10/6/2013

Definition
• Oil tanker, also known as petroleum tankers, are
ships designed for the bulk transport of oil. There
Ship’s technique are two basic types of oil tanker: the crude oil
tanker and the product tanker. Crude tankers move
large quantities of unrefined crude oil from its
Tanker History
point of extraction to refineries. Product tankers,
generally much smaller, are designed to move
petrochemicals from refineries to points near
consuming markets.

The history of ships carrying oil The history of ships carrying oil
• First liquid cargo was olive oil and wine
carried around in the Mediterranean (2nd
and 3th century BC)
• Cargo was transported in amphora (unable
to stand by themselves)
• An amphora was designed to be secured in
wooden racks on board.

1
 10/6/2013

The history of ships carrying oil The history of ships carrying oil

Greek trading in the Mediterranean

The history of ships carrying oil The history of ships carrying oil
• Sail + 1
line of
rowers
• A view in the cargo
• Kyrenia hold of an ancient
Greek trader

2
 10/6/2013

The history of ships carrying oil

Phoenician Trader The history of ships carrying oil
• Amphorae varied greatly in height.
The largest could stand as much as
1.5 m (5 ft) high, while some were
under 30 cm (12 inches) high.
Most were around 45 cm There
was a significant degree of
standardization in some variants;
the wine amphora held a standard
measure of about 39 litres

The history of ships carrying oil Info Bakoe

• Transport of oil is very old and can be • Bakoe =
traced back to the 8th century. capital
• Arabian and Persian writings are Azerbedjan
mentioning the transport of oil from • Before WOII
« Bakoe » to Bagdad for heating purposes
Azerbedjan
• The first ship transporting oil in bulk was a was the main
converted « Newchwang junk ». Originally
designed for the transport of water oil supplier
of Russia

3

The history of ships carrying oil
• This « Newchwang junk » was very
revolutionary since it was equipped with an
expansion trunk;
• Allowing expansion of the liquid under
influence of the temperature
• Reducing free surface effect (B3L/12V)
The history of ships carrying oil
• In the 12th and the 13th century vegetable oil and wine were
transported between England and Burgundy.
• The wine was transported in large wooden barrels called « tuns »
• The ships were measured according the number of « tuns » they
could transport
• Port and harbour dues were determined upon the number of tuns
the ship could carry
• 1 tun = 100ft3 (0.0283m3) => 100 tuns = 1 register or moorson ton
= 2.83 m3 = 1 RT
• Not so long ago the volumetric capacity of a ship was expressed as
the BRT or the NRT of a ship
• 1969 International convention on tonnage measurements of ships
(UMS 69)
10/6/2013
The history of ships carrying oil
• The volumetric capacity of a ship is called
the “tonnage” – tonnage certificate
• (Metric) Ton is a unit of weight (mass)
being 1.000kg
• How come?
GT & NT
• Register ton or Moorson Ton: - Historically used To
determine the volume of a space. One register ton
equals 100 cft, or 2.83 m3.
• Gross Tonnage: The gross tonnage is calculated using
a formula that takes into account the ship's volume in
cubic metre below the main deck and the enclosed
spaces above the main deck. This volume is then
multiplied by a constant, which results in a
dimensionless number (this means no units T or m3
should be placed after the number).
4

GT & NT
GT & NT are stated on the tonnage
certificate (meetbrief – certificat de
jaugeage)
10/6/2013
Gross Tonnage & Nett Tonnage
• Nett Tonnage The Nett
Tonnage is also a (m3)
dimensionless number that
describes the volume of
the cargo space. The NT
can be calculated from the
GT by subtracting the
volume of space occupied
by:
• Crew
• navigation equipment
• propulsion equipment
• Workshops
• The NT may not be less
than 30% of the GT
Displacement Tonnage (ton) = Total
weight of the loaded ship = Water
displaced (m3) x ρ (Archimedes)
Tonnage
Certificate
PS: The term displacement in English is used for
weight and for volume
5
 10/6/2013

Standard Displacement Tonnage Deadweight Tonnage

Standard Displacement Tonnage = Displacement Deadweight tonnage is the weight (in tons) of all the cargo,
Tonnage – weight of fuel and potable water (≠ ballast fuel, dry provisions, supplies, etc. carried on board the ship.
water) In other words, it is the “displacement tonnage” of the
vessel minus the “lightweight tonnage”

Lightweight Tonnage The history of ships carrying oil

Lightweight tonnage (LWT) is best described as the weight of the

ship when it was built in the shipyard including all framing,
machinery, decking, etc. However, lightweight tonnage does not
include the weight of any consumable such as fuel, water, oil, or Ships in the 12th and 13th century Fore Castle = Focsle
supplies.

6
 10/6/2013

Barge Haulers on the Volga. Oil on canvas. 131.5 ×

The history of ships carrying oil 281 cm. The State Russian Museum, St. Petersburg

• In the 18th century oil was transported on

the river « Wolga ». Tsaar Peter the Great
promulgated special regulations.

• In the 18th century there was an important

oil traffic between Persia and Bakoe

Russian Baltic Galley - 1720 The history of ships carrying oil

• Hydrostatic Balanced Loading (HBL) was
invented on the river Wolga in 18th century.
• The ships in which the oil was transported were
not water(oil)tight
• To prevent massive pollutions the draft of the
vessels was increased so that the water pressure
was > the pressure of the cargo inside the vessel
• Water was leaking in and the oil was not leaking
out.

7
 10/6/2013

Hydrostatic Balanced Loading The history of ships carrying oil

• An alternative for • At the end of the 19th century the sailing
double hull ships were slowely disappearing.
construction
provided in 13G • The propellor propulsion was replacing the
(21) of MARPOL paddle wheelers
Annex 1. • Steel ships were replacing the wooden
• HBL can be used vessels
in stead of a
double bottom

The Great Eastern &

The Great Eastern
Isambard Kingdom Brunel

8
 10/6/2013

The history of ships carrying oil The Great Britain

The steam ship Great
Britain is a remarkable
feat of Victorian and
maritime engineering.
Launched in 1843 and
designed by the famous
Isambard Kingdom
Brunel, she was twice
as big as any previous
ship, and the first steel
ocean-going vessel to
be propelled by a screw
propeller.

The Great Britain The history of ships carrying oil

• The technology of oil transportation has evolved
alongside the oil industry.
• The first modern commercial exploitation dates
back to James Young’s manufacture of paraffin in
1850. In these early days, oil from Upper Burma
was moved in earthenware vessels (amphora ?) to
the river bank where it was then poured into boat
holds.
• In the 1850s, the Pennsylvania oil fields became a
major supplier of oil, and a center of innovation.

9
 10/6/2013

The history of ships carrying oil
• First large shipment of oil was effected on board
of the brig « Elisabeth Watts »
• She sailed for England in late 1861 carrying 224
tons of a substance called petroleum. Not much is
known about the Elizabeth Watts. She carried the
world's first really substantial cargo of oil and
arrived safely in England 45 days later. Beyond
that the records are blank-except to note that the
ship's master had considerable difficulty in
recruiting a crew.
The history of ships carrying oil
• It was a sailing ship that first transported the
energy source of the future
• Biggest problem was the stowage of the
cargo. The oil was transported in wooden
barrels. Considerable leakage was
experienced.
• Over the years the amount of oil transported
gradually increased till 7.5 million gallons
in 1864.

The Elizabeth Watts The Nineveh - 1862

The Elizabeth Watts

departed the
First full
Philadelphia docks on
Nov. 19, 1861, and cargo of oil:
arrived at London's 2888 barrels
Victoria Dock 45 days
later. It took twelve
days to unload the
1,329 barrels of oil.

10
 10/6/2013

Oil transported in tanks on board of the

converted bark “Lindesnaes” - 1877
The history of ships carrying oil
• Some interesting units used in the oil business
• 1 US barrel (1m3= 6.28981 barrels) = 159 liters
• 1 US Barrel = 42 US Gallon
• 1 US gallon (1 barrel = 42 gallons) = 3.79 liters
• 1 Imp. Gallon = 4.546088 liters
• °F
• API gravity

Tankers under sail The history of ships carrying oil

• The problem of the leaking barrels was
solved by transporting the oil in iron tanks.
• The “Falls of Clyde” • The metal tanks had a rectangular form
is the oldest surviving adapted to the form of the cargohold.
American tanker and
the world's only
• Containerisation ?
surviving sail-driven • First ship transporting her oil cargo like this
oil tanker. was the « Charles » - Antwerp Belgium,
trading between the US and Europe
between 1869 and 1872.

11
 10/6/2013

The history of ships carrying oil Tanks on board of the “Charles”

• The « Charles » could load 59 tanks with a total
capacity of 7.000 barrels of oil.
• Since the « Charles » was a sailing ship, the
containers had to be discharged using a hand
pump. (what about safety ?)
• Gradually the size of tanks increased till they
matched the hold in which they were to be carried.
• Small boilers were installed on deck to provide
steam for the cargo pumps.

1st tankers & Safety ????? 1st tankers & Safety ?????
Three years later she caught fire and was lost.
Tanker crews knew what to worry about. In a bit
of gallows humor, the crew of the first successful
engine-driven, ocean-going bulk oil tanker, the
Gluckauf, nicknamed her the Fleigauf (or Blow
Up). The Gluckauf did not blow up, but her sister
ship the Vorwarts lasted only four years before she
caught fire at Savona, and had to be sunk.

12
 10/6/2013

The history of ships carrying oil The history of ships carrying oil
• The first ships with tanks forming an
integral part of the hull were the
« Atlantic » and the « Vaderland »
• The first was a sailing ship the second was
steam driven.
• They were both constructed on the river
Tyne

S.S. « Vaderland »

S.S. Vaderland SS Vaderland

13
 10/6/2013

Tanks on board of ss.Vaderland The history of ships carrying oil

• The S.S. Vaderland was a Belgian ship
• She was constructed for the combined
transport of oil and passengers
• She had 2 sister ships the « Nederland » and
the « Zwitserland »
• Were hardly used as a tanker because the
American legislation opposed

SS Vaderland (HMT Southland)

Red Star Line SS vaderland
• SS Vaderland was
renamed HMT
Southland and was
hit by a torpedo in
1915 while carrying
Australian troops

14

The history of ships carrying oil
• The « Zoroaster », the first real tanker, has
been built by « Ludwig Nobel », 1 of the
famous 4 Nobel Brothers.
The Zoroaster
• Zoroaster carried its 242 long tons of
kerosene cargo in two iron tanks joined by
pipes. One tank was forward of the
midships engine room and the other was aft.
The ship also featured a set of 21 vertical
watertight compartments for
extra buoyancy.
10/6/2013
The history of ships carrying oil
« The Zoroaster »
• The 4 Nobel Brothers, Alfred, Ludwig, Emanuel
and Robert established in 1876 Branobel – oil
company
• To reduce transport expenses Ludwig introduced
the first tanker in the Caspian Sea (Bakoe)
• The « Zoroaster » was built in Sweden in 1878 at
the Motall shipbuilding factory.
Caspian Sea
Wolga
Bakoe
15
 10/6/2013

The Zoroaster The history of ships carrying oil

• In a later phase
the cylindrical
tanks were
removed and
the oil was in
direct contact
with the ships
hull

The history of ships carrying oil

• The ship had a length overall of 184 feet (56 m), a
beam of 27 feet (8.2 m), and a draft of 9 feet
(2.7 m). Unlike later Nobel tankers, the Zoraster
design was built small enough to sail from Sweden “The Budha”
to the Caspian by way of the Baltic Sea, Lake was extended
ladoga, Lake Onega, the Rybinsk and Mariinsk
Canals and the Volga River.
• In October 1878, he ordered two more tankers of
the same design: the Buddha and the
Nordenskjöld.

16

The history of ships carrying oil
• Nobel then began to adopt a single-hull
design, where the ship's hull forms part of
its tank structure. In November 1880, he
ordered his first single-hulled tanker, the
Moses. Within a year, he ordered seven
more single-hulled tankers: the Mohammed,
Tatarin, Bramah, Spinoza, Socrates,
Darwin, Koran, Talmud, and Calmuck.
The history of ships carrying oil
• In 1883, oil tanker design took a large step
forward. Colonel Henry F. Swan designed a
set of three Nobel tankers. Instead of one or
two large holds, Swan's design used several
holds which spanned the beam of the ship.
These holds were further subdivided into
port and starboard sections by a longitudinal
bulkhead.
10/6/2013
The history of ships carrying oil
• The Nobel company experienced one of the
first oil tanker disasters. In 1881, the
Zoroaster's sister-ship, the Nordenskjöld
exploded in Baku while taking on kerosene,
killing half the crew.
The history of ships carrying oil
• By dividing the ship's storage space into
smaller tanks virtually eliminated free-
surface problems.
• This approach, almost universal today, was
first used by Colonel F. Swan (see also the
Gluckauf) in the Nobel
tankers Blesk, Lumen, and Lux.
17
 10/6/2013

The unfortunate end of “The

The history of ships carrying oil
Blesk”

More Alfred Nobel The Emanuel Nobel

• In 1903, the Nobel brothers built two oil tankers which
ran on internal combustion engines, as opposed to the
older steam-engines. The Vandal and Sarmat, the
first diesel-electric ships, were each capable of
carrying 750 LT of refined oil and powered by
270 kW diesel motors.
• This same firm soon went on to make much larger oil
tankers, such as the Emanuel Nobel and Karl Hagelin,
4,600 long ton kerosene tankers with 890 kW engines

18
 10/6/2013

Belgian Esso Tanker “La

The history of ships carrying oil
Campine” - 1891
• Important stadia in the evolution of the
« modern » tanker
1. Compartimentalisation of the ships loadingspace by means
of a longitudinal and several transverse bulkheads. (stability
and free surface)
2. Expansiontrunks (free surface and expansion of the cargo)
3. Cofferdams, barrier protecting f.i. the engine room
4. The loading tanks are an integral part of the ships
construction

SS La Campine (2,595 GRT), was built by Palmers' SB. & Iron Co., Ltd., Newcastle for F. Speth & Co., Antwerp
and sailing for the American Petroleum Company. It was a steamship with auxiliary sails, an early oil tanker that
was launched in 1891, and was sunk by U-boat UC 50 in North Sea waters (Doggersbank, 56.00 North - 04.57
East) on March 13, 1917, on its way from Rotterdam to New York.

The history of ships carrying oil The history of ships carrying oil
• Important stadia in the evolution of the • The « GLUCKAUF » or the real first tanker,
« modern » tanker classified as « petroleum steamship » by Bureau
5. Double bottoms were considered to be dangerous (explosion Veritas
danger) and were removed asap (ecology was not a big • The Gluckauf was constructed in 1886 by Mitchell
problem at that time)
& Co in New-Castle on Tyne.
6. The pumproom extended over the complete beam of the ship
and reached from the keel to the main deck. • Who « invented » the Gluckauf is not completely
7. Use of the « Isherwood » system – longitudinal construction clear. Or it is;
8. Use of heating coils in the cargo tanks • Heinrich Riederman, the German owner,
9. Use of liquid oil as fuel for the boilers • Henry F. Swan, a Britch Colonel, who made the
10. Use of the motor and turbine as propulsion unit drawings

19

The history of ships carrying oil
• Glückauf had a bulkhead along her centerline, and
• The Gluckauf had a LOA of approx. 100
meters and was driven by a triple expansion
engine.
• The Gluchauf had a sister ship, the
« Vorwärts », lost in july 1890.
• The Gluckauf had 3 masts to hoist sails to
be used as extra propulsion power.
The history of ships carrying oil
10/6/2013
Glückauf
further transverse bulkheads to divide her cargo
space into eight tanks. Above the tanks was a
trunk to allow cargo to expand. A pump room
separated her tanks from the engine room. The
engines were placed right aft and she had a
navigational bridge almost amidships. She was the
first ship to place engines astern. Tankers like
Glückauf loaded deeply, and at sea waves would
often wash right across their decks.
20
 10/6/2013

The Gluckauf The Gluckauf

Glückauf stranded on 23/24-3-1893 in heavy

fog at Blue Point Beach at Fire Island The history of ships carrying oil
• At the end of the 19th century, tankers were still a
very « unconventional » ships type.
• Tankers were still equipped with very large
hatches, derricks, venting shafts etc.
• Big problem was and still is the ballast voyage
which did not realize any money.
• « Normal » cargo was transported during the
return trip. f.i. The Dutch Shell tanker « Rita »
discharged 800 piano’s in San Francisco 1907

21
 10/6/2013

• The expansion trunk –

trunkdeck tankers
• Free surface
The history of ships carrying oil • Stablility
• Summertanks, were created by
closing up the extra space
created by the expansion
trunks.
• Ships were never on there
marks (summer load line) using
the « normal tanks ». In the
summer season the tanks were
loaded, in the winter season the
tanks were left MT
• The summertanks were emptied
by a drop valve in the aftermost
main tank.
• 2 longitudinal bulkheads of a
SS Halaban a « modern » tanker dated 1897, a contempory modern tanker
of the « Gluckauf »

The history of ships carrying oil
• The most famous trunck deck tanker was
the « Warboat » designed to carry fuel for
the warships, designed by the British
Admirality in 1916.
• The engine room was again midships, thus
avoiding a seperate pumproom
The history of ships carrying oil
• The « SS murex » had such high safety
specifications that permission was granted
to transit the Suez Canal (1892)
• She had enough ballast on board to refloat
the vessel after grounding without
discharging oil.

22
 10/6/2013

SS Murex The history of ships carrying oil

• The « Narrangansett », 1903, was
excpetionally big.
• She was equipped with pumps of
900tons/hour
• She had derricks and ventilation shafts
• She made > 11 knots, engine room midships

Narrangansett

• She was the largest and fastest tanker of her kind afloat.
Length: 532 feet. Beam: 63 feet. 9196 grt. Speed 11 knots
The Tanker, Narragansett was torpedoed and eventually sank
off the Scilly Islands (50.12 N 17 .34W) whilst returning to
London from New York with a cargo of lubricating oil, on 16th
March 1917.

23
 10/6/2013

The history of ships carrying oil

• The « horse and wagon » of the Atlantic
• The tankship « Iroquois » had the engine
room in the back and had twin screws.
• She was equipped to tow the « Navahoe »

Iroquois and the Navahoe (1908)

24
 10/6/2013

The history of ships carrying oil Transverse framed ship - 1860

• Originally a ship was more or less
constructed like the chest of an animal or
human being
• The central longitudinal element was the
keel (or keels) and at regular distances you
could find frames closed just below deck
with a deckbeam (interrupted by the
deckopenings)

Transverse framed ship - 1860 Terminology

Transverse
Construction
(info)

25
 10/6/2013

Transversally framed double Transverse & Longitudinal

bottom Framing

The history of ships carrying oil

Transverse & Longitudinal Framing
• Less frames • The « Paul Paix » was the first ship
(web frames) to be constructed according the
• Addition of
longitudinals « Isherwood system » called after
his inventor Joseph Isherwood.
• As the ships became longer the
• Addition of problem of longitudinal deflection
longitudinals (hogging or sagging) became more
(top & bottom)
significant

26
 10/6/2013

The Paul Paix - 1908

Longitudinally framed double

The history of ships carrying oil
bottom
• Mixed systems
became gradually
more popular (tankers
& bulk carriers)

Transversal
frames

27
 10/6/2013

Transverse section of a modern

The history of ships carrying oil
single hull bulk carrier
• The Isherwood system was especially
popular for tankers and bulk carriers
• On board of other ships the webframes
caused a lot of broken stowage

The history of ships carrying oil Tripple Expansion Steam Engine

• In the early 20th century was marked by the
transition from steam engines to motor propulsion.
• A 10.000 ton steamship consumed 50 tons coal
per day or 30 ton fuel if the boilers were oil fired.
A 10.000 ton motor ship consumed 10 ton fuel per
day.
• On a voyage of 20 days the motor ship can carry
10% more cargo.
• A motorship requires less maintenance and less
time to bunker.

28
 10/6/2013

Steam Boilers Titanic Largest ship engine - Wartsila-Sulzer RTA96-

(25pcs – 164 furnaces) C turbocharged two-stroke diesel engine

The history of ships carrying oil The history of ships carrying oil
• The Dutch
« Vulcanus » was the • The period before WOII was characterised
first seagoing
motortanker. by the following elements;
• The Vulcanus • Increase in size of the ships
measured 1170 ton,
was equipped with a • More powerfull engines
400 PK main engine,
consumed 1.75 ton • Faster
fuel/day and the main • Higher degree of specialisation
engine could be
reversed in ONLY 12 • f.i. Japan constructed in this period tankers of
seconds at full speed.
12.000 tons, making between 17 and 20 knots

29
 10/6/2013

The first oil/ore carrier The first chemical tanker

1921 The G Harrison Smith The Agnita 1931

The history of ships carrying oil

• The real « BIG » ships appear after WWII.
• During WWII the famous T2-tanker was
constructed in great numbers
• A T2 tanker measured 16.700 tons, had his engine
aft and the accomodation midships and was very
flexibel to operate.
• Even after WWII the T2 tanker maintained
postion because it was a very economical ship.
• She could call upon nearly all the loading and
discharging ports at that time.

30
 10/6/2013

The history of ships carrying oil The history of ships carrying oil

T2 - tanker T2 - tanker

The history of ships carrying oil The history of ships carrying oil

T2 - tanker

T2 - tanker

31
 10/6/2013

The history of ships carrying oil T2 tankers

T2 - tanker

The history of ships carrying oil Converted T2 tanker - 1958

• A T2 tanker had a direct piping system

• Centrifugal cargopumps

32
 10/6/2013

T2 tankers 1st operationally succesful OBO

• The last T2 tanker, 1965 the Naess Norseman
the USNS Mission
Santa Ynez has
being scrapped in
2010

The history of ships carrying oil

• Most important recent modification is the
double hull contruction imposed by;
• Marpol Annex I, rule 20 & 21
• OPA90 = Oil Pollution Act.

33
 10/6/2013

Protective location of ballast Double hull

tanks

Segregated ballast must be located so that an extra protection

is given to the cargo space

The history of ships carrying oil The history of ships carrying oil
• After WWII we observe following
evolutions in tanker construction
• Increase in size (Suez Canal)
• Specialization (Chemical carriers, OBO,
gascarriers)
• Welding instead of rivetting (Victories and
Liberties)
• Better materials (valves, joints, tankcoating,
……… etc)

34
 10/6/2013

The history of ships carrying oil Batillus

• ULCC 300.000 – 500.000 dwt
• VLCC 200.000 – 300.000 dwt
• Medium size 70.000 – 130.000 dwt
• Handy size 16.000 – 25.000 dwt
• Afra-max American Freight Rate
Association size 80.000 –
125.000 dwt
• Suez-max Suez Canal
• Panama-max Panama Canal

Knock Nevis (Seawise Giant)

Tankers
after conversion to FSO
• Tanker family can be divided in:
• Crude oil tankers
• Product carriers
• Chemical tankers
• Gas carriers

35
 10/6/2013

Crude oil tankers ULCC’s

• Used to transport crude oil from the production • CMB’s tanker subsidiary, acquired the so-
site to the refinery called ‘V plus’ ULCCs, the 442,500 dwt
• VERY large ships Hellespont Alhambra, Hellespont Tara,
• Constructed to carry one uniform cargo Hellespont Fairfaxand Hellespont Metropolis.
• Limited number of tanks (+/- 15) and 2 slop tanks • The double-hulled ships, which were
• Simple piping system – pumps in a pump room delivered by South Korea’s Daewoo between
• IG system 2002 and 2003, were handed over in May
• COW system and June and renamed TI Asia, TI Europe, TI
• Cargo heating system America and TI Africa.
• Segregated ballast • The ULCCs are flying the Belgian flag.

TI-ships TI-ships

36
 10/6/2013

TI-ships TI-ships

TI-ships Crude oil carriers

37
 10/6/2013

Crude oil carriers Crude oil carriers

Crude oil carriers Crude oil carriers

38
 10/6/2013

Manifold

Manifold
&
decklines

Crude oil carriers Crude oil carriers

39
 10/6/2013

Product carrier Product carrier

• Smaller than a crude oil carrier
• Cargo • Characteristics
• Designed for the transport of semi-refined • Gas oil • Carrying capacity
products • Gasoline • Tank volume
• « coated tanks » • Naphtha • Condition of tank
• Lube oil coating
• IG
• Bitumen
• Segregated ballast • Vegetable oil
• Wine
• Drinking water

Product carrier Product carrier

40
 10/6/2013

Chemical carriers Chemical carrier

• « Small » • Cargo • Characteristics
• A LOT of tanks with different coatings • Acids • Carrying capacity
• Different heating and/or cooling systems • Bases • Tank volume
• Alcohols
• Complex cargo • Condition and type
• Edible oils of tank
• Complicated piping system • Chlorinated alkenes coating/Stainless steel
• 1 pump,1 pipe and 1 connection per tank • Amines
• Main problem is cargo compatibility • Monomers
• Cofferdams between the tanks • Petrochemical
products
• Pharmacist vessel

Chemical carrier

Chemical
carrier

41

Chemical tankers
• 2 types of chemical tankers can be
distinguished
• Dedicated chemical tanker for the carriage of
an exclusive cargo f.i. nitric acid
• Parcel chemical tanker for the carriage of many
different kind of chemical cargoes
Chemical tankers and legislation
• IBC-code covers construction, equipment
and safety aspects
• Marpol Annex II covers pollution aspects
10/6/2013
Chemical tankers and legislation
• Carriage of chemicals in bulk is covered by
regulations in SOLAS Chapter VII - Carriage of
dangerous goods and MARPOL Annex II -
Regulations for the Control of Pollution by
Noxious Liquid Substances in Bulk.
• Both Conventions require chemical tankers built
after 1 July 1986 to comply with the International
Code for the Construction and Equipment of Ships
carrying Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk (IBC
Code).
MARPOL
SOLAS
IBC
42

Chemical tankers and legislation
• A chemical tanker satisfying IBC receives
An International Certificate of Fitness for
the Carriage of Dangerous Chemicals in
Bulk
• A chemical tanker satisfying Marpol Annex
II receives an NLS-certificate
(NLS=Noxious Liquid Substances)
• For ship in the possession of a certificate
fitness the NLS certificate is unnecessary
P&A Manual
• The purpose of this Manual is to identify
the arrangements and equipment to enable
compliance with Annex II of MARPOL
73/78 and to identify for the ship’s officers
all operational procedures with respect to
cargo handling, tank cleaning, slops
handling, residue discharging, ballasting
and deballasting, which must be strictly
followed.
10/6/2013
P&A Manual
• Each vessel, which is certified for the carriage of
noxious liquid substances (NLS) in bulk, is
provided with a Procedure and Arrangements
Manual (P & A Manual).
• All substances permissible for carriage onboard
are listed in this manual (& in the fitness list) and
are approved for and on behalf of the flag state
government that the vessel is registered under,
usually by a Classification Society acting on its
behalf.
P&A Manual
• If the vessel has been nominated to load a
cargo that is not listed in the P&A Manual,
this should be notified to the vessel's
operator. They will then liaise with the
Class Society to determine whether a note
of acceptance or a dispensation is possible
for this cargo.
43
 10/6/2013

IBC-code
• Key chapters are 17 & 18
• Chapter 17 contains all of the products
requiring transport on board of chemical
tankers - Summary of minimum
requirements
• Chapter 18 List of products to which the
Code does not apply
Chapter 17
• Product name (column a)
• UN Number (column b) →deleted
• Pollution Category (column c) →X, Y or Z
• Hazards (column d) →P or S/P
• Ship type (column e) →ST 1, 2 or 3
• Tank type (column f) →1, 2, G or P
• Tank vents (column g) →cont(rolled) or open
• Tank environmental control (column h) →Inert, Pad, Dry,
Vent, No
• Electrical equipment (column i) →temp class, apparatus
group, Flashpoint
• Gauging (column j) →O(pen), R(estricted) or C(losed)

IBC-chapter 17
• Contains a lot of technical information
• Example shows bio-fuels Ship Type
Pollution category Safety or
Pollution Tank Type
Marpol Annex II
or both

44
 10/6/2013

IMPORTANT!!!!!!
Do not confuse IBC -code
Ship type =
• Applicable on board chemical tankers built on or
combination of after 1 july 1986. (older chemical tankers are
survival capability & submitted to the BCH-code)
tank location on • Ship survival capability & tank location
board • Groups of ship types
• Location of cargo tanks
• Damage stability
• Tank type
Tank type = physical • Independent Gravity
characteristics of then • Independent pressure
tank • Integral gravity

Groups of ships Example: Type 1 ship

• A type 1 ship is a chemical tanker intended to transport chapter 17
products with very severe environmental and safety hazards which
require maximum preventive measures to preclude an escape of such
cargo.
• A type 2 ship is a chemical tanker intended to transport chapter 17
products with appreciably severe environmental and safety hazards
which require significant preventive measures to preclude an escape of
such cargo.
• A type 3 ship is a chemical tanker intended to transport chapter 17
products with sufficiently severe environmental and safety hazards
which require a moderate degree of containment to increase survival
capability in a damaged condition.
• Thus, a type 1 ship is a chemical tanker intended
for the transportation of products considered to
present the greatest overall hazard and type 2 and
type 3 for products of progressively lesser hazards.
Accordingly, a type 1 ship shall survive the most
severe standard of damage and its cargo tanks
shall be located at the maximum prescribed
distance inboard from the shell plating

45
 10/6/2013

Survival Capability Example of damage assumption

Damage assumption Damage assumption

1) Collision damage 2) Damage in case of stranding
Bottom damage For 0.3L from the forward Any other part of the
perpendicular of the ship ship

Longitudinal 1/3L2/3 or 14.5 m, 1/3L2/3 or 5 m,

extent whichever is less whichever is less

Transverse B/6 or 10 m, B/6 or 5 m,

extent
whichever is less whichever is less

Vertical extent B/15 or 6 m, B/15 or 6 m,

whichever is less whichever is less

183 184

46
 10/6/2013

Example of damage assumption Survival = ?

• Staying afloat
• Satisfying certain stability criteria

Collision 10
different places

Stranding 17
different places

Survival Capability is function of

size of the ship (length) Tank Location ≠ Tank Type

47
 10/6/2013

Location of the cargo tanks Location of the cargo tanks

in a type 1 ship in a type 2 ship

189 190

Location of the cargo tanks Tank Type

in a type 3 ship

191

48
 10/6/2013

USCG
Marpol Annex II Compatibility
Chart
• Discharge of residues containing noxious
liquid substances • Far from complete
• Keywords • Cargoes are
considered not
• Minimalization of residues by efficient compatible if
discharge (stripping < 75lit/tank). 1. Temp ↑
2. Development of a
• Dilution by efficient cleaning gas
• Under water over board => intense mixing of • No safety or health
the residues with the propeller water => considerations
harmless ??????

Carriage of non compatible Carriage of non compatible

cargoes
• Legislation as expressed in the IMO Chemicals
Bulk Code ref (25), and in the US Coast Guard
Rules ref (18) and Appendix 3 expressly prohibits
the placement of inter-reactive cargoes on both
sides of a bulkhead. There must be an empty tank,
a cofferdam or a tank with a cargo neutral to both
products in between. This requirement causes
some headaches in cargo planning. "Diagonal
contact'' between tanks is normally considered as
sufficient separation between reactive cargoes.
cargoes
• The complete separation of piping systems is
necessary To this effect strategic pipe bends
(elbows) may have to be removed and blind
flanges fitted on each pipe end.
• Modern chemical tankers will have SEUT-valves
fitted. A single blind flange is not acceptable.
Remember also to separate drain lines or slop
connections to avoid the possibility of cargo
mixing.

49
 10/6/2013

Cargo Compatibility SEUT valves

Regulatory segregation.

PUMPING and PIPING system separated by

•Removable elbows
•SEUT valves…
HAVE ALSO A SEPARATE TANK VENTING
SYSTEM
green & blue are 2 non
TANKS segregated by compatible cargoes =
• Cofferdam OK situation
• Void space
• Pump room
• Empty tank
• Mutually compatible cargo. 198

Segregation by removing a spool piece Cargo Compatibility

• With other cargoes (USCG)
• With itself (polymerization)
• With water
• With air
• With ship construction and equipment
materials
• valves, lines, hoses, joints, coatings,…………

50
 10/6/2013

Equipment of chemical tankers Cargo Tank Material

• A lot of attention goes to segregation of the
different cargoes (liquid + gas)
• Intensive use of corrosion resistant
materials
• Easy to clean tanks & sophisticated tank
cleaning systems
• Tanks coated with hi-tech coatings or
stainless steel (often more than 1 type on
board)

Chemical Tanker Cross Over

Arrangement of cargo piping
Arrangement

51
 10/6/2013

Tank of a chemical tanker Tank of a chemical tanker

Gas Carriers
• The IMO gas carrier code (IGC) defines
liquefied gases as gases with vapour
pressure higher than 2,8 bar at a
temperature of 37,8oC.
• IMO gas code (IGC) chapter 19 defines
which products that are liquefied gases and
have to be transported with gas carriers.

52
 10/6/2013

Gas Carriers Groups of liquefied gases

• According to the IMO, a liquefied gas is a
gaseous substance at ambient temperature
and pressure, but liquefied by pressurization
or refrigeration – sometimes a combination
of both.
• Fully refrigerated gas carriers
• Fully pressurized gas carriers
• Semi pres/semi ref gas carriers
• IMO divides liquefied gases into the
following groups:
• LPG - Liquefied Petroleum Gas
• LNG - Liquefied Natural Gas
• LEG - Liquefied Ethylene Gas (=LCG)
• NH3 – Ammonia
• Cl2 – Chlorine
• Chemical gases (Ethylene, Propylene,
butadiene and VCM)

Why liquefying gases? Why liquefying gases?

• Economics – by liquefying a gas you increase the
density and the transportable quantity per
shipment (volume is reduced 610 times)
• For ease of storage and transport
• Disadvantage: A lot of energy is lost –
latent heat.
• Possible alternative: Compressed Natural
Gas – increase the density by increasing the
pressure up to 275 bar.

53

Liquefied Petroleum Gas
• This grade covers both butane and propane, or a
mix of the two. The main use for these products is;
• power station or refinery fuel.
• bottled cooking gas
• feedstock at chemical plants.
• aerosol propellant (with the demise of CFCs)
• added to gasoline as a vapour pressure enhancer.
• Propane & butane may be carried in either the
pressurised or refrigerated state.
10/6/2013
Liquefied Natural Gas
• LNG is liquefied natural gas and is mainly methane
naturally occurring within the earth, in association
with oil fields.
• It is carried in its liquefied form at its boiling point
of -162°C. Depending on the standard of production
at the loading port, the quality of LNG can vary but
it usually contains fractions of some heavier ends
such as ethane (up to 5%) and traces of propane.
Liquefied Petroleum Gas
• LPG may also be carried in a special type of
carrier known as the semi-pressurised ship.
• When fully refrigerated, butane is carried
at -5°C, with propane at -42°C, this latter
temperature already introducing the
need for special steels.
54
 10/6/2013

Ammonia (NH4)
Ethylene
• Ammonia is one of the most common
chemical gases and is carried worldwide in • The carriage of ethylene requires very
large volumes. (fertilizers)
sophisticated ships.
• The boiling point for ammonia at atmospheric
pressure is –33oC, and must be transported at a • Temperatures here are down to
temperature colder than –20oC (semi-pressurised). -104°C and onboard systems require
perhaps the highest degree of expertise.

Gas carriers (overview)

• LPG-carrier • LNG-carrier • LCG-carrier Carriage Temperature
• Propane • Methane • Ethylene • On board liquefied gas carriers the cargo in the loaded tank
• Butane • Ethane • Butadiene is a “liquid” at boiling temperature
• Propylene • A liquid is boiling when the saturated vapor pressure
• VCM (SVP) equals the environmental pressure = tank pressure
• Anhydrous Ammonia • Latent heat (heat = enthalpy) is the heat released or
absorbed by a chemical substance or a thermodynamic
LNG’s often use steam turbines. The boil-off of the cargo is
system during a process (phase transition) that occurs
used as fuel for the boilers. (boil-off is gas evaporated from the
without a change in temperature (isotherm).
cargo in order to maintain a low temperature).
• Latent heat (enthalpy) is caused by the change in molecular
State of the art technology allows LNG reliquefaction on board. bonds during state transitions (solids have strong
Liquefied LNG is being send back to the tanks or is used as fuel molecular bonds while for gases these molecular bonds are
in dual fuel engines nearly non existent)

55
 10/6/2013

Saturated Vapor Pressure ? Latent Fusion Heat (independent of pressure) ≠ Latent

Evaporation Heat (varies with pressure)
γ’ = Liquid Density >
(kg/dm3)
γ’’ = Saturated vapor
density (kg/m3)

P= Saturated Vapor
Pressure (bar) of
Propane varies with
T (°C)
When the temp ↑ we see that SV pressure Fusion Temp. = Solidification Boiling Temp. = Condensation
& SV density ↑ while the liquid density ↓ Temp. independent of pressure Temp. varies with pressure

P = Vapor Pressure
γ’ = Liquid Density
Critical temperatures
γ’’ = Saturated vapor
density • The critical temperature of a substance is
r = Heat of vaporisation
the temperature at and above which vapor
of the substance cannot be liquefied, no
matter how much pressure is applied.
At 1 bara boiling
temperature of methane
• The critical pressure of a substance is the
= -163°C pressure required to liquefy a gas at its
When P ↑ boiling temp ↑
critical temperature (methane = 46.4bara).

56
 10/6/2013

Pressure/temperature relationships for

Pressure/temperature relationships for
Critical saturated and unsaturated liquefied
liquefied chemical gases
temperature hydrocarbon gases
of methane is
-82°C
Ethylene +/-
+8°C

Intersection with the horizontal axis =

carriage temperature in a fully
refrigerated system (bara = 1)

Critical Temperatures Gas carriers and the IGC code

• Gases (at a suitable temperature < critical
temperature) can be converted to liquids by
compression.
• Gases become more difficult to liquefy as the
temperature increases because the kinetic
energies of the particles that make up the gas
also increase.
Liquid Gas
• All new liquefied gas carriers (from June
1986) are built to the International Code for
the Construction and Equipment of Ships
Carrying Liquefied Gases in Bulk( the IGC
Code).
• This IGC code also defines cargo properties
and documentation, provided to the ship
(the Certificate of Fitness for the Carriage
of Liquefied Gases in Bulk).

57

Gas carriers and the IGC code
• The fitness list attached to the certificate of
fitness shows the cargo grades the ship can
carry. This takes into account:
• Temperature limitations imposed (materials of
the containment and piping systems).
• Reactions between the gases and the
elements of construction (tanks, valves,
pipelines) .
Gas carriers and the IGC code
Type C & Membrane tank
Single Hull Double Hull
10/6/2013
Gas carriers and the IGC code
• For cargo carriage under pressure
(independent tanks type B & C) a single
hull is sufficient.
• All other gas carriers (integral, membrane
and independent type A) are built with a
double hull structure mitigating the
consequences of collision and grounding.
Flanders Harmony – Type 2G –
Independent Type A tanks
58
 10/6/2013

Ship type

Gas carriers and the IGC code IGC Chapter 19 1G, 2G & 2PG, 3G

• A principal feature of a gas carrier

design is the double containment and an
internal hold.
• The cargo tanks are installed in the hold,
often as a completely separate entity from
the ship; i.e. not part of the ship’s structure
or its strength members (independent tanks)

Gas carriers and the IGC code
Gas carriers are classed in three types based
on ship survival capability and the location
of the cargo tanks (≈ IBC code):
1. type 1G, designed to carry the most hazardous
cargoes
2. type 2G and 2PG, designed to carry cargoes
having a lesser degree of hazard
3. type 3G, designed to carry cargoes of the least
hazardous nature.
IGC ship types 1G & 2G
• A Type 1G Ship is a gas carrier intended to
transport products as indicated in section 19
column C which require maximum preventative
measures to preclude the escape of such cargo.
• A Type 2G Ship is a gas carrier intended to
transport products as indicated in section 19
column C which require significant preventative
measures to preclude the escape of such cargo.

59
 10/6/2013

IGC ship type 2PG

IGC ship type 3G
• Type 2PG Ship is a gas carrier of < 150 m
to transport products as indicated in section • Type 3G Ship is a gas carrier intended to
19 column C which require significant carry products as indicated in Section 19
preventative measures to preclude escape of which require moderate preventative
such cargo, and where the products are measures to preclude the escape of such
carried in independent tanks type C cargo.
designed for a MARVS of at least 7 bar
gauge and a cargo containment system
design temperature of – 55 °C or above. If
length >150 m in length 2PG = 2G

Liquefied gas carriage:

IGC ship types TANK TYPES:
• Integral: part of vessel structure as on oil tankers. Not often used as
restricting to atmospheric transport above -1010°°C
• Membrane: The membranes are supported by the ship’s structure,
Ship type Requirement but thermal and mechanical efforts due to low temperatures are not
according chapt. 19
column C transmitted to the hull.
1G may carry 1G, 2G, 2PG, 3G • Independent: The tank is put inside the hold and maintained by
2G may carry 2G, 2PG, 3G blocks but is not fixed to the hull so that efforts are not transmitted.
2PG may carry 2PG, 3G • Type A: prismatic tanks, atmospheric, secondary barrier required (hold)
3G may carry 3G • Type B: prismatic or globe shaped. The design methods guarantee a better
safety factor so that only a partial secondary barrier is required
required..
• Type C: Pressure vessels: no secondary barrier required.
required.
(Secondary barrier: outer containment able to hold the cargo for 15
days without danger in case of leak to the tank.)

60
 10/6/2013

What is a double barrier?

• «Secondary barrier» is the liquid resisting
outer element of a cargo containment
system designed to afford temporary
containment of any envisaged leakage of
liquid cargo through the primary barrier and
to prevent the lowering of the temperature
of the ship's structure to an unsafe level.

Type C tanks
not applicable
for LNG cargo

61

Membrane Tanks
• The design vapour pressure P0 is not normally to
exceed 0,025 N/mm2 (0.25 bar). If, however, the
hull scantlings are increased accordingly, P0
may be increased to a higher value but less than
0,07 N/mm2 (0.7 bar).
• 2 types of membrane tanks
• Gaz Transport (Methania, excalibur, excel ….)
• Technigaz
Double Hull Concept of an LNG
carrier
10/6/2013
Membrane tank – Gaz Transport
• First applied on board of an LPG-carrier in 1967
• Applied on board of an LNG-carrier « Polar
Alaska » in 1969
• 1ste membrane = INVAR (very small thermal
expansian factor)
• 2nd membrane = INVAR
• 2 insulation barriers = Plywood boxes filled with
perlite (vulcanic glas)
Membrane tank – Gaz Transport
62
 10/6/2013

Membrane tank – Gaz Transport Membrane tank – Gaz Transport

Excalibur – Excel – Excelsior –

Methania Excellence - Excellerate

63
 10/6/2013

Membrane tank – Technigaz

• 1st applied on board of « Descartes » in
1971
• Primary membrane = inox
• Insulation = polyethera
• 2nd barrier = composite material with
aluminiumfoil between 2 glasfibre layers

Membrane tanks - Technigaz

64
 10/6/2013

Technigaz concept
Membrane
tanks -
Technigaz

Membrane tanks
- Technigaz Technigaz II (Mark III system)

65
 10/6/2013

CSI –system
Mark III system
Combination of Gaz Transport
a Technigaz elements
• Primary membrane is Invar
• Secondary membrane = a
thin sheet of aluminium
between two layers of glass
cloth and resin.
• The insulation consists of a
load-bearing system made of
prefabricated panels in
reinforced polyurethane foam
including both primary and
secondary insulation layers as
well as the secondary
membrane

Independent
Type « A » tanks
Tanks
• The design vapour pressure P0 is to be less
than 0,07 N/mm2 (0.7 bar).
• Fully refrigerated cargo at or near atm.
Pressure
• Not crack propagation resistant => full
second barrier required

66
 10/6/2013

Independent tanks type A

Type B & C tanks Type « B » tanks

• The design vapour pressure P0 is to be less than
0,07 N/mm2 (0.7 bar).
• Enhanced design => only partial second barrier
• Hold space is filled with IG
• Most common type is Kvaerner Moss design
• Almost exclusively used for LNG transport
• Type B tanks can also be prismatic (SPB-
(SPB-tanks)

67
 10/6/2013

Insulation is fitted
Type “B” tank to the outside
shell of the sphere Type « B » tanks - Spherical
but no secondary
barrier

Below the sphere,

an aluminum drip
tray, together with
splash plates,
provides
secondary
protection for the
hull.

Kvaerner-Moss

• A= Pipetower • F= Cylinder Shaped Support

• B = Tank Dome
• C = Thermal Isolation
• D = Tank Thickness (150mm at
equatorial rings
• E = Contraction
• G = Moss Spherical Tank
• H = Propulsion Plant And Use
Of Boil-Off Gas

68
 10/6/2013

LNG carrier with Moss tanks

LNG-carrier with
Moss tanks

69
 10/6/2013

Type « B » tanks – Prismatic

Isolation Moss Tank
(SPB--tanks)
(SPB

Type « C » tanks Semi-Pressurised

• Higher design vapour pressures P0 > 0.7 bar
• Sperical or cylindrical
• Used on board of semi-
semi-pressurised and
fully-pressurised tankers
fully-
• No secondary barrier required

70
 10/6/2013

Independent tanks C Ship-Shore Connection

• Hoses or
loading arms

Ship-Shore Connection Ship-Shore Connection

Shore loading arms
connecting to the LNG
carrier's manifold. Liquid
cargo and Vapour return lines
are connected.
The loading and unloading
operations form a closed loop
so that vapours are not vented
to atmosphere.

71
 10/6/2013

Ship-Shore Connection Manifold Precautions

1. The manifold area should be clear of obstructions which
could interfere with the automatic release of a hard arm.
2. Pressure gauges should be regularly checked during the
discharge for manifold valve leakage.
3. All flange connections should be fully bolted.
4. This includes any line which is being used for, or might
become pressurized during, cargo operations on both
sides of the vessel.
5. The manifold valves and lines should be clearly marked
as to whether they are liquid or vapour.
6. The manifolds fitted with drain lines and purge points
should be valved & capped.

Emergencies initiating ESD Actions initiated by ESD

72
 10/6/2013

Why CNG?

Compressed natural gas

CNG

Coselle (Williams), USA Coselle (Williams), USA

• CNG in vertical coils

• Pressure: 200 Bar
• Temperature: Ambient

73
 10/6/2013

Coselle (Williams), USA Enersea Transport, USA

• CNG in horizontal or vertical pipes

• Pressure: 140 Bar
• Temperature: -25°C

Knutsen OAS Shipping Knutsen OAS Shipping

• CNG in vertical cylinders
• Pressure: 250 Bar
• Temperature: Ambient

74
 10/6/2013

Composite pressure vessels

Trans Ocean Gas, Canada
(1)
• Composite pressure vessels are made by
winding a filament fiber over a mandrel /
liner of high density polyethylene (HDPE)
• As the filament is wound over the
mandrel, it is drawn through an epoxy
bath
• Two types of filament fibers are used
• glass fiber
• carbon fiber

Composite pressure vessels

ExxonMobil PLNG, USA
(2)
• Excellent track record
• Used in aerospace industry since 1960
• O2 tank survived Skylab crash in 1979
• Used in buses since 1995
• Better rupture characteristics than steel
• Corrosion resistant
• Lighter than steel • PLNG in vertical cylindrical tanks
• Excellent low temperature characteristics
• Pressure: 28 bar
• Temperature: -100°C
• Expensive
• Re-liquefaction system

75
 10/6/2013

ExxonMobil PLNG, USA STL/STP

The STL/STP-system
The STL/STP-system
STL = Submerged Turret Loading
STP = Submerged Turret Production

• The loading hose runs through the buoy to a swivel,

which allows the ship to weathervane freely.

76
 10/6/2013

Submerged Turret Mooring

and Offloading system

• System designed for harsh environmental conditions

• Excellent track record on shuttle tankers in North Sea

STL Compartment Arrangement

Heave compensator

Traction winch

Blast relief panels

Flexible jumper

Rope Guide

Ventilation duct

Swivel and
connector assembly

Swivel handling arm

Buoy locking device

Buoy mating cone

77
 10/6/2013

Regasification on board
Transform liquefied LNG at -163°C and atm. pressure to gaseous
LNG at 100 bar and ambiant temperature => ready to be used

Regasification on board

PS: More complex

systems do exist

Exmar Regasification Unit

Schematic Drawing of Regasification System
Suction High Pressure LNG Metering
Drum LNG pump (6) Vaporizer (6) Unit
Pressure control
valve

Cargo Tank
SW
overboard Individual Regas components
LNG Feed pump HP flex.
jumper

Swivel

Steam heater

Heating water Heating water

supply / ballast booster / circul. STL Mooring
SW suction pump pump buoy / Riser

78
 10/6/2013

LNG Feed pumps High Pressure LNG pump

6 units of 205 m³/h @ 100 bar
3 units of 620 m³/h each (+ 2 units of 20 m³/h for start-
start-up only)
Proven design for land based plants
Retractable type submerged pump
Special design considerations for marine:
• Commonly applied for : • Accelerations due to ship motions (Bearings !)
• Protection of bearings when idle
• land based storage tanks
• ship’s emergency cargo pumps

LNG Vaporizers Arrangement of Regas Plant

6 units, 100 mmscf/d capacity each Suction
Drum
Shell and tube type, as applied on several land based plants
Metering Unit
Special design considerations
for marine environment: High Pressure
• Accelerations due to ship motions Manifold
Mechanical strength
Gas flow characteristics
• Material selection (seawater !)

Vaporisers

HP Pumps

HP Discharge Line
Heating water
Traction winch assembly pump room

79
 10/6/2013

Unlimited filling/Sloshing in Cargo Tanks Pump Tower Mast Design

STANDARD FILLINGS UNLIMITED FILLINGS

Detailed 2D & 3D FEM analysis

by GTT & BV (DIVA 3D)

Independent 2D & 3D
analysis by ABS

Model Test Validation by GTT

=> Reinforced hull structure & containment system

LNG as fuel Use of Boil Off Gas (BOG)

• Significant in the design and operation
of gas carriers is that methane vapour is
lighter than air while LPG vapours are
heavier than air. For this reason the gas
carrier regulations allow only methane to
be used as a propulsion fuel – any minor
gas seepage in engine spaces being
naturally ventilated.
• Fuel for steam turbine
• Dual fuel auxiliaries +main engine running on
fuel
• Dual fuel auxiliaries + electrical main
propulsion
• 4 stroke dual fuel engines as main propulsion
• 2 stroke dual fuel engines as main propulsion

80
 10/6/2013

Example of a LNG reliquefaction

LNG Reliquefaction Boil Of Gas compressed
and cooled with sea water system Cold Box
• LNG is maintained at boiling temperature by Removal of
means of boil-off non condensable
elements
• Conventional LNG carriers vent this gas or use it
as fuel for steam boilers => steam propulsion
• State of the art technology makes reliquefaction
possible nitrogen
compression-
• This liquefied gas can be sent back to the tank or expansion cycle
used as fuel in a dual fuel engine

Advantage of dual fuel engines Advantage of dual fuel engines

• Dual fuel engines (2 strokes) are
considerably more efficient (> 48%) than
steam turbine propulsion (< 29%)
• SOx problem is solved
• Small advantage on NOx and CO2
emissions

81
 10/6/2013

Comparison of emissions from an HFO

burning and a gas burning MAN 70ME type
engine

82