen1 or 'felt'.
g that
money Some immediate benefits of an effective training plan may be seen in terms of shorter
elsewh learning time, reduced travel costs, lower costs per participant, besides an obvious increase in
ere? morale and sense of belonging to the organisation. However, training must increase its
Would impact in terms of contribution to organisational effectiveness.
it be
cheaper So the true benefits of effective training actually might include:
to carry • Increased sales (from say telemarketing unit)
out
training • Fewer complaints from customers
on our • Fewer rejects at quality inspection stage
own
premise • Increased profit
s using
existing The purpose of a cost benefit analysis in training is not to minimise training costs but to
staff or maximise cost effectiveness of all training and development activities. Cost effectiveness
utilise can be achieved only by ensuring that there is an effective mix in the use of limited resources. We
external must therefore be aware of internal and external resources available for training, relevant cost
resourc comparisons and reasons for and against using internal and external resources.
es on
Most organisations would like to be able to measure the costs invested in training initiatives
trainers'
against anticipated results. The challenge is that it is far easier to measure the costs of
premise
conducting training than it is to quantify results. A useful tool in determining costs and
s?
savings is to compare costs per participant versus savings per participant.
In a
Comparing costs and benefits can be done in the following four simple steps:
good
cost 1. Calculate the cost of training-This will include training costs such as: $
benefit
analysi • Facilitator fees
s, we • Training design
make a
system
atic
compar
ison
betwee
n cost
of an
activity
and the
value
of that
activity
,
quantif
ying as
\. • Course materials /
• Videos and workbooks
• Facilities rental
• Equipment rentals (such as overhead projectors)
• Production downtime (including employee time off the job)
t Videoconferencing facilities
• Specialised computer equipment
• Administration (such as registration procedures or confirmation notices)
• All the relevant costs, divided by the anticipated number of participants, gives
the cost per participant.
2. Determine the potential savings generated - These savings might include:

• Fewer errors
• Reduced customer turnover
• Less equipment downtime
fr
• Increased revenue collection •"**"'" '•
• Faster equipment startup time
• Reduced employee turnover, when turnover is attributable to poor supervision
• Proper implementation of new customer strategies
• Higher workplace morale through more effective management practices
• Less time lost to grievance hearings and work stoppages because of ineffective
supervision
• Reduced recruitment costs (because training can create more job-ready

candidates for promotions)
• Maximised productivity of new employees through efficient orientation training.
«5 3. Calculate the potential savings-To calculate potential savings, set goals for post-
training achievements by identifying and quantifying the changes a training initiative will
produce if all other factors are constant. The factors in the formula include the following:
13
3
• Current level of performance (for example, 200 error rates per month; six
lost
customer accounts per month; five days lost to work stoppages per year).
• Translate the current level of performance into a dollar figure (for example:
200
error rates x five minutes' correction time x Rs. 15 salary per hour = Rs. 250 per
month).
• Identify the change that training can produce (for example, reduce errors to
50
per month).
• Calculate the savings that the target criteria will generate (for example -
200
errors - 50 errors = decrease of 150 errors per month savings = 150 x five
minutes/60 xRs. 15 = Rs. 187.50).
• Identify a meaningful time line for realising savings, based on your best
business
predictions about factors contributing to errors remaining unchanged.
• Identify the number of employees in the target training group.

• Divide the total anticipated savings by the number of participants to identify
the
savings per participant.
4. Compare the costs to savings
• Multiplythecostperparticipantbythetotalnumberofparticipants.
• Multiply the savings per participant by the total number of participants.
• Compare your figures to establish your business case for training.
This exercise not only identifies actual costs and realistic savings but also ensures that
your training expectations are reasonable and targeted to measurable business
outcomes.
Activity D;
a) Write down two benefits of effective training.

b) List down the four steps which help in distinguishing the costs from the benefits in
Training process.
7.5 SUMMARY
This unit focuses on what, why and how of a Training Audit. A Training Audit is an aid to
decision making that carried out regularly, will become central to any strategy to ensure
continuous improvement of training and development in the organisation. ATraining Audit
provides organisations with an overview of the effectiveness and efficiency of its training/
learning function. A good Training Audit results in improvement of T & D goals, roles and
activities to ensure added value for the business, development across the organisation of a
shared language and framework for discussing and analysing T &D and a general
enhancement of strategic awareness and strategic thinking among those actively involved in
the audit process.
The Training and Development Audit consists of the following steps: Determining the scope
of the audit, selecting the audit team, ensuring commitment, planning the audit piloting the
survey, collecting and analysing the data, establishing findings and conclusions and producing
the audit report.
in cost saving in order to receive management commitment and support to implement.

Cost benefit analysis of training consists of comparing the costs incurred in training to the
advantages reaped out of training. While identifying the costs one must include direct
(faculty, facility etc) and also indirect costs (the costs of replacing the people for the duration
of training, overheads during training, costs of R & D in training needs analysis,
housekeeping costs for maintenance of training facilities and equipment etc.)
Another major consideration is the realistic assessment of projected costs and expected
benefits, including opportunity costs of training. Are the costs justified or will we get better
benefits from spending that money elsewhere? Would it be cheaper to carry out training
on our own premises using existing staff or utilise external resources on trainers' premises?
In a good cost benefit analysis, one must make a systematic comparison between cost of
an activity and the value of that activity, quantifying as far as possible. All the costs and
135
Human Resource Development & Training 8.1

TRAINING FOR A NEW
I
ECONOMY
140 The organisational culture tends to be regulated from the full rigour of market
competition and hence tends to stress correct form and procedure in all activities.
Qua feedback provided to the staff. Supporting this above fact, organisational
lity structures have been typically hierarchical, with long chains of command and
of bureaucracy reinforced by strict systems of reporting and accountability.
serv
ice, The challenge for today's organisation culture is to become much more market
cust driven without losing reliability and meticulous attention to detail, underpinned
om by sound ethical principles, which remain essential to continued and sustained
er success. This is what lies at the heart of the change process which will guarantee
care survival and to which trainers must become deeply involved and committed.
and
There is now a growing acceptance that training and development must be driven
risk
by the strategy of the organisation. This, in turn, has significant implications for
cont
trainers, where the emphasis will be on concentrating upon organisational needs,
rol
through developing individuals so as to arrive at an organisation, which devotes
are
itself to long term learning, rather than to short-term training. Such learning
bas
demands continuous and meaningful interaction between people and their
ed
working environment. Such an environment is both supportive and
on
stimulating and this will lead to considerable learning and through this, to
the
individual and organisational growth. But for this to happen, changes have to
prin
take place, particularly in the traditional rule-based organisations where
cipl
structure, systems and procedures were designed to maintain stability at all costs
es
by preserving the status quo and getting people to the line.
of
rule In the learning organisation, training is not an activity which is separate from day-
s of to-day |
pro activities. Instead, it is an inherent part of the working environment.
ced |]
ure,
insp When people need to know or learn something, the information and the facilities
ecti to learn must be immediately available to them. This means the learning
ons organisation learns from all sources and directions, so that change is not only
and accepted but is eagerly sought out and the challenges it brings are welcomed.
san Such a result reduces the impact of change and strengthens the organisation's
ctio ability to cope successfully and to survive (Bentley, 1990).
ns,
wit Success therefore can be derived from a learning culture where training and
h development become demand-led rather than supply-driven. With the
limi genuine and enthusiastic commitment and backing of top management and the
ted allocation of resources to match, training will work to ensure that organisations
attract, train, develop and retain the people
Enabling staff to accept change is one of the most valuable of the many skills of
leadership. This means that managers at all levels must be flexible in approach;
sympathetic in attitude and positive in style in order to provide this help.
Flexible: So as to deal successfully with the practical effects of change in an open-

minded manner.
Sympathetic: So as to understand fully the anxieties caused by change to others.
Positive: So as to give people confidence in the instructions and decisions passed

down to them by someone who is clearly seen to have confidence in his own
decisions - and confidence in the future.
It is no longer acceptable for line managers to abrogate responsibility for the

training and development of their staff. They cannot give it off to the training
function by sending staff away to be 'processed' by the trainers and then returned to
the real world of work to get on with the job. Athree-way contract between line
managers, trainers and participants is essential. This will build strong links between
training programs and corporate objectives, with success or failure being directly
linked to improved competitive edge in the market place. Linking the investment of
the training budget to the strategic plan does not seem a particularly novel idea, but
it is quite remarkable how few companies actually apply this approach.
As part of their responsibility for the training and development of their staff, line
managers must expect to be assessed on the extent to which they discharge this
function as part of their normal role. If one separates the concepts of education and
training, where the latter is decidedly job-specific, then it is quite possible to
construct a legitimate argument for unking course performance evaluation into the
overall performance appraisal plan. Indeed ;0 it is evident that line managers, whose
budgets pay for training are much more anxious to I-experiment with this idea in
order to improve their perceived return on investment.
In general, awareness of increasingly intense competition and the requirement to

reduce costs has resulted in a greater understanding by senior line management of
the importance and value of training. It is now seen as an investment for the future
rather than a cost on the present. Moreover, it is now regarded as shortsighted for line
management to slash training budgets in an attempt to reduce operating costs. But it
is certainly possible with a greater degree of professionalism, to ensure higher
added value from the training budget.
Unit 8 Training for a New Economy & Skills of a Trainer
xgT Activity A;
a) Write down two characteristics of a learning organisation.
b) Write down two duties of today's line managers.
8.2 HOW TO TRAIN FOR TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT?

_________________________________________________________
Are you going for Global quality? Then, don't forget to take your shop floor worker
abroad along with you. As CEOs aim for total quality, quality managers across the country
areupping the ante on shop floor training. No longer are they content transplanting Japanese
quality systems in their manufacturing units, instead they are spurring teams to shop floor
workers to gird the globe in search of quality practices.
The rationale is simple. Basically the knowledge-base that a shop floor worker needs to
produce quality has two components: functional skills and background knowledge. While
functional skills teach workers how to achieve quality, background knowledge tries to
explain why quality is important in the first place. So the latter is a fundamental issue as it
allows the shop floor worker to see how he fits in with the performance of a product and
eventually, with the customer. It's also the more difficult of the two to teach. While companies
have been toying with the idea so far, they are now putting their money where there minds
are. Going global in training practices, many companies are taking their shop floor workers
to visit quality environments abroad. Managing Director of Daewoo says "Giving our
workers knowledge beyond their own work area is a critical part of our training strategy."
Here are four quality reasons why companies are training their workers abroad:
Bring Quality Alive
While the most innovative training practices arise from comparing, if not
formally benchmarking, a production unit's work against that of a similar
plant abroad, the data seldom set the imagination on fire. That's the lesson the
827 crore Coats Viyella learnt the hard way. Despite the company's good
financial health, it had a chequered industrial-relations history and compared
to Coats Viyella plants elsewhere in the world, worker productivity was
poor. However much the management harangued its workers with
comparisons about the productivity levels at Coats Viyellas's other plants, they
paid little heed. "We discussed that productivity statistics with workers and
union leaders in our mills," says the President (Personnel), Coats Viyella. "But
the problem was that our workers always used to think that the productivity
elsewhere was because of better machines and superior technology."
Then, last year, Coats Viyella decided to tackle the problem head-on. It flew
its union leaders abroad and showed them how higher productivity had been
achieved in similar plants. Pertinently, the sites chosen for the visit were not in
the West, instead, Coats Viyella displayed the two factories it manages jointly
with the Chinese Government. After this, 20 union leaders from Coats
Viyella's Indian units accompanied CEO John M.Shaw and Subramaniam
on a week-long trip to China. The union leaders spent four days at the two
Chinese plants studying methods of work, systems of organisation and the
working environment. They had a worthwhile experience when they met
the Chinese workers. They could see for themselves how things were different
there and how the Chinese work. And the gains from this trip are already
payable at the Madura Coats plants in Bangalore
and Tamil Nadu.
.i
Communicate Quality
More often than not, when managers try to explain the big picture to workers,
it is met negatively, accepts the HRD Chief Mahindra & Mahindra (M & M):
"It's a problem because the shop floor staff gets suspicious if managers
suddenly start talking to them about the business and its future. That is an
apprehension that line managers and the human resource team has to manage
and dispel." In order to cross the communications chasm, M & M decided to
send its workers abroad to expose them to quality manufacturing practices. But
there was one subtle difference, the teams going abroad included a mix of white
collars and blue collars from several levels. By the end of the trip, most
communication barriers had been bridged. By now, M& M must have sent around
40 shop floor workers, along with managers and union leaders to Japan, South
Korea, Europe and the UK and the United States. Mostly, they visit automotive
plants and are encouraged to interact with the host companies and learn their
business practices, work ethics and even the social
norms in those countries. On their return, the teams are debriefed on the trip, the
training module, and their impressions of work processes and conditions
abroad. Then, they are asked to share their experiences with their colleagues.
The fact that everyone is learning together is almost as vital as the learning that is
taking place. Kumar says, "Demonstration is the strongest element of training."
Build Quality Skills
While DCM Daewoo too has invested in sending workers abroad, its focus
has been purely on functional training. In a hurry to jump start its quality
journey in this country, Daewoo happens to train a large number of workers to
the factory in Seouls, three months of training in Daewoo's quality manufacturing
systems. By the end of 1995-96, the company would have sent 700 operators
and assembly-line workers to Daewoo. Other than functional training, such
tops are also meant to teach workers the processes implementation which requires
a fresh approach to work. Take the concept of Jidoka which the company has
imported from the Toyota Production System. Now, jidoka entails shifting
defect control from an end-of-the-line quality-check to the work process
itself. Naturally, the critical factor here is the worker's attitude.
While the theory is easy- when you see a defect in a product, immediately take the
initiative to correct it- managers worry about its implementation. However,
DCM Daewoo reckons that a worker will be more inclined to do so if he has
seen it being performed routinely. The General Manager (Personnel and
Administration), DCM Daewoo says, "If you keep auditing the quality of
training that you impart to your workforce, the quality of products will keep
improving dramatically."
DCM Daewoo's workers, after one trip to Seoul, are not only motivated, but
are also finally able to see quality from the user's perspective.
Showcase Customer Quality
If theRs. 733 crore Ranbaxy Laboratories is giving its workers exposure abroad,
it is not because the company has a problem. Instead, the programme is
intended to give workers a view of a culture where attitudes towards hygiene
are fundamentally different. For the Pharmaceuticals manufacturer found that
most of its workers came from a background where even a hospital did not
display the kind of hygiene Ranbaxy was trying to achieve.
The Director (Pharmaceuticals Manufacturing) says that "hygiene can be

taught as a part of the work procedure. But to embed the concept in the minds of
workers needs something more." So, Ranbaxy drew lots to select 20 workers 145
from its Dewas plant in Madhya
Human Resource Development & Training • ; : Prade
sh and
sent them on a 10-day trip to the U.S. But the study tour's focus was not on
functional training but more in the nature of cultural acclimatization and
exposure.
Visiting clinics and hospitals, the workers got a feel of the kind of
environment in which medicines made by them would be used and came away
with indelible memories of high quality standards. Says the General Manager
(TQM): "The idea is to help the people to relate what they are doing on the
shop floor to the customer's life. This is not something that is meant to have an
immediate measurable impact. Eventually, the battle for quality will be won or
lost in the mind of the shop floor worker."
Best Practices
• Provide workers first hand experience of global best practices.
• Ensure that supervisors and managers are trained along with workers.
• Expose workers to the environments in which customers use your
products.
• Constantly retrain workers in the theory and practice of TQM.
I
• Link quality in the workplace to quality in the worker's lives.
JSZ Activity B ;
a) Write down four quality reasons for companies sending their workers
abroad.
146 b) Write down two positive effects if quality at workplace is
linked to quality in life of a worker.
K
Th
tas
an<
difi
tha
8.3 VIEWING TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT FROM A CHANGE

MODEL PERSPECTIVE_____________________________________
Although we usually deal with the concept of change in an organisational behaviour course,
the reality is that for new training or development practices to be successfully implemented,
they must be accepted by the customer (managers, senior management and employees).
For managers and employees change is not easy. Even when we know a practice or
program could be better, we have learnt to adapt to its inadequacies. Therefore, resistance
to new training and development practices is likely. As a result, prior to implementing a
new training and development practice you should consider how you can increase the
likelihood of its acceptance. The figure below shows the model of change.
Informal
Organisation
Formal
organisatio
n
arrangeme
Task Redefinition challenges
Fig. 8.1: Model of change
Components of the Resistance to Change-related

organisation change problems
Key:
The model for change is based on the interaction of four components of the
organisation: task, employees, formal organisation arrangements (structures,
processes, and systems) and informal organisation (communications patterns, values,
norms). As shown in the figure, different types of change-related problems occur
depending on the organisational component that is influenced by change. These change
related problems include power imbalance,
147
loss of control, resistance to change and task redefinition. For example, including new
technology for training into company (such as multimedia training using the internet) might
cause changes in the organisation's power structure. Without the new technology managers
may have less control over access to training programs than they had with traditional
methods of training. As a result, tension related to power imbalance created by the new
system occurs. If these issues are not dealt with, the managers will not accept new technology
or provide support for transfer of training. For change, related problems need to be
considered for any new training practice. Resistance to change refers to managers and
employees' unwillingness to change. Managers and employees may be anxious about the
change, they might feel that they will be unable to cope, value the current training practice
or not understand the value of new practice. Control refers change to managers and
employees ability to obtain and distribute valuable resources such as data, information, or
money. Changes can cause managers and employees to have less control over resources.
Change can also give managers and employees control over processes that they have not
previously been involved in e.g., choosing which training programs to attend. Power refers
to the ability to influence others. Managers may lose the ability to influence employees as
they gain access to databases and other information, thus getting more autonomy to deliver
products and services. Employees may be held accountable for learning in self-directed
training. Web based training methods such as task redefinition refers to changes in managers
and employees' role and job responsibilities. Employees may be asked not only to
participate in training but also to consider how to improve its quali ty. Managers may be
asked to become facilitators and coaches.
Activity C ;
a) Write down the reason for resistance to training and development.
b) Write down one reason for how introducing new technology would result in loss of
power of an individual.
I
Unit 8 Training for a New Economy &
I
Skills of a Trainer
8.4 SKILLS OF AN EFFECTIVE TRAINER
When the strategies and tactics for training are selected, the skills demanded of
the trainers are often overlooked. The assumptions are made that those who are
full time trainers are omnicompetent and those who could be described as
occasional trainers need only to have technical competence to be able to train
others. However, today an increasing number of practicing trainers are beginning
to adopt the language of OD consultant and are moving into the kind of work to
do with direct intervening the organisation than with the traditional activities
associated with trainers. Increasingly in the training literature the terms 'intervention
and training consultant' are appearing. Thus, there is a wide range of specific
skills needed to undertake one-to-one coaching, team-building, facilitating,
counseling, besides being an interventionist and a change agent. However, an
appropriate strategy or tactic may be when measured against the constraints,
target population, budget and principles of learning, unless the trainers have been
selected and trained to meet high standards, the training will not be effective.
Some of the essential skills of a good trainer are as follows :

128. Demonstrating technical competence in the area being taught.
129. Showing a natural ability to teach and gain satisfaction from it.
130. Possessing a high level of interpersonal skills.
131. Being good listeners and questioners.
132. Having a genuine interest in people.
133. Being flexible in the use of training strategies and tactics.
134. Valuing the need for thorough planning and preparation.
8. Accepting a share of accountability for the trainees' future performance.
Areas in which these qualities/skills could be reflected include:

• Outside interests, particularly those which are people-oriented and exercise
interpersonal skills or which may involve teaching others.
• Simulated exercises which resemble training simulations.
• Informal judgements based on relationships with the work situation.

• Formal judgements based on performance appraisal, group meetings, developmental
discussions.
icn Human Resource Development & Training
Above all the people selected should actually want to be a trainer. In the past, it
has been thought that the subject 'expert' has been the ideal trainer.
Undoubtedly, in most circumstances, there is a requirement for subject
competence. However, it may be more profitable in the long term to improve the
technical competence of someone with potentially good trainer qualities rather than
try to develop the interpersonal skills etc. of the subject expert who is unsuited
or unwilling to be a trainer. To begin with, there is a need to systematise and
to organise the training for potential trainers. This can be examined in terms of
the knowledge, skills and attitudes required to be an effective trainer.
It is important for trainers to appreciate that people learn in different ways and have
preferred learning styles which may be influenced by individual differences of
personality, age, experience etc. Knowledge of some of the interrelated
principles of human learning and motivation help the trainer to arrange the
appropriate learning conditions for the trainee. In connection with these principles it
would be useful to have in mind a profile of the nature of trainees in one-to-one
situations.
In order to structure a training session, the trainer needs to have diagnostic

skills and a range of technical, interpersonal and judgemental skills. The technical
skills would include preparing and planning a period of instruction, deciding
the style and methods of presentation, organising the logistics of syndicates,
role-playing and other activities, using visual aids correctly. There is also a need
to develop questioning skills, to design tests. They are closely associated with
the judgemental skills required to make an appraisal and gain an impression of
the nature of the trainee to set realistic goals during training and to recognise
when the trainee is sufficiently competent to apply what has been learned.
The interpersonal skills which the one-to-one trainer has to expertise are
described by Megginson and Boy dell (1979) as being similar to those required by
the skillful counsellor. This includes attending, observing, remaining silent,
drawing out, giving and receiving feedback and suspending judgement. The
importance of these skills become clear when it is remembered that coaching is
undertaken at all levels in the organisation where individuals are being developed
to undertake greater responsibilities.
The same and additional skills have to be exercised by the trainer who is
involved with groups of trainees without a thorough appreciation of and training
in the appropriate skills then activities such as syndicate exercises, discussions,
role-plays etc can deteriorate into time fillers or rest periods for the trainer.
These activities or tactics should be used to achieve objectives and demand, a
range of skills from the trainer which in addition to thtx listed above, include
listening, analysing, correcting, guiding, promoting, controlling a.: summarising.
In exercising these skills, the trainer acts as a facilitator which is quite different from
the role which many trainers usually adopt. One of the reasons that tactics such
as
UnitS Training for a New Economy & Skills of a Trainer role-
play and discussion may not be effective is, because the trainer or those who
have designed the training do not understand the demands that facilitaring makes
on the trainer.
In discussing one-to-one and group training, it has seen that control over the
direction and content of the training has been exercised by the trainer. Facilitating
places the trainer is in a position where he or she becomes an enabler for students
to learn by themselves. The trainer and the trainees become interdependent and
draw upon one another's knowledge and skills to achieve the learning objective.
In effect, control over the learning process passes in varying degrees, depending
on the tactic to the trainee.
In the facilitating mode, the trainees contribute knowledge, skills and experience
which have been acquired over a number of years. Facilitators have to adapt
their approach to meet the needs of the trainees and individuals within the group
which could involve a change or development of the trainer's attitudes. There must
be an acceptance of openness within the group so that it can establish its own
ground rules to work together as a cohesive unit and that the facilitator is a
resource for the group to draw upon to direct activity and contribute to their
learning. In performing this function, the facilitator will need to exercise a variety
of skills. There is a need to be aware of and to monitor the individual learning and
emotional needs of group members to create a secure climate to structure the
learning experiences so that they remain relevant and that the objectives are
achieved.
The role of the facilitator is demanding and not all trainers may be able to
adapt to it. Training departments that plan to use their trainers as facilitators could
overcome potential problems by being more rigorous in the assessment of
attitudes and skills of potential trainers. Rogers (1969) identified a range of
qualities of facilitators which can be used to build a profile for selection:
• Less protective of their own constructs and beliefs than other trainers.
• More able to listen to students especially to their feelings.
• Able to accept the ideas of students even if they are seen to be troublesome,
provoking
etc.
• Able to accept positive and negative feedback and use it in their own
development.
Clarke (1986) describes the trainer's role in open learning programme as that of a
facilitator and lists the following personal qualities which may be needed to be
considered while 151
selecting trainers:
• Patient, tolerant and able to cope with frustration.
• Perceptive (ability to put themselves in student's shoes) understanding,
sympathetic.
• Friendly, approachable and trustworthy.
• Prepared to tolerate disruption in private life.
• Able to change quickly from one task or subject to another.
• Prepared to accept interruptions to non-open tutor activity e.g. lecturing.
It is not likely that all of the qualities presented by Rogers and Clarke will be
required of all facilitators in every learning situation. However, an assessment
of the demands of the programme will help to identify which qualities are
relevant.
Activity D ;
a) Write down two skills of an effective trainer.
b) Write down two skills of a facilitator.
8.5 ROLE OF THE 21st CENTURY TRAINER

A useful way to approach the role of the 21st century trainer will be to look
through the eyes of the manager whom you wish would regard you as
indispensable. If I were a manager, What would cause me to say, "Here's
someone I know I can count on to get the job done, someone I've just got on my
team." What would make me willing to take this person to an important business
meeting and not worry that he will embarrass me either or
Unit 8 Training for a New Economy & Skills of a Trainer the
world.
"
the company or the mission? What would make me say, "Here is someone I
would be proud to have a talk with our managers or our customers anywhere in
What would such a person be like? What would she wear? How would she M
speak? Most important, what could he/she do? The answers point us to some of Su
the key characteristics of the 21st century survivor. Here are some characteristics: rvi
vo
1) Performance-oriented: First and foremost, survivors will think of rs
themselves as wi
being in the performance business, not the training or education business. ll
Successful be
trainers will understand that, regardless of their job titles, regardless of their th
specialties, os
they have one role, to help improve performance aimed at accomplishing e
important wh
organisation goals. Though they may be specialists in classroom o
presentation or ha
instructional design or task analysis or web authoring, nothing will boost their ve
flexibility ma
and agility as much as nurturing a focus on performance. Managers are being ste
pressured re
to react more quickly than ever before to changing situations and to make d
decisions the
before all the facts are in. They need help from flexible people who ba
understand that sic
the point of it has to do with business outcomes. People who don't come all ski
unglued lls
when analysis reveals that something else will work a lot faster and of
cheaper than pe
training. This means that a lot of us will have to learn to think about training in rfo
a new rm
way. Those who continue to see training as the solution to every performance an
problem ce
are already behind the curve. In the next century, they'll be expendable tec
because they hn
won't have the performance orientation that will allow them to solve problems ol
rather og
.... than simply to "do training". y,
an
2) Technically skilled: Companies will be looking for performance-oriented
d
trainers
wh
who are at the top of their craft-skilled performance professionals who can
o
actually
ke
tackle (rather than just talk or theorise about) the common tasks of the day.
ep
These
str
will be people who are able to respond with skill and confidence when a
ug
manager
gli
says: "I need you to do a performance analysis in the manufacturing area
ng
of our
to
Malaysian division." "Go teach our new vision course to our managers in
ma
Milan. Go
ste
draft an evaluation plan for the new mind-reading course we're developing."
r the latest hardware and software tools that continue to rain down on us. The
losers will be those who continue to apply training to all situations, who
can't recognise the need for non training interventions, and who don't know
how to guarantee the results of training when it is the right thing to do.
3) Socially skilled: Well-honed interpersonal skills will be increasingly critical as

well.
One could argue that social skills are even more important than technical
skills, just
153
look at the people you know personally who survive because of their
ability to get along, rather than because of their ability to do their jobs.
Some years ago a Labour Department study concluded that something like
75% of workers who lost their jobs didn't lose them because they lacked
technical or occupational skills with which to do those jobs; they lost out
because they didn't have the social skills they needed to keep the jobs.
But while social skills have always been important, they'll become more
vital as time goes on. Why?
• As cross-functional teams proliferate and as the world gets smaller,

trainers will
have to be able to interact with more and more people who are different from
themselves - people with different habits and beliefs, people from different cultures
and truly strange beings like newly minted high school graduates. They'll have to
be able to interact successfully with people who can read, write and speak as
well as people who can't.
• Trainers will have to make sure that they're people that other people
like to be
around, and not the kind whom others will cross the street to avoid. They'll need
to be the kind of people who make good houseguests, people who know how
to play in the corporate sandbox. Further, they'll have to be able to play adroitly
in a variety of sandboxes. For example, while I was living and working in Paris,
akindly Frenchman took me aside one day during a seminar and said," Monsieur,
I hope you realise that in France, bow ties are worn by door-to-door salesman,
jockeys and bartenders." The hint was clear. If I wanted people to hear my
message, I'd better get rid of the bow ties, which were distracting obstacles.
I've never worn bow ties once again outside my home country.
• Trainers will have to behave in ways that cause them to be perceived

as well-
mannered in whichever country they are working. Mannerly behaviour is the oil
that lubricates social gears. That may sound old fashioned but consider this:
foreigners don't refer to us as Ugly Americans for nothing. Americans are simply
not known around the world for their manners.
• Self-employable: As organisations reshape themselves to compete in a

global
economy, the familiar employer-employee contract has been eroded to the point
where seniority alone no longer guarantees a thing. Those bent on surviving will
understand that regardless of who's paying their bills, they're in business for
themselves; they are independent contractors, whether they work inside or outside
a larger organisation. This means they will have learnt the skills that anyone in
business for themselves has to learn. You can easily find out what those skills are
UnitS Training for a New Economy & Skills of a Trainer •
by
;.' '
talking
to your own contractors and consultants. For example, managing
your own time, budgeting, planning, performing basic marketing tasks and being
economically literate. Faced with a given task, survivors will say, "I can do that
• and then do whatever it takes to get the job done by deadline." The
losers will
• say, "That's not in my job description."
•iffy
• Internationally qualified: Trainers in the strongest position will be those

with skills that make them the candidates of choice for either short or
long-term overseas
* assignments. This means that, in addition to the characteristics already
described,
they will be able to:
135. Adapt to the cultures in which they expect to function. This isn't
always a
happy prospect. It can mean relearning how to tolerate a smoky
environment. It can mean having to eat very strange foods without
complaining.
136. Apply the principles of learning within the cultures in which they
work.
Learning principles are universal, not culture-based. The application of those
principles may be influenced by cultural differences, but the principles
themselves are the same anywhere in the world.
137. Speak literate English. During formal education, many foreigners

learned
their English from British English-speaking people, not from Americans.
That kind of English is a lot more literate than the kind you and I are
encouraged to speak by the culture around us. When foreigners hear our
kind of sloppy English- like man you know? they often have the same
reaction that we might have when listening to someone who speaks mainly
in dese, dems and dose.
& Activity E;
a) Write down two roles of the 21st century trainer.
155
Tiven n traiaitionailearning methodologies are still used in training, the changing economy
calls for reengineering the training function. The global economy generates new corporate
realities. The change in the training function results in the emerging trends in training e.g.
assessment centre, competency based training, NLP used in training etc.
The changing mindsets in the global economy directly and indirectly impact re-engineering
the training function because of the following reasons:
• Globalisation of business generates intense international competition.
• New technologies dramatically impact organisations, people, products and services.
• A new workplace emerges placing increased emphasis on productivity, performance
and return on investment.
• The needs of the new worker/learner are challenged by increased competition, new
technologies and personal values.
• New leaders, with expanded competencies, are now needed to drive change and
shape corporate, national and global economies and
• A total and complete rethinking, restructuring and reengineering of education and
training are now required.
Due to the changes in the human resources function, there are certain additional mindsets
which are further impacting the need to rethink and reengineer the training function:
138. strategic human resource development (HRD) actions must be aligned with corporate
business strategies.
139. HRD must assume a proactive leadership role in responding to business and training
needs.
,k
140. Systems and technology approaches are required to integrate HRD in the workplace.
141. The value and impact of HRD services need to be measured and demonstrated.
Bold, creative, comprehensive strategies are required for the new corporate agenda.
The above listed critical changes clearly have impacted the training function. A moment
has arrived where training as we once knew it now needs to become a component of a
broader and more responsive continuous learning organisation.
Unit 9 Emerging Trends in Training
Training function to continuous learning organisation: Four changing mindsets

Table 9.1 : Changing mindsets of training
Sr. No. Training Corporate Perspective The New Corporate Realities
Static or steady business and Rapidly changing business trends directly impact
organisational development organisations and the need for continuous
processes do not require an learning.
accountable and responsive
training initiative.
A traditional training department Training becomes one component of the

supports tightly focused HRD continuous learning organisation.
initiatives.
Classroom-based, instructor-led Just-in-time competency based training should

training deliver limited courses in few now be available in diverse instructional
locations on a regular basis. formats and locations.
Little accountability for transfer of Considerable emphasis placed on improving

training and strategic impact on performance, return on investment through
business and organisational benchmarking and continuous process
development initiatives. improvement.
Âctivity A;
a) Write down two reasons for the reengineering of the training function.
b) Write down two differentiating points between training corporate perspective

and new corporate realities.
161
9.2 NEW LEARNING INTERVENTIONS

As we have seen above how the training function is transforming, with changing
times, the continuous learning organisation is witnessing new learning
interventions in the form of competency based training, assessment centers and
NLP (Neuro-linguistic programming used in training). Let's try and understand
how each of these learning interventions is impacting the training function and
ultimately the organisation.
Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP) used in Training
Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP) was created in the early 1970s by Richard
Handler, a computer scientist and Gestalt therapist, and Dr John Grinder, a
linguist and therapist. Bandler and Grinder invented a process known as
'modelling' that enabled them to study three of the world's greatest therapists: Dr
Milton Erickson, father of modern hypnotherapy; Fritz Perls, creator of Gestalt
therapy; and Virginia Satir, the mother of modern-day family therapy. They wanted
to know what made these therapists effective and to train others in their methods.
What is offered today as NLP is the product of this modeling process.
NLP Operational Principles

NLP consists of a set of powerful techniques for rapid and effective behavioural
modification, and an operational philosophy to guide their use. It is based on four
operational principles, which below these headings are explained in more detail.
142. Know what outcome you want to achieve. (See NLP principle 1 - achieving
outcomes)
143. Have sufficient sensory acuity (acuity means clear understanding) to know if
you are ^
moving towards or away from your outcome (See NLP principle 2 - sensory awareness)
144. Have sufficient flexibility of behavior so that you can vary your behavior until you
get
your outcome. (See NLP principle 3 - changing behaviour.)
145. Take action now. (See NLP principle 4 - time for action)
It is important to have specific outcomes. Many people do not have conscious

outcomes and wander randomly through life. NLP stresses the importance of
living with conscious purpose. In order to achieve outcomes, it is necessary to
act and speak in certain ways. NLP teaches a series of linguistic and behavioural
patterns that have proved highly effective in enabling people to change the beliefs
and behaviours of other people.
\ Unit 9 Emerging Trends in Training musi
ng
any of these patterns, NLP stresses the importance of continuous calibration of
the person or people you are interacting with in order to see if what you are
doing is working. If it is not working it is important to do something different. The
idea is to vary your behaviour until you get the results you want.
This variation in behaviour is not random. It involves the systematic application of
NLP patterns. It is also important to take action, since nothing ever happens
until someone takes the initiative. In short, NLP is about thinking, observing and
doing to get what you want out of life.
NLP Principle 1 - Achieving Outcomes

The importance of knowing your outcome cannot be stressed enough. Many
people do not have conscious outcomes. Others have no idea what they want but
know what they don't want. Their life is based on moving away from those things
they don't want. NLP stresses the importance of moving towards those things you
want. Without outcomes, life becomes a process of wandering aimlessly. Once an
outcome is determined you can begin to focus on achieving that outcome.
NLP lists certain well-formedness conditions that outcomes should meet. The first
of these is that the outcome needs to be stated in positive terms. This means that the
outcome must be what you want and not what you don't want to happen.
Outcomes must be capable of being satisfied. It is both logically and practically
impossible to give someone the negation of an experience. You can't engage in the
process of'not doing'. You can only engage in the process of doing.
• The second well-formedness condition for outcomes is that the outcome
must be
testable and demonstrable in sensory experience. There must be an evidence
procedure. Unless this is the case, there is no way to measure progress towards the
achievement of the outcome. With an evidence procedure for the outcome it is possible
to determine whether or not you are making progress towards achieving the outcome.
• Third, the desired state must be sensory specific. You must be able to say what
you
would look like, sound like and feel like, if you achieved the outcome.
« Fourth, the outcome or desired state must be initiated and maintained by the
subject. This places the locus (i.e. position) of control and responsibility for
achieving the outcome with the subject and not with someone else. It is not a
well-formed outcome when someone else does something or changes in some
way. All you can do is, have an outcome in which you can change yourself or
your behavior so as to bring about a change in someone else.
163
• Fifth, the outcome must be appropriately and explicitly contextualised. This

means
that outcomes must not be stated as universals. You must never want either 'all the
time' of'never', but only under specific circumstances. In NLP, we always strive to
create more choice and never to take choice or reduce the number of possible
responses. The goal instead is to make the choices or responses available in the
appropriate circumstances.
• Sixth, the desired outcome must preserve any positive product of the present
state. If
this is not the case then symptom substitution may occur.
*
• Seventh and finally, the outcome or desired state must be ecologically

sound. You
should consider the consequences for yourself and for other people and not pursue
outcomes that lead to laming yourself or other people.
NLP Principle 2 - Sensory Awareness
Once you know your outcome, you must have sufficient sensory acuity to know if
you are moving towards it or not. NLP teaches the ability to calibrate or 'read' people.
This involves the ability to interpret changes in muscle tone, skin color and
shininess, lower lip size and breathing rate and location. The NLP practitioner
uses these and other indications to determine what effect they are having on other
people. This information serves as feedback as to whether the other person is in the
desired state. An important and often overlooked
point is to know to stop when the other person is in the state that you desire.
.\
NLP Principle 3 - Changing Behaviour
The third operational principle of NLP is to vary your behaviour until you get the
response you want. If what you are doing isn't working, then you need to do
something else. You
• should use your sensory acuity to determine if what you are doing is
leading you in the
desired direction or not. If what you are doing is leading towards your outcome, then
you
should continue. If, on the other hand, what you are doing is leading you away from
your
goals, then you should do something else.
NLP Principle 4 - Time for Action
The fourth and final operational principle of NLP is to take action now. There is
no place for the slogan 'Complacency rules and I don't care.' NLP is about
taki
ng
actio
n
now
to
chan
ge
beha
viou
r for
your
self
and
for
othe
rs,
now
and
in
the
futur
e.
So,
to
use
anot
her
catc
hphr
ase:
'Don
't
dela
y;
act
toda
y.'
THENLPDICTIONARY
Table 9.2 : NLP Definitions
Term Definition Application
Anchoring Connecting a simple sensory Managing your state with a simple

stimulus to a complex memory or trigger, managing an audience's
emotional response state during a presentation, building
compliance states in sales
Associate To recall a memory in sufficient People who easily associate into

sensory detail for it to be "real" in highly emotional states are
terms of your current physical and exceptionally compelling and
emotional response emotive presenters. People who
can help others associate into good
states are always in demand
Meta Model A model of language designed to Interviewing candidates or clients in

recover information that has been a way that allows you to recover
lost through deletion, distortion unspoken information
and generalisation
Milton Model A model of language designed to Writing presentations or press

provide a guiding framework into releases so that they engage an
which the listener inserts their own audience on a personal, emotional
relevant content level
Modelling The process by which a You can model any intuitive skill in
structure of an intuitive order to replicate the performance
behaviour is determined, so of highly experienced people.
that it can be refined or Modelling is a process for the
learned by other people ultimate accelerated learning -
distilling years of experience into a
simple behavioural process
Outcomes The end result of a pattern Using the Well Formed Outcomes
ofbehaviour process is probably the easiest and
most practical way to realise your
goals - without even having to think
about it. You can think of
16
5

outcomes as being a tool to
program your unconscious mind
to search out opportunities for you
to succeed
Pattern A sensory input that stops a Happens all day long with natural
Interrupt pattern of behaviour running interruptions - you can just be
and leaves the person in an aware of them and make sure
'open' state you're not caught off guard!
Presuppositions The content of language that has to Presuppositions are linguistic

be held true for the language to be suggestions that are held to be
syntactically correct true, even before the listener
becomes consciously aware of the
language. We all use
presuppositions all the time
-they're a kind of linguistic
shorthand and we get random
results. By using presuppositions
consistently you can get consistent
results
Representa- Your senses. So called because No specific application other than to

tional system your senses represent reality remember that what your senses
rather than 'being real' tell you may not be accurate
State Your ongoing mental, physical There are many tools that you can
and emotional condition use to manage your own state -and
that of other people. It's better to be
in control of your state than to let
circumstances or other people
control it
Strategy A simple behavioural pattern that Strategy elicitation is the first step in
always runs as a complete sequence modeling; also professional sports
and achieves consistent results players often analyse and refine
their strategies in order to improve
performance. You can do the same
with anything that you
166

do habitually and consistently
-even if you don't like the
results you get now
Submodalities Qualities of sensory systems e.g. In general, increasing submodalities
visual image size, distance, heightens an emotional response,
brightness or auditory volume, pitch decreasing reduces the response.
Useful for a wide range of
applications
Timeline A branch of NLP that concentrates Timelines are used to change past
with our subjective representation experiences or plan and explore
of time, also an imaginary line that future opportunities. Timelines can
connects the past, present and help you to make difficult decisions,
future. Think of it as a visual user create compelling business plans and
interface for your sense of time minimise the effect of past failures
Neuro-Linguistic Programming is an extremely powerful concept. It is said by many

to contain all the positive and most useful aspects of modern psychology. NLP has
many beneficial uses in the business environment. The experience of undergoing NLP
training is a life-changing one for many people, and its techniques offer substantial
advantage to most roles in organisations:
• Directors and executives
• Managers at all levels
• Salespeople
• Administrators
• Engineering and technical staff
• Customer care operatives
• Receptionists
• Secretarial staff
• Trainers
• HR and counselling staff
167
NLP techniques help particularly by making it possible for people to

• Set clear goals and define realistic strategies.
• Coach new and existing staff to help them gain greater satisfaction from their
contribution.
• Understand and reduce stress and conflict.
• Improve new customer relationship-building and sales performance.

• Enhance the skills of customer care staff and reduce customer loss.
• Improve people's effectiveness, productivity and thereby profitability.
NLP used in Recruitment (Business Application)
Recruitment is entirely a 'people business' so in many ways the applications of NLP

are identical to those for sales. The key difference is in interviewing and selecting
candidates.
One of the main activities of a recruitment consultant that many find difficult and makes the
difference between success and failure, is cold calling. Typically, a recruiter will allocate
a block of time each day to make sales calls and NLP can help in a number of very
practical ways. NLP practitioners who have personally worked with a number of
recruiters and sales people feel that the same pattern of behaviour comes up time and time
again. Typically, the pattern is for the recruiter or salesperson to unconsciously set an
outcome that makes the call difficult. The recruiter responds to that outcome as if it is real
and their state shifts accordingly. When they call potential clients, that state is
communicated in their voice tone and the outcome becomes the client's response. It can
take about 10 minutes to change this, and the results are immediate and dramatic for
the recruiter. Clearly, every case is different so one can get in touch with practitioners
to know real-life examples.
There are many different types of recruitment companies, from agencies to executive search
and from specialist technical to general. In all of these companies, the goal in
selecting candidates is the same, to find the candidate who fits the job so that the
recruiter is able to quickly convert vacancies into placements. Some recruiters try to put 2.
as many candidates in front of the client as possible. They tend not to last long as the client
hires the recruiter to save their time, not use up more of it. Recruitment is a time
consuming, costly process for businesses and once you've found the right person, you
need to make sure they stay there.
NLP has two particularly useful tools for interviewing. The Meta Model is a structure
of language that allows the interviewer to recover lost information from the client or
candidate, This enables the recruiter to create a much more specific brief for a candidate
and it also
168
enables the recruiter to find out much more information from candidates than they might
think they're giving away.
In using the Meta Model to clarify the brief, the recruiter is also modeling the client's strategy
for making a decision. When the candidates' resumes are presented to the client, the recruiter can
then present the information in such a way that the client immediately has the information they
need, structured in the way that they normally make decisions. By modeling the client's
unconscious thought processes; it often seems that the recruiter is reading the client's mind -
creating a much closer working relationship.
The second tool worth noting is Metaprograms, the building blocks of behavioural structure.
Metaprograms are measures of the behavioural choices that an individual will make in a given
situation. Metaprograms can be used like a psychometric tool to profile candidates who are
mentally 'wired up' to excel in a certain type of job. The advantage of NLP Metaprograms is
that they are based on language structure and so can be elicited during a normal conversation. You
can profile the client's brief for a role and then turn that brief into ametaprogram profile that you can
then elicit conversationally from potential candidates, using questions like "How do you know
when you're doing a good job?" and "What's the right way to do your job?"
In a study of high performing recruiters, it was found that they are quickly able to associate a
candidate into what they call 'interview mode' so that they can get to know how the candidate
will perform in the interview with the client. Perhaps equally as useful is the ability to get the
candidate into the state they'll be in when they're performing the job so that Metaprograms can be
elicited in the right context.
& Activity B;
1. Write down four operational principles of NLP.
2, Differentiate between anchoring and dissociated state.
169
9.3 COMPETENCY BASED TRAINING

Throughout the world, millions of students go to school every day. These students study
subjects such as science, language and mathematics in courses usually scheduled to last the
duration of the school year. As progression through the various subjects in school is time-
based, at any given time during the year the teacher is expected to be at a specific point in the
textbook or course content. While not every student to may progress at the same rate, the
schedule typically requires everyone to move at the same rate as the teacher. Tests are
administered periodically to ensure students understand the concepts and principles. Test
scores often are compared to determine the grades of the students. Unfortunately, when a
student does not do well on a test there is often little time for individual assistance as the
teacher must move on in order to adhere to the established time schedule.
While traditional, time-based approaches to education have met with varying levels of
success over the years, it is an ineffective system when the goal is to train individuals to
perform specific, job-related skills. For example, an active, certified airline pilot is attending a 3-
week training course to learn to fly a new type of aircraft. Will attending all sessions during the
course ensure the pilot can fly the plane? Of course not! If the pilot is unable to attend 2 days of
the course, does this mean die pilot cannot fly the plane? Probably not. After 4 days, the pilot
does poorly on a written test. Should the pilot immediately fail the course or should the pilot
continue with assistance and be given the opportunity to be tested again? If the pilot can pass
all written tests, does this indicate that the pilot can fly the plane? No! In addition to assessing
knowledge, an evaluation of the pilot's skills also is required.
• •)„ "<>; :
Obviously, the time-based educational system used in schools and universities is not
appropriate when conducting training. A more appropriate approach is competency-based training
(CBT). Competencies emerged in the 1980s as a response to organisational changes and to wider
changes in society. In 1982 the US academician, Richard Boyatzis wrote "The competent
manager: a model for effective performance'. This book proved to have i considerable influence
on the profession and over the following two decades, competency I frameworks became an
increasingly accepted part of modern HR practice. With increasing f awareness, the use of
competency frameworks has extended beyond, to more senior f levels or the organisation (top
and middle management) into clerical and administrative roles and in some cases to non-office
staff.
Unit 9 Emerging Trends in Training and
attitude-
based.
What is Competency Based Training (CBT)?
• Com
In atraditional educational system, the unit of progression is time and it is teacher-centered. In a CBT petency-
system, the unit of progression is mastery of specific knowledge and skills and is learner- or A skill
participant-centered. Two key terms used in competency-based training are: perform
• Skill-A task or group of tasks performed to a specific level of competency or ed to a
proficiency which often use motor functions and typically require the manipulation of specific
instruments and equipment. Some skills, however, such as counseling, are knowledge- standard
under specific conditions for
superior performance.
There appears to be substantial support for competency-based training. Norton (1987)
believes that competency-based training should be used as opposed to the "medieval concept
of time-based learning." Foyster (1990) argues that using the traditional "school" model for
training is inefficient. After in-depth examinations of three competency-based programs,
Anthony Watson (1990) concluded that competency-based instruction has tremendous
potential for training in industry. Moreover, in 1990, study of basic skills education programs
in business and industry, Paul Delker found that successful training programs were competency-
based.
A competent pilot is one who is able to perform flying skills to a satisfactory standard.
Competency-based training for pilots then is training based upon the participant's ability to
demonstrate attainment or mastery of flying skills performed under certain conditions to specific
standards (the skills then become competencies). Norton (1987) describes five essential elements
of a CBT system:
• Competencies to be achieved are carefully identified, verified and made public in

advance.
• Criteria to be used in assessing achievement and the conditions under which
achievement will be assessed are explicitly stated and made public in advance.
• The instructional program provides for the individual development and evaluation of
each of the competencies specified.
i Assessment of competency takes the participant's knowledge and attitudes into account
but requires actual performance of the competency as the primary source of
evidence.
171
• Participants progress through the instructional program at their own rate by

demonstrating the attainment of the specified competencies.
Characteristics of CBT
According to Foyster (1990), Delker (1990) and Norton (1987) there are a number of
characteristics of competency-based programs. Key characteristics are summarised below:
• Competencies are carefully selected relevant to the organisation.
• Supporting theory is integrated with skill practice. Essential knowledge is learned to

support the performance of skills.
• Detailed training materials are keyed to the competencies to be achieved and are
designed to support the acquisition of knowledge and skills.
• The methods are based on the premise that all participants can master the required
knowledge or skill, provided sufficient time and appropriate training methods are
used.
• Participants' knowledge and skills are assessed as they enter the program and those
with satisfactory knowledge and skills may bypass training or competencies already
attained.
• Learning should be self-paced. ''
• Flexible training approaches including large group methods, small group activities
and individual study are essential components.
• A variety of support materials including print, audiovisual and simulations (models)

keyed to the skills being mastered are used.
• Satisfactory completion of training is based on achievement of all specified I

competencies.
Advantages and Limitations of CBT
One of the primary advantages of CBT is that the focus is on the success of each participant
Watson (1990) states that the competency-based approach "appears especially useful in
training situations where trainees have to attain a small number of specific and job-related
competencies". Benefits of CBT identified by Norton (1987) include: s
erof Unit 9 Emerging Trends in Training
• Participants will achieve competencies required in the performance of their jobs.
nedto • Participants build confidence as they succeed in mastering specific competencies.

• Participants receive a transcript or list of the competencies, they have achieved.
and are
• Training time is used more efficiently and effectively as the trainer is a facilitator of
learning as opposed to a provider of information.
hods are • More training time is devoted to working with participants individually or in small
groups as opposed to presenting lectures.
and those Les » More training time is devoted to evaluate each participant's ability to perform
already essential job skills.
While there are a number of advantages of competency-based training, there also are
some potential limitations. Prior to implementing CBT, it is important to consider these
limitations:
op activities
• Unless initial training and follow-up assistance is provided for the trainers, there is
a tendency to "teach as we were taught" and CBT trainers quickly slip back into
on s (models) the role of the traditional teacher.
• A CBT course is only as effective as the process used to identify the competencies.
all specif When little or no attention is given to identification of the essential job skills, then the
resulting training course is likely to be ineffective.
t A course may be classified as competency-based, but unless specific CBT materials
and training approaches (e.g. learning guides, checklists and coaching) are
designed to be used as part of a CBT approach, it is unlikely that the resulting
course will be truly competency-based.
# Activity C;
a) Write down the difference between tune-based training and competency based training.
^participant
ecially useful
c and jo
174 'Human Resource Development & Training devel
opme
nt of
b) What are some limitations which should be considered before implementing a
youn
CBT?
g men
in
busin
ess
envir
onme
nt
9.4 ASSESSMENT CENTRES
Chara
The term Assessment Centre (AC) may suggest a specific building or institute or
some
cterist
form of training. However, it has nothing to do with these. An Assessment Centre is ics of
an
evaluation process, which can be used to identify the future potential of the
employees. It
consists of the observation of candidates carrying out a variety of assignments, Metho
individually
or in a group, over a period of a couple of days. The method is systematic, effective d
and
The
reliable. The AC generally results in a written report which combines
quantitative followi
information- for example scores on tests and exercises, ratings on dimensions
on ng
performance - with a more qualitative, descriptive account of the individual's
apparent elemen
strengths and weakness. ACs result in decisions- to select or not, to promote or not -
and/ ts are
or recommendations for individual development which may consist of feedback and
charact
career
counselling, career planning, training and so on. Most frequently organisations use ACs eristic
to
identify managerial potential, but ACs are equally effective in assessing for non- of the
managerial
roles. method
*
:
The origin and approach of Assessment Centre can be traced back to multiple
assessment procedures developed for officer selection in pre-war Germany. The
• be
general pattern of these procedures was that candidates were assessed over a period haviour
three days by aboard consisting of a colonel, a medical officer and psychological
examiners. In the late 1950s, the American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT & is
T) was inspired by this wartime procedure and developed experimentally as part of AT
& T's Management Progress Study-a longitudinal research investigation into the central:
behavi s behaviour.
our • the qualities of the various candidates are determined with die aid of various techniques.
such as interviews, psychological tests and exercises.
predict
ft
?
f Unit 9 Emerging Trends in Training
• most of the exercises take the form of simulations of tasks and situations which arise
in the future job.
• the exercises can also be carried on in a group, so that the candidates" interaction
and co-operation can be observed.
• the candidates are observed by a number of different appraisers, preferably senior
managers from their own organizations.
• the observed behaviour is evaluated on the basis of previously defined criteria derived
from job analysis.
• the final evaluation is the outcome of synthesis of the judgements of the different
appraisers.
Many methods base the evaluation of an individual's aptitude for a new job primarily on
performance in previous jobs. This is quite possible when the new job does not appreciably differ
from the old. When it does differ, however, trying to predict future performance on the basis of
present can be fairly risky business. The fact, that someone is an outstanding salesman, for
example, does not guarantee that he will be a good sales manager. In such cases, the Assessment
Centre method can be a real boon.
Setting up an Assessment Centre: A Step-by Step Approach

Determine objectives
Job analysis
Determine competencies
Select assignments
Select candidates Design the program Select Assessors
Instruct candidates Assessment Centre Train Assessors
Evaluate, report and inform Fig. 9.1:

Step-by-Step process of Assessment Centre
175
Determine objectives: At this stage the organisation should determine its target
group, the aims of the assessment centre and the desired results. The objectives
could include- selection, promotion, training and development.
Job analysis: An analysis should comprise how the various jobs are constructed,
why they exist, what sort of areas they affect, the responsibilities they entail, how are
they evaluated, how performance is rewarded and what sort of future changes might
take place. The situations that the job involves, critical situations in particular, play an
essential role in this analysis. They determine the focus for the discussion of
competencies and the choice of simulations.
Determine competencies : Competencies are a set of knowledge, skills and
attitudes, which facilitate an individual to perform his/her job effectively. ACompetency
model is a scientific framework of 'what is desirable'. The process of competency
mapping is essential before conducting the Assessment Centre, because this helps in
defining the roles with clarity. Competency mapping helps to identify gaps between
what is existing and what is expected. Not only does it help to identify developmental
inputs but also brings in value addition at each level of the hierarchy.
Select assignments: The choice of assignments, simulations, exercises, instruments
evolve from the job descriptions, critical job situations etc. After getting the right feel of
the job, the right assignments should be chosen, e.g. An assessment centre to
measure the effectiveness of sales staff should include a sales exercise, an assessment
centre for identifying redeployed should include an exercise that measures flexibility and
I
the ability to learn and adapt. The type of exercises normally used in an Assessment Centre
is as follows: Ranking exercise, In-basket exercise, Business games, Role-play, Group
discussion, Case study, Interviews, Psychometric tests etc.
Select candidates: The main objective of conducting an Assessment centre brings out
the pool of candidates for whom the Assessment centre is conducted. The
objectives may be selection, promotion, to identify training and developmental inputs,
career planning, succession planning etc.
Design the programme: The most challenging part of an Assessment centre is
designing an Assessment centre. Once the competencies are crystallized various,
exercises, simulations, business games, role-plays, presentation exercises, in-baskei'
exercises etc. are designed which facilitate in projecting and mapping the competency i The
exercises will be designed bearing the future role in mind.
17R
Unit 9 Emerging Trends in Training obs
erv
atio
• Select assessors : The basic criterion of selecting assessors is primarily strong
n
skills and writing skills. The assessors should be competent in observing an out
individual/s engaged in group activity and to record, classify, summarise and rate co
what they see. Assessors need to work from observed behaviours through to me
conclusions, rather than to start with judgements and then look for supporting of
evidence. This understanding is developed exploring, using their own experience. an
The Assessors can be trained by familiarising them with the details of the framework As
through practical exercises. While managers readily accept the concepts behind the ses
use of competencies and learn, relatively easily, they are less willing to accept the sm
details of an established framework. Acceptance of the validity of the framework ent
can be achieved through developing the framework in-house, based on their Ce
own research rather than buying-in. ntr
e
• Assessment centre: The actual conduct of an Assessment Centre involves pro
many vid
factors like - Effective logistic management is essential for the preparation es
and em
execution of an Assessment Centre. The employees who are involved in carrying plo
out ye
an AC have to plan at the right time for the tasks that have been assigned. es
wit
The various products that are used during an Assessment Centre should also h
be designed before a certain date. rea
list
• Evaluation and report writing: The evaluation of an Assessment Centre can
ic
be
per
done during a short conversation, or by means of a questionnaire, which
spe
involves
cti
everyone who participated in it. The questionnaire may have general questions like-
ves
treatment during AC, accommodation, and the overall program whether it was
.
clear,
Th
well organised? Did the candidates get proper guidance? Some specific
ey
questions
sta
about assignments include- difficulty level, closeness to reality, conducive to showing
rt
abilities, preparation and performance time and quality of instructions. Writing an AC
dis
Report is an art in itself, it should be as though a film of the AC is being played
cus
before
sio
the eyes of the candidate, when he/she reads it. An AC Report is based
ns
almost
ab
entirely on the short texts included in the rating scales. Obviously, these should be of
out
high quality. Each Assessor should try to stay as close to the submitted texts
ind
as
ivi
possible. Form, style and content should not differ too much from one another.
du
The
al
Assessor should be well acquainted with the specific aims of the AC before
ex
writing
pe
the report; there is a great difference between ACs used for selection and ACs used
cta
for management development. In selection, the onus is upon someone's suitability.
tio
In
ns
management development more attention is given to development advice. The
set
against those of the organisation. In
today's times when more and more organisations are focusing on the 'people aspect'
Assessment Centers will definitely bring forth fruitful outcomes.
177
9.5 SUMMARY__________
The following unit talks about the current trends in training which are emerging because of the
changing nature of the training function. The training function is changing from the traditional
nature to a more continuous learning organisation type. Rapidly changing business trends directly
impact organisations and the need for continuous learning and continuous process improvement.
Just-in-time competency based training must now be available in diverse instructional formats and
locations. Considerable emphasis placed on improving performance, return on investment through
benchmarking and hence training has become one component of the continuous learning
organisation. The emerging trends in training because of the changing nature of the training function
are NLP used in training, Competency based training and assessment centers.
wantage to most
Neuro-Linguistic Programming is an extremely powerful concept. It is said by
many to contain all the positive and most useful aspects of modern psychology. NLP has many
beneficial uses in the business environment. The experience of undergoing NLP training is alife-
changing one for many people and its techniques offer substantial advantage to most
roles in organisations.
leto:
NL? techniques help particularly by making it possible for peopl • Set
clear goals and define realistic strategies.
« Coach new and existing staff to help them gain
greater satisfaction from their
contribution.
• Understand and reduce stress and conflict.
• Improve new customer relationship-building and sales performance.
• Enhance the skills of customer care staff and reduce customer loss.
• Improve people's effectiveness, productivity and thereby profitability.
In a Competency based training system, the unit of progression is mastery of specific

knowledge and skills and is learner- or participant-centered.
Assessment Centers are very evaluation technique to find out the future potential of a person
particularly during selection, training and development. This model is gaining momentum in
the industry, after this model was used by American Telephone and Telegraph company in 1950. AT
&T had adopted the model from the people in the military services
Human Development & Training
184 10.1 INTRODUCTION
Recruitment is the phase that immediately precedes selection. Its purpose is to pave
the way for the selection procedures by producing ideally the smallest number of
candidates who appear to be capable either of performing the required tasks of
the job from the outset, or of developing the ability to do so within a period of
time acceptable to the employing organisation.
The smallest number of potentially suitable candidates can be any number. The main
point that needs to be made about the recruitment task is that the employing
organisation should not waste time and money examining the credentials of people
whose qualifications do not match the requirements of the job. Aprimary task to be
suitable is to fill the job vacancy. This is clearly in the interest of both the employing
organisation and the applicants. But no matter how efficient an organisation may be
in the preparation of advertisements or in the general administration of its recruitment
procedures, it still has no control over applicants' perceptions of their own
suitability to fill jobs. All advertised vacancies may regularly attract some
applicants whose potential suitability is much more apparent to themselves than it
is to the employing organisation. In practice, then, the objective of a recruitment
procedure is to attract genuinely suitable candidates and carefully examine their
credentials in order to produce a short list for further investigation in the selection
procedures. Apart from the methods used and the general administration of the task,
the achievement of the objective will depend very much on how efficiently human
resource planning and job analysis have been carried out and applied.
In short, efficient recruitment of staff may be described as knowing what resources
you want, what resources are available, and where and how they may be found. For
purposes of studying the main details and requirements of an efficient and
systematic recruitment process, the task may conveniently be examined under the
following headings:
146. Determining the vacancies
147. Sourcing strategy
148. Preparing and publi shing information
149. Processing and assessing applications
A flow chart showing the sequence of the recruitment process is shown in Figure 10.1.
Determining the vacancies
**•
The first stage in the procedure is concerned with the question of what resources
are *, needed, that is, the demand. Details of requirements will emerge from the
compilation and | regular revision of the human resource plan. In practice, job vacancies
may occur when an
Unit 10 Recruitment and Selection leave
the
organis
organisation or work unit is set up, when any organisation goes through changes of policy, ation
technology, location, mergers, acquisitions, demergers or most commonly, when employees and
need to be replaced. Due to of the subtle changes that are continuously taking place
in work organisations, the existence and nature of job vacancies should not be accepted
without question. Sound human resource planning and job analysis, regularly and
systematically reviewed, should ensure that this does not happen.
Considering the sources

This stage is concerned with general questions about the supply and availability of resources
and the particular avenues through which these are likely to be obtained. The human
resource plan is designed to provide general information about the types of factors that
influence the supply of labour at macro and micro levels. In considering possible
resources of recruiting employees, it is easy to assume that these are inevitably external.
Even when it is possible and feasible to fill job vacancies from within the organisation,
the transfers and promotions which usually involves will more often than not produce a
vacancy at the end of a chain reaction, necessitating external recruitment. Nevertheless,
the possibility of I vacancies internally should always be given very careful consideration
for the following
reasons:
Internal recruitment
150. Existing employees are known to the organisation and are generally f amiliar
with its
customs and practices.
151. The costs and the time that external recruitment, selection and induction
procedures
consume can be significantly reduced.
152. Internal recruitment to fill vacancies may be used as a means of career
development,
widening opportunities and stimulating motivation among existing employees.
External recruitment
When the organisation has to use external sources, there are two main means of conducting
the search for employees:
153. Through employment consultancies and agencies. These include specialist
agencies
and 'head-hunters' as well as governmental and institutional and private commercial
agencies of varying kinds.
154. By contacting the public directly through advertisements in newspaper journals,
posters,
on radio, on television and on the Internet.
185
Unit 10 Recruitment and Selection and
evaluate
A combination of these media may be used. The three main avenues available are described d below.
Professional agencies
Several different kinds of agencies are included under this heading. The features they have
in common are that they are all agencies set up by a particular organisation to help their
own members or ex-members find employment and that they are generally non-profit-
making. The agencies of this kind that employers are likely to need and use most regularly
are as follows:
i Career services of academic institutions: Universities and similar institutions maintain
a full-time careers advisory service. They serve as an employment agency for
graduating or recently graduated students and are centers of information for graduates
about employment opportunities and for employers who are seeking potential managers
or professional specialists.
i Employment services of professional institutions: A number of professional institutions,
such as those representing accounts, engineers, etc. have an employment advisory
service whereby a register is kept of members seeking employment and information
is collected from employers seeking staff in particular professions.
i Employment exchange provided by the state service for young people provides a
regular liaison between employers and unemployed youth.
Private employment agencies

These agencies have the largest share of the market and are now quite well known to most
people from personal experience of local offices and advertisements in the press. Local
employment agencies deal with clerical, junior administrative, shop staff, IT professionals
etc. The other type of agency concentrates on recruitment and, sometimes, the initial stages
of selection of middle and senior managers or of professional and specialist staff in fields
such as, law accountancy, engineering, etc. Private agencies provide at times a very valuable
service, especially in recruiting staff in situations where there is a shortage of the particular
types of employees required. However, since they exist to make a profit, employers have
to pay for any employee they may recruit in this way.
There are also pros and cons that have to be carefully weighed, especially when these
agencies are used to assist in the selection of managerial or professional staff. The advantages
are the specialist knowledge that an agency can acquire of the employment conditions and
187
requirements in particular fields, objectivity of view and skill in conducting the

selection procedure. The main possible disadvantage in using external assistance for
recruitment and selection purposes is the agent's lack of first-hand experience of
the cultural and environmental aspects of the organisation's work and life.
There has been a growth of so-called 'head-hunters' or recruitment consultants. As

the terms suggest, these are private firms and agencies of recruitment consultants
who earn fees by meeting the needs of organisations for specialist and senior managerial
staff. Much of their work is carried on by means of an informal network of contacts,
whereby they keep records of career profiles of people likely to be in constant
demand, and obtain information about the needs of employers for appointments to be
filled. This method has provided its value to the employer and employee clientele of
these agencies.
Advertisements in the press or media
This is the most common method by which employers carry out their search for
suitable staff. Apart from the use of the national and local press and to a limited extent,
television and radio, professional and trade journals are an important source of
recruitment by this means. When specialist staff are needed this is a very convenient
and appropriate method for attracting the attention of those most likely to be suitable.
The same basic information about the job has to be produced for publication whether
the organisation uses an agency or places its own advertisements.
The internet
There has been a growth in the use of the Internet to attract applicants. Surveys show
that many organisations use the internet. Benefits from this method are the speed by
which applicants can obtain information about the organisation, and application
documents may be downloaded from the Internet. Responses by e-mail to the
organisation can, of course, be made whatever the advertising method. Whilst the
Internet was initially suitable for professional and technical vacancies, one suspects
that the spread of personal computing to all potential applicant groups will see this
tool develop further.
The task of recruitment is likely to benefit greatly from regular personal contacts
with recruitment agencies and sections of the population in which employees are most
likely to be found. There are a number of ways in which contacts may be developed,
for example, by:
• Regular meetings between the recruitment representatives of the work organisation

and the employment agencies.
« Regular visits by representatives of the employment agencies or potential t
applicants f to the work organisation to acquire first-hand knowledge about the Co
nature of jobs, {i facilities and working environment. nve
ntio
ns designed to bring employers, agencies and potential employees together to
explain discuss and ascertain employment opportunities.
*
Meetings of this kind are especially useful for people entering full-time employment for
the first time either from university and similar institutions. There is a growing
awareness by employers of the value of the employer 'brand'. Employers are
engaged in marketing themselves to future recruits as much as to future customers.
Brand image and brand values - the organisation's values - are important and there is
abenefit to ensuring consistency between product and organisational brand values.
£? Activity A;
a) Write down two reasons for vacancies being created in an organisation.
Write down two pros and cons of which professional agencies face during
recruitment.
10.2 PREPARING AND PUBLISHING INFORMATION__________________

This aspect of the recruitment process requires very special attention and skill. Its
objective is to publish information that fulfils the following conditions:
» It is succinct and yet gives a comprehensive and accurate description of the job
and
its requirements.
• It is likely to attract the attention of the maximum number of potentially suitable

candidates (i.e., published through the right media).
189
• It gives a favourable image of the organisation in terms of efficiency and its

attitudes
towards people - including the values of the organisation, its products or
services.
The preparation and publication of this information is based on two simple questions
that any applicant would normally ask:
• What are the details of the job in terms of duties, opportunities, rewards,
conditions
and special circumstances?
• How should applications be presented?
The preparation of the information needed to answer the first question is based on the
data produced by the job analysis. There is not much point in expanding eloquently, as
some job advertisements do, about the personal qualities needed. This is best left to the
assessment of the personnel selectors. To ask job applicants whether they possess
intelligence drive and initiative, in other words to make an assessment of them, is a
futile exercise. On the other hand, it could well be relevant to mention any special
features, such as aptitudes or personal circumstances that are important to the job,
for example, 'extensive travel throughout the country and some evening or weekend
work is an essential part of the job.'
The part of the advertisement advising applicants on the presentation of their
applications varies in practice. Sometimes a personal letter covering the applicant's
curriculum vitae (CV) is the only form together with information on requirements for
testimonials and referees' reports.
A letter of application or a C V is sometimes used as a kind of selection device.
Personal applications of this kind may even be passed to graphologists for a personality
assessment. In effect, with this method applicants are being invited to sell themselves on
paper, that is, to argue their claims for appointment to the advertised post. There is
certainly something to be said for giving applicants a free hand to state their own
cases without inhibition, especially for more senior roles but there are some important
forewarnings that have to be made about this method:
1. There is a great deal of evidence from those who work professionally in the field
of careers, advise and employment consultancy that many people are
unable to systematically and concisely prepare a relevant account of their general and
employment record. Employers using this method must be prepared; therefore, to
receive a number of lengthy, irrelevant and perhaps boring self-reports which
protracts the recruitment processes.
Unit 10 Recruitment and Selection
attitudes t A strong case can be made against the use of personally planned applications as a form
irvices. of suitability test. The assessment of suitability for employment is difficult enough during the
selection procedures. It certainly cannot be carried out either effectively or with justice on
dons that paper based on written evidence alone. Further, if the employer relies on the applicant's
CV the information provided suits the applicant, not the employer. Problems, gaps in
employment or negative information are more easily concealed by applicants.
anditions
The use of an application form has the particular advantage that employers can ensure that the
information provided by applicants is, on the whole; relevant to the job requirements. At the
same time, some flexibility and common sense are needed in the use of the form. No form,
however carefully designed, can cover every possible contingency. Ample space should be
in the data included, therefore, for any additional special points that applicants may wish to .:-ake.
f, as some
ssessment The job advertisement
jnce drive
se. On the The advertisement needs to cover information derived from the job description and person
ptitudes or specification in such broad areas:
»ive travel 155. The work organisation: its main occupation and location
of the job.'
156. The job: its title; main duties, location
pplications
ulum vitae 157. Qualifications and experience (both necessary and desirable): personal requirements;
nd referees' specially professional qualifications, experience, aptitudes, etc.
158. Rewards and opportunities: basic salary and other emoluments; any other benefits;
opportunities for personal development
e. Personal
assessment, 159. Conditions: any special factors and circumstances affecting the job
aper.thatis,
r something 6. Applications: form of application; closing date; address for forwarding
: inhibition,
The application form
it have to be
The design of an appropriate application form will clearly depend on particular situations
andneeds, but there are some basic principles that are universally relevant. Different forms may
i the field of
be necessary for different kinds of work. If economy or any other reasons require the useof a
e unable to
general form for all appointments, then the form has to be sufficiently comprehensive and
employment
flexible to cover all possible situations. For all appointments the same general
ive a number
background details will be needed, for which a standard format is possible. Additional
5 recruitment
19
1
sections can be added, specifically designed to cover the whole range of jobs. Furthermore,
•^^^îL-^^^^^fei^ mcxatne expense o\ ptmtmg. Motm
prepared on a word processor, carefully designed and adapted to cover the job vacancy
in question, providing adequate space for the information required, is surely much better
than a beautifully and expressively printed form which attempts unsuccessfully to serve a
variety of purposes. The items that will normally need to be included in application forms
are:
• Jobtitle
• Applicants full names
• Date of birth
• Address and telephone number
• Nationality
• Education (full-time, part-time training course)
• Academic qualifications
• Professional qualifications
• Present employment - details of present post, duties, accountabilities, skills used,
numbers supervised
• Previous employment in chronological order, with details of achievement in each

post, name, address of employers, dates of employment
• Main current interests, pursuits and achievements outside work
• Health (including any serious illness or disability, past or present)

• Court convictions
• Additional information (any information not covered in the form, which the applicant
considers significant to the application)
• References
• Source of information about the vacancy.
192
Unit 10 Recruitment and Selection a)
Write
down
& Activity B;
two objectives which are required before publishing information.
What are the essential ingredients of the job description?
10.3 PROCESSING AND ASSESSING APPLICANTS_____________ "-

When all the applications have been received by the due date, the next task is to
select those applicants who, on the evidence available, to be the most suitable as future
employees of the organisation and, therefore, worth the time and cost of further
examination in the selection procedures. This task will be based on the published
requirements for the job and involves a painstaking and scrupulous study of the
information provided by appli cants, acomparison of this information with those job
requirements and, finally, a decision whether to accept or reject at this stage.
To systematise the process, it is normally useful to carry out a preliminary sift to
produce three categories of applicants: suitable, not suitable, and marginal. With this
method the main effort can then be concentrated on deciding which of the doubtful appli
cants should be accepted and which should be rejected. When there are constraints
on acceptable numbers - this is the usual circumstance - and a choice has to be made
between applicants of apparently equal merits in terms of the essential requirements, a
careful consideration of the list of desirable requirements may provide the weighting
needed to assist the final decision. A simple description of the sifting task such as this could
make it seem a disarmingly mechanical process. It is, in fact, anything but this, and a
number of important points need to be made about the general approach to the task and
methods used.
193
Human Resource Development & Training To start

with the general approach, those responsible for processing applications need to be
I
very aware throughout, first, that they have a responsibility to their employers to be
as careful and through as possible in selecting the most suitable of the applicants and,
second, that they have a responsibility to the applicants themselves to examine their
applications conscientiously and fairly. In this situation, applicants are entirely in the
hands of those who carry out this task and seldom, if ever, have any chance of query
or redress. It is also very important to realise that this is the link stage between
the recruitment and selection procedures. It is the first hurdle that the applicant has
to overcome in obtaining employment with an organisation and is, in effect, the first
stage in the selection procedure. The assessment of suitable employees is difficult
enough in the face-to-face situations of the selection interview and other selection
methods. In deciding, therefore, that an applicant is unsuitable entirely on
documentary evidence, the employing organisation needs to be as certain as it can
be about its reasons for rejection at this stage. In short, the task must never be
approached as a routine exercise told to weed out all applicants who, say do not
have specified requirements. Since the task is virtually part of the selection
procedure, it has very important links for the choice of staff to perform the task.
A further important point that has to be made concerns the need for flexibility in
making the final decisions about acceptance or rejection. This relates to the previous
comment on the problems of making decisions solely on the basis of documentary
information. It is best not to be stubbornly inflexible or over-precise about matters
such as length of experience, age, etc. in the first place. When job requirements are
being established, room must always be left to decide individual cases on their merits,
as we balance and weight various attributes.
Finally, a word needs to be said about the use of testimonials and referee's reports.
Reports of this kind will regularly be used as evidence to assist in the final decisions
of the selection procedures. Referees' reports are, usually required as supplementary
evidence for use in the assessment of candidates during the selection procedure.
Employers are often more frank in telephonic conversations so we should not
overemphasise the importance of written references.
JS$ Activity C:
a) Write down two parameters for selecting or rejecting a candidate.
194
Unit 10 Recruitment and Selection 10.4
SELEC
TION________
b) Who is responsible for processing and assessing the applicants?
In human resource planning we identify our personnel needs. Once these needs are
established a job analysis is conduced, which clarifies the characteristics of jobs being
done and the individual qualities necessary to do these jobs successfully. This information
is then used to recruit a pool of qualified applicants. We must now begin the process of
thinning this set, which is one of the major objectives of selection. We want to assess our
applicants against the criteria established in job analysis in order to predict which job
applicants will be successful if hired.
The cost of selection
Tie cost of selecting people who are inadequate performers or who leave the organisation
before contributing to profits is a major cost of doing business. The cost incurred in hiring
and training any new employee is expensive.
The process of selection
All selection activities, from the initial screening interview to the physical examination if
required, exist for the purpose of making effective selection decisions. Each activity is a
step in the process that forms a predictive exercise - managerial decision makers seeking
to predict which job applicants will be successful if hired. Successful, in this case, means
performing well on the criteria the organisation uses to evaluate personnel. For a sales
position, for example, the criteria should be able to predict which applicants will generate
ahigh volume of sales.
Of lesser importance, but still an objective of the selection process, is informing and selling
the candidate on the job and the organisation. This secondary objective receives less
attention, probably because it is so closely intertwined with recruitment, but it shows itself
throughout the selection process.
195
In actuality, the selection process represents an effort to balance the objectives of

evaluating and attracting. The interview is an obvious example of an activity where
both objectives must be served. At the same time, that the interviewer is attempting to
acquire information about the candidate, so an intelligent selection decision can be
made, he or she is also informing the applicant about the job and the organisation.
This latter activity is critical if the organisation is to be successful in 'selling' itself to the
candidate. If the organisation fails in selling itself to the candidate, there is little
likelihood that the applicant will accept the job even if it is offered. Additionally, this
trading of information between applicant and interviewer can be valuable in allowing
individuals with low chances of being chosen to self-select themselves out of the
process. This saves both the organisation and the applicant from 'losing face' due to
a rejection decision.
In summary, selection has two objectives

160. to predict which job applicants would be successful if hired and
161. to inform and sell the candidate the job and the organisation
,<
Unfortunately, these two objectives are not always compatible. Putting a job
candidate through hours of filling out forms, taking tests, and completing interviews
rarely endears the organisation to the candidate. These are tiresome and often
stressful activities. Yet, if the selection activities place too great an emphasis on
public relations, obtaining the information needed to make successful selection is
how to balance the desire to attract people with the desire to gather relevant
selection data.
The discrete selection process
Selection activities typically follow a standard pattern, beginning with an initial

screening interview and concluding with the final employment decision. The selection
process consists of following seven steps:
162. initial screening interview

163. completion of the application form
164. employment tests
165. comprehensive interview
j
|
(5) background investigation
j
H
?
166. physical examination, and

I
167. fi
nal
employ
ment
decisio
n :
Unit 10 Recruitment and Selection
Each of these steps represents a decision point requiring some affirmative

feedback for the process to continue. Each step in the process seeks to expand
the organisation's knowledge about the applicant's background, abilities, and I
motivation, and it increases the information from which decision makers will make
their predictions and final choice. However, some steps may be omitted if they do
not yield data that will aid in predicting success or if the cost of the step is not
warranted. For example, the background investigation may not be used in all cases.
For jobs where there are judicial responsibilities, the costs incurred conducting the
background investigation might be cost effective. On the other hand, spending the
same money on a background investigation for an assembly-line worker may not be the
best use of the money. Whether a step is omitted or not, it is beneficial to have some
insight into how each works.
Initial screening
In culmination of our recruiting efforts, we should be prepared to initiate a

preliminary review of potentially acceptable candidates. This screening is, in effort, a
two step procedure:
168. the screening of inquiries and

169. the provision of screening interviews.
If our recruiting efforts have been successful, we will be confronted with a

number of potential applicants. Based on the job description and job specification,
some of these respondents can be eliminated. Factors that might lead to a negative
decision at this point include inadequate or inappropriate experience or similarly,
inadequate or inappropriate education. The screening interview is also an excellent
opportunity for management to describe the job in enough detail so the candidates
can consider whether they are really serious about making application. The sharing
of job description information with the individual can frequently encourage the
unqualified or marginally unqualified to voluntarily withdraw from candidacy - with a
minimum of cost to the applicant or the organisation. Another important point
during the initial screening phase is to identify a salary range. Most candidates are
concerned about their salaries, and while a job opening may sound exciting, a low
salary may preclude an organisation from obtaining excellent talent. During this phase,
if proper HRM activities have been conducted, there should be no need to
masquerade the salary. Without the salary, only time and money are wasted.
Completion of application form
! Once the initial screening has been completed, applicants are asked to complete
the organisation's application form. The amount of information required may be
only the applicant's name, address, and telephone number. Some organisations, on
the other hand,
197
may request the completion of a six to ten-page comprehensive personal history

profile. In general terms, the application form gives a synopsis of what applicants
have provide major input to the selection process. Even handwriting analysis (graphology)
been has been used in the attempt to learn more about the candidate - information that will
doing supposedly lead to more effective selection. Valid tests can be extremely valuable tools
during in the selection process. Frequently used psychometric tests in recruitment are MET,
their FIRO-B, Belbin's Team Roles, DISC, Career Anchors, Enneagram etc. Most of
adult the organisations use personality and skill tests to check out the suitability of the
life, candidate.
their
skills, Comprehensive interview .
and
Those individuals who are still viable applicants after the initial screening, application
their
form and required tests are completed, are then given a comprehensive interview. The
accom
applicant may be interviewed by personnel department interviewers, executives
plishm
within the organisation, a potential supervisor or some combination of these.
ents.
The comprehensive interview is designed to probe into areas that cannot be addressed
Emplo
by the application form or tests. These areas usually consist of assessing one's
yment
motivation, ability to work under pressure and ability to 'fit in' with the organisation.
tests
However, this information, too, must be job related. The questions asked and the
Organi topics covered should reflect the specific characteristics of the job and the qualities
sations sought for the job's incumbent Above all, the questions should be structured so that
histori applicants are asked the same questions.
cally
relied Background investigation/ reference checks
to a The next step in the selection process is to undertake an investigation of those
consid applicants who appear to offer potential as employees. This may include contacting
erable former employers to confirm the candidate's work record and to obtain their
extent appraisal of his or her performance, contacting other job-related and personal
on references, and verifying the educational accomplishments shown on the
intellig application.
ence, U
aptitud :
e, The background investigation has major implications. Every personnel administrator

ability, has the responsibility to investigate each potential applicant. Many managers
and consider the background investigation data highly biased. Who would actually list a
interest reference that would not give anything but the best possible recommendation?
tests to The seasoned personnel
Unit 10 Recruitment and Selection passed
to
administrator expects this and delves deeper into the candidate's background. But anyone
that, too, may not prove to be beneficial. Many past employers are reluctant to else,
give any information to another company other than factual information (e.g., dates of includi
employment). ng the
candid
Reference checks are most effective if a job description and person specification ate.
are included with the request together with structured relevant questions that could They
provide the panel with further information about the candidate's relative abilities. may be
References are confidential to the members of the appointment panel and should not be called
as legal
evidence in any allegation of discrimination. References need to be treated with
some caution by the panel, as they have the potential to be indirectly discriminatory
due to the possible prejudices of the referees. References which have been received
are normally considered by the panel following the interviews, to confirm choice of
candidate.
Physical examination
The last step prior to the final selection decision may consist of having the applicant
take a physical examination. For most jobs, this is a screening device in the selection
process; that is, it can only act negatively on the applicant. It is assumed that the
applicant can pass the physical examination; however, it is intended to screen out
those individuals who are unable to comply physically with the requirements of the job
and the organisation.
Final employment decision
Those individuals who perform successfully on the employment tests and the
comprehensive interview and are not eliminated by the development of negative
information on either the background investigation or the physical examination, are
now considered to be eligible to receive an offer of employment. For administrative
purposes, the offer should be made by the personnel department. But their role should
be only administrative. The actual hiring decision should be made by the manager in
the department that had the position open. While this might not be the situation in all
organisations, the manager of the department should have this authority. First of all,
the applicant will eventually work for this manager and therefore a good 'fit' between
the boss and the employee is necessary. Second, if the decision made is not correct,
the hiring manger has no one else to blame.
Is there anything management can do at this stage to increase the probability that
the individual to whom an offer is made will accept? Assuming that the organisation
has not lost sight throughout the process of selection's dual objective-evaluation and
attraction -we can expect that the potential employee has a solid understanding of
the job being offered and what it would be like to work for the organisation. Yet it might
be of interest at
199
this point to review what we know about how people choose a job. This subject
-job choice-represents personnel selection from the perspective of the potential
employee rather than the organisation.
* .
i
Research indicates that people gravitate towards jobs that are compatible with their
personal orientation. Individuals appear to move towards matching their work with the
personality. Management can expect a greater proportion of acceptances if it has
properly matched the candidate's personality to the job.
Most job choice studies indicate that an individual's perception of the attractiveness
of a job is important. People desire to work where their expectations are positive
and where they believe their goals can be achieved. This, coupled with the previous
research, should encourage management to ensure that those to whom offers are
made can see that the job is compatible with their personality and goals.
Before we leave this last step in the selection process - the final employment decision -
we should not hesitate to ask, what about those applicants to whom we did not
make an offer? We argue that those involved in the selection process should carefully
consider how rejected candidates are treated. What is communicated and how it is
communicated will have a central bearing on the image that the rejected candidate will
have of the organisation and that image may be carried for a lifetime. The young
college graduate, rejected for a position by a major computer manufacturer may a
decade later be the influential decision maker for his or her current employer's
computer purchase. The image formed many years earlier may play a key part in
the decision.
J&Z Activity D :
.*•
a) Write down the seven steps in the selection process.
b) Write down two ways in which reference checks can be used to benefit the
organisation.
11.1 INTRODUCTION
Performance appraisal programs are among the most helpful tools an organisation can use
to maintain and enhance productivity and facilitate progress towards strategic goals. While
focus here is mainly on formal performance appraisal, appraisal can be informal as well.
All managers monitor the way employees work and assess how this matches organisational
needs. They form impressions about the relative value of employees to the organisation
and seek to maximize the contribution of every individual. Yet while these ongoing informal
processes are vitally important, most organisations also have a formal performance appraisal
once or twice a year. The success or failure of a performance appraisal program depends
on the philosophy underlying it, its connection with business goals, and the attitudes and
skills of those responsible for its administration. It might seem at first glance that performance
appraisals are used for a rather narrow purpose - to evaluate who is doing a good job (or
not). But in reality performance appraisals are one of the most versatile tools useful to the
employees and the organisation.
Uses of Performance Appraisal
The uses are as follows: Assistance in goal identification, identification of individual strengths
and weaknesses, Performance feedback, recognition of individual performance,
determination of promotion, evaluation of goal achievement, identification of individual
training needs, determination of organisational training needs and salary administration
Failure of a Performance Appraisal Program
In actual practice, and for a number of reasons, formal performance appraisal programs
sometimes yield disappointing results. List below shows the reasons.
Reasons Performance Appraisals Can Fail
• Manager lacks information connecting an employee's actual performance.

• Standards by which to evaluate an employee's performance are unclear.
• Manager does not take the appraisal seriously. V
**
• Manager is not prepared for the appraisal review with the employee.
• Manager is not honest/sincere during the evaluation.
• Appraiser lacks appraisal skills.
• Employee does not receive ongoing performance feedback.
204
Umi 11 Performance Appraisal, Feedback and Reward Systems
• T
here is
• Insufficient resources are provided to reward performance.
ineffective discussion of employee development.
• Manager uses unclear/ambiguous language in the evaluation process.
Performance appraisal in many organisations is a once-a-year activity in which

interview becomes a source of friction for both managers and employees. One of the
main concerns of employees is the fairness of the performance appraisal system,
since the process is central to so many HRM decisions. Employees may view
compliance with the appraisal system as perfunctory and thus play only a passive
role during the interview process. By addressing these employee concerns during
the planning stage of the appraisal process, the organisation will help the appraisal
program to succeed in reaching its goals.
Developing an Effective Appraisal Program
j The HR department ordinarily has the primary responsibility for overseeing and
coordinating the appraisal program. Managers from the operating departments must
also be actively I involved, particularly in helping to establish the objectives for the
program. Furthermore, j employees are more likely to accept and be satisfied with the
performance appraisal program j when they have the chance to participate in its
development.
Performance Standards
'• Before any appraisal is conducted, the standards by which performance is to be

evaluated
I should be clearly defined and communicated to the employee. These standards should
be based on job-related requirements derived from job analysis and reflected in
the job descriptions and job specifications. When performance standards are properly
established,
; they help translate organisational goals and objectives into job requirements that
convey
I acceptable and unacceptable levels of performance to employees.
1 There are four basic considerations in establishing performance standards:

Strategic ] relevance, criterion deficiency, criterion contamination and reliability.
Strategic Relevance
Strategic relevance refers to the extent to which standards relate to the strategic
objectives of the organisation. For example, if a TQM program has established a
standard that "95 percent of all customer complaints are to be resolved in one day,"
then it is relevant for the customer service representatives to use such a standard for
their evaluations.
205
Criterion Deficiency
A second consideration in establishing performance standards is the extent to which
the standards capture the entire range of an employee's responsibilities. When
performance standards focus on a single criterion (e.g., sales revenues) to the exclusion of
other important but less quantifiable performance dimensions (e.g., customer service),
then the appraisal system is said to suffer from criterion deficiency.
Criterion Contamination
Just as performance criteria can be deficient, they can also be contaminated. There are
factors outside an employee's control that can influence his or her performance. A
comparison of performance of production workers, for example, should not be contaminated
by the fact that some have newer machines than others do. A comparison of performance
of travelling salespeople should not be contaminated by the fact that territories differ
in sales potential.
Reliability
J b)
Reliability refers to the stability or consistency of a standard, or the extent to which individuals
tend to maintain a certain level of performance over time. In rating, reliability may be
measured by correlating two sets of ratings made by a single rater or by two
different rates. For example, two managers may rate the same individual and estimate
his or her suitability for a promotion. Their ratings could be compared to determine interrater
reliability,
Performance standards will permit managers to specify and communicate precise

information to employees regarding quality and quantity of output. Therefore,
when performance standards are written, they should be defined quantifiable in
measurable terms. For example, "ability and willingness to handle customer orders"
is not as good as performance standard as "all customer orders will be filled in four
hours with a 98 percent accuracy rate". When standards are expressed in specific,
measurable terms, comparing the employee's performance against the standard results
in a more justifiable appraisal.
Operating guidelines of Performance Appraisals r
Performance ratings must be job-related, with performance standards developed

through job analysis.
• Employees must be given a written copy of their job standards in advance of appraisals
206
Criterion Deficiency
A second consideration in establishing performance standards is the extent to which the
standards capture the entire range of an employee's responsibilities. When performance
standards focus on a single criterion (e.g., sales revenues) to the exclusion of other important
but less quantifiable performance dimensions (e.g., customer service), then the appraisal
system is said to suffer from criterion deficiency.
Criterion Contamination
Just as performance criteria can be deficient, they can also be contaminated. There are
factors outside an employee's control that can influence his or her performance. A
comparison of performance of production workers, for example, should not be contaminated
by the fact that some have newer machines than others do. A comparison of performance
of travelling salespeople should not be contaminated by the fact that territories differ in
sales potential.
Reliability
Reliability refers to the stability or consistency of a standard, or the extent to which individuals
b)
tend to maintain a certain level of performance over time. In rating, reliability may be
measured by correlating two sets of ratings made by a single rater or by two
different rates. For example, two managers may rate the same individual and estimate
his or her suitability for a promotion. Their ratings could be compared to determine interrater
reliability.
Performance standards will permit managers to specify and communicate precise
information to employees regarding quality and quantity of output. Therefore, when
performance standards are written, they should be defined quantifiable in measurable terms.
For example, "ability and willingness to handle customer orders" is not as good as
performance standard as "all customer orders will be filled in four hours with a 98 percent
accuracy rate". When standards are expressed in specific, measurable terms, comparing
the employee's performance against the standard results in a more justifiable appraisal.
Operating guidelines of Performance Appraisals

Performance ratings must be job-related, with performance standards developed through
job analysis.
• Employees must be given a written copy of their job standards in advance of appraisals.
206
r
Unit 11 Performance Appraisal, Feedback and Reward Systems M
an
ag
* Managers who conduct the appraisal must be able to observe the behavior they are eri
rating. This implies having a measurable standard with which to compare employee al
•* behaviour an
,-14 d/o
* Supervisors should be trained to use the appraisal form correctly. They should be r
instructed in how to apply appraisal standards when making judgments. su
per
i Appraisals should be discussed openly with employees and counselling or corrective guidance vis
offered to help poor performers improve their performance. ora
l
* Activity A: ap
pra
! a) Write down two reasons for the failure of performance appraisal programs.
isa
l
has
be
en
the
tra
What are the operating guidelines of Performance Appraisal programs?
diti
on
al
ap
pro
ac
h
to
11.2 TYPES OF PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL________________________ ev
Who should appraise performance? alu
ate
1 lust as, there are multiple standards to evaluate performance, there are also multiple I an
candidates for appraising performance. Given the complexity of today's jobs, it is often I em
unrealistic to presume that one person can fully observe and evaluate an employee's 1 plo
performance. Raters may include supervisors, peers, team members, self, subordinates ye
1andcustomers. e's
per
Manager/Supervisor Appraisal for
ma
nce. In most instances, supervisors are in the best position to perform
207
this function, although managers often complain that they do not have the time to fully
observe the performance of employees. These managers must then rely on performance
records to evaluate an employee's performance. If reliable and valid measures are
not available, the appraisal may be less than accurate. (Recall earlier discussion of
criterion deficiency and contamination.) Where a supervisor appraises employees
independently, provision is often made for a review of the appraisals by the supervisor's
superior which reduces the chance of superficial or biased evaluations.
SelfAppraisal
The self-appraisal is beneficial when managers seek to increase an employee's

involvement in the review process. A self-appraisal system requires an employee to
complete the appraisal form prior to the performance interview. During the performance
interview, the manager and the employee discuss job performance and agree on a final
appraisal. Critics of self-appraisal argue that self-raters are more lenient than managers in
their assessments and tend to present themselves in a highly favourable light. For this
reason, self-appraisals may be best for developmental purposes rather than for
administrative decisions. Used in conjunction with other methods, self-appraisals can
be a valuable source of appraisal information.
Peer Appraisal
Individuals of equal rank who work together are increasingly asked to evaluate each other,
A peer appraisal provides information that differs to some degree from ratings by a Pros
superior, since peers often see different dimensions of performance. Peers can
readily identify leadership and interpersonal skills along with other strengths and
weaknesses of their co-workers. One advantage of peer appraisals is the belief that
they furnish more accurate and valid information than appraisals by superiors. Despite
the evidence that peer appraisals are possibly the most accurate method of judging
employee behaviour, there are reasons why they have not been used more frequently.
The reasons are: Peer ratings are simply a popularity contest, managers are reluctant to
give up control over the appraisal process. those receiving low ratings might retaliate Cons
against their peers, and peers rely on stereotypes in ratings.
Customer Appraisal
Also driven by TQM concerns, an increasing number of organisations use internal

and external customer appraisal as a source of performance appraisal information.
External customers' evaluations, of course, have been used for sometime to appraise
restaurant personnel. Managers establish customer service measures (CSMs) and
get goals for
Unit 11 Performance Appraisal, Feedback and Reward Systems
employees (linked to company goals). Often the CSM goals are linked to employee pay
through incentive programs. Customer survey data are then incorporated into the
performance evaluation.
In contrast to external customers, internal customers include anyone inside the organisation
who depends upon an employee's work output. For example, managers who rely on the
HR department for selection and training services would be candidates for conducting
internal customer evaluations of that department. For both developmental and administrative
purposes, internal customers can provide extremely useful feedback about the value added
by an employee or team of employees.
360 Degree Appraisal

As mentioned earlier, many companies are combining various sources of performance
appraisal information to create 360 degree appraisal and feedback systems. Jobs are
multifaceted, and different people see different things. As the name implies, 360-degree
feedback is intended to provide employees with as accurate a view of their performance
as possible by getting input from all angles: supervisors, peers, subordinates, customers
and the like. Although in the beginning, 360 degree systems were purely developmental
and were restricted mainly to management and career development, they have migrated to
performance appraisal and other administrative applications. A list of pros and cons of
360 degree appraisal is given below.
Pros
The system is more comprehensive in that responses are gathered from multiple perspectives,
quality of information better. Quality of respondents is more important than quantity, it
; complements TQM initiatives by emphasising internal/external customers and teams, it
i may lessen bias/prejudice since feedback comes from more people, and not one individual,
i feedback from peers and others may increase employee self-development.
'ons
The system is complex in combining all the responses, feedback can be intimidating
and cause resentment if employee feels the respondents have "ganged up", there may be
conflicting opinions, though they may all be accurate from the respective
standpoints, the system require training to work effectively, employees may collude or
"game" the system by giving invalid evaluations to one another and appraisers may not be
accountable if their evaluations are anonymous. If an organisation starts with only
developmental feedback - not tied to compensation, promotions, and the like -
employees will become accustomed to the process and will likely value the input they get
from various parties.
209
Following safeguards need to be observed to ensure its maximum quality and acceptance:
assure anonymity, make respondents accountable, prevent 'gaming' of the system, use
statistical procedures, identify and quantify biases. Based on the experiences of companies, it
appears as though 360 degree feedback can provide a valuable approach to performance
appraisal. Its success, as with any appraisal technique, depends on how managers use the
information and how fairly employees are treated.
& Activity B;
a) Write down one point of difference between self, subordinate, customer and peer
performance appraisal.
b) Write down two pros and cons of 360 degree performance appraisal.
11.3 ELIMINATING RATER ERRORS (SUBJECTIVITY)______________

Appraisal training should focus on eliminating the subjective errors made by managers in
the rating process.
f
With any rating method, certain types of errors can arise that should be considered. The
"halo error" where excessive weightage is given on certain point of interest to the rater, is
also common with respect to rating scales, especially those that do not include carefully
developed descriptions of the employee behaviours being rated. Provision for comments
on the rating form tends to reduce halo error.
Some types of rating errors are distributional errors in that they involve a group of ratings
given across various employees. For example, raters who are reluctant to assign either
extremely high or extremely low ratings commit the error of central tendency. In this case,
all employees are rated about average. To such raters it is a good idea to explain that,
among large numbers of employees, one should expect to find significant differences in
behaviour, productivity, and other characteristics.
In contrast to central tendency errors, it is also common for some raters to give usually
high or low ratings. For example, a manager may erroneously assert, "All my employees
are excellent" or "None of my people are good enough." These beliefs give rise to what is
called leniency or strictness error. One way to reduce this error is to clearly define the
characteristics or dimensions of performance and to provide meaningful descriptions of
behaviour, known as "anchors," on the scale. Another approach is to require ratings to
confirm to a forced distribution. Managers appraising employees under a forced-distribution
system are required to place a certain percentage of employees into various performance
categories. For example, it may be required that 10 percent of ratings be poor (or excellent).
Hoover, while forced distributions may solve leniency and strictness error, it may create
otk rrors in the accuracy of ratings particularly if most employees are performing above
standard.
Some rating errors are temporal in that the performance review is biased either favorably
or unfavourably, depending on the way performance information is selected, evaluated,
and organised by the rater over time. For example, when the appraisal is based largely on
the employee's recent behaviour, good or bad, the rater has committed the recency error.
Managers who give higher ratings because they believe an employee is "showing
improvement", may unwittingly be committing recency error. Without-record documentation
, forthe entire appraisal period, the rater is forced to recall recent employee behaviour to
I establish the rating. Having the rater, routinely document, employee accomplishments and
• failures throughout the whole appraisal period can minimise the recency error. Rater training
i also will help reduce this error.
i Contrast error occurs when an employee's evaluation is based either upward or downward
j because of another employee's performance, evaluated just previously. For example, an
| average employee may appear especially productive when compared with a poor performer.
However, that same employee may appear unproductive when compared with a star
J performer. Contrast errors are most likely when raters are required to rank employees in
order from the best to the poorest. Employees are evaluated against one another, usually
| on the basis of some organisational standard or guideline. For example, they may be '
compared on the basis of their ability to meet production standards or either 'overall' j
ability to perform their job. As with other types of rating error, contrast error can be
reduced through training that focuses on using objective standards and behavioural anchors j
to appraise performance.
Human Resource Development & Training i
I
Similar-to-me error occurs when appraisers inflate the evaluations of people with whom
they have something in common. For example, if both the manager and the employee are
from small towns, the manager may unwittingly have a more favourable impression of the
employee. The effects of a similar-to-me error can be powerful and when the similarity is
based on race, region, gender, or some other protected category, it may result in
discrimination.
Organisations may have formal training programs to reduce the subjective errors commonly
made during the rating process. This training can pay off, particularly when participants
have the opportunity to:
• observe other managers making errors
• actively participate in discovering their own errors

• practice job-related tasks to reduce the errors they tend to make
Feedback Training . I
Finally, a training program for raters should provide some general points to consider for
planning and conducting the feedback interview. The interview not only provides employees
with knowledge of results of their evaluation, but it allows the manager and employee to
discuss current problems and set future goals.
Training in specific skills should cover at least three basic areas:
• communicating effectively
• diagnosing the root causes of performance problems and
• setting goals and objectives
A checklist can be used to assist supervisors in preparing for the appraisal interview. A
checklist is shown in table 11.1. The checklist reflects the growing tendency of organisations
to have employees assess their own performance prior to the appraisal interview. The
performance appraisal interview will be discussed in details later.
Table 11.1: Checklist for the feedback interview
Scheduling
170. Schedule the review and notify the employee ten days or two weeks in
advance.
171. Ask the employee to prepare for the session by reviewing his or her
performance,
job objectives and development goals.
'reparing for the Review

172. Review the performance documentation collected throughout the year.
Concentrate
on work patterns that have developed.
173. When performance falls short of expectations, determine what changes need to
be
made. If performance meets or exceeds expectations, discuss this and plan how to
reinforce it.
174. After the appraisal is written, set it aside for a few days and then review it
again.
Conducting the Review

175. Select a location that is comfortable and free of distractions. The location should
encourage a frank and candid conversation.
176. Discuss each point in the appraisal one at a time, considering both strengths
and
shortcomings.
177. Be specific and descriptive, not general and judgmental. Report occurrences
rather
than evaluating them.
178. Discuss your differences and resolve them. Solicit agreement with the
evaluation.
179. Jointly discuss and design plans for taking corrective action growth and
development
Âctivity C;
a) Write down one point of difference between halo effect, central tendency and contrast
error.
b) What are the three areas in which the feedback training should focus
on?
11.4 PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL METHODS

Since the early years of their use, methods of evaluating personnel have
evolved considerably. Old systems have been replaced by new methods that
reflect technical improvements and are more consistent with the purposes of
appraisal. Performance appraisal methods can be broadly classified as
measuring traits, behaviours or results. Trait approaches continue to be the more
popular systems despite their inherent subjectivity. Behavioural approaches
provide more action-oriented information to employees and therefore may be
best for development. The results-oriented approach is gaining popularity because
it focuses on the measurable contributions that employees make to the organisation.
Trait Method
1
Trait approaches to performance appraisal are designed to measure the extent to

which an
employee possesses certain characteristics - such as dependability, creativity,
initiative,
and leadership - that are viewed as important for the job and the organisation in
general,
The fact that trait methods are the most popular is due in large part to the ease
with which
they are developed. However, if not designed carefully on the basis of job
analysis, trait
appraisals can be notoriously biased and subjective.
•
Graphic Rating Scales

*
In the graphic rating-scale method, each trait or characteristic to be rated, is

represented by a scale on which a rater indicates the degree to which an
employee possesses that trait or characteristics. There are many variations of
the graphic rating scale. The differences are to be found in the characteristics
or dimensions on which individuals are rated, the degree to which the
performance dimension is defined for the rater and how clearly the points on the
scale Subjectivity bias is reduced somewhat when the dimensions on the scale and the
are scale points are defined as precisely as possible. This can be achieved by training
defin raters and by including descriptive appraisal guidelines in a performance a
ed. reference packet.
Unit11 Performance Appraisal, Feedback and Reward Systems
Mued-Standard Scales
*sri^
|fcriM<ktandariac^^
wjwv uaii. i nese descnptions reflect three levelsoCtjexfoxve^^^.^^ÔT, w«i^|o,

ana mMr. ^SrXerthe rnree descriptions for each trait are written, they are randomly
sequenced to form the mixed-standard scale. Supervisors evaluate
employeesj>yandi^ê^^^' ft- better tflan, equal to, or worse than the standard for
each behaviour.
Forced Choice Method

The forced-choice method requires the rater to choose from statements, often in
pairs, that appear equally favorable or equally unfavourable. The statements,
however, are designed to distinguish between successful and unsuccessful
performance. The rater selects one statement from the pair without, knowing which
statement correctly describes successful job behaviour. For example, forced-choice
pairs might include the following:
a) Works hard
. b) Works quickly
2. _____a) Shows initiative
. b) is responsive to customers
3, _____a) Produces poor quality
. b) Lacks good work habits
The forced-choice method is not without limitations, the primary one being the metho
cost of establishing and maintains its validity. The fact that it has been a source of ds
frustration to many raters, has sometimes caused the method to be eliminated have
from appraisal programs. n addition, it cannot be used as effectively as some of been
the other methods to help achieve the commonly held objective of using develo
appraisals as a tool for developing employees by such means as the appraisal ped to
interview. specifi
cally
Behavioural Method descri
be
As mentioned above, one of the potential drawbacks of a trait-oriented
which
performance appraisal is that traits tend to be vague and subjective. We
action
discussed earlier that one way to improve a rating scale is to have descriptions of
s
behaviour along a scale, or continuum. These descriptions permit the rater to readily
shoul
identify the point where a particular employee falls on the scale. Behavioural
d (or should not) be exhibited on the job. They are frequently more useful for
pimiding employees with developmental feedback.
21 5
Critical Incident Method
The Critical incident occurs when employee behaviour results in unusual success or unusual
failure in some part of the job. One advantage of the critical incident method is that it
covers the entire appraisal period (and therefore may guard against recency error). As the
behavioural incidents are specific, they can facilitate employee feedback and development
However, unless both favourable and unfavourable incidents are discussed, employees
who are appraised may have negative feelings about this method.
Behavioural Checklist Method
One of the oldest appraisal techniques is the behavioural checklist method. It consists of
having the rater check those statements on a list that the rater believes are characteristics
of the employee's performance or behaviour. A checklist developed for computer sales
persons might include a number of statements like the following:
• Is able to explain equipment clearly 3.

• Keeps abreast of new developments in technology 4.
• Tends to be a steady worker 5.

6.
• Reacts quickly to customer needs
7.
• Processes orders correctly
8.
Behavioural Anchored Rating Scales (BARS)
A behaviourally anchored rating scales (BARS) consists of a series of five to ten vertical
scales - one for each important dimension performance identified through job analysis.
These dimensions are anchored by behaviours identified through a critical incident job
analysis. The critical incidents are placed along the scale and are assigned point values
according to the opinions of experts.
Behaviour Observation Scales (BOS)
A behaviour observation scales (BOS) is similar to BARS in that they are both based on
critical incidents. However, rather than asking the evaluator to choose the most representative
behavioural anchor, a BOS is designed to measure how frequently each of the behaviours
has been observed. Companies frequently prefer it over the BARS or trait scales for
maintaining objectivity, distinguishing good from poor performers, providing feedback,
and identifying training needs.
216
Unit 11 Performance Appraisal, Feedback and Reward Systems Instructi
ons:
Please
Samples Items from Behaviour Observation Scales
consider the Sales Representative's behaviour on the job in the past rating period. Read each
statement carefully and then circle the number that indicates the extent of which the employee has
demonstrated this effective or ineffective behaviour. For each behaviour observed, use the following
scale:
5 represents almost always 4 represents frequently 3 represents sometimes

2 represents seldom 1 represents almost never.
Sales Productivity Almost Almost
Never Always
1. Reviews individual productivity results with Manager 1 2 3 4 5
2. Suggests to peers ways of building sales 1 2 3 4 5
3. Formulates specific objectives for each contact 1 2 3 4 5
4. Focuses on product rather than customer problem 1 2 3 4 5
5. Keeps account plans updated 1 2 3 4 5
6. Keeps customer waiting for service 1 2 3 4 5
7. Anticipates and prepares for customer concerns 1 2 3 4 5
8. Follow up on customer leads 1 2 3 4 5
Results Method
There are a number of result measures available to evaluate performance. Sales people are
evaluated on the basis of their sales volume (both the number of units sold and the dollar amount in
revenues). Production workers are evaluated on the basis of the number of units they produce and
perhaps the scrap rate or number of defects that are detected. Executives are frequently evaluated on
the basis of company profits or growth rate. Each of these measures directly links what employees
accomplish and results that benefit the organisation. In this way, results appraisals can directly align
employee and organisational
But there are some problems with results appraisals. First, recall earlier discussion of criteria
contamination. Results appraisals may be contaminated by external factors that employees cannot
influence. Sales representatives who have extremely bad markets or production employees who
cannot get the materials will not be able to perform up to their
217
abilities. It may be unfair to hold these employees accountable for results that are
contaminated by circumstances beyond their control. Furthermore, results appraisals may
inadvertently encourage employees to "look good" on a short-term basis, while ignoring the long-
term ramifications. Line supervisors, for example, may let their equipment suffer to reduce
maintenance costs. If the appraisal focuses on a narrow set of results criteria to the exclusion of
other important process issues, the system may suffer from criterion deficiency and may
unintentionally foster the attitude that" what gets measured gets done." In fact, in any job involving
interaction with others, it is not enough to simply look at production or sales figures. Factors such as
co-operation, adaptability, initiative, and concern for human relations may be important to job
success. If these factors are important job standards, they should be added to the appraisal review.
Thus, to be realistic, both the results and the methods or processes used to achieve them should be
considered.
Management by Objectives (MBO)
One method that attempts to overcome some of the limitations of results appraisals is
management by objectives (MBO). MBO is a philosophy of management that has employees
establish objectives (e.g., production costs, sales per product, quality standards, profits) through
consultation with their superiors and then use these objectives as a basis of evaluation. MBO is a
system involving a cycle that begins with setting the organisation's common goals and objectives and
ultimately returns to the step. The system acts as a goal- setting process whereby objectives are
established for the organisation (step 1), department (step 2), and individual managers and
employees (step 3).
A significant feature of the cycle is the establishment of specific goals by the employees, but those
goals are based on a broad statement of employee responsibilities prepared by the supervisor.
Employee-established goals are discussed with the supervisor and jointly reviewed and modified until
both parties are satisfied with them (step 4). The goal statements are accompanied by a detailed account
of the actions, the employee proposes to take in order to reach the goals. During periodic reviews,
as objective data are made available, the progress that the employees is making towards the goals
is then assessed (step 5), Goals may be changed at this time as new or additional data are received. At
the conclusion of a period of time (usually six months or one year), the employee makes a self-
appraisal of what he has accomplished, substantiating the self-appraisal with factual data wherever
possible. The "interview" is an examination of the employee's self-appraisal by the superior and the
employee together (step 6). The final step (step 7) is reviewing the connection between individual
and organisational performance.
To ensure success, MBO programs should be viewed as part of a total system of managing, not merely
an addition to the manager's job. Managers must be willing to empower
employees to accomplish the objectives on their own, giving them discretion over the
methods they use (but holding them accountable for outcomes).
Which Performance Appraisal Method to use?

The choice of method should be based largely on the purpose of the appraisal. Table 11.2
lists some of the strengths and weaknesses of trait, behaviour, and results approaches to
appraisal. Note that the simplest and least expensive techniques often yield the least-
accurate information. However, research has not always supported a clear choice among
appraisal methods. While HR managers generally believe that the more sophisticated and
more time-consuming methods offer more useful information, this may not always be the
case. Managers must make cost-benefit decisions about which methods to use.
Table 11.2 : Summary of various Appraisal Methods
Advantages Disadvantages
Trait Methods 180. Are inexpensive to 183. Have high potential

rating develop for
181. Use meaningful errors
dimensions 184. Are not useful for
182. Are easy to use employee
counseling
185. Are not useful for
allocating
rewards
186. Are not useful for
promotion decisions
187.
Behavioural 188. Use specific performance 192. Can be time-consuming

Methods 189. Are acceptable to to
employees develop/use
and superiors 193. Can be costly to develop
190. Are useful for providing 194. Have some potential for
feedback rating error
191. Are fair for reward and
promotion decisions
195.
Results 196. Have less subjectivity bias 201. Are time-consuming to

Methods 197. Are acceptable to develop/use
employees and superiors 202. May encourage short-
198. Link individual performance term
to organisational performance perspective
199. Encourage mutual goal setting 203. Many use contaminated
200. Are good for reward and criteria
promotion decisions 204. May use deficient criteria
21
9
220 velopment & Training

JB$ ales and mixed standard scale.
Activi
ty D;
a)
W
rit
e b) Write down one point of difference between BARS and BOS.
d
o
w
n
o
n
e
p 11.5 REWARD SYSTEMS_______________________
oi Organisational rewards are powerful incentives for improving employee and work
nt group performance. HRD traditionally has relied on intrinsic rewards, such as
of enriched jobs and opportunities for decision making, to motivate employee
di performance. HRD practitioners have expanded their focus to include extrinsic
ff rewards: pay various incentives, such as stock options, bonuses, and gain sharing;
er promotions; and benefits. They have discovered that both intrinsic and extrinsic
e rewards can enhance performance and satisfaction. Many features of reward
n systems contribute to both employee fulfillment and organisational effectiveness.
ce How rewards affect individual and group performance have been discussed further.
in
gr How Rewards Affect Performance?
a
p Considerable research has been done on how rewards affect individual and
group performance. The most popular model describing this relationship is value
hi
expectancy theory. The value expectancy model says that employees will expend
c
effort to achieve performance goals that they believe will lead to outcomes that they
ra
value. This effort will result in the desired performance goals if the goals are realistic, if
ti
employees fully understand what is expected of them, and if they have the necessary
n
skills and resources. Ongoing motivation depends on the extent to which attaining
g
the desired performance goals actually results in valued outcomes. Consequently, key
sc
objectives of reward systems interventions
Unit 11 Performance Appraisal, Feedback and Reward Systems desired
but
also
are to identify the intrinsic and extrinsic outcomes (rewards) that are highly valued
availab
and to link them to the achievement of desired performance goals.
-' *
le. Too
Based on value expectancy theory, the ability of rewards to motivate desired little of
behaviour depends on these six factors. a
desired
• Availability - For rewards to reinforce desired performance, they must be not reward
only is no
reward at all. For
example, pay increases are often highly desired but unavailable.
• Timeliness - Like effective performance feed back, rewards should be given
in a
timely manner.
t Performance contingency - Rewards should be closely linked with
particular performances. If the goal is met, the reward is given; if the target
is missed, the reward is reduced or not given. The clearer the linkage between
performance and rewards, the better able rewards are to motivate desired
behaviour.
» Durability - Some rewards last longer than others. Intrinsic rewards, such as
increased autonomy and pride in workmanship, tend to last longer than extrinsic
rewards. Most people who have received a salary increase realise that it gets
spent rather quickly.
Equity - Satisfaction and motivation can be unproved when employees' believe
that the pay policies of the organisation are equitable or fair. Internal equity
concerns comparison of personal rewards to those holding similar jobs or
performing similarly in the organisation. External equity concerns comparison
of rewards with those of other organisations in the same market. When an
organisation's reward level does not compare favourably with the level of other
organisations, employees are likely to feel inequitably rewarded.
Visibility - To leverage a reward system, it must be visible. Organisation

members
must be able to see who is getting the rewards. Visible rewards, such as
placement on a high-status project, promotion to a new job and increased
authority, send signals to employees that rewards are available, timely and
performance contingent.
Reward systems interventions are used to elicit and maintain desired levels of
performance. To the extent that rewards are available, durable, equitable, timely, visible,
and performance contingent, they can support and reinforce organisational goals, work
designs, and employee involvement. The next sections describe three types of
rewards - pay, fringe benefits and
promotions.
221
& Activity E;
a) Write down the rationale behind the value expectancy model.
b) Write down two factors on which the ability of rewards to motivate desired
behaviour depends.
11.6 INNOVATIVE PAY SCHEMES

Interest has grown now in using various forms of pay to improve employee
satisfaction and increase both individual and organisational performance. This has
resulted in a number of innovative pay schemes, including skill-based pay, all-
salaried workforce, lump-sum salary increases, performance-based pay and gain
sharing.
Skill-based pay plans
i
Traditionally, organisations design pay systems by evaluating jobs. The characteristics
of a particular job are determined, and pay is made comparable to what other
organisations pay for jobs with similar characteristics. This job evaluating method
tends to result in pay systems with high external and internal equity. However, it fails to
reward employees for all of the skills that they have, discourages people from
learning new skills and results in a view of pay as an entitlement.
Skill-based pay systems have a number of benefits. They contribute to

organisational effectiveness by providing a more flexible workforce and by giving
employees abroad perspective on how the entire plant operates. This flexibility can
result in leaner staffing and fewer problems with absenteeism, turnover and work
disruptions. Skill-based pay can lead to durable employee satisfaction by
reinforcing individual development and by producing an equitable wage rate.
Unit 11 Performance Appraisal, Feedback and Reward Systems are to
learn
and
The drawbacks of skill-based pay schemes are the tendency to "top out" and the lack then
of performance contingency. Top-out occurs when employees learn all the skills there
run up against the top end of the pay scale, with no higher levels to attain. Skill-based
pay systems also require a heavy investment in training, as well as a measurement system
capable of telling when employees have learned the new jobs. They typically
increase direct labour costs, as employees are paid highly for learning multiple tasks.
In addition, because pay is based on skill and not performance, the workforce
could be highly paid and flexible but not productive.
Performance-based pay systems
Organisations have devised many ways of Unking pay to performance, making it the
fastest-growing segment of pay-based reward systems development. Such plans
tend to vary along three dimensions:
i the organisational unit by which performance is measured for reward purposes -
an individual, group or organisation basis;
• the way performance is measured - the subjective measures used in
supervisors' ratings or objective measures of productivity, costs, or profits; and
» what rewards are given for good performance - salary increases, stock or
cash bonuses.
In terms of linking pay to performance, individual pay plans are rated highest,
followed by group plans and then organisation plans. The last two plans score
lower on this factor because pay is not a direct function of individual behaviour. At
the group and organisation levels, an individual's pay is influenced by the behaviour of
others and by external market conditions. Generally, stock and bonus plans tie pay to
performance better than do salary plans. The amount of awarded stock may vary
sharply from year to year, whereas salary increases tend to be more stable because
organisations seldom cut employee's salaries. Finally, objective measures of
performance score higher than subjective measures. Objective measures are more
credible and people are more likely to see the link between pay and objective
measures.
Group- and organisation-based pay plans encourage co-operation among workers

more than do individual plans. Under the former, it is generally to everyone's
advantage to work well together because all share in the financial rewards of
higher performance. The organisation plans also tend to promote cooperation
among functional departments. From an employee's perspective, the least acceptable
pay plans are individual bonus programs. Employees tend to dislike such plans because
they encourage competition among individuals and because they are difficult to
administer fairly.
223
When all criteria are taken into account, however, the best performance-based pay
systems seem to be group and organisation bonus plans that are based on objective
measures of performance and individual salary-increase plans. These plans are
relatively good at linking pay to performance. They have few negative side effects
and at least modest employee acceptance. The group and organisation plans
promote cooperation and should be used where there is high task interdependence
among workers, such as might be found on assembly lines. The individual plan
promotes competition and should be used where there is little required cooperation
among employees, such as in field sales jobs.
Gain Sharing
As the name implies, gain sharing involves paying employees a bonus based
on improvements in the operating results of an organisation. Although not
traditionally associated with employee involvement, gain sharing increasingly has
been included in comprehensive employee involvement projects. Developing a
gain-sharing plan requires making choices about the following design elements:
• Process of design : This factor concerns whether the plan will be
designed
participative or in a top-down manner. As the success of gain sharing depends on
employee acceptance and cooperation, it is recommended that a task force composed
of a cross section of employees design the plan and be trained in gain-sharing concepts
and practice.
• Organisational unit covered: The size of the unit included in the plan can
vary
widely, from departments or plants with less than fifty employees to companies with
several thousand people. Apian covering the entire plant would be ideal in situations
where there is a freestanding plant with good performance measures and an employee
size of less than five hundred. When the number of employees exceed five hundred,
multiple plans may be installed, each covering a relatively discrete part of the company.
• Bonus formula: Gain-sharing plans are based on a formula that generates a
bonus
pool, which is divided among those covered by the plan. Although most plans are
custom-designed, there are two general considerations about the nature of the bonus
formula. First a standard of performance must be developed that can be used as a
baseline for calculating improvements or losses.
• Sharing process: Once the bonus formula is determined, it is necessary to
decide
how to share gains when they are obtained. This decision includes choices about
what percentage of the bonus pool should go to the company and what percentage
to employees. Other decisions about dividing the bonus pool include who will share
in the bonus and how the money will be divided among employees.
Unit 11 Performance Appraisal, Feedback and Reward Systems • Fr
equency of bonus: Most plans calculate a bonus monthly. This typically fits with
organisational recording needs and is frequent enough to spur employee motivation.
• Change management: Organisational changes, such as new technology and

product
mixes, can disrupt the bonus formula. Many plans include a steering committee to
review the plan and to make necessary adjustments, especially in light of significant
organisational changes.
Gain-sharing plans tie the goals of workers to the organisation's goals. It is to the
financial advantage of employees to work harder, to cooperate with each other, to
make suggestions, and to implement improvements. When such plans are implemented
properly, organisations can expect specific improvements.
In general, gain sharing seems to be suited to small organisations with a good

market, simple measures of historical performance, and production costs controllable
by employees. Product and market demand should be relatively stable and
employee-management relations should be open and based on trust. The
workforce should be interested in and knowledgeable about gain sharing and
should be technically proficient in its tasks.
Promotions
Many decisions about promotions and job movements in organisations are made in a
top-down, closed manner; higher-level managers decide whether lower-level
employee will be promoted. This process can be secretive, with people often not
knowing that a position is open, that they are being considered for promotion or the
reasons why some people are promoted but others are not. Without such
information, capable people who might be interested in a new job may be
overlooked. Furthermore, because employees may fail to see the connection
between good performance and promotions, the motivational potential of promotions
is reduced.
Organisations today have tried to reduce the secrecy surrounding promotions and
job changes by openly posting the availability of new jobs and inviting people to
nominate themselves. Although open job posting entails extra administrative
cost, it can lead to better promotion decision. Open posting increases the pool of
available personnel by ensuring that interested people will be considered for new
jobs and that capable people will be identified. Open posting also can increase
employee motivation by showing that a valued reward is available and contingent on
performance.
225
226 Benefits
In addition to pay and promotions, organisations provide a variety of other extrinsic

rewards in the form of benefits, such as paid vacations and health insurance; and still
others have emerged to keep pace with the needs of the changing labour force,
such as educational benefits and creches. Organisations increasingly are using
benefits to attract and retain good employees, to help them better integrate work
with home life, and to improve the quality of work life. These benefits can
translate into economic gains through reduced absenteeism and turnover and
greater organisational commitment and performance.
Examples of some of the more recent trends in benefits include various forms of early
and flexible retirement and pre-retirement counselling to meet the demands of the
graying labour force. Maternity and paternity leaves and child care are designed to
satisfy the needs of dual-career couples and single parents. There has also been
increased attention to providing educational programs, financial services and pension
and investing plans to help employee develop themselves and prepare for secured
futures.
Organisations generally provide equal benefit packages to all employees at

similar organisational levels. Employees are treated essentially the same, with
major differences occurring between hierarchical levels, which therefore tests the equity
criterion. For example, younger workers may want more vacation time, whereas
older employees may desire more retirement benefits. By treating employees the
same, a company spends money for benefits that some people do not value. This also
can lead to employee dissatisfaction and reduced motivation. Finally, benefits cannot
be manipulated during the year and fail to be timely or performance contingent.
Now companies are tailoring benefit plans to employee needs through the use of
cafeteria-style programs. These plans give employees some choice over how they
receive their total fringe-benefit payment. A flexible benefit program can contribute to
employee satisfaction by providing only those benefits that people value. It can
increase organisational effectiveness by making the company an attractive place to
work, thus reducing absenteeism and turnover. The plan also can improve employee
understanding of the firm's benefits. The major drawbacks of the plan include the
extra costs to administer it and the fact that the costs and availability of many fringe
benefits are based on the number of people covered by them.
Reward-System Process Issues
So far, different reward systems and their strengths have been discussed. Process
refers to how pay and other rewards typically are administered in the organisation.
At least two
Unit 11 Performance Appraisal, Feedback and Reward Systems involve
d in
designi
process issues affect employees' perceptions of the reward system; who should be
ng and administering the reward system, and what kind of communication should exist
with respect to rewards.
Traditionally, reward systems are designed by top managers and compensation
specialists and are simply imposed on employees. Although this top-down process
may result in a good system, it cannot ensure that employees will understand and
trust it. In the absence of trust, workers are likely to have negative perceptions of the
reward system. There is a growing evidence that employee participation in the design
and administration of a reward system can increase employee understanding and
can contribute to feelings of control over and commitment to the plan.
It is important to emphasise that both the amount of participation in designing
reward systems and the amount of frankness in communicating about rewards should
fit the rest of the organisation design and managerial philosophy. Clearly, high levels of
participation and openness are congruent with democratic organisations.
# Activity F:
a) Write down the benefits of a skill-based pay plan.
b) Write down the main elements of a gain sharing plan.
11.7 SUMMARY
This unit focuses on the concept and types of performance appraisal and reward
systems. The first part of the unit focuses on the reasons for failure and how a
performance appraisal can be made successful. Giving due highlight to the errors which
can occur in a Performance Appraisal System, it can be used for enhancing
organisational performance.
227
Reward system interventions are elicit and maintain desired performance. They
can be oriented to both individual jobs and work groups and affect both performance
and employee well-being. Three major kinds of reward system interventions are
the design of pay, promotions and benefits.
The more innovative pay plans include skill-based pay, performance-based pay and
gain sharing. Each of the plans has strengths and weaknesses when measured against
criteria of performance contingency, equity, availability, timeliness, durability, and visibility.
Interventions regarding promotions include open posting of jobs and inviting
people to nominate themselves for job openings. Involving peers and subordinates in
promotion decisions can increase the accuracy and equity of such changes. Flexible
benefit programs give employees some discretion in allocating their total benefit
payment The critical process of implementing a reward system involves decisions
about who should be involved in designing and administering it and how much
information about pay should be communicated.
11.8 KEYWORDS_____________________________________________
Behaviour Observation Scales: It is designed to measure how frequently each of
the behaviours has been observed.
Gain Sharing: It involves paying employees a bonus based on improvements in

the operating results of an organisation.
This Method: It is designed to measure the extent to which an employee

possesses certain characteristics such as dependability, creativity, initiative and
leadership. .^
11.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS_______________________________

Q1. Elaborate the parameters for developing an effective performance appraisal
system.
Q2. The appraisal training should focus on eliminating the subjective errors made by
the appraisers in the appraisal process. Explain.
Q3. Which are the different methods of performance appraisal? How to select which
is the best one?
Q4. Write down the details of the innovative pay schemes and how they are beneficial
to the organisation.
12.1 INTRODUCTION -QUALITY OF WORK LIFE (QWL)_____________

In recent times, employers and employees have started realising the importance of
overall development of Human Resource. In spite of the tremendous development in
the areas of technology, marketing and finance, overall organisational situation
cannot be improved unless good Human Resource Development practices are
introduced. Maintaining a traditional personnel department and providing
minimum on-the-job training to the employees is no more sufficient. An over all
development of employees as human resource is stressed upon.
Though monetary benefits still occupy the first place in the list of elements of QWL,
other elements like physical working conditions, job restructuring and job
redesign, career development, promotional opportunities etc. are gaining
importance rapidly. As such the workers expect the management to improve all
these facilities which thereby improve QWL.
By providing good QWL one can eliminate the exploitation, injustice, inequality
oppression and restrictions which temper the continuous growth of human
resource which in turn leads to its overall development.
QWL has its roots in Scientific Management advocated by F.W. Taylor way
back in 1940s. The mechanical approach or quantitative approach that scientific
management assumed, gave way to the frustration of workers, which led to human
relations movement and later socio-technical movement which is the basis by
today's quality of work life. Thus, the evolution of the concept QWL was mainly in
three phases-scientific management, human relations movement and finally socio-
technical movement. The socio-technical system advocates such an organisational
design which ensures high quality of work life. The six psychological requirements
of people which are advocated by Emery and Thorsurd should be taken care of while
designing the organisation. These factors are:
• The need for variety of content of the job (not necessarily novelty).
• The need for being able to learn on-the-job and to go on learning.
• The need for some minimal area of decision-making that the individual can call
his
own.
• The need for some minimal degree of social support and recognition in work
place.
• The need for individual to be able to relate what he does and what he produces to
his
social life.
• The need to feel that the job leads to some sort of desirable future.
X^tOX^Vi ^>» » «J>
Every
organis
ation is an interdependent social and technical system. It is from this notion of socio-
technical system that quality of work life has emerged. Improving Quality of
Work Life was not considered as an important factor in India until recently as there
were more impending factors like resource deficiency, environmental threats and
serious financial problems. Lack of consciousness among employees in this regard
can also be considered as one of the reasons for delayed improvement of QWL.
Though Trade Unions were playing an important role, their negative attitude
towards management did not in any way help the improvement of QWL. In fact, the
workers elected for bipartite committees with an aim to improve QWL were viewed
by unions as their rivals.
There are also differences among the views of managements regarding QWL. Some
have come to a stage, where they see Human Resource as a critical factor in the
developmental process and thus strive to take all steps to improve it. Whereas other
organisations still do not realise the importance of Human Resource. Even if they
realise, the improvement strategies confine themselves to increasing pay scales
and introducing some welfare measures. They ignore the other aspects, i.e. the
higher order needs of the employee. This is so, especially in case of small medium
scale industries in backward States. Whereas large scale industries and multi
nationals are fast realising the need for the improvement of QWL.
The Government's intervention in this regard is minimum. But things are changing for
better, especially after Human Resource Ministry was setup. The Ministry is taking
active steps to implement some of the Human Resource Development
Programmes and QWL improvement programmes.
What is most important in India at this stage is developing consciousness among all
sections of industry, i.e. workers, unions and management. Once these parties view
QWL with a positive approach the improvement programmes can be effectively
planned and implemented as a positive relationship between improved QWL and
increase in worker's satisfaction is almost already established.
Âctivity A;
a) Write down the six psychological requirements of people which are advocated
by Emery and Thorsurd which should be taken care of while designing the
organisation.
233
b) Write down two benefits for improving the QWL of the worker's life.
12.2 MEASURING QWL AND BARRIERS IN QWL

Various criteria are evolved in past two decades to measure quality of work life.
Various researchers who carried on studies in this area came up With various criteria
which are not entirely different from each other. Walton's 8 factors are considered as
most comprehensive criteria for measurement of QWL. Let us critically examine
Walton's 8 factor criteria.
The 8 point criteria of Walton to measure quality of work life include:

• Adequate and fair compensation
• Safe and healthy working conditions
• Opportunity to develop human capacities
• Opportunity for career growth
• Social integration in the work force
• Constitutionalism
• Work and quality of life and
• Social relevance
Adequate and Fair Compensation
In spite of the importance gained by the other factors during last two decades,
the compensation plays a greater role in employee's satisfaction. Especially in a
country like India, where the employee welfare programmes and wellness
programmes take backseat, the compensation is the main source of satisfaction to
the employee.
Compensation package includes all other fringe benefits and social welfare
programmes. Fringe benefits give the employees a feeling of gaining something
extra. Recently, the concepts fringe benefits and social security measures are
gaining importance in Indian
Unit 12 Quality of Work Life and Career Development
industrial scene. Free transportation or transportation at minimum cost, hospital facility,

group insurance programmes, retirement benefits are some of the important welfare
programmes.
What is adequate and fair is another question for discussion. What is adequate at one
place may not be same in the other. Fair wage was defined as"... the wage which is above
the minimum but below the living wage". The levels of fair wages also change depending
upon cost of living. As the cost of living increases, the employees demand for more pay.
Organisations fix pay ranges through different methods. They may fix wages comparing
with other organisations in same region or similar organisations. They may fix taking cost
of living into account. They may also fix pay levels based upon their capacity to pay etc.
But usually while fixing pay, all these factors are considered.
Safe and Healthy working conditions

Physical working conditions are the second most important aspect in measuring QWL.
Employees who spend a lot of time at their work place consider the physical working
conditions as an important factor.
Especially in chemical industries, engineering industries, fertilizer industries etc., where

potential possibility of danger exists. The management has to take extra care to protect its
employees. But most of such industries are covered by Factories Act which prescribes
norms and conditions to be adopted in such industries to protect its employees.
But apart from the above mentioned industries, the others also have to take steps to
maintain proper physical conditions. Proper seating arrangements, water facility, fresh air
and good sanitary conditions are important to the employees who engage themselves in
deskwork. Absence of such good conditions may result in ailments like back pain and
joint pains which in turn frustrates the employee who may develop stress. Physical conditions
at work places which are second home for employees are thus an important factor in
measuring QWL.
Opportunity to Develop Human Capacities
An employee is most satisfied, given an opportunity to use and develop his capabilities.
According to Maslow, people want to satisfy their higher order needs once they satisfy
their basic needs like fair pay and good physical conditions. These high order needs include
recognition and social status.
Human Resource Development & Training ' discussions
with the
More regulations and control mechanism by the employees,
Management may dissatisfy the employee. The calling for
employee who is provided with optimum degree of suggestions
freedom in work can improve himself on the job and forming
which gives him immense satisfaction. Periodic work groups
like 'Quality Circles' help employee in improving his An
capabilities on job. Proper training through various organisation
methods not only at the beginning but from time to time can possess
also helps an employee improve his capabilities which supportive
in turn satisfy him. work groups
and
Opportunity for Career Growth interpersonal
openness in
The employees seek career growth more and more
other words
recently. Job security ceased to satisfy employees.
'Industrial
Employees tend to drift from a job which does not Democracy'
promise career growth. More and more organisations through
are helping employees in these directions by helping establishing
them draw their career paths. The organisation has a 'Work
counsellor for this purpose who helps the employees. Committees' -
which intend
to "promote
Not only drawing career paths, but the organisations measures for
also help employees achieve next position through securing and
training. Organisational chart is so prepared to preserving

accommodate employees in next higher position. comity and
Internal promotion system is gaining importance. The good
employee is prepared to take up a higher position relations
where there is a possibility. between
IS IU UC UUI&11 i*j JIUUA.V j..i ^t-------------------------------------
of human resource in the organisation is maintained
Social Integration in the Work Force

According to Walton, a satisfying ideal and self-esteem
are influenced by 5 characteristics of the work place;
freedom from prejudice, egalitarianism, upward
mobility, supportive work groups and community of
feelings and interpersonal openness.
Freedom from prejudice, egalitarianism and upward

mobility are the steps to be necessarily taken by the
management whereas supportive work groups and
community of feelings and interpersonal openness
are the result of effort from both management and
workers. Though the initiative is to be from the
management, the employees also should give their
complete support and cooperation to make the efforts
of management a success.
Unit 12 Quality of Work Life and The employees
feel a need to
oriented
employer and workmen and! for concern and endeavour
organisation
to matters". Encouraging partial democracy in the
who di
organisation i
recognition in a
Constitutionalism I group are mos
Government or
Bias on part of Management, the constitutionalism of an public on any:
orga factor, i.e., though it may nol absence of it is such social
definitely felt 1 relevance of the
w QWL.
Though employees consider v or discuss their private .. . 's
live.s maintain its employee's privac the Management Barriers to

can offer son employee to find out that this < have an QWL
adverse effect on his I ^
Work and Quality of Life Though the

positive effect of
The very purpose of worker be importance. Satisfactory Q organisation
workc work which utilises the capabi person for right job' still resist to any
is the motl a may feel that
the QWL at the j
Social Relevance of Work
Unit 12 Quality of Work Life and Career Development Work
and
employer and workmen and to that end, to comment upon matters of their Qualit
common interest for concern and endeavour to settle any material differences of y of
opinion in respect of such matters". Encouraging participative management Life
schemes help in establishing industrial democracy in the organisation which in
The
turn encourages social integration in the organisation.
very
Constitutionalism purpos
e of
Bias on part of Management, lack of privacy, improper process of discipline worke
etc. tamper the constitutionalism of an organisation. The constitutionalism can be r being
considered an hygiene factor, i.e., though it may not satisfy or motivate the at
employees considerably, but the absence of it is definitely felt by the employee workp
and may have an adverse effect. lace is
his
Though employees consider workplace their second home they may not want to work.
disclose or discuss their private lives at workplace. As such Management As
should take steps to maintain its employee's privacy unless he himself comes such
out with some problems, where the Management can offer some counseling or work
any other help. It is most dissatisfying to an employee to find out that this itself
colleague is being treated differently from him, which will have an adverse is of
effect on his QWL. great
import
ance. Satisfactory work can influence the employee's QWL immensely.
Achallenging work which utilises the capabilities of employees plays an
important role in QWL. 'Right person for right job' is the motto gaining
importance.
Social Relevance of Work

The employees feel a need to relate their work socially. For example, those in
service-oriented organisation who directly relate their jobs socially and can
gain immediate recognition in a group are most satisfied. If his organisation is
attracted /criticized by the Government or public on any aspect, the employee
develops stress and is frustrated. As such social relevance of the work of each
employee is very important in measuring his QWL.
Barriers to QWL
Though the positive effect of Quality of Work Life is already established, all
parties of the organisation still resist to any schemes or procedure to improve
QWL. The Management may feel that the QWL at the present level is
satisfactory enough and no steps need be
237
taken to improve it. They fail to measure the impact of improved QWL on the b)
psyche of the employee, though all employers basically aspire for satisfaction of
employees.
Employees, on the other hand, resist to changes as discussed earlier, with a pre-
conceived notion that any scheme the management takes up would be to increase
production without extra cost. So as in case of QWL as soon as the
Management plan to form 'Work Committees' , 'Quality Circles' , etc., to
improve quality of work life, the workers start resisting.
Another barrier to the improvement of QWL is lack of financial resources. The

employer with his limited financial resources thinks twice before implementing
training programme, not thinking about QWL improvement programmes.
However, this situation is slowly changing for good. All parties of organisation, i.e.,
employer, employees and unions are realising the importance of QWL. Employers
also are taking up awareness programmes to educate employees in this regard and
then implement QWL improvement programmes.
Strategies for improving quality of work life, are - self-managed work terms, job
redesign and enrichment, effective leadership and supervisory behaviour, career
development, alternative work schedules, job security, administrative or
organisational justice and participating management. All the above steps depict
the importance of management's efforts in this regard. By implementing such
changes, the management can create sense of involvement, commitment and
togetherness among the employees which paves way for better quality of work life.
Employees who are provided with good 'Quality of Work Life' can more and
more concentrate on their development. Good QWL creates such cordial
atmosphere, where Human Resource Development Programmes become easy
and encouraging. A good understanding between employees and management can
be brought out with the help of QWL. More and more attention is to be paid
towards improving Quality of Work Life to form a firm basis for Human Resource
Development.
Activity B ;
a) Write down Walton's 8 factors which are comprehensive factors for measuring QWL.
Unit 12 Quality of Work Life and Career Development 12.3
CAREE
R
b) Write down two barriers to QWL. DEVEL
OPME
NT
The term
career
has a
number of meanings. In popular usage, it can mean advancement in a profession or a lifelong
sequence of jobs. We may define career as "a sequence of positions occupied by a person during the
course of a lifetime". Utilizing this definition, it is apparent that all will have careers. The concept is
relevant to all. Importantly, it does not imply advancement nor success or failure. Any work, pursued
over period of time, can constitute a career.
Individual versus Organisational perspective
The study of careers takes on a very different orientation depending on whether it is viewed from
the perspective of the organisation or the individual.
From an organisation or managerial standpoint, career development involves tracking career paths.
Management seeks information so that it can direct and monitor the progress of employees and
ensure that capable managerial and technical talent be available to meet the organisation's need.
In contrast, individual career development focuses on assisting individuals to identify their major career
goals and to determine what they need to do to achieve these goals. Here, the focus is entirely on the
individual and includes his career outside the organisation as well as inside. So while organisational
career development looks at individuals filling the needs of the organisation, individual career
development addresses each individual's personal work career irrespective of where this work is
performed.
Both of these approaches have value. This chapter blends the interests of both the individual within the
organisation and the organisation itself. However, the primary orientation of human resource
management is towards the interests of the organisation.
239
Career Development versus Employee Development
There are differences between career development and employee or management development.
These have a common element, but there is one distinct difference - their time frame.
Career development looks at the long-term career effectiveness and success of organisational
personnel. In contrast, the kinds of development discussed employee development focus on work
effectiveness or performance in the immediate time frame. These two are closely linked; employee
training and management development effort should be compatible with an individual's career
development in the organisation. But a successful career program should look towards developing
people for the long-term needs of the organisation and be capable of dealing with the dynamic
changes that will take place, over time, in attempting to match individual abilities and aspirations
with the need of the organisation.
The Value of Effective Career Development
Assuming that an organisation already provides extensive employee and management development
programs, why should it need to consider a career development program as well? A long-term career
focus should increase the organisation's effectiveness in managing its human resources. More
specifically, we can identify several positive results that can accrue from a well designed career
development program.
Availability of Talent: Career development efforts are consistent with, and a natural extension of
human resource planning. Changing staff requirements over thie intermediate and long term help
individual employees to identify themselves in human resource planning. Working better resource aligns
their needs and aspirations with those of the organisation. This will increase the probability that the
right people will be available to meet the organisation's changing staffing requirements.
Attract and Retain High-Talent Personnel: Outstanding employees will always be scarce, and
they usually find there is considerable competition to secure their services. Such individuals may
give preference to employers who demonstrate a concern for their employees' future. If already
employed by an organisation that offers career advice, these people may exhibit greater loyalty and
commitment to their employer. As more and more people seek jobs that offer challenge, responsibility
and opportunities for advancement, realistic career planning becomes increasingly necessary. Career
development should result in a better individual-organisation match for such individuals and lead to
low turnover.
Unit 12 Quality of Work Life and Career Development Every
individu
al's
Reduces Employee Frustration: As the educational level of the work force has risen, so has its
career
occupational aspirations. Unfortunately, the recent years were characterized by a slowing of
economic growth and reduced advancement opportunities. The result is increased frustration by has two
employees when they see a significant disparity between their aspirations and actual opportunities. dimensi
Career counselling can result in more realistic employee expectations. ons. One
called
External versus Internal Dimensions to a Career the
external
dimension, is realistic and objective while the other, the internal dimension, represents the individual's
subjective perceptions.
For instance, a supervisor of a factory achieves visible progression, though not necessarily upward. He
gets a higher rating or classification, an increase in pay, greater seniority less physically demanding
work or the opportunity to train new employees. The relevant point is that each of these steps is
objective and explicit.
The internal dimension in a career is a subjective concept of progression. This concept of a career
may be very vague, as when one has the general ambition to "get ahead." Of course, it might also
be a very specific ambition of being a general manager by the age of forty. Importantly, the internal
and external dimensions should equate; that is, one's perceptions align with reality. But the two
frequently diverge.
What is the importance of viewing a career along these two dimensions? We have to recognize that
the major influence on individual's attitudes and behaviour will not be objective reality, but rather their
subjective perception of their career relative to their expectations. Complaining about one's work,
demonstrating strong commitment, exhibiting high motivation, having a number of absences, or resigning
from the organisation are frequently responses to one's subjective perceptions about work and career
development. The actual reality means little.
g> Activity C;
a) Write down the individual and organisational perspective in career development.
241
b) What is the internal versus external dimension in career development?
12.4 CAREER STAGES______________________________________________

The popular way for analysing careers is to look at them as made up of stages. We begin to form our
careers during our school years. Our careers begin to wind down as we reach retirement age. We can
identify five career stages that most of us will go through these years: exploration, establishment,
mid-career, late career, and decline. These stages are depicted in Figure 12.1. (Page 244).
Of course, for some individuals, pursuing certain careers, this model is too simplistic and must be
significantly modified.
Exploration
Many of the critical choices individuals make about their careers are made prior to even entering the
work on a paid basis. Our relatives, teachers as well as what we see on television and films, very
early in our parents, their interests, their aspirations and financial resources will be heavy factors in
determining our perception of what careers are available.
The exploration period ends for most of us in our mid-twenties as we get employed. From an
organisational standpoint, this stage has less relevance, since it occurs prior to employment. It is,
of course, not irrelevant. The exploration period is a time when a number of expectations about one's
career are developed, many of which are unrealistic. Such expectations, of course, may lie dormant
for years and then pop up later to frustrate both the employee and the employer.
Establishment
The establishment period brings with the search for work and includes getting your first job, being
accepted by your peers, learning the job and gaining the first tangible evidence of success or failure in
the "real world." It is a time that begins with uncertainties and anxieties. Additionally, it is marked
by the making of mistakes, the learning from these mistakes, and the gradual assumption of increased
responsibilities. However, individuals
Unit 12 Quality of Work Life and Career Development a time
where
individua
in this stage have yet to reach their peak productivity and rarely are they given work assignments
ls may
that carry great power or high stages.
continue
Mid-Career their
prior
Most people do not face their first severe career dilemmas until they reach the mid-career stage. This is improve
ments in performance, level off or begin to deteriorate. At this stage, the first dilemma is accepting that
one is no longer seen as a 'learner.' Mistakes carry greater penalties. At this point in a career, one is
expected to have moved beyond apprenticeship to journeyman status. To those who make the
successful transition go to greater responsibilities and rewards. For others, it may be a time of
reassessment, job changes, adjustment of priorities, or the pursuit of alternative life styles (such as
making a major geographical move or going back to college).
Late Career
For those who continue to grow through the mid-career stage, the late career usually is a pleasant time
when one is allowed the luxury to relax a bit and enjoy playing the part of the elder statesman. It is a
time where one can rest on one's laurels and bask in the respect given by younger employees. During
the late career, individuals are no longer learning nor is it expected that they should be trying to outdo
their levels of performance from previous years. Their value to the organisation lies heavily in their
judgment, built up over many years and through varied experiences and sharing with and teaching
others based on the knowledge they have gained.
For those who have stagnated or deteriorated during the previous stage, the late career brings the
reality that they will not have an everlasting impact or change the world as they had once thought. It is
a time when individuals recognise that they have decreased work mobility and may be locked into
their current job. One begins to look forward to retirement and the opportunities of doing something
different. Life, off the job is likely to carry far greater importance than it did in earlier years.
Decline
The final stage in one's career is difficult for everyone but, ironically, is probably hardest on those who
have had continued successes in the earlier stages. After several decades of continued achievements
and high levels of performance, the time has come for retirement. These individuals are forced to step
out of the limelight and give up a major component of their identity. For the modest performers or
those who have seen their performance deteriorate over the years, it may be a pleasant time. The
frustrations that have been
243
associated with work will be left behind. Adjustments, of course, will have to be made
regardless of whether one is leaving a sparkling career or a dismal career. The regimentation
that work provided will no longer be there. Responsibilities will be fewer and life will be
less structured. As a result, it is a difficult stage for anyone to confront.
High Exploration Establishment Mid-career Late-career Decline
P
E
R
F
O
R
M
A
N
C
E
Low 5 25 35 50 60 70
AGE
244
Fig. 12.1: Stages in Career Development
Linking Career Dimensions with Stages
We can link the external and internal dimensions of careers with the five stage
model. There are dominant activities and perceptions at each stage.
The manager has to look at careers as having two dimensions and five stages. It will
help him to identify potential problems and opportunities. For instance, it is possible
to spot those individuals in mid-career who are deteriorating and need some specific
job training. Similarly, other individuals at the same stage, but whose performance
has leveled off, many present a problem because they hold the same high
expectations that they held fifteen years earlier. Even if they have an adequate
performance record, it may be insufficient to match their aspirations. The perceptive
manager should be aware of the value of realistic career counseling at this point as a
means towards improving the stagnant employee's attitudes and possibility
preventing a resignation.
Unit 12 Quality of Work Life and Career Development be of
more
help to
Effective Organisational Career Development
the
There are few methods which managers can utilise to match the career needs of young,
their subordinates with the requirements of their organisation. upwar
dly
Challenging Initial Jobs ambitio
us
There is an increasing evidence indicating that employees who receive especially employ
challenging job assignments early in their careers do better on later jobs. More ees.
specifically, the degree of stimulation and challenge in a person's initial job
assignment tends to be significantly related to later career success and retention in the The
organisation. Apparently, initial challenges, particularly if they are successfully met, dissem
stimulate a person to perform well in subsequent years. ination
of
There are definite benefits for managers who correctly fill positions with individuals career
who have the appropriate abilities and interests to satisfy the job's demands. Given option
the prior evidence, managers should be even more concerned with the match for inform
new employees and those just beginning their employment careers. Successful ation
placement at this stage should provide significant advantages to both the may
organisation and the individual. 'turn
off'
Dissemination of Career Option Information what
Many employees lack information about career options. As managers identify career he
paths that successful employees follow within the organisation, they should make this lacks.
information available. If, for example, the organisation prefers candidates for It may
middle-management positions to have had some job exposure in the manufacturing frighte
side of the business as well as experience dealing with budgets and financial n
issues, this information should be disseminated. Such valid and reliable data will some;
however, it may be just the stimulus to direct the employee to take up appropriate
development initiative.
Job Postings
To provide information to all employees about job openings, managers can use job
posting. Organisations that post jobs typically use bulletin board displays but they
may also use company publications. The posting lists the abilities, experience and
seniority requirements to qualify for vacancies.
245
Consistent with the idea that full information on vacancies is a good human resource
practice, job posting provides a channel by which the organisation lets employees
know what jobs are available and for future reference, what requirements they will
have to fulfill to achieve the promotions to which they may aspire. Additionally, a
job-posting system is tangible evidence that the organisation is notifying everyone of
the availability of more desirable jobs.
Assessment Centres
Assessment centres are used both as selection device and as management

development device. It also has relevance as a career development tool. By
putting people through assessment centres we obtain observable evidence of their
ability to do a certain job. Additionally and often overlooked, is the fact that this
technique almost always uses internal supervisors and managers to do part of the
appraisal. In this role as an assessor, individuals learn how to observe behaviour
carefully, to make inferences from observations and to give feedback to the assessee.
Therefore, the process helps to build the important managerial skills necessary for
performance appraisal. Even more important, it makes assessors more aware of what
is involved in the process of development and this awareness can provide valuable
insights into their own career development.
Career Counselling
One of the most logical parts of a career development program is career counselling.
This can appropriately be made a part of annual performance review. It has been
proposed that the review contains the following elements:
• The employee's goal, aspirations, and expectations with regards to his own
career
for the next five years.
• The manager's view of the opportunities available and the degree to which
the
employee's aspirations are realistic and match up with the opportunities available.
• Identification of what the employee would have to do in the way of further
self-
development to qualify for new opportunities.
• Identification of the actual next steps in the form of plans for new development
activities
or new job assignments that would prepare the employee for further career growth.
The important element in a job rotation that offers career development

opportunities is the diverse and expanded range of experiences that new job
tasks can provide. Varied experiences present new tests to the individual which,
if successfully surmounted, build confidence and provide positive feedback that
can encourage the undertaking of further new challenges and responsibilities.
Sabbaticals
A final suggestion toward making career development more effective is to make

use of sabbaticals or extended leaves of absence. For senior executives, the
traditional two-to-four- week vacation may be insufficient to offset the
accumulated pressures from day-today work. An extended leave can allow
time for attending executive development conferences, uninterrupted reading,
accepting a visiting lectureship at a university, or other
such activities that may enhance one's career development.
i
Middle managers and professional employees in mid-career may become
stagnant and find that their performance levels have plateaused. This is
frequently a response to the recognition that not many more promotions can be
anticipated. A period of time away from the organisation may allow such
individuals to develop new, non- work-related interests, to come to terms with the
leveling off of their career, and to put their work into a life perspective.
Suggestions for Individual Career Development

| M
As pointed out earlier, career development can be viewed from the perspective
of the organisation or of the individual. The emphasis has been on the former. We
can now focus briefly on individual career development as to what employees
can do to better manage their own careers .
The evidence demonstrates that those individuals who are most successful in their
careers
report more extensive career planning. Someone who wants to take personal
career
development seriously should engage in self-assessment.
;,
Individual career development requires people to become knowledgeable of their

own | needs, values, and personal goals. This can be achieved through, self-
assessment process: *
• Identify and organise your skills, interests, work-related needs, and values.
• Convert these inventories into general career fields and specific job goals.
• Test these possibilities against the realities of the organisation or the job market.
Unit 12 Quality of Work Life and Career Development
Roles in Career Development

As summarised in Fig. 12.2, the individual, the manager, and the organisation all have roles
in the individual's career development. Ultimately it is the individual who must accept
responsibility for his or her own career. The manager acts as a coach, appraiser, advisor,
and referral agent as shown in Figure. 12.3.
Individual
Accept responsibility for your own career.
Assess your interests, skills, and values Seek
out career information and resources
Establish goals and career plans Utilise
development opportunities Talk with your
manager about your career Follow through
on realistic career plans
Manager
• Provide timely performance feedback
• Provide developmental assignments and support
• Participate in career development discussions
• Support employee development plans
Organisation
I • Communicate mission, policies, and procedures

• Provide training and development opportunities
• Provide career information and career programs
• Offer a variety of career options
•
Fig. 12.2 : Roles in Career Development
249
Coach Appraiser Advisor Referral Agent

Listens Gives feedback Generates options Links employee to
Clarifies Clarifies standards Helps set goals resources/people
Probes Defines Clarifies job Recommends/advises Consults an action
concerns responsibilities plan
Fig. 12.3 : Four Roles for Managers in Employee Development
Activity D;
a) Write down the five stages in career development.
b) What are the roles for managers in employee development?
12.5 SUMMARY
This unit focuses on quality of work life and how it enhances the employee's work
productivity. Though monetary benefits still occupy the first place in the list of elements of
QWL, other elements like physical working conditions, job restructuring and job redesign,
career development, promotional opportunities etc., are gaining importance rapidly. As
such the workers expect the management to improve all these facilities which thereby
improve QWL.
By providing good QWL, one can eliminate the exploitation, injustice, inequality oppression
and restrictions which temper the continuous growth of human resource which in turn
leads to its overall development. What is most important in India at this stage is developing
consciousness among all sections of industry, i.e., workers, unions and management. Once
Unit 12 Quality of Work Life and Career Development •• > almost
already
establis
these parties view QWL with positive approach the improvement programmes hed.
can be effectively planned and implemented. This is because a positive Walton
relationship between improved QWL and increase in worker's satisfaction is
's 8 factors are considered as most comprehensive criteria for measurement of
QWL. The 8 point criteria of Walton to measure quality of work life include
-Adequate and fair compensation, safe, healthy working conditions, opportunity
to develop human capacities, opportunity for career growth, social integration in
the work force, constitutionalism, work and quality of life, and social relevance.
The unit later focuses on different stages of a career development. The content
focuses on internal versus external dimensions of a career, the various issues in
career development and the different stages in career development. The unit
concludes by sharing the roles that managers play in career development of their
subordinates.
12.6 KEY WORDS_____________________________________________

Assessment Centres: Assessment centres helps to build the important
managerial skills necessary for performance appraisal.
Sabbaticals: A final suggestion toward making career development, more

effective is to make use of sabbaticals.
12.7 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS_____________________________

Q1. Elaborate the various criteria for measuring the quality of work life and
also the barriers in QWL.
Q2. Elaborate the different stages in career development.
251

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Human Resource Development & Training

• to develop an organisational culture where superior subordinate relationships, team

1.2 ESTABLISHMENTOFHRDASAPROFESSION: MAJOR HISTORICAL

In 1942, the American Society for Training Directors was formed to

Emergence of Human Resource Movement:

Enumerate the various historical events which led to the establishment of HR as

1.3 ROLES OF AN HR PROFESSIONAL

4• HR strategic adviser: He/she consults strategic decision-makers on HRD issues

Match the following:

Role of HR Managers Core activity

HR Strategic adviser Assists employees in developing a realistic career plan

Learning program specialist Leads and facilitates structured learning experiences

Organisation design consultant Designs appropriate learning programs

1.4 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

In most organisations, however, training or human resource development is a part of a

Vice President (HR)

Fig. 1.1: Structure

Secondary HRM Functions

1. Organisation/job design activities are concerned with interdepartmental relations and

2. Human Resource Information System (HRIS) is necessary to make enlightened human

3. Performance Management System is used for establishing and maintaining

Major Human Resource Development Functions

4. Greater diversity in the workforce.

6. Greater expectations of meaningful work and employee involvement.

Fig. 1.2 : Human Resource Wheel

Unit 1 Introduction to Human Resource Development •

The HR professional involved in an OD intervention is required to function as a change

Selection and Staffing

Performance Management System

Compensation and Benefit

Human Resource Information Systems (HRIS)

Tick whether the following statements are True or False.

8. Training and development are one and the same. T () F ()

9. Organisation Development intervention is focused

3. Career Development is an "ongoing process by which

10. Organisational design and role analysis are closely related.

11. HR planning focuses on determining the organisation's major

12. Organisational designs pay systems by evaluating jobs.

1.5 CONTRIBUTION OF HRD SUB-SYSTEMS TO DIFFERENT

Each of the sub-systems or mechanisms discussed above contributes to the achievements of

HRD: Process Approach

Success of HRD Program

Plans for Utilisation of Manpower Skills

Conditions for Growth and Development

Openness and Trust

Organisational Development: It is defined as the process of enhancing the effectiveness of

1.8 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

Q5. Elaborate the contribution of HRD sub-systems to different dimensions. Q6.

Elucidate the evolution of the human resource movement.

2.1 HRD AND ORGANISATION EFFECTIVENESS

In the post-liberalisation period, with several businesses being threatened by global

In the post-liberalisation era, competence building, commitment building and culture

Competency Although most HR professionals draw a distinction between 'compete and

Strengths and Weaknesses

Criticisms of a competency-based system are as follows:

• It can be over-elaborate and bureaucratic.

• The language used to describe competencies may be off-putting.

I Fig. 2.1: The Three Cs of Organisation Effectiveness 14. Co

2.2 TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT CONCEPT

Improved performance, the bottom-line purpose of T & D, is a strategic goal

An effective training system has two key characteristics: First, it is based on

a) Explain the difference between training and development

b) Write down two characteristics of training.