Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical

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Effects of Impeller Design and Surface Roughness on the Performance of Centrifugal Pumps
F. A. Varley
Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers 1961 175: 955
DOI: 10.1243/PIME_PROC_1961_175_062_02

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 955

EFFECTS OF IMPELLER DESIGN AND SURFACE ROUGHNESS

ON THE PERFORMANCE OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
By F. A. Varley, M.Sc. (Eng.), Ph.D. (Associate Member)*

Conventional methods of designing centrifugal pump impellers are based on the ideal velocity triangles
and the Euler head equation. Empirical modifications derived from the performance of previous successful
designs are used to correct for departures from these ideals, and design procedure becomes a matter of
extrapolating from past experience.
More fundamental studies of the flow conditions inside a centrifugal pump have been made, but these
have generally required simplifications of the impeller geometry or other expedients in order to render the
problem amenable to analysis. In consequence, the results have found only limited application for the
complex pumps and real fluids met in practice.
In the paper the author attempts to reconcile these different approaches by presenting data on the effects
of the various impeller design elements on the performance of a 2411. double-entry pump. The decisive
parameters determining the Performance of the impeller are shown to be the number of blades and their
outlet angle. The inlet angle and the blade profile are of relatively minor importance. Roughness of the
impeller surfaces, both internally and on the outside of the shrouds, decreases the pump’s efiiciency but
increases its output.
Analysis of the test results with artificially roughened impellers demonstrates that current conceptions
of disc friction and the energy balance sheet for a pump are untenable.

INTRODUCTION motion occurring within the impeller passages. In general

DESPITE the high degree of perfection of modern centrZugal
pumps, as demonstrated by their efficiencies of over 90
per cent, study of the literature on their design and per-
formance reveals a distinct lack of published data on the
relative importance of individual impeller design elements.
The design of an impeller in commercial practice appears
to be based on the Euler head equation and the inlet and
outlet velocity triangles. Corrections in the form of empirical
coefficients and non-dimensional performance curves,
derived from earlier successful designs, are introduced to
allow for the non-uniform flow distribution within the
pump passages. If all new machines were built as extensions
of existing types, there would be no progress in the per-
formance of pumps. Further improvement requires greater
understanding of the fundamentals of the problem and a
detailed study of the effects of individual design variables
for both impeller and casing.
Mathematical studies, notably by Stodola (I)? and Buse-
mann (z), have been made with a view to amending the
Euler equation to allow for the secondary circulatory
The MS. of this paper was received at the Institution on 23rd
November 1959.
* Principal Lecturer, RoyaI Military College of Science, Shrivenharn.
1- A numerical list of references is given in the Appendix.
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PWC Instn Mech Ewrs
they assume two-dimensional flow and a perfect fluid and
little attempt has been made to correlate them with actual
pump performance.
A number of experimentalinvestigations, including those
of Uchimaru (3), Kasai (4), Binder and Knapp (9, and
Peck (6), has revealed that the velocity and pressure
variations within the passages of a pump are most complex.
Owing to the difficulties of instrumentation, these studies
have commonly been carried out with impellers andlor
casings of a simplified geometric shape and the results
cannot always be applied to the more complex pumps met
in practice. More recent work employing photographic
observations of fabricated perspex impellers discharging
freely into a large circular tank has been carried out at both
the California Institute of Technology (Osborne and
Morelli (7), etc.) and the B.H.R.A. (Young (S)).
The research described in this paper was planned to
provide a link between pure theory and experimental work
with simplified machines, on the one hand, and the em-
pirical approach of commercial design practice, on the
other. The relative importance of some individual impeller
design parameters was investigated by varying the factors
in turn whilst maintaining the same basic design as far as
possib1e .
VoI 175 No 21 1961
956 F. A. VARLEY

Notation # Head coefficient = 2gH/uZ2.

A Leakage area at wearing rings. w Angular velocity of impeller.
b Width of impeller passage between shrouds at radius Subscripts 1 and 2 refer to inlet to and outlet from the
R. impeller vanes.
C Thickness of outer rim of shrouds.
C Discharge coefficient. EXPERIMENTAL A P P A R A T U S
f Velocity of flow at radius R, radial component of v. The layout of the test circuit is shown in Fig. 1. The pump
F Friction coefficient. was mounted on a substantial plinth and drew water from
g Gravitational acceleration. one of four large interconnected tanks. It delivered to either
H Head developed by pump. of the two receiving tanks and from there the water dis-
AH Head loss due to skin fiiction in volute. charged over a notch back into the supply tank system.
He Euler head = (u2pu2-u1wl)/g. The pump used as the basis of the investigation was a
Hi Impeller internal input head. single-stage, double-suction type with a horizontal shafi and
H L Pressure head across wearing rings. avolute-type casing split on the horizontal centre-line (Fig. 2).
k Mean sand-grain size. The bores of the inlet and outlet flanges were 2+ and 2 in.
M Hydraulic mean depth of radial flow at impeller outlet. respectively. Economic reasons compelled the choice of a
Iz Friction index. small size of pump since more than 20 different impellers
Q Pump discharge. were to be fabricated and tested in the same casing. Using
QL Leakage flow through wearing rings. impeller 1, which was a smoothly machined, built-up copy
Q, Total flow through impeller = Q+ QL. of the original cast impeller, the pump delivered 85 gal/&
r Radius of curvature of blade or section of blade. against a head of 52.5 ft at 1400 rev/& with a peak
R Impeller radius. efficiency of 58-4per cent. It was driven by a 4-h.p. d.c.
Rd Effective radius of shrouds for disc friction = R2+c. dynamometer having a speed range from 900 to 1600 rev/
t Thickness of blades normal to surface. min. The torque reaction on the motor casing was measured
U Tangential velocity of blade at radius R . by a calibrated spring balance acting at 208 in. radius. A
V Absolute velocity of fluid at radius R. dashpot was fitted to damp out vibrations and a dial gauge
vr Velocity of fluid relative to blade at radius R. was fixed to the upper stop to give an accurate zero position
W Whirl velocity at radius R, tangential component of v. for the torque-arm (Fig. 3).
Y Distance from centre of impeller to centre of cur- The flow was measured by a Venturi meter in the delivery
vature of blade section. pipe, using an inverted water U-tube for the lower pressure
z Number of impeller vanes. differences and a mercury-water U-tube for the higher
B Blade angle at radius R, angle between u and vr. deliveries. As a check, the discharge was also determined
ism Mean blade angle = @4+/3J/2. from a reading of the head over the ‘half 90 degree’ notch
7 Efficiency of pump. sited in the receiving tank. The two meters were calibrated
4 Flow coefficient =fi/u2= Q/(2nRJ-Zt cosecP2)b2u2. independently and the discharge figures computed from

,., V-NOTCH

YNAMOMETCR

I
ii_-
VENTURI
- A -

Fig. 1. Layout of pump test r&

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Vol I75 No 21 1961
 EFFECTS OF IMPELLER DESIGN AND SURFACE ROUGHNESS ON THE PERFORMAXCE OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS 957

Fig. 2. Sectional elevation of test pump

S5 gal/min at 52.5 ft head and 1400 rev/min.

rev/&, the lower speeds requiring the insertion of extra

resistance in the motor circuit. The resulting pump
characteristics showed that the peak efficiency remained
sensibly constant over the range 1500-1000 revimin, and fell
away steadily at the lower speeds. Later impellers were
.
tested at the six speeds 1000, 1100. .1500 rev/min, and,
to facilitate comparison between the various impellers, the
results were plotted as non-dimensional performance curves
of head coefficient (4) and efficiency (9)against flow coef-
ficient (4):

+ = -2gH
u22 ’’ w.h.p. output
= b.h.p. input ; $ = .f2G . (1)

Fig. 3. Test pump and dynamometer
them were found to agree in all cases to within f 1 per cent.
A mercury U-tube manometer was used for measuring
the suction head and a Bourdon-type pressure gauge for the
delivery head. The delivery gauge was checked at frequenk
intervals with a dead-weight tester. The pump speed was
read from a tachometer, belt-driven from the pump-mator
coupling and checked regularly against a stroboscopic lamp.
Proving tests
Preliminary tests with the earlier impellers were carried out
over the speed range 600-1500 rev/& at intervals of 100
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Proc Innn Mech Engrs
For the graphs shown herein, head and delivery scales have
been added corres?onding to 1400 revlmin (the design
speed of the pump).
After fitting each new impeller the pump was run for
several hours to bed in the packing but despite all precau-
tions a small variation in the bearing and gland friction
losses was found inevitable, particularly when the packing
rings had to be renewed. However, by draining the pump
after each test run and running the pump ‘dry‘, the
mechanical losses were determined and a mean of these
readings over the whole investigation was used in calcu-
lating the test results. In effect the total power input and the
pump efficiency were corrected for each test to include
constant mechanical losses for any particular speed (0.196
h.p. at 1400 revlmin).
Similarly, after measuring the mechanical losses, the
coupling pins were removed and the motor was run by itself
Vol175 No 21 I961
958
to get a zero reading on the spring balance which included
the resistance of the casing bearings.
EFFECT OF NUMBER O F BLADES
The Euler head calculated fiom the ideal velocity triangles
assumes perfect guidance of the water through the impeller,
i.e., an infinite number of vanes. The two-dimensional
theories of Stodola and Busemann allow for the circulation
of the relative flow within the impeller passages, giving
head-slip corrections for a finite number of blades. Wis-
licenus (9) made a comparison between these correction
coefficients and suggested that the more elegant analysis
was that of Busemann but there is little evidence to show
which gives the better results in practice.
Pfleiderer ( I 0 ) gives the following empirical equation for
the optimum number of impeller vanes:
Stepanoff (11) suggests the experimental rule Z = b2/3 but
this can only be a guide as it makes no allowance for the size
of the impeller or its proportions.
In the present investigation tests were made of seven
built-up impellers with blades varying in number from two
to twelve but of otherwise identical design (based on the
original cast impeller supplied with the pump), leading
dimensions being given in Fig. 4. The resulting pump
characteristics are shown in Fig. 5.
The effects of the number of impeller blades on the head
-4 1 p L
f -- - --@-k SHROUDS FIXED TO BLADES-HUB
ASSEMBLY BY MEANS OF SCREW5
Fig. 4. Details of built-up impelks
p.c.d. Pitch circle diameter.
Proc Instn Mech Engrs Downloaded from pme.sagepub.com at UNIV OF DELAWARE LIB on June 11, 2012
F. A. VARLEY
developed are clearly demonstrated. With a small number
of blades there was a good deal of scatter in the test results
at low deliveries but the mean head curves (shown dotted)
fall away appreciably at low flows. Impellers 1 and 2 (five
and six blades) have the n o d characteristic for centri-
fugal pumps, whilst with larger numbers of blades the head
first rises to a maximum as delivery increases, i.e., the
characteristic is of the unstable type which can result in
undesirable surging under certain operating conditions,
particularly when two such pumps are arranged in parallel.
This alteration in the form of the head-discharge curves as
a function of the number of blades confirms the work of
Schroder (12).For a discharge angle of 27", corresponding
to that in the test pump used, his results show that the
limiting number of blades for a stable head curve is seven.
At normal deliveries, as would be expected, the head
developed by the pump increases with an increase in the
number of impeller blades. The added blades, however,
cause an increase in the through-flow friction losses and the
head increment per blade becomes smaller as the total
number of blades gets larger. In general, the greater the
number of blades, the flatter the efficiency characteristics
become and the higher the discharge at which peak
efficiency occurs.
In order to show more clearly the effects of the number
of blades on the optimum performance of the pump, values
of the peak efficiencies and the corresponding heads and
flows have been abstracted from Fig. 5 and are shown
plotted against the number of blades in Fig. 6. The
Vol I75 No 21 I961
 EFFECTS OF IMPELLER DESIGN AND SURFACE ROUGHNESS ON THE PERFORMANCE OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS 959

maximum efficiency rises rapidly from 44.5 per cent with

the two-bladed impeller to 58.4 per cent for the five-
bladed impeller, and then falls more slowly down to 52.5
per cent with 12 blades. The head and delivery rise con-
tinuously with an increasing number of blades but both
curves appear to be levelling out to reach maximum values
in the region of 12 blades. Clearly there are two opposing
factors which arise when the number of impeller blades is
increased; the head developed increases owing to decrease
in head slip, and the added blades cause increased friction
losses and reduction of the flow area through the impeller.
For the pump under test, the latter effect is more gradual,
which is reasonable considering the relatively small surface
area of the blades compared with the shrouds and hub.
When the dimensions for the test impeller are substituted
in Pfleiderer's equation (2), the optimum number of blades
is given as seven, whilst Stepanoff's rule suggests as many
as nine blades. Neither agrees with the experimental result
of five blades but the small size of the pump and its low
specific speed should be borne in mind.

Comparison of theoretical and measured heads

The variation of the theoretical input heads according to
the Euler, Stodola and Busemann theories with number of
impeller blades is shown in Fig. 7. In calculating these

,
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.13
FLOW COEFFICIENT,$ 2.0
I I I
L I ,_-- I I J
0 ?O "0 60 SO 100 I20 140
FLOW AT 1400 revlmin -gal/min

Fig. 5. Pump characteristics with varyin..

number of blades
Impeller number Number of blades
1 5
6
8
12
4
3
7 2

I
I
0 2 4 b a 10 !Z
NUMBER OF BLA3fS

Fig. 7. Comparison of theoretical and measured

heads with vaving number of blades

Pleads the assumption of radial flow at inlet was made and

the flow through the impeller, required to obtain the radial
velocity of flow at outlet, was determined by estimating the
leakage loss through the wearing rings and adding it to the
experimental discharge values at the peak efficiency points
[Fig. 6). Using the method proposed by Stepanoff (13), the
leakage at each ring was calculated from :
NUMBER OF BLADES QL = CAd(2gHL) - * - (3)
Fig. 6. Optimum performance at 1400 revlmin Stepanoff found the pressure head across the ring, HL, to
with varying number of blades be given approximately by the expression 0*75(@ -q 2)/2g
Proc I R ~Mech
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Vol 175 iV$21 1961
960
and this was confirmed by direct measurement in the present
tests. Selecting a value of 0.36 for the coefficient C from
Stepanoff's table gave a leakage of 2.63 gal/min per ring,
i.e., a total leakage of approximately 5.3 gal/& at 1400
revlmin.
As Fig. 7 shows, the Euler head falls slightly with in-
creasing numbers of blades owing to the increase in opti-
mum discharge and the decrease in flow area with added
blades. The Stodola and Busemann theories agree closely
when the number of blades is six or more, but with fewer
blades the curves diverge rapidly. The ordinates between
these latter curves and the Euler head represent the theo-
retical head slip allowing for the secondary circulatory
motion within the impeller passages, and this obviously
decreases as the number of blades increases.
The actual internal input head for each of the test
impellers at the optimum efficiency point was computed
by subtracting the mechanical losses (0.196 h.p. at 1400
revlmin) and the power absorbed by disc friction on the
external surfaces of the shrouds from the measured shaft
horsepower to give the internal horsepower input. Then if
Hi is the actual internal input head and Q, is the total flow
(including leakage) through the impeller (gallmin),
QrHi
internal horsepower = -
3300 '
It should be noted that this input head represents the power
input to the fluid in the impeller blade passages and can
thus be compared directly with the theoretical values given
by the Euler, Busemann and Stodola expressions.
The disc friction power was estimated from the ex-
pression:
477F(w)n+l
disc friction h.p. = 550(n+3) R2+3 . (5)
Using values of the coefficients F and n for a polished brass
disc of 9 in. diameter, as given by Gibson and Ryan (14),
its value was 0.319 h.p. at 1400 revlmin.
The variations at optimum efficiency of the actual internal
input head and the manometric head across the pump
flanges with number of impeller blades are also shown in
Fig. 7. In the conventional energy balance the ordinates
between these two curves represent the sum of the internal
impeller losses and the casing losses, but, as is shown later,
the net input by the impeller includes a contribution from
the external surfaces of the shrouds and the total internal
hydraulic losses are correspondingly greater.
Comparing theory and experiment, the Busemann curve
agrees quite well with the actual internal input head over
the range of 3-6 blades and is not more than 10 per cent
in error up to the maximum number of 12 blades. The
Stodola theory is consistently low by comparison with the
experimental input head but approaches it for the five-
bladed impeller-the optimum design. A striking feature of
Fig. 7 is the similarity in shape between the manometric
head and Busemann curves. The ratio of these heads
(manometric/Busemann) rises from 0.74 with two blades to
0.79with six blades, and then falls to 0-73with twelve blades.
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F. A. VARLEY
EFFECT OF VARYING B L A D E ANGLES
Outlet angle
The blade outlet or discharge angle is one of the most
important elements in the design of a centrifugal pump
impeller in that it is the principal factor influencing the head
developed by the pump at any given speed. From an &-
ciency standpoint most authorities suggest that the anglemay
be selected within fairly wide limits, say 15-40". Indeed the
paper by Schroder gives test results for a pump with a series
of impellers having discharge angles ranging from 15 to
90" and they show remarkably little scatter in the efficiency
values obtained.
In the present investigation, six impellers covering the
same range of outlet angles were made and tested, the inlet
angle being fixed at 36", the design value of the original
pump impeller. KO other design variables were changed
and the blades were all single circular arcs, the radius of
curvature of the leading face being given by:
R22-RI2
r = 2(R2 cos p2-RI cos p i ) ' * (6)
The resulting blade profiles are illustrated in Fig. 8 'a).
(4)
Fig. 8. Comparison of blade projiiles
showing impeIler numbers
(a) Varying outlet angle.
(b) Varying inlet angle.
(c) Varying curvature resulting from different design methods.
The head-flow characteristics of the pump with these
six impellers are shown in Fig. 9. As the outlet angle
increases from the lowest value, 15", the head curve at low
deliveries becomes progressively less steep until at about
59" it is horizontal. With a still larger exit angle the
characteristic is of the unstable type. These findings agree
generally with Schroder's results, although his limiting
outlet angle for a stable head curve was about 45". It should
be noted that Schroder's test pump had a higher specific
speed than the one tested here and was fitted with diffuser
vanes. At normal discharges the head developed by the
Yo1 175 No 21 1961
 EFFECTS OF IMPELLER DESIGN AND SURFACE ROUGHNESS ON THE PERFORMANCE OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS 961
1.4 1 - 1 7

FLOW COEFFICIENT.
I -0
0
I I -
o
20 40 60 ao 100 120 140
FLOW AT 1400 rcv/min-ggrl/min

Fig. 9. Pump characteristics with varying

outlet angle
Impeller number Outlet angle of
blades, degrees
8 15
1 27
9 40
10 59 OUTLET ANGLE OF RLADES-deprccr
I1 74
12 88 F&. 10. Optimum performance at 1400 revlmin with
varying outlet angle
pump increases as the outlet angle increases but the 'shut-
off' or zero-flow head varies only slightly. head, for varying exit angles, is shown in Fig. 11. The
The efficiency-capacity characteristics of the pump with values correspond to the performance at optimum efficiency,
Werent impeller outlet angles were largely coincident the internal leakage flow, experimental input head and disc
except for the extreme cases. Values of the peak efficiencies friction being estimated from equations (31, (4), and (5).
and the corresponding heads and deliveries at a speed of The Euler and Busemann head curves rise rapidly at the
1400 rev/& are shown plotted against blade outlet angle lower exit angles and then more slowly wirh larger angles,
in Fig. 10. The head increases approximately linearly from chiefly because of the corresponding decreases in the
49 to 63.2 ft as the exit angle increases from 15 to 88" and, subtractive term, u2f2 cot P2/g. The Stodola curve shows a
over the same range, the discharge increases from 84 to
96 gal/&. This increased output reflects the increased
Euler head resulting from an increase in the outlet angle
since, assuming radial flow at inlet,

The peak efficiency is a maximum of 58-4 per cent with an

exit angle of 27" and remains within 1 per cent of this figure
over a range of angles from 20 to 54". The length of
the blades decreases as the angle increases, as shown by the
lower curve in Fig. 10, and the greater friction losses in
the longer impeller passages that result may account for
the moderate fall in efficiency with the lower outlet angles.
With a large exit angle, the water leaves the impeller with
a high absolute velocity and correspondingly large mixing
and skin friction losses would be expected, especially in a
casing designed for a smaller discharge.

Comparison of theoretical and measured heads for

varying outlet angles
OUTLET ANGLE OF BLADES-degrees
A comparison of the theoretical impeller input heads,
according to the Euler, Stodola and Busemann equations Fig. 11. Cornparison of theoretical and masirred heads
with the actual internal input head and the manometric with oavying outlet angle
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Proc Imtn Mech Engrs T'oi 175 N o 21 1%f
962
decreasing head for exit angles above 20', thus reflecting
the comparison made by Wislicenus whose curves show
that the Stodola head correction coefficient is much lower
than the corresponding Busemann coefficient for a five-
bladed impeller with a large outlet angle.
The actual input head increases linearly with exit angle
up to an angle of about 70", after which it begins to rise
rapidly, and the manometric head increases linearly over
the complete range of angles used.
There is approximate agreement (within 5 per cent)
between the Busemann head and the experimental input
head for outlet angles between about 13 and 50" but the
Stodola theory gives a much smaller range of agreement.
Finally, the ratio manometric head/Busemann head. de-
creases from 0.80 at an exit angle of 15" to a minimum of
0.76 at 25" and then rises to 0.86 at 90".
Inlet angle
The common assumption made in obtaining a first ap-
proximation for the required inlet angle of a pump im-
peller is that the fluid enters the impeller radially. The
angle obtained is then increased somewhat to allow for
some pre-rotation of the fluid caused by its coming into
contact with the rotating shaft and impeller before reaching
the vane passages. This pre-rotation is considered fked by
the pump speed and the geometry of the casing inlet, so
that away from design flow there is a loss of head due to
shock and to contraction of the stream. Stepanoff suggests,
however, that the fluid selects the path of least resistance
and acquires pre-rotation in the direction of impeller
rotation for reduced deliveries and in the opposite direction
for discharges above normal. In practice the inlet angle
usually lies in the range from 10 to 30".
In order to investigate the importance of the inlet angle,
six impellers with this angle varied over the range 21-60"
were tested in the pump. As before, the other design ele-
ments were kept constant and the blades were single
circular arcs whose radius was obtained from equation (6).
Their profiles are illustrated in Fig. 8 (b). The resulting head
and efficiency characteristics were largely coincident; the
variations in head, flow, and efficiency at optimum per-
formance for a speed of 1400 revimin are given in Fig. 12,
and are seen to be slight.
The head falls steadily from 53.5 to 51.5 ft as the entry
angle rises from 21 to 60" and there is a corresponding
reduction in the discharge from 87 to 83 galimin. If the
water is assumed to acquire the increasing amounts of pre-
rotation required for shockless entry with increasing inlet
angles, the reduced output follows from the Euler theory.
The peak efficiency has a maximum value of 58-75per cent
with an inlet angle of 30" and remains above 58 per cent for
a range of angles from 21 to 41".The longer vanes at the
smaller blade angles again cause increased through-flow
losses in the impeller, and, with excessively large inlet
angles, some loss at entry to the blade passages seems
inevitable, because the water is unable to acquire the
necessary pre-rotation for tangential entry before reaching
the blade tips.
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Proc Instn M e t h En8i-s
F. A. VARLEY
INLET ANGLE OF RLADES-degrees
Fig. 12. Optimum performance at 1400 revlmin
with vaying inlet angle
EFFECT OF VARYING BLADE PROFILES
For any specified values of the inlet and exit angles, an
infinite number of blade shapes might be drawn, but there is
no published information showing the best method of
designing the blade profile in order to obtain the most
favourable pump performance. In small radial-flow pumps
it is common practice to use blades of which the profiles are
single circular arcs. For larger pumps, the vane shape may
consist of compound curves made up of a number of
circular arcs and designed to avoid abrupt changes of
velocity and direction. Pfleiderer (15), although detailing
alternative designs, suggests that a single-arc vane gives the
best efficiency for a pump of low specific speed.
The leading-face profiles of the blades used for all the
tests discussed elsewhere in this paper were single circular
arcs. For a particular blade curvature r and known entry
conditions (suffix l), the blade angle4., can be found at any
impeller radius R by rearranging equation (6) to give:
Rz-RI' R1
C O S ~= -+ R C O S , . ~ ~ . . (8)
2rR
A graph of blade angle against impeller radius for test h-
peller 1 is shown in Fig. 13. The variations of the nominal
velocities, obtained from ideal velocity triangles at 1400
revimin and optimum flow, are also shown. The pro-
nounced kinks in the velocity of flow and relative velocity
curves are due to the abrupt changes in flow area at the
outer periphery of the hub which occurred in the double-
entry test impeller. It is emphasized that the velocities
shown in Fig. 13 are hypothetical-velocities must neces-
sarily vary at any given radius as between, for instance, the
front and back of a blade. However, these nominal velocities
were used as a basis for the blade designs detailed below
with the intention of making further refinements to allow
for the varying velocities at a given radius if the results
justified such further investigation.
The blades of each of the impellers discussed in this
section were designed generally to modify the curves for
Vol175 No 21 1961
 EFFECTS OF IMPELLER DESIGN AND SURFACE ROUGHNESS ON THE PERFORMANCE OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS 963

(5) constant blade angle up to 4 in. radius followed by

IMPELLER RADIUS, N-11.
F&. 13. Variation of blade angle and velocities with
radius for impeIIer 1
Derived from ideal velocity triangles at 1400 rev/min a d
optimum flow.
impeller 1 shown in Fig. 13 in such a way as to produce
uniform changes of velocity or direction with radius.
Five design methods were investigated:
(1) linear decrease of blade angle with radius (impeller
18);
(2) linear increase of absolute velocity with radius
(impeller 19);
(3) linear increase of relative velocity with radius
(impeller 20);
(4) d o r m increase of angular momentum (whirl
velocity times radius) with radius (impeller 21);
uniform reduction (impeller 22).
All the blades had the same values for the entry angle
(36") and the exit angle (27") and the first step in each
design was to determine the required blade angles at seven
other radii spaced out: along the blades. Any particular
blade was thus divided into eight sections with known angles
at entry and exit and the shape of each section was then
approximated to a circular arc the radius of which was
calculated from equation (61, the subscripts 1 and 2 re-
ferring now to entry to and outlet from the section of the
blade. For the purposes of drawing and making the vanes,
the distance from the centre of the impeller to the centre of
curvature of a particular blade section was determined
from :
y = b'(rz++R12-2rR1 C O S ~ J . (9) .
The preliminary determination of the required blade
angles at the various radii presents no difficulty for designs
(1) and (5). Values of r andy can subsequently be calculated
in tabular form as shown in Table 1. For the other three
designs, values of the controlled velocities according to the
ideal inlet and outlet triangles (at 1400 revlmin and opti-
mum flow) were taken from Fig. 13. In this way the required
values of u, v,, or w . R at the intermediate radii were
determined and assuming, as a first approximation, the
variation of the velocity of flow with radius to be the same
as for impeller 1 (Fig. 13), the corresponding values of /3
were estimated. The resulting variations of @ with R are
shown in Fig. I4 and, though the curves differ widely from
that for impeller I, the corrections found by using these
blade angles to recalculate the flow areas, the velocities of
flow, and so to obtain ,B, are small. Even the obtuse angles
resulting from design (4) required further corrections of
less than 3". A comparison of the profiles for all five designs
with that for impeller 1 is given in Fig. 8 (c).

Table 1. Blade designjor h e a r decrease of blade angle (impeller 18)

Impellei 2R cos fl R2 Radius of !rR1cos p , Arc centre

radius seeon to impeller
R, in. r, in. centre
Y , m.
1.65 36 2.669 2.723
1.277 0.608 2.100 4.4 10 5.133 5.605 1.528 1.236
2.00 35 3.277 4400
2,250 0 890 2.528 6.391 10.39 1 8.284 2.107 1-451
2.50 33.57 4.167 6.250
2,016 0 673 2-995 8-970 15 225 12.481 2-739 1.655
2.875 32.50 4.850 8.266
2.297 0 696 3.30 1 10-897 19 163 16.010 3.153 1,776
3.25 3 14 3 5.546 10.563
2.578 13711 3.626 13.148 23 761 20.110 3.601 1,898
3.625 30.35 6.257 13.141
2.859 0 721 3,966 15 729 28 870 24,815 4.055 2.014
4.00 29.28 6.978 16.000
3.360 5-782 4.296 18.455 34 455 29.978 4.477 2,116
4.40 28-14 7,760 19-360
3,680 1)794 4633 21,484 40.844 35.967 4.877 2.208
4.80 27 8.554 23.040
-
p = (40.72 -2.86R) deg.
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964 F. A. V ARLEY

The experimental results from the impellers having

Werent blade shapes are presented in Fig. 15. It is striking
that, for given blade angles at inlet and outlet, the inter-
vening blade profile appears to have little effect on the
head-capacity characteristic of the pump. The curves for
impellers 1 and 20, and for impellers 19 and 22 cannot be
distinguished from each other. The radically different
blades of impeller 21 give rise to an unstable-type charac-
teristic, but at normal deliveries the head developed is little
greater than that for impeller 1. One general conclusion
appears possible: the shut-off head rises slightly and the
head curves become steeper as the length of the vanes
increases. The various blade designs, however, give rise to
appreciably different efficiency characteristics. Impeller 1,
with the simple circular-arc vanes, has the highest efficiency
(58.4 per cent) and the broadest efficiency curve, thus
confirming Pfleiderer's suggestion.
15 The peak efficiencies and the corresponding heads and
1.5 2.0 1.5 >a 3.5 4.3 4s 5.0
IMPELLER RADIUS, R-in. deliveries are shown diagrammatically in Fig. 16 on a base
Fig. 14. Variation of blade angle with radirrs for
different blade designs
Impeller Number
1 Single circular-arc vanes.
18 Linear decrease of blade angle.
19 Linear increase of absolute velocity.
20 Linear increase of relative velocity.
21 Uniform increase of angular momentum.
22 Blade angle constant up to 4 in. radius.

L L 1 I I b
21 I 20 19 22 18 f
IMPELLER NUMBER i

Fk. 16. Optimum performance at 1400 rm/mdn

with dtjferent blade designs
Basis of blade design for different impeller
numbers as given beneath Fig. 14.

of impeller numbers arranged in order of increasing blade

length. Despite the small but consistent change in the shape
of the head characteristic with blade length mentioned
20
L 0
0
4 u
002
J p
004
- . A
0.06
- a
008 0.10
above, the actual head and discharge values at the peak-
efficiency points do not seem to be related directly to the
FLOW COEFFICIENT, 4
L---L > I l
blade length. The efficiency curve shows that blades de-
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 signed for uniform change of vane angle or relative velocity
FLOW AT 1400 revlmin --g-ljmln
(impellers 18 and 20) give a relatively high efficiency, but
Fig. 15. Pump characteristics with different neither is superior to the simple circular arc. The remaining
blade designs three impellers have a relatively low efficiency, the worst
Basis of blade design for different impeller being that with blades designed for uniform increase of
numbers as given beneath Fig. 14. angular momentum (impeller 21).
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Proc Znsttt Mech Engrs V d 175 No 21 1961
 EFFECTS OF IMPELLER DESIGN A N D SURFACE ROL'GHNESS cphr THE PERFORMANCE OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS 965

EFFECT OF VARYING SURFACE FINISH These effects are clarified by Fig. 19 which shows the
I n order to obtain optimum efficiency in a centrifugal pump peak efficiencies, together with the corresponding heads and
it is clear that the water passages should be as smooth as deliveries, for the roughened impellers. A non-dimensional
possible. There is no published information as to the precise roughness factor, k/M, is used as a base in this comparison
variation of pump performance with varying surface finish rather than the mean grain size k. The hydraulic mean
and this phase of the investigation is concerned with the
problem, first in respect of the impeller as a whole, and then
with regard to the individual impeller components.
Impeller 1 (five blades) was used as the basis of the tests
and the method adopted for obtaining different degrees of
surface finish was to coat the surfaces with a layer of
sand, previously sieved within specified limits. Three sand
sizes were used given by the sieve limits 14/25, 25/36, and
lOO/lSO. It will be seen fiom Table 2 that the mean grain

size, Mean nominal Mean size by

size, m. micrometer in.
I4
25
25
1
0.0474
0.0236 0.0355 0.0341

36 0.0201 0-0191
I00 0.005 05 0.005 13
150
~~

size measured by micrometer fiom samples of sieved sand

agreed closely with the mean of the sieve limits. A thermo- FLOW COEFFICIENT,$
setting phenol-formaldehyde resin was used for glueing the I
0 20 40 60 80 100
1
I20
1
I40
sand to the impeller surfaces and, to obtain a good bond, FLOW AT 1400 revjmin --gd/mln
preliminary degreasing and etching of the surfaces was Fig. 18. Pump characteristics with vayiq
necessary. Brass distance pieces, of the same thickness as the surface jinish
films of sand plus glue, were fitted to the shrouds to coincide Impeller number Surface finish
with the edges of the blades and ensured a constant impeller I Polished
passage width. Fig. 17 shows :i sand-coated impeller ready 23 14/25 sand
for assembly. 24 25/36 sand
25 100/150 sand

Fig. 17. Sand-coated impeller ready for

assembly

The pump characteristics with the four impellers having

different surface finishes are shown in Fig. 18. Although
the degree of surface finish has no effect on the general
shape of the head curves, the head developed at any par-
ticular discharge increases with increasing roughness. 48
0 005 0.10 0.15 090 0.25
Conversely, the efficiency is highest with the smooth im- RQUGHNESS FACTOR, kj.21
peller, the peak efficiency falling as the roughness increases F%. 19. Optimum mformance at 1400 rev/mn
and occurring at higher flows. with vav'ng surface jinish
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Vol 175 No 21 1911
966 F. A. VrnLEY

depth of the radial flow at the impeller outlet, M, is given

by :
b,(2rR2-Zt cosec Bz)
M = 2(2rR2-Zt cosec &+Zb2) (1Q)
1

For all four impellers, M is constant at 0.165 in.; if the

relatively small correction for the blades were omitted it
would be equal to one half the width of the impeller
passage at outlet. The smooth impeller was given a nominal
k-value of 0.001 in. since, apart from the impossibility of
achieving a perfectly smooth machined finish, the counter-
s u n k screw heads on the outsides of the shrouds could not
be guaranteed flush with the surface.
The peak efficiency curve is hyperbolic in form, relatively
larger decreases in efficiency being caused by a particular
k/M increment for the smaller AIM values. Over the range
covered, the efficiency falls from 58.4 per cent for impeller I
to 49.3 per cent for the roughest impeller. It is emphasized,
however, that the larger sand grains used in these tests give
a surface which is considerably rougher than that of normd I I

cast impellers. For example, the peak efficiencyof the pump I

using its original maker's impeller was 55.9 per cent (the ,l 0-4* 002 004 0 06 0-08 010
FLOW COEFFICIENT, $
equivalent sand roughness factor being about 0-027). Again, LA__
I
0 21 40 60 80 103 I20 !40
according to Fig. 19, the head and discharge at optimum 'LOW AT 1400 revlrnin -gal/min
efficiency increase, approximately linearly, with increasing
roughness. Compared with the smooth impeller, the Fig. 20. Pump characteristics with various
roughest impeller increased the head by 10 per cent and impeller components roughened
the delivery by 13 per cent. The c,b-curve for impeller 26 lies between the curves for
It is quite apparent that the pumping action of the shrouds .npellers 1 and 27.
and hub is increased by their being roughened, resulting in Impeller number Components roughened
an increase in output; but, on the other hand, the through- (14/25sand)
flow losses in the impeller passages and the external disc 1 None.
26 Leading faces of blades.
friction are increased proportionately more, and cause a 27 Both faces of blades.
net reduction in efficiency. The tests show that the efficiency 28 Blades, hub, inside of shrouds.
of a pump can be improved by machining and polishing the 23 All.
impeller surfaces, but how far this is counterbalanced by
increased manufacturing and maintenance costs must
depend on the size of the pump and the naturc of its duties.
The base of Fig. 19 being non-dimensional, it is to be
expected that similar curves would be obtained from other
pumps of like geometric shape, whatever the size, so that
the larger the dimensions of the impeller, the less is the
advantage of a smooth surface. Conversely, for the scale-
model testing of large pumps, the model will require an
extreme surface finish to avoid introducing errors due to
scale effects.

Roughenhg of separate impeller components

To determine which parts of the impeller were instru-
mental in causing the effects described above, the pump
was tested with different impeller surfaces sand-coated in
turn. Both the five-bladed and six-bladed impellers were NONE LEADING 3OTH INSIDE ALL
used and two sizes of sand, 14/25 and 25/36 sieve. Fig. 20 FACE FACES OF SHROUDS SURFACES
OF BLAQES BLADES HUB AND
shows the experimental results for the five-bladed impeller BLADES
and the coarser grade of sand and can be considered
representative of all the tests. The optimum performance Fig. 21. Optimum pmfmmance at 1400 revlmin with
of the pump with the various impeller components Darims impelk components roughed
roughened is shown in Fig. 2 1. Sand size 14/25 sieve.
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Vol175 No 21 I961
 EFFECTS OF IMPELLER DESIGN AND SURFACE ROUGHNESS ON THE PERFORMANCE OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS 967

The head and the discharge are substantially unaffected A similar analysis for the impellers coated with the finer
by roughening either of the blade faces but roughening the grades of sand gives the results shown graphically in Fig. 22.
inside surfaces of the shrouds and the hub, or the outside
surfaces of the shrouds, results in comparable increases in
both head and delivery of approximately 5 per cent. In
contrast, the peak efficiency falls continuously with each
extra area roughened, the largest decreases being caused
by the inside and outside surfaces of the shrouds (roughly
3 per cent in each case). Because of the small area involved,
the sand coat on the backs of the blades causes only a slight
reduction of efficiency (less than 1 per cent), but on the
leading or pressure faces the roughness results in an effi-
ciency drop of about 2 per cent. The relative effects of the
suction and pressure faces of the vanes seem at first sight to
be at variance with generally accepted theories of velocity
distribution across an impeller passage, according to which,
the relative velocity along the back of a blade will bc greater
than that along the front. Probably the leading faces cause
the greater efficiency drop because there is separation of the
flow from the trailing faces, or, at least, if there is not a
complete breakaway, the boundary layer on the suction
faces is much thicker than on the pressure faces, and thick
enough to mask the sand grains.

Disc friction loss !5

ROUGHNESS FACTOR,kIlI
I n the usual analysis of centrifugal pump performance the
power consumption in disc friction on the external shroud Fig. 22. Effects of shroud roughness on disc
s d a c e s is regarded as a net loss, but the fact that an friction and pump output
increased power consumption resulting from roughening w.h.p. increment.
the shrouds is accompanied by an increased pump output,
--- v b.h.p. increment.
A Incremental efficiency,
indicates that this conception is false. In Table 3 are w.h.p. increment/b.h.p. increment.
Estimated total disc friction power.
Table 3. Effect of roughening outsides of shrouds
on pump performme Both power increments decrease for the finer grades of sand
but the incremental efficiency rises slightly to just over 30

Impeller 23,
roughened
Head

60.75
p"p

49.0
I Water

1565
Brake
developed, efficiency, horsepower horsepower
ft percent output
___-
input

shrouds
Impeller 28,
smooth
shrouds 56.75 52.1 1.462
compared the performances of impellers 23 (completely
sand-coated, 14/25 sieve) and 28 (outsides of shrouds
smooth, remainder sand-coated) at 1400 revlmin and a
discharge of 85 gal/min. Roughening the outside surfaces
of the shrouds with sand of mean grain size 0-0341 in.
causes an increase in the pump output of 0.103 h.p. but
requires a corresponding increase of 0.387 h.p. in the
input. In effect, the roughened shroud surfaces act as a
pump, the 'efficiency' of which on an incremental basis is
0*103/0.387, i.e., 26-6 per cent. The disc friction 'loss' for
the polished shrouds was estimated earlier at 0-319 h.p., so
that the total disc friction power for the coarsest grade of
sand becomes 0.706 h.p.
Downloaded from pme.sagepub.com at UNIV OF DELAWARE LIB on June 11, 2012
Proc Instn Mech Engrs
3.194
per cent at a zero value of k/M, i.e., for a smooth surface.
This figure cannot be considered accurate, both the water
horsepower (w.h.p.) increment and the b.h.p. increment
being the difference of two similar figures, but the conclus-
ion remains that the disc friction power input is not a total
loss and that, even in the case of smooth surfaces, some-
thing like 30 per cent of the power is returned to the water
2407
leaving the delivery flange. With a larger pump and/or a
more efficient casing, a larger percentage of useful output
might be expected.
It also seems likely that if the clearance between the
shrouds and the casing walls was reduced, resulting in less
communication with the volute, the true disc fiiction loss
and the leakage loss would be reduced. One possibility
would be to raise an annular ring round the casing walls
opposite the impeller periphery.
Energy balance sheet
The above observations on disc friction will be reflected in
the energy balance sheet for the pump. A conventional
energy balance, based on the polished impeller at a speed
of 1400 revlmin and a delivery of 85 gallmi. is shown in
Vol175 No 2I 1961
968 F. A. v m Y B
Table 4. E m g y bduncs sheets for pump
(a) Conventional energy balance (b) Amended energy balance

b.h.p. input b.h.p. input

(2.31: h.p.) (2.316 h.p.)
I
i I I I I I
Disc Impeller NIechanicai Disc Internal Mechanical
friction input losses friction impeller losses
(0.319 h.p.) (1*801h.p.) (0,196 h.p.1 (0.319 h.p.3 input (0.1% h.p )
i I (I .801 h.p.)
I

1
loss
(0,106 h.p.)
\\) 222 h*p.) 1
(0.097 h.p.)
(k695 hap.)
-65.8 ft
Leairagc
loss
(0.106h.p.j
IL-..- I

i
Useful impeller
Net
I
useful impeller
input input
1.695 h.p. 1.792 hap.
(= 65.8 ft)
I
(- 6 9 6 ft)
1
I
I I I I
I I I I
_I-

1
Casing Impeller Volute Disihharge Pump Casing Impeller Volute Discharge Pump
inlet loss skin branch output inlet loss skin branch output
loss friction loss I .353 h.p. loss friction loss 1.353 h.p.
(2.7 ft
(7.9ft) (2.7 ft) (= 5 2 3 ft) ----’
(6.5 ft
(7.9 ft) (2.7 ft) ( E 52.5 ft)

by difference) by difference)
Impeller 1, 1400 cevjmm, peak efficiency point.

Table 4(a).Deduction of the measured mechanicallossesand
the estimared disc friction ‘loss’ from the shaft horsepower
gives a power input to the water in the impeller passages of
1.801 h.p. For an estimated leakage flow through the
wearing rings of 5.3 gallmin, the leakage power loss is
1.801 x 5-3/(85+5-3) or 0.106 h.p. Thus the apparent im-
peller input to the 85 gal/& discharged from the delivery
flange is 1.695 h.p., equivalent to a head of 1.695 x 3300/85
= 65.8 ft. The power output from the pump was measured
as 1-353 h.p. (manometric head = 525 f3) so that the
remaining losses total 13.3 ft. This figure includes skin
friction and shock or mixing losses in the following regions :
(1) the casing inlet from the suction flange to the
impeller inlet;
(2) the impeller passages ;
(3) the volute; and
(4) the diffuser cone leading to the delivery flange.
A method of estimating the ratio of the skin friction ioss in
the volute ( A N ) to the pump delivery head ( H ) has been
developed by Worster (16). The variation of AH/H with
pump size and specific speed, and with the volute surface
roughness, is presented graphically and for the pump
discussed here the ratio has a value of about 0.15, i.e., the
volute skin friction loss is approximately 7.9 ft. Another
investigation by Worster ( 1 7 ) ~concerning the efficiency of
diffusers, suggests that the pressure recovery in the diffuser
of the test pump is unlikely to be more than about 70 per
cent of the difference between the nominal velocity heads
at entry and outlet. The diffuser (or volute) throat of the
R o c Instn Mech Engrs Downloaded from pme.sagepub.com at UNIV OF DELAWARE LIB on June 11, 2012
pump has an area of 1.25 in2 and the delivery flange bore is
2 in., giving a loss of head in the diffuser of approximately
2.7 ft.
If the above estimates are inserted in the energy balance,
the remaining losses (in the impeller and the inlet region of
the casing) are given by difference as 2.7 ft, a figure which is
unduly low and implies that the impeller efficiency is more
than 96 per cent. Again, most authorities suggest that the
hydraulic losses in the impeller and the volute are of the
same order of magnitude for low-specific-speed pumps.
Fig. 22 shows, however, that some 30-5 per cent of the
disc friction power consumption for smooth shrouds re-
appears as useful output at the delivery flange. In the
amended energy balance sheet, Table 4(b), 0.222 h.p. out
of the total disc friction power of 0.319 h.p. is therefore
shown as a loss; the remainder is added to the internal
impeller input to give a net useful input of 1.792 h.p.,
equivalent to a head of 69.6 ft. With the same pump output
and volute and discharge branch losses, the impeller and
casing inlet losses are now 6.5 ft. The amended energy
balance, though more probable, is unlikely to be the full
story. The true disc friction loss (0.222 h.p.) must include
some losses which occur in the volute and discharge branch
and may therefore account for part of the 7.9 fi and 2.7 ft
quoted for these losses. Consequently, the remaining losses
in the impeller and casing inlet may be greater than 6.5 ft.
In addition there is likely to be a mixing loss in the volute
due to the high and non-uniform velocities leaving the
impeller. This loss is inherent from the flow distribution
within the impeller passages and in the energy balance
Vol I75 No 21 1961
 EFFECTS OF IMPELLER DESIGN AND SURFACE ROUGHNESS ON THE PERFORMANCE OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS 969
sheets it is imagined to be combined with the impeller
through flow losses to give the total impeller loss.
CONCLUSIONS
It is evident that the successful design of a centrifugal pump
from basic principles requires the exercise of a great deal of
judgement. The results of the present investigation suggest
that the interplay of the various parameters of impeller
design is complex but that the guiding principles can be
summarized as follows:
(1) Although there is no simple relationship between the
geometry of the impeller passages and the pump per-
formance, the number of vanes and their exit angle are the
dominant factors in determining the head developed by an
impeller of given size. A large number of vanes and a high
exit angle will give the maximum output but, beyond
certain limits, this will conflict with the requirements of
maximum efficiency and a stable head characteristic. For
small size pumps, particularly with moderate or large outlet
angles, the optimum number of blades for maximum
efficiency is less than that given by the empirical equations
of Meiderer and Stepanoff.
(2) The head according to the Busemann theory is
approximately equal to the internal input head corres-
ponding to the shaft input power less mechanical losses and
disc friction. The change in manometric head with an
increasing number of vanes and with a varying discharge
angle follows closely that given by the Busemann theory but
is some 20 to 25 per cent below it (dependent on the size of
the pump) because of the impeller and casing losses.
(3) The inlet angle of the vanes and the vane profile are
of relatively minor importance; a simple circular-arc vane
gives the best all-round performance for a low-specific-
speed machine.
(4) Roughness of the impeller surfaces decreases the
pump efficiency but increases its output because of the
errhanced pumping action of the shrouds. The current
conception of disc friction as a net loss is incorrect since
about a third of the power required to overcome it reappears
in the water horsepower output. In consequence the
conventional energy balance diagram requires amendment.
The investigation necessitated the construction of more
than 20 different impellers and thus for economic reasons it
was limited to a small pump of low specific speed with the
consequent low efficiency. However, it can be expected that
the results would apply qualitatively if not quantitatively to
larger pumps in the same specific speed range and similar
trends would be found with other types of pump. Further
research to extend the range of the analysis by means of
similar tests on such machines is necessary to provide a
complete link between mathematical theory and experi-
mental results.
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roc Iwtn Mcch Ergrs
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author is indebted to Dr S. J. Davies, Dean of the
Royal Military College of Science, and to Professor J. L.
Thomson, Head of the Department of Civil and Mechanical
Engineering, for their interest and guidance. The experi-
mental work on which this analysis is based was reported
initially by the author in M.Sc. (Eng.) and Ph.D. theses to
the University of London.
APPENDIX
REFERENCES
(r) STODOLA,
A. 1927 ‘Steam and Gas Turbines’ (McGraw-
Hill, New York and London).
(2) BUSBMANN, A. 1928 Z . angew. Math. Mech., vol. 8, p. 372,
‘Das F6rderhohenverWtnis radialer Kreiselpumpen mit
logarithmisch-spiraligen Schaufeln’.
(3) UCHIMARU,S. 1928 Inokuty Technical Papers, p. 1,
‘Experimental Research on the Distribution of Water
Pressure in a Centrifugal Pump Impeller’.
(4) KASAI,T. 1936 Mem. Fac. Engng Kyushu, vol. 8, p. 1,
‘Onthe Exit Velocity and Slip Coefficient of Row at the
Outlet of the Centrifugal Pump Impeller’.
( 5 ) BINDER, R. C. and KNAPP,R. T. 1936 Trans. Amer. Soc.
mech. Engrs, vol. 58, p. 649, ‘Experimental Determina-
tions of the Flow Characteristics in the Volutes of
Centrifugal Pumps’.
(6) PECK,J. F. 1951 Proc. Znstn mech. Engrs, Lond., vol. 164,
p. 1, ‘Investigations Concerning Flow Conditions in a
Centrifugal Pump, and the Effect of Blade Loading on
Head Slip’.
(7) OSBORNE, W. C . and MORELLI, D. A. 1950 Trans. Amer.
SOC.mech. Ewrs, vol. 72, p. 999, ‘Head and Flow Ob-
servations on a High Efliciency Centrifugal Pump
Impeller’.
(8) YOUNG,G . A. J. 1956 Erit. Hydromech. res. ASSOC., S.P. 530,
‘Flow in the Rotating Passages of a Centrifugal Pump
Impeller’.
(9) WISLICENUS, G. F. 1947 ‘Fluid Mechanics of Turbo-
machinery’ (McGraw-Hill, New York and London).
(10) PFLEIDERER, C, 1932 ‘Die Kreiselpumpen’, second edition
(Springer, Berlin).
( I I) STEPANOFF, A. J. 1948 ‘Centrifugal and Axial Flow Pumps’,
second edition, p. 78 (John Wiley and Sons, New York;
Chapman and Hall, London).
(12) SCHRODER, E. 1933 Dissertation Technische Hochschule
Braunschweig, ‘Das Iitjrderh6henverhSltnis einer
radialen Kreiselpumpen’.
(13) STEPANOFF, A. J. 1932 Trans. A n w . SOC.mech. Engrs, vol.
54, p. 65, ‘Leakage Loss and Axial Thrust in Centrifugal
Pumps’.
(14)GIBSON,4 . H. and RYAN,A. 1910 X i n . Proc. Znstn civ.
Engrs, vol. 179, p. 313, ‘Resistance to Rotation of Discs
in Water at High Speeds’.
(15) PFLEIDERER, C. 1952 ‘Stromungsmaschinen’ (Springer,
Berlin).
(16) WORSTER, R. C. 1957 Brit. Hydromech. res. Arsoc., R.R.
557, ‘Effects of Skin Friction and Roughness on the
Losses in Centrifugal Pump Volutes’.
(17) WORSTER, R. C . 1957 Brit. Hydromech. res. Assoc., R.R.
554, ‘Efficiency of Diffusers and Some Test Results on
the Effect of Wall Roughness’.
(18) ADDISON,11. 1948 ‘Centrifugal and Other Rotodynamic
Pumps’ :Chapman and Hall, London).
,970

Communications
M r H. H. Anderson (Member), A.M.I.C.E., Mem.
A.S.M.E., wrote that the author had suggested from tests
of one small pump that the outlet angle of the impeller and
the number of impeller blades were the decisive parameters
determining the performance of the pump.
He himself, however, suggested that the outlet angle of
the impeller had a negligible effect on the performance of
the pump and that changes in the number of impeller
blades (which, in any case, would be kept within a narrow
limit because of efficiency requirements) had a minor
effect on the performance of the pump. He based that view
on 30 years' experience of several hundred different designs
of pump in two major organizations, aggregating roughly
12 000 pump tests.
His first paper, 1938 (19), had suggested that the major
determinant of pump behaviour was the ratio of impeller
outlet area between vanes to casing throat area and that the
impeller outlet angle had negligible effect on the pump
performance.
In a second paper, 1947 (m), he had attempted to corre-
late design methods with theory. Both those papers had
been rejected as unorthodox by academic authorities. Later
publications, 1951 (21), 1955 (22), 1959 et seq. (23), had
described completely his design methods so that it was not
TYPICAL SPECIFIC SPEEDS. N.
3000 2000 1000 500
quite correct to say that there was a distinct lack of pub-
lished data on the relative importance of individual impeller
design elements.
Worster, in 1960 (24), had fully confirmed the above
suggestion that the major parameter of pump performance
was the area ratio of impeller to casing, and showed,
Figs. 23 and 24, how the outlet angle had a negligible effect.
Fig. 9, showing pump characteristics with varying outlet
angle, can be completely explained by the area ratio
approach, since the higher heads that the author associated
with larger outlet angle could instead have been obtained
by a wider impeller of small angle (Fig. 25, from refer-
ence (20)).
The effect of area ratio on pump performance and its
application to pump design was explained as followed: An
impeller having a small outlet area between vanes and a
large casing throat area would have a steep falling head
quantity curve since the relatively higher backward velocity
N 0.
a

06

05

0 4

0.3

0.2
06 0.8 (.O 2.0 30 4.0 f > 6 0 7.0
y = OUTLET AREA BETWEEN VhANES OF
IMPELLERITHROAT AREA OF CASING
Courtesy B.H.R .A. IMPELLER/ VOLUTE AREA RATIO, y

Fig. 23. Pump test data reproduced from Worster (24), Courtesy B.H.R.A.
Fig. 4 Fig. 24. Effect of impeller blade angle an best e & q
Large squares relate to Varley's 15", 27' and 40"impellers. point from Worster (24), Fig. 5
Other test points, Anderson (20). Lines, Worster Theory (24). Large squares relate to Varley's data.
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Proc Instn Mech Engrs Vol175 No 21 1961

EFFECTS OF IMPELLER DESIGN AND SURFACE ROUGHNESS ON THE PERFORMANCE OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
QUANTITY SCALE, P
Fig. 25. Comparison of test and theory from reference (20)
This chart m a y also be regarded as showing change of performance
for various impeller widths in the same casing.
within the impeller passages would give a lower whirl
velocity and hence gave a lower head at best efficiency.
Conversely, a large impeller area with a small throat area
would give a relatively low backward flow velocity and
therefore the whirl would be high and the head at best
efficiency point would be relatively high.
Daugherty, 1915 (25), had referred the peripheral vel-
ocity of the impeller, the radial flow velocity of the water
through the impeller, and the flow velocity of the water in
the casing throat to the spouting velocity corresponding to
the operating head of the pump at best efficiency point.
That had remained the conventional method of designing
a pump, the velocity coefficients corresponding to those
values being plotted against specific speed, for example,
by Stepanoff (26), 1957.
That approach, however, had the disadvantage that the
calculations for the flow velocities within the impeller and
the casing throat were affected by any error in measuring
the operating head of the pump, and also were affected by
the change in head due to the change in hydraulic efficiency
when the change of pump size was involved. That was
because the expression y'(2gH) was the basis of all speed
calculations, so that errors due to variation of H permeated
the whole design investigation.
The use of y'(2gH) had been derived from the water
turbine practice where, owing to large physical size, the
efficiencychange was small, but it was very misleading and
incorrect to use that expression as a basis for centrifugal
pump design since their efficiencies might vary according
to size and specific speed from say 50 per cent to 90 per cent
or more.
I n order to avoid the above errors, he had referred the
casing flow velocity to the peripheral velocity of the im-
peller, an independent variable, which could be determined
with great accuracy since it comprised only the diameter of
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971
the impeller and its rotational speed. Similarly, the operating
head was referred to the velocity head corresponding to
the impeller peripheral velocity. That eliminated errors of
head measurement from flow and area calculations.
As a further refinement, the generated head was divided
by the hydraulic efficiency, the latter being determined by
the assessment of losses. The test head divided by the
hydraulic efficiency was referred to as the Newton head
and represented the head generated by the dynamics of the
pump at 100 per cent hydraulic efficiency, thereby elim-
inating all losses due to friction in passages and bringing a
2-in. pump with an efficiencyof say 65 per cent to the same
dynamic standard as a 20-in. pump with an efficiency of
90 per cent. Head and quantity coefficients were plotted
against area ratio as shown in Fig. 23, which represented
several thousand pumps of different types and sizes. The
small scatter of points in Fig. 23 showed that the area ratio
was a most reliable means of understanding and forecasting
pump performance and of showing how variation of
characteristic could be obtained at any given specific speed.
The large squares in Figs. 23 and 24 showed the author's
tests allowing hydraulic efficiency correction to the head
coefficient and determining the casing throat area by
scaling from the section drawing in the paper.
It would be appreciated that an analysis of the peak
efficiency points of a large number of pumps of varying
designs, each giving an economic efficiency, would provide
more accurate knowledge and design data than tests of
different impellers in one pump since the latter must
necessarily involve some distortion of overall design.
He himself was unable to understand the academic
approach which, it would appear, ignored completely the
area of the casing throat. For example, Busemann's curves
showed an impeller still generating a head at a flow velocity
in the casing throat which could exceed the impeller
peripheral velocity; that, of course, was impossible because
the pump was then operating as a turbine. Thc author, in
the whole of his paper, made no mention of the casing
throat area, although that area was just as important as the
impeller in determining the performance of the pump.
A similar sense of unreality occurred in the latest edition
(1959) of the standard text book used in universities (27)
which made a categoric statement 'a single impeller will
produce a head of not more than 120 feet'. Daugherty,
1915 (25) recorded 995 ft per stage; he himself 1951 (21)
suggested 2000 ft per stage as a maximum probable head
at the present stage of metallurgy; Karassik, 1957 (28)
recorded 25 boiler feed pumps running for several years at
1600-1925 ft per stage.
He himself had attempted to bridge the gap between
academic approach and reality; the British Hydromechanics
Research Association had done excellent work in investi-
gating the complexities of pump behaviour and moreover
maintained a very close touch with manufacturers and
universities.
T o conclude on a constructive note, might he suggest
that before academic investigations were attempted, the
research engineer should get in touch with B.H.R.A. and
Vo1175 No 21 I961
972
should also spend several days in the design office of a
pump manufacturer. It is quite obvious from the paper
that the author had been very thorough and painstaking
and that, in particular, his investigation of roughness was
beyond criticism. He agreed with the author’s conception
of disc friction as giving indirectly some contribution to
the output, but would submit that, even for low specific
speeds, a circular arc was inadequate for the impeller blade
shape. It was found that the best results arose from blade
development by reiterative computation so that complete
mathematical control of the acceleration through the
impeller was assured.
REFERENCES
(19) ANDERSON, H. H. 1938J. King’s College Min, Soc., GTniversity
of Durham, July, ‘Mine Pumps’.
(20) ANDERSON, H. H. 1947 Proc. Instn 9nech. Engrs, Lond.,
vol. 153, p. 57, ‘Centri€ugaal Pumps-An Alternative
Theory’.
(21) ANDERSON, H. H. 1951 ‘Liquid Pumps’, chapter of Kemp’s
Engineers’ Year Book, et seq.
(22) ANDERSON, H. H. 1955 Proc. Imtn mech. Engrs, Lond.,
vol. 169, p. 141, ‘Modem Developments in the Use of
Large Single-entry Centrifugal Pumps’.
(23) 1959 Pumping monthly (Trade and Technical Press).
(24) WORSTER, R. C. 1960 B.H.R.A., RR. 679, ‘Interaction of
Impeller and Volute in Determining the Performance
of a Centrifugal Pump’.
(25) DAUGHERTY, R. L. 1915 ‘Centrifugal Pumps’ (McGraw-
Hill).
(26) STEPANOFF, A. J. 1957 ‘Centrifugal and Axial Flow Pumps’
(John Wiley and Sons, New York).
(27) LEWITT, E. H. 1959 ‘Hydraulics’ (Pitman).
(28) KARASSIK, I. J. 1957 Amer. Power Conf., March, ‘Progress
Report on High-speed Boiler Feed Pumps’.
Mr W. J. D. Annand (Associate Member), wrote that
the amount of reliable experimental data on the subjects
covered by the paper was so small that the reader who had
attempted to use existing information for design must, on
first looking through the paper, feel grateful that some of
his many questions were at last to be resolved.
Having become, by sad experience, a confirmed sceptic,
he would wish first of all to satisfy himself concerning the
nature and accuracy of the experimental methods. T o find
that he could not do so, in important particulars, would
rapidly modify his gratitude; which might, however, be
regained if the author would supply information on the
following points :
‘(1) What is meant by “head developed” in these
tests ?
‘(2) What was the location and form of the pressure
tappings used to measure r r ~ ~ ~ thead”
i o t i and “delivery
head” ?
‘(3) Undoubtedly, these tappings will have been
located, so as to avoid spurious changes in “head” due
to changes in flow pattern at the tappings; can any
evidence be provided that this aim was achieved ?
‘(4) What limits of scatter can be attached to the
curves drawn? This query could be answered in part by
presentation of all the experimental data for one or two
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COMMUNICATIONS
of the configurations; but would be most satisfactorily
settled if the author could give some statistical measure
of the experimental scatter, based upon all the experi-
mental data. Information of this sort is essential, if an
independent judgement is to be formed concerning the
reality of the smaller variations shown.
‘(5) What was the range of water temperature during
the tests? This is required for estimation of the test
Reynolds number, which is an important parameter. I n
this connection it may be relevant to observe that a
change of 5°C in water temperature, in the neighbour-
hood of 15”C,changes Reynolds Number by 15 per cent.’
It might be as well to expand a little on the first three of
those queries. The reader’s belief that the effects shown
really represented changes in energy input to the water,
hung critically upon his accepting that the head measure-
ments reported did represent energy changes exactly.
Experience showed how readily measurements, taken by
wall static tapping only, could be falsified (as measures of
changes in integrated total head) by changes in local velocity
distribution, or, even more, by changes in local rotational
motion. Those questions therefore appeared to the writer
to be of crucial importance.
I n relation to the last of the queries, it would be very
interesting to know whether any effect of Reynolds number
on the performance of individual configurations had been
shown up by the tests at the five different speeds mentioned.
It must be added that it seemed extraordinary to find, in a
paper dealing with small effectsin a fluid flow, no mention
whatever of Reynolds number.
In the discussion of the experimental results, there were
three points which he would like to question.
The first concerned the third paragraph of the section
headed ‘Inlet Angle’. It seemed to the writer that, to such
extent as the rotation of the water before reaching the
blades varied with blade inlet angle and was not produced
by features of the inlet casting, rotation was provided by
the rotor; and the Euler equation should be applied between
the outlet and some inlet plane upstream of the influence
of the rotor. On that basis the Euler equation would not
predict any variation of head, which would rather appear
to arise entirely from other causes.
The second concerned Fig. 19, and the author’s remarks
concerning the figure, in the last paragraph before the sub-
heading ‘Roughening of separate impeller components’.
The suggestion that ‘similar curves would be obtained
from other pumps of like geometric shape’ must surely be
qualified by requiring equality of Reynolds number. It was
not enough that one non-dimensional parameter be held
constant; all relevant such parameters must simultaneously
be so held, for similarity to be achieved. Roughness effects
might well be affected by variation of Reynolds number; in
that instance again, it would be valuable to know whether
the tests at various speeds threw any light upon the question.
Finally, it seemed necessary to understand better the
mechanism of the effect of roughness on the outside of the
shroud before it was possible to accept the author’s fourth
conclusion. To the writer it was difficult to see how the
Vol 175 No 21 I961
 EFFECTS OF IMPELLER DESIGN AND SURFACE ROUGHNESS ON THE PERFORMANCE OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS 973
centrlfugal head produced by the external shroud surface
codd do anything, except reduce the pressure head across
the eye seals and so reduce the leakage loss; if that was so,
the magnitude of the result it produced obviously depended
upon the effectiveness of the seals. Further, any benefit it
produced was accounted for if the seal loss was correctly
estimated, so that, if that was true, the author’s suggested
energy balance, Table 4b, included that benefit twice. The
author had stated that the pressure head across the seals
had been checked, to confirm Stepanoff’s formula. He
asked whether the check had been repeated in the tests with
roughened discs; if so, whether it had supported that
suggestion; and if it did not, whether the author could
suggest an alternative mechanism ?
h3r G. F. Arkless, B.Sc. (Graduate), wrote that the
statement regarding the effect of speed on pump peak
efficiency was interesting. In his experience the affinity
laws normally held well and peak efficiency thus remained
sensibly independent of speed.
That experience, however, was related to relatively high-
speed pumps which had seldom been operated at speeds
below 1500 rev/rnin, and hence in no way conflicted with
the results reported by the author.
The drop in peak efficiency at speeds below 1000 revlmin
suggested that at about that speed the best efficiency point
flow corresponded to a critical Reynolds number being
realized in the passages of either the impeller or the volute.
It xTould therefore be interesting to see the complete
efficiency curves since a less marked fall in efficiency at
light loads with decreasing speed would reinforce the
proposition that the phenomenon was associated with
Reynolds number.
The results of the roughness tests were of particular
value in that they illustrated the not insignificant role of
the impeller shrouds in head generation. Binder and Knapp
( 5 ) reported the existence of a pronounced flow along
impeller shrouds at low flow coefficients.
Recent work carried out by the author’s firm had con-
firmed that. Careful pitot traverses at the outlet of an
impeller running in air had shown that even at design point
flows, a considerable proportion of the flow takes place
adjacent to the shrouds. It was reasonable to suppose that
roughening the shrouds would increase the boundary layer
thickness and hence the amount of pumping work which
they contributed, albeit inefficiently.
Dr A. M. Baxter, M.Sc. (Member), wrote that, while the
reasons dictating the use of a small pump for that series of
experiments were fully understood and appreciated, it
must be realized that caution was required in extrapolating
and applying results from such a small pump of low
efficiency to larger and more efficient designs.
It would be of interest if Dr Varley could give an estimate
of the overall accuracy of his test results since a high degree
of accuracy was required in all measurements (flow, head,
torque and speed) if the effects of small changes in design
were to be out with the range of experimental scatter. For
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example, if those four quantities could each be measured
to within f0.5 per cent, the probable error in the efficiency
was f l per cent and for the maximum possible error in
efficiency to be less than f 1 per cent, the individual errors
must not exceed f0.25 per cent. Thus extremely high
accuracy was required if the effect of small differences in
design were to be detected.
In a small pump of the type used, the mechanical losses
formed a high proportion of the total. It had been found
that those losses showed inevitable variation and a mean
constant value for those mechanical losses had been used in
calculating the test results. That procedure seemed to be
questionable and it would be of interest to know the range
of fluctuation of the mechanical losses which had been
measured.
The series of tests with different impellers constituted
a valuable and interesting piece of research. The centri-
fugal pump was an apparently simple but actually complex
piece of machinery and many variables were involved in its
design. Dr Varley had tackled the problem in an admirable
way by changing only one variable at a time in his experi-
mental impellers. But a centrifugal pump was not an
impeller alone and the casing or diffuser surrounding an
impeller could have a profound effect on the performance
of a pump. Impeller-diffuser or impeller-volute inter-
actions were complicated and not yet well understood and
it must be noted that all Dr Varley’s impellers had been
tested in the same casing-it was difficult to see how it
could be otherwise. Nevertheless a modified impeller which
did not give such a good overall result in the original casing
might, if fitted to a casing also modified and designed for it,
show itself to be superior to the original impeller. That
merely emphasized the difficulty of centrifugal pump
research. It also underlined the difficulty of finding universal
cures and the danger of applying results from one pump
design to another.
While the volute design might influence impeller per-
formance and thus affect the conclusions to be drawn from
the tests with different numbers of blades and outlet blade
angles (since those variables affected the flow out of the
impeller into the volute and hence the impeller-volute
interaction mentioned above) it seemed unlikely that tests
with impellers in which only the inlet angle was varied
would be affected to the same extent. Thus, since inlet
angle was one of the design variables which must be fixed
by the designer with little reliable information regarding
the flow conditions at impeller inlet to guide him, Dr
Varley’s results were welcome. The inlet angle is seen to
have very little effect on pump efficiency over a compara-
tively wide range from 21” to 41”.
The effect of blade shape would also appear to be un-
critical and Dr Varley’s results gave support to Wislicenus’
criterion of ‘the simplest shape’. The fact that the impeller
shrouds contributed appreciably to the pumping action
and that the common concept of ‘disc friction’ loss was
inaccurate had also been shown by some experiments
carried out by the writer in which pitot tube traverses had
been made across the outlet of a rotating impeller.
Yo1175 No 21 1961
974 COMMUNICATIONS
The experiments on the effect of roughness were of
interest. The fact that roughness on the leading or pressure
faces of the vanes had a greater effect than roughness on the
back of the blades was as expected but it was also of practical
value since it was easier to dress the pressure face of an
impeller vane than the back.
The paper by Dr Varley was a welcome addition to the
literature on centrifugal pumps.
Mr S. L. Bragg, M.A. (Associate Member), wrote that
the paper contained a quantity of detailed information
which, suitably generalized, could be of service to pump
designers. Generalization might have been simplified,
however, if the losses in the volute and discharge branch
could have been measured and abstracted from the overall
efficiency and head curves. It was, after all, the impellers
that were being compared and at a given flow and given
head the conditions at impeller outlet were virtually fixed,
so the searches for optimum impeller sections and optimum
diffuser sections were theoretically separable. I n that respect
the last sentence in the paragraph following equation (7)
was a little misleading, since at given design conditions
(i.e. at given head and flow, not necessarily at the same
revlmin) the outlet velocity should be virtually independent
of vane angle.
I n regard to the effect of inlet angle, he had always found
it hard to accept Stepanoff's hypothesis that the fluid
selected the path of least resistance, and acquired pre-
rotation in the direction of the impeller rotation. Although
theory and practice agreed that the flow bent upstream of
an isolated aerofoil with circulation (the upwash effect),
such deviation was not predicted for an infinite cascade,
nor for an annular cascade. Indeed, a substantial torque
was needed to produce such pre-rotation, and it was very
difficult to see where that could be produced unless the
flow in the supply system was already unsymmetrical or
swirling. It would be expected that the pre-rotation pro-
duced by liquid viscosity would be confined to a boundary
layer within a few thousandths of an inch of the moving
surfaces: and the loss in output corresponding to pre-
rotation produced in that way was only half that predicted
by simple Euler theory since the viscosity did some useful
work on the inflow. It was, therefore, hard to agree with
the author's explanation of the fall in output with increasing
blade inlet angle.
I n fact, if Fig. 12 were studied it would be observed that
the efficiency fell faster than the input head as the blade
inlet angle was increased. Thus the work input did not
decrease: that strongly suggested that the whole effect was
due to increased mismatching and incidence losses with
large blade inlet angle, and not to any pre-rotation effect.
Mr C. H. Carslaw, B.Sc. (Associate Member), wrote
that he would like to congratulate those responsible for the
choice of subject matter for the paper. The evolution of the
centrifugal pump had taken place over such a very long
period of trial and error that the benefits potentially
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Proc Instn Mech Engrs
available as a result of fundamental studies were very small
in relation to the work involved.
The author had illustrated very clearly how with limited
resources it was yet possible to add to the understanding of
the practical significance of some of the very large number
of variables involved in pump design.
He would like to comment on a few points as followed:
From Fig. 3 it appeared that the discharge pressure was
measured at a pressure gauge boss on the side of the pump
discharge flange. For obvious practical reasons that was
the only place at which the pump maker could provide a
pressure tapping but he did not believe it could be taken as
more than an approximateindication of the pump discharge
pressure. With the volute fed by a finite number of jets of
water from the impeller passages, the velocity and pressure
distribution were bound to be very confused at discharge.
The water was probably also spinning. With a pipe bend
bolted directly on the pump discharge the system losses
probably started before the full pump head had been
generated. A few feet of straight pipe at the pump discharge
with the pressure tapping at the far end would give a more
reliable reading particularly at rates of flow above or below
the optimum for the design.
It was noted that the pump efficiency had been sensibly
constant at speeds from 1000 to 1500 revlmin. His experi-
ence was that an impeller of that general form had an
efficiency which rose with increase of speed up to 3000
rev/min and beyond. That might have been masked by
some property of the casing such as the limited area at
inlet to the impeller.
With regard to the number of blades and the exit angle,
it was necessary in practice to allow for some degree of
variation in impeller diameter in order to cover a given field
of head and quantity with an economic number of designs.
The comparatively small variation of efficiency between
five and eight blades indicated the justification of a com-
promise number of blades provided the exit angle was kept
seasonably constant over the intended range of diameter.
In the type of pump with split casing and suction branch
on the lower half, the incoming water had to turn through
an angle of 90" vertically and then through a similar angle
axially into the impeller. Quite apart from pre-whirl (for
which a correction could be made) there must be a con-
siderable variation in the velocity at inlet at different points
round the impeller eye. As no correction was possible for
that, it was indeed fortunate that inlet angle had so little
effect. Possibly the relatively low velocities involved were
the explanation.
In a double inlet impeller of the type used, the only
purpose of the shrouds was to retain the water between the
blades. There was, therefore, no particular reason why the
shrouds of the impeller should rotate and if they did not
then disc friction should be reduced. It would be most
interesting to see some figures fiom the test pump with the
shrouds soft-soldered into the wearing rings and not screwed
to the blades which might be brazed on to the hub.
Running clearance would introduce a new variable, but
it might not be as important as might be thought, since it
Vol I75 No 21 1961
 EFFECTS OF IMPELLER DESIGN AND SURFACE ROUGHNESS ON THE PERFORMANCE OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS 975
would not affect the forced vortex component of the
pump.
There would still be friction due to rotation of water past
the outside of the stationary shroud, but a final test with
the space between shroud and casing filled in would
eliminate that factor.
Two effects which had been noted from time to time
might be of interest.
If the casing of a pump was not symmetrical in relation
to the impeller, then considerable end thrust on the rotating
element could result. That suggested differences in the rate
of whirl of water between impeller and casing which was
confirmed by the fact that the thrust could be eliminated
by casting bars on the inside of the casing on the side having
the smaller clearance between casing and impeller. That
amounted to artificial roughening of the casing to reduce
the whirl velocity on the side where it was greatest.
Cases had been seen where one shroud of an impeller
had been close to the casing (say within 4 in.) while the
other shroud had a larger clearance.
After a period in service the part of the shroud close to
the casing had become severely eroded while the other
shroud had been undamaged. The fact that that had been
observed with material as tough as aluminium bronze
indicated the amount of turbulence which could occur and
suggested a considerable waste of power. It would also rule
out the suggestion in the last paragraph on p. 967 of the
paper.
The most interesting investigation in the field covered
by the author which unfortunately required a number of
pump casings was to take a particular pumping head and
quantity and design a series of pumps to do that duty at-
maximum efficiency at a series of different speeds.
That should lead to an appreciation of the general pro-
portions of a centrifugal pump for minimum overall energy
losses.
It was a misfortune of a.c. electric motors that speed was
not a free variable in the design of centrifugal pumps for
high efficiency.
Mr A. W, Elvitsky, B.S., M.E. (Philippsburg, N.J.),
wrote that the pump tested spoke well for the manu-
facturer as Dr Varley had been able to improve on the
original impeller design only by a slight change of inlet
angle. Radial circular arc vanes were simple to cast and that,
undoubtedly, was the reason for their use in the com-
mercial pump tested. However, it should not be construed
to indicate that Francis-type vanes would be of no value in
a pump of that specific speed.
The eye design of the test pump was particularly poor
with respect to obtaining minimum n.p.s.h. (net positive
suction head) requirements. Instead of a 36" inlet angle
the suction geometry would indicate use of a 16-17' angle.
Use of that angle would, of course, change the shape and
the optimum number of the vanes. The effect of inlet angle
on n.p.s.h. was shown, for a pump of approximately the
same specific speed, on p. 82, Fig. 5.5, of reference (11).
Replotting of Fig. 14 was warranted. Present-day
R o c Znsrn Mech Engrs
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impeller blade design was based on error triangle develop-
ment of the vane on a plane. Redevelopment of Fig. 14 on
that basis would reveal that all of the vanes, with the
exception of number 18, had irregular changes in vane
angularity, i.e. first the vane angle increased, reached a
maximum, then decreased. Two additional blade designs
would have been of interest; one with a 27" angle from
discharge to an impeller radius of 2.5 in., and thence to 36"
at inlet radius, and another of constant angle, say 27",
deviating from the author's practice of maintaining the
same inlet angle. The latter one would illustrate the
advantage of smooth vane development, the former would
complement impeller 22.
Fig. 13 would indicate that impeller 1 had a linear in-
crease in absolute velocity with radius, yet when impeller 19
had been designed on that basis a lower efficiency had
resulted, Apparently that had resulted from use of gross
flow areas in designing the impeller, rather than assuming
smooth flow, within the impeller, and using net areas thus
obtained.
Presentation of surface finish effect data should be of
particular interest to all concerned with pump design. He
asked whether the author had made any estimate as to the
boundary layer thickness within the impeller. The results
shown in Fig. 19 indicated surface roughness effects to
0.001 in. The decrease in head was not normally associated
with the cleaning of pumps, but usually the casing and
impeller were polished. Apparently the head loss due to
polishing the impeller was recovered in the casing, or else
in cleaning of the impeller; the discharge vane angle was
increased slightly by polishing the underside of the vane.
Professor A. J. Fairbanks, M.E.M. (Troy, New York),
wrote that his first impression of the paper was that
Dr Varley had done an excellent work in bringing together
facts and theory. He was a little confused as to whether he
should (1) concentrate on the author's extensive tests and
studies or (2) concentrate on what he had proved, namely,
that the pump manufacturer was already doing a good job
of pump design.
Three factors were stressed by Dr Varley. They were
head, flow rate and efficiency. Except for the improved
understanding that was brought out by them, he would at
once discount the first two (head and flow rate) and would
concentrateonly on efficiency. It was so easy to achievethose
same improved heads and flows by either a larger or a faster
pump and if the increases were paid for by a greater
increase in mechanical power input, then those gains might
better be developed as indicated above.
Dr Varley (Figs. 5 and 6) concluded that for best effi-
ciency, the best number of blades was five and that was
what the manufacturer knew, or at least thought he knew.
The author had proof. Furthermore, more than five blades
produced flow instability (Fig. 5). The best exit angle for
efficiency (Fig. 10) proved to be 27' (the manufacturer's
choice, too). The best inlet angle for efficiency was 30"
whereas the manufacturer had chosen 36". However, the
variation (Fig. 12) between 20" and 40" was negligible and
Vol I75 No 21 f96I
976 COMMUNICATIONS
the manufacturer’s choice stood. I n Figs. 15 and 16, it was
developed that a simple single-arc blade curvature gave
the best efficiency. Again, that was the manufacturer’s
decision. All in all, the work was a valuable justification of
existing design procedures. Now, the writer wondered
whether the manufacturer could and would be induced to
publish his design theories, or however he set about
producing such a good machine.
On the question of smoothness, he must compliment
Dr Varley on the design of his test models. They were very
well thought out and extensive. As for the results, if it was
again noted that the best efficiency was the most desirable
goal (head and flow being more economically obtained by
other means), the smoothest runners (Figs. 18, 19) had
given the best results. Here the manufacturer had produced
the smoothest surface consistent with economical pro-
duction methods, namely a very smooth casting. The
equivalent sand size was 0.027 in., or KIM = 0.00124,
which was smoother than the finest sand used. Thus the
best economical efficiency was actually achieved by the
pump maker.
In regard to the other important part of the paper, the
comparison between theory and fact, as he studied Figs. 7
and 11, he was first impressed with the oversimplification
of the Euler curves. They had no resemblance to the
experimental curves. About the most charitable thing that
could be said was that they provided an upper outside limit
beyond which none of the other curves went, or even
approached.
The Busemann and Stodola curves in Fig. 7 did in
general look like the experimental one although usually
yielding lower values. Between four and six blades there
was a good thorough numerical agreement but nowhere
else. In Fig. 11, the curves did not resemble the experi-
mental values at all and where they were in numerical
agreement it was pure coincidence because they happened
to be crossing the experimental curve at that point and
were not even paralleling it.
He believed it was safe to say that Dr Varley had per-
formed a real service in (1) demonstrating the need for a
better theory and (2) uncovering the excellence of the pump
manufacturer’s ‘theory’, whatever it was.
Mr T. B. Ferguson, M.A. (Associate Member), wrote
that Dr Varley had given much interesting information on
the effects of various design parameters on pump perform-
ance.
It was shown in Fig. 5 that a pump’s ++,h characteristic
changed its form as the number of impeller vanes was
increased and a hump developed. That might possibly be
explained as followed. Velocity slip would increase with
blade loading and flow. For a small number of vanes the
slip was high and counterbalanced the rise of volute
efficiency as the flow increased from zero. The resulting
characteristic fell with increasing flow. For a large number
of vanes the slip was smaller and the reduced slip together
with the increase in volute efficiencyresulted in the humped
characteristic. The uneven velocity profile at impeller tip
Proc Instn Mech Engrs
Downloaded from pme.sagepub.com at UNIV OF DELAWARE LIB on June 11, 2012
with high slip could contribute towards the low pump
efficiency for a small number of blades.
Fig. 11 showed that head slip was least for high values
of p2 where the blade loading and velocity slip were
highest. A possible explanation for the low head slip was that
He- Hi = u2f /g (cot pz1-cot &)
where p21was the fluid outlet angle relative to the impeller.
Thus for a given value of (p2-&1) the head slip would be
smaller the greater was p2.
Corroboration of the small effect had on perform-
ance was that for compressible flow +$ characteristics
correlated best on a base of c $ ~Whether
. that was due to
pre-rotation or the effect of centrifugal force on the boun-
dary layer in the impeller was a matter for conjecture.
He would be interested to know whether Dr Varley had
any extensive information on the effect of using impeller
blades of aerofoil section. Kamimoto and Matsuoka* had
published results showing log spiral blades giving marginally
higher efficiency than circular arc blades and aerofoil blades
on a log spiral camber line giving higher efficiency still.
The information on surface roughness effects was of
fundamental importance. It was interesting to note that
the actual trend of the b.e.p. to higher + as roughness
increased (Fig. 19) was opposite to the trend one would
forecast using conventional notions of the frictional effect
being solely a loss.
However, if the angular momentum equation was applied
to a control volume comprising the pump impeller it was
apparent that for a given flow the whirl velocity at impeller
outlet must increase as the roughness of the inner surfaces
of the rotor passages increased. Thus if an internally smooth
impeller was compared with a rough impeller, similar flow
conditions at volute inlet would be obtained when the flow
in the rough impeller was higher than that in the smooth
impeller. As impeller efficiency changed more slowly with
flow than did volute efficiency, the pump b.e.p. would be
largely governed by the volute b.e.p., and thus the pump
b.e.p. would move to a higher flow as the impeller was
progressively roughened. Increased number of impeller
vanes and increased p2 also caused an increase of impeller
outlet whirl velocity and the movement of the b.e.p. when
those parameters were changed might be explained
similarly.
Dr G. W. Hall, B.Sc. (Eng.) (Associate Member), wrote
that the author presented, in his paper, certain experi-
mentally determined data from which he proceeded to
draw conclusions. Before placing reliance upon those con-
clusions it was pertinent to examine more closely the degree
of uncertainty of the experimental data, especially as that
aspect appeared to be inadequately discussed.
In his experiments, the flow rate was measured by a
non-standard Venturi tube and ‘checked‘ by a notch. The
author asserted that those metering elements had been
calibrated but it was believed that no serious calibration
had been attempted which would ensure accuracy to
* 1959 Bull. yap. SOC.mech. Engrs, vol. 2, No. 8, p. 630.
Vol 175 N o 21 I961
 EFFECTS OF IMPELLER DESIGN AND SURFACE ROUGHNESS ON THE PERFORMANCE OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS 977
within say &I2 per cent. ‘Checking’ against a non-standard
notch would do nothing to narrow that tolerance.
The delivery-head gauge, it was believed, could not be
read to nearer than 0.5 ft head which was equivalent to a
possible error of at least about i-1 per cent disregarding
the fact that the pump-flange tapping probably did not give
the mean static pressure across the pipe to within several
per cent. A similar margin of error would be expected for
the suction head reading.
Thus, taking account of quantity and head measurements
alone, the computed efficiency value at best probably had
an uncertainty of f3 per cent (or so). The precision of the
data might well be better than that but the conclusion
appeared unavoidable that such large systematic errors
existed as to make the accuracy of the data very poor. The
only way to avoid this situation, of course, was to give
sufficient consideration to the required accuracy in the
initial stage of designing the experimental procedure.
In view of the poor accuracy of the data it was submitted
that it was inadmissible to attempt to discriminate between
the performance of experimental arrangements whose
efficiencies, for example, differed by less than possibly
3 or 4 per cent.
It might be felt that that criticism with regard to data
accuracy was somewhat harsh. However, producers of
experimental data bore a considerable responsibility for
defining fairly the uncertainty of their data not only to
ensure that the conclusions they drew were justified but
also for the reason that their experiment21 results might
well be employed at some future date for supporting or
refuting the validity of new theory.
He now turned to consider the soundneqs of the author’s
basic method of approach.
The Stodola and Busemann predictions applied essenti-
ally to a two-dimensional potential-flow which, unmodified,
provided an extremely unrealistic model of the actual flow
within the author’s impeller. That actual ffow u-ould clearly
embody thick boundary layers, secondary motions apart
from those considered in relation to the potential flow, and
separated regions.
Had the author’s impeller design possessed a simple
geometry it would have been possible, by adopting a suitable
flow model, to make a theoretical estimate of the effect
upon the flow of the boundary layer growth and possibly to
make an allowance for the secondary flow. Something useful
might then have been achieved by comparing the theoretical
result with the experimental data. However, the very
complicated geometry of the internal profile of the author’s
impeller precluded such an exercise from being carried out.
In his own opinion, progress would be made only by
considering, initially at least, simplified elements of the
pump and aiming by means of experimental and theoretical
investigations to arrive at the point where theory could be
shown to predict successfully the actual flow characteristics.
It was believed that the testing of a commercial pump as a
unit could not contribute much towards achieving that
objective.
It might be useful to pursue that consideration a little
Proc Instn Mcch Engrs Downloaded from pme.sagepub.com at UNIV OF DELAWARE LIB on June 11, 2012
further. The degree of departure from two-dimensional flow
through the impeller would depend, for otherwise similar
conditions, upon the blade aspect ratio or relative width of
the impeller passages. What would be of real value, in his
own view, would be some experimental investigation into
the effect of varying this aspect ratio with the aim of
extrapolating the data to infinite aspect ratio as considered
by the theory.
He would conclude his remarks by commenting upon
some points of detail.
In attempting to determine the extent of the mechanical
losses, the author appeared to have overlooked the likeli-
hood that the measured values might differ substantially
from the actual power absorbed when the packings were
water-lubricated and under pressure.
The energy-balance figures displayed implied that the
b.h.p. could be measured to 0-1 per cent. Surely that was
not the case.
It could not be correct to assert, as the author did in
introducing the section on surface-finish effects, that for
optimum efficiency the impeller water passages should be
as smooth as possible. In circumstances where separation
was not present there could be no advantage in reducing
the degree of roughness beyond that which would ensure
fluid-dynamic smoothness. If separation was a factor, it
might well be that in certain circumstances the presence of
appropriately located roughness might reduce the extent
of the separation and improve efficiency.
The point made by the author concerning the pumping
action of the impeller shrouds had long been recognized
(see, for example, Rouse*).
lGLr D. Hurden, B.A. (Associate Member), wrote that
Dr Varley was to be congratulated on his comprehensive
study of impeller design. A note of apology for the smallness
of his pump might occasionally be detected, but it was
those pumps that seemed to have been neglected in the
past. A slight improvement in the efficiency of a large
pump brorrght about an obvious saving of power, but on the
other hand there were a great many small pumps each un-
obtrusively consuming power, a small reduction of which
must add up to something worth while.
One point at which the empirical rdes for pump design
broke down for small pumps was the choice of the number
of blades in the impeller. That was demonstrated by the
author. Further evidence was supplied by tests carried out
several years ago on a small high-speed open-impeller pump,
the results of which were summarized by the curves in
Fig. 26. The impeller of that pump had been only 3.2 in.
in diameter, and it had been run at 20 000 revlmin. It had
radial blades, and Pfleiderer’s equation suggested that the
optimum number of blades would be 12, whereas the curves
showed that the greatest efficiency was obtained with five.
On such a small, and perhaps rather unorthodox pump,
the equation broke down completely. Since the specific
speed of the pump was very nearly the same as that of
Dr Varliey’s, it seemed that the validity of Pfleiderer’s
* 1950 ‘Engheering Hydraulics’, p. 867 (John Wiley, New York).
Val 175 No 21 I961
978
60
601 I I I I
4
C
s They had measured it as followed: covering tightly the
t
g 50
I side of the impeller, too, with thin plate, making it rotate
>
u
z
%!
u 40
LL
IL
w impeller exit and the entrance. Moreover, connecting
30
FLOW COEFFICIENT, 0
. I
0 20 40 60
FLOW- g a l l r n i n
Fig. 26. Results of tests on a small high-speed open-
impeller pump
equation depended more on the size and shape of the
impeller than on the specific speed. It would be interesting
to know the minimum size for which the equation held.
On the subject of disc friction, the demonstration that
the power consumed thereby was not completely wasted
was very convincing, and it was somewhat surprising that
attention had not been drawn to it before. On the other
hand, the author’s suggestion that disc friction might be
reduced by lessening the impeller clearances had been
voiced by Gibson and Ryan in the paper already quoted
(141, but their words seemed to have been disregarded in
the subsequent 50 years. The reason for that might be that
when the axial clearance was small the balancing of axial
thrust was more critical.
Professor Dr Shoju ltaya and Dr Taka0 Nishikawa
(Tokyo), wrote that the experimental results shown in
Fig. 7 were interesting, as the values of the internal input
head did not coincide so well with the result which was
shown in the Mechanical Engineering Hand Book pub-
lished in 1951 by the Japanese Society of Mechanical
Engineers. Though Dr Varley calculated the disc friction
power by equation (5) which had been published in 1910,
they considered that a more precise value of the internal
input head could be obtained if he measured the disc
friction power directly by experiment. The disc friction
power was affected by the shape of disc and the vessel.
Espeaally, in the case of the pump, the shape of the outside
of the impeller and the inside of the casing were considerably
complicated when compared with a simple disc, and then
Downloaded from pme.sagepub.com at UNIV OF DELAWARE LIB on June 11, 2012
Proc Insm Mech Engrs
COMMUNICATIONS
I I it seemed difficult to obtain the precise values of the disc
friction power for practical impeller by calculation only.
peripheral side of the impeller and, if possible, the entrance
in the casing filled with water and measuring the consumed
power, they had been able to obtain the disc friction power
from the measured data deducting the friction power of the
another pump to the delivery pipe and supplying water,
they had measured the leakage flow issuing from the
volute chamber into the entrance side of the impeller
through wearing rings.
Fig. 20 showed that the head and output of the pump
increased with roughness of all the inside of the impeller,
but that result differed from the similar experimental result
in Japan*. The result indicated in the present paper seemed
rather strange to them and they would be very interested
if the reason was explained. Moreover, Fig. 20 showed the
head and output increased with roughness of the external
shroud surface, too. It might be considered that the tan-
gential velocities of Auid near the external shroud surface,
especially near the impeller periphery in the vortex chamber
80 700
increased with surface roughness of shroud, i.e., the angular
momentum of fluid increased and then the head and the
output increased.
However, those were very interesting results. They
thought it might be possible to reach a more distinct con-
clusion, if the disc friction power and the leakage flow were
measured experimentally, and more precise relation of the
energy balance was obtained.
Dr D. J. Myles, B.Sc, (Eng.) (East Kilbride), wrote
that in the discussion on disc friction loss, the reasan given
for the increased head and flow resulting from roughening
the outside surfaces of the impeller shrouds, was that the
roughened surfaces were causing inefficient pumping to
occur. That argument was reasonable if it was accom-
panied by a statement on the reduction of leakage through
the wearing rings due to the pumping action. Reduction of
leakage would tend to improve the flow patterns in the
volute and pump inlet so that the balanced energy equation
could be writtm :
Additional output energy due to shroud pumping
= reduction in leakage loss plus reduction in eye and
volute losses due to reduced leakage.
Since that line of thought had not been followed in the
construction of the energy balance, it must be asked how
the energy was transferred from the external shrouds to
the mass flowing through the impeller.
Tests conducted on a fan runner modified as shown in
Fig. 27 had eliminated leakage by the creation of a forced
vortex in the ‘well’ of the volute. With that arrangement an
increase in efficiency had been recorded.
* SHIRAKURA M A S ~ I19593.3ap.
, SOC.mech. Engrs, vol. 62, No.
485, p. 892, ‘Effects of Surface Roughness of Impeller Passage
on the Performance of Volute Pump’.
Yo1 I75 No 21 1961
 EFFECTS OF IMPELLER DESIGN AND SURFACE ROUGHNESS ON THE PERFORMANCE OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS 979
I n that balance the useful shroud power was not s h o w
as it merely controlled the distribution of energy between
leakage and useful input. It might be expressed as
WRAPPER WELDED
TO SHROUD WITH
(QL-QL)uw/g where Q L was the leakage which would
SIX RADIAL VANES obtain if the shroud surfaces were perfectly smooth.
I I I /
Mr R. A. Nixon, B.Sc. (Eng.) (East Kilbride), wrote
that the author’s experiments on the effects of varying the
inlet angle showed a slight falling away of head with in-
creasing angle. It was suggested in the paper that that f d
could be predicted from the Euler theory if it was assumed
F;9. 27. Modified fan runner that the fluid acquired the pre-rotation necessary for
shockless entry.
In the comparison of the actual head input with the- Stepanoff’s theory of acquired pre-rotation could only
oretical values the Head Hi had been calculated from the be reconciled with Newton’s first law of motion by assuming
HP x 3300 that the pre-rotation was imparted either by contact with
equation Hi=
Q+QL
.
At low deliveries that equation some part of the rotating machinery, or by secondary flow
from the impeller.
-gave head values meater than that given by the infinite In other words, any pre-rotation which the fluid acquired
blade theory and-should be used with caution. From had to be imparted by the pump, and was accompanied by
momentum theory Himust equal uw/g at all operating a rise in the total energy of the fluid, with a corresponding
points and reconciliation of that head value with the rise in power input to the pump shaft.
apparently high power input might only be achieved by I n those circumstances it was inadmissible to consider
the consideration of backflow through the impeller. That the inlet velocity triangle when assessing the total head
yielded the equation developed by the pump.
uw HPx 3300 Furthermore, it seemed unlikely that with the type of
H.=-= impeller used by the author there would be much pre-
g 7+QL+Q
rotation due to secondary flow even at very small discharge,
where 7 was the backflow in gal/min. and that the pre-rotation existing at normal pump duty
I n the author’s analysis therefore it was assumed that would be only that due to contact with the shaft and the
the backflow was non-existent and, as backward swirling impeller passage upstream of the blades. That second type
fluid was the main contributor to pre-rotation, it inferred of pre-swirl was, of course, relatively weak.
that radial entry conditions obtained. Tests on low specific It might be mentioned in passing that ‘reverse pre-rota-
speed pumps had not shown marked tendencies towards tion’ was a phenomenon sufficientlyrare never to have been
producing pre-rotation and consequently at the nominal observed in any of the pumps investigated at Fluids
discharge the use of the simple equation was probably Division, N.E.L., and the secondary flow mechanism neces-
justifiable in that instance. sary to cause it was interesting to envisage.
From those comments the general energy balance would It was the writer’s opinion that the fall in head was
be given by: adequately explained by the author in his remarks preceding
B.h.p. input his introduction of the Stepanoff theory. Since the blade
I velocity at inlet was only one-third of the velocity at outlet,
that fall in head was comparatively small.
1 I I
Disc friction loss Internal input Mechanical loss
Mr J. F. Peck, B.Sc. (Eng.), Wh.Ex. (Mew&er), wrote
(Q + QL+ UWk that the author was to be congratulated on such a compre-
I hensive series of experimental investigations, although in
some cases, his conclusions appeared to differ from those
Leakage energy Backflo<~energy Useful impeller of other investigators in this field. That might be partly due
QL .uwlg 7.uwlg input to the small size and low specific speed of the pump tested.
I i Q .24g For example, the external losses due to bearing and gland
I
friction plus disc friction amounted to over 20 per cent of
Volumekc loss shaft horsepower supplied, so that any slight variation in
Residual velocity energy those items had a considerable effect on the overall efficiency
inducing pre-rotation of the pump. Again in choosing the best impeller efficiency
he had used the best overall efficiency, whereas the total
I
Volute loss
I
Rotor and eye
I
Pump output
hydraulic loss of head between the internal input head and
the manometric head comprised both impeller and casing
losses losses. Referring to Fig. 11 the absolute velocity of the
Prac Instn Mech Engrs Vol I75 No 21 1961
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980
water leaving the impeller having csultliet angle 88" would
be much higher than that with angre 15" so that the effi-
ciency of the volute casing would be different. The curves
shown would indicate that with an outlet angle of 90" there
would be no head slip, which was not supported by other
tests. For example, the tests of Schroder (12) and Kasai (4)
showed that head slip was only slightly affected by impeller
outlet angle and in Fig. 11 the difference between the Euler
head and the manometric head remained nearly constant
over a wide range of outlet angle. They also showed that
the product of head slip and number of impeller vanes was
nearly constant over the usual operating range from
4 to 10 vanes, which was not supported by Fig. 7.
It should be borne in mind that the theoretical Busemann
corrections applied only to long impeller passages of
logarithmic spiral profiles and ir was significant from
Fig. 11 that when the outlet angle was equal to the inlet
angle of 36" the Busemann head agreed with the internal
input head. In his own tests (Peck (6)) lime had found the
Busemann correction of little value, as in one impeller the
actual measured head slip had been twice that predicted by
Busemann.
Concerning the series of tests with vwymg inlet angle,
he could not agree with the author regarding pre-rotation
of the water before entering the impeller, as his own tests
had shown no pre-whirl except for small discharges below
about 40 per cent of the normal discharge. However, it was
certainly difficult to explain why the discharge for best
overall efficiency decreased with increasing inlet angles.
Perhaps the most interesting and challenging section of
the author's paper was that dealing with the effect of varying
surface finish and his deductions concerning the effect of
disc friction loss when impellers were fitted in wide volute
casings.
I n Table 3 he showed that with roughened impeller
shrouds the horsepower input was increased by 0.387 h.p.
while the water horsepower output was increased by
0.103 h.p. That meant an additional disc friction loss of
0-387-0.103 = 0.284 h.p. so that the t d disc friction loss
was now increased to 0.319$@284 = 0.603 h.p. not
0.706 h.p.
Looking more closely into the disc frmncm loss it appeared
to be made up of two main compnncnts, (I) the viscous
drag between the rotating impeller shrouds and the
stationary casing walls and (2) the pumping action in that
space consisting of outward flow from the impeller shroud
into the volute which must be replaced by an inward flow
near the casing walls. The paper of Binder and Knapp ( 5 )
showed Pitot tube traverses across the impeller outlet
which indicated that that secondary flow was about 15 per
cent of the total discharge for an impeller In which the
outlet width was one-tenth of the diameter. If the impeller
width was reduced to one-twentyseventh of the diameter,
as in the present tests, the disc friction circulation qd would
amount to over 40 per cent of the dlischarge. In the former
case the estimated difference of pressure head between the
clearance rings and the impeller outlet was about one-
eighth of the manometric head and if that applied to the
Proc Insrn Meck Engrs Downloaded from pme.sagepub.com at UNIV OF DELAWARE LIB on June 11, 2012
COMMUNICATIONS
present tests then the power lost in that circulation would
be about 5 per cent of the water horsepower output. Further
investigations into that problem for both open and closed
impellers seemed desirable as it had such a marked &ect
on the analysis of pump performance.
Professor Hartwig Petermann, Dr. Ing. (Brunswick,
Germany), wrote that Dr Varley found that the optimum
number of vanes for maximum efficiency of the pump
studied was less than that given by the empirical equations
of Mleiderer and Stepanoff. That was probably due to the
particular design of the impeller (double-flow entry and
single-flow exit).
In the paper entitled 'Der Stromungsverlauf in und
hinter Laufschaufelkanalen von radialen Kreiselpumpen
und Verdichtern' (Flow characteristics in and behind the
vane passages of centrifugal pumps and compressors)*, it
was explained that the relative secondary flow moving
peripherally in the impeller passage of a Centrifugal pump
depended upon the blade pressure, i.e., on the number of
vanes. In a centrifugal pump with an impeller of standard
design, if thc number of vanes was too small there was a
very powerful secondary flow (cf. Fig. 8 of the above
paper), and therefore very uneven distribution of the exit
velocity of the impeller (cf. Figs. 6 and 9 of the above
paper), causing substantial losses.
In the case of the impeller studied by Dr Varley, the
secondary flow was formed in the normal way after entry
of the fluid in the vane passages, giving the pattern shown
in the cylindrical section represented as rolled out in
Fig. 28 (AA). In thc section BB (ie., without the dividing
wall), that flow pattern persisted initially; but it could Rot
be maintained, and it would assume the form shown for
section CC-the pattern which would also have been pro-
duced with a single-entry impeller. With a single-entry
impeller, however, a much more powerful secondary flow
would be produced than in the impeller studied by the
author-other conditions being equal (same number of
vanes, same vane configuration, same impeller diameter>-
since in the author's impeller the secondary flow in the
middle of the passage in section BB was in the direction of
W , and in the opposite direction in section CC. With
Dr Varley's impeller, the relative secondary flow must
reverse its direction in the middle of the passage between
sections BB and CC, and so with a small number ofvanes
in section CC there would be only a slight secondary flow.
Consequently, with a double-flow entry and single-flow
exit impeller, the optimum number of vanes would be less
than for an ordinary single-flow impeller.
Mr R. Rimmer (Filton, Bristol), wrote that the paper
was of especial interest to his company since much of the
work he had undertaken had been paralleled there during
the development of small high-speed centrifugal pumps
for ramjet fuel systems. There was an important difference
between the pumps they had investigated and those of Dr
Varley ;all pumps incorporated radially straight impeller
* 1961 Z . Ver. dtsch. Zng., vol. 103, No. 17, 11th June.
Vol175 No 21 1961
 981
EFFECTS OF IMPELLER DESIGN AND SURFACE ROUGHNESS ON THE PERFORMANCE OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS

CYLINDRICAL SECTION, SHOWN ROLLED OUT

A-A

Fig. 28. Relative seconabry $ow patterns in the vane passage

10 AnguIar velocity of the impeller.

blades. In the light of the author's findings it was con-

sidered that their results might be of some interest. Im-
pellers had varied in diameter from 1.95 to 2.5 in., and had
been tested a t speeds up to 40 000 rev/m"n.

Effect of number of blades

Increasing the number of impeller blades from three to six
improved both the Read coefficient and the efficiency, but
the improvement became smaller as rhe number of blades
was increased, and between five and six blades was in-
sufficient to warrant any further increase.

Effect of blade outlet angle

Comparable tests of the same radially straight impeller
(i.e. 90" outlet angle) in combination with a 'ring' or un-
bladed diffuser, and with a single conical diffuser mounted
FLOW COEFFICIENT, -lb/h/rov/rnin
tangential to the impeller chamber, gave the following
pressure flow characteristics (Fig. 29). Fig. 29. Pressure flow characteristics
Examination of the variation in diffuser recovery co-
efficient of the two diffusers (Fig. 301, showed that conical
diffuser recovery coefficientincreased rapidly to a maximum
at a flow coefficient of W,lN = 0.5; the ring diffuser 3

coefficient increased steadily over the complete flow range.

In combination with the falling impeller head coefficient
(Fig. 29) the conical diffuser produced an unstable rising
head characteristic, as found by DPVarley; the ring diffuser
a flat stable characteristic.
That confirmed the inference in the author's paper that
the lack of correlation with Schroder's results was due to a
difference in diffuser configuration.
The resuIts (Fig. 29) showed that diffuser configuration
influenced not only overall pump head, by variation in
diffuser recovery coefficient, but also impeller head. It would
be interesting to know whether Da Varley had observed FLOW COEFFICIENT, -lb/h/rev/rnin
any variation in diffuser recovery coefficient with impeller
blade outlet angle. Fag. 30. Yuriafion in dzyuser recovety coe&&nz
Prac Insrn Mech Engrs Downloaded from pme.sagepub.com at UNIV OF DELAWARE LIB on June 11, 2012 Vol I75 No 21 1?W
982
Effect of blade inlet geometry
During the development of the radially straight-bladed
impeller pump incorporating a ring diffuser, the impeller
blade roots had been extended, at 45”, into the hub of the
impeller to induce pre-rotation and reduce fluid velocity
relative to the blade. A considerable increase in both head
and efficiency had been obtained. Although losses due to
recirculation were probably encountered as a result of
increase of pre-rotation, that was offset by an increase in
the working length of the blade and a reduction in shock
losses at entry.
The increased working length of the blade resulted from
the forced vortex pressure gradient generated by pre-
rotation, and meant that fluid inlet pressure acted at a
radius less than that of the inlet pipe to the impeller. That
reduced the subtractive term in the Euler theory, and for a
given impeller an increase in head resulted from an increase
in pre-rotation in the direction of rotation of the impeller.
Measurement of pressure adjacent to the impeller entry
on the pump inlet pipe showed that that pressure-and
hence pre-rotation-was at a maximum at zero flow, and
reduced linearly as flow was increased. That supported the
suggestion by Stepanoff that the fluid selected the path of
least resistance and attempted to acquire the necessary
amount of pre-rotation for shockless entry; the degree of
pre-rotation which could be induced in the fluid was
limited by fluid pressure upstream of the impeller entry.
Professor Ramadan Sadek, Ph.D. (Associate Member),
wrote that the paper was an interesting attempt to study
experimentally the various design factors influencing the
performance of centrifugal pumps. One major difficulty
facing the investigator of such a complex problem was the
fact that it was difficult to find out the influence of each
variable separately. For instance, one could not assume that
Fig. 12 showed the influence of the inlet blade angle alone
without due concern for the fact that the blade length had
been varied as well.
AS for the blade profile, he was inclined to think that the
method suggested by Pantell” for a constant deceleration
for the relative flow through the impeller passages was more
likely to lead to better efficiencies than those mentioned by
the author for linear changes in blade angle, or velocities,
etc.
The influence of roughness upon the generated head was
quite understandable. Its presence would likely increase the
boundary layer thickness along the inside surfaces of the
impeller shrouds, which in effect would increase the angular
momentum imposed upon the fluid. The influence of
roughness on both sides of impeller blade, Fig. 20, showed
the influence of roughness upon friction losses experienced
by the through flow. That, in his opinion, was a very
interesting finding demonstrating quite clearly the rough-
ness’s contradictoryroles :energy booster through secondary
pumping and energy dissipator through extra friction.
* PANTELL, K. 1949 Engrs Digesi, vol. 10, No. 12, p. 423, ‘Impeller
design for centrifugal pumps and compressors’.
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COlMMUNICATIONS
Still it could be stated that there were more questions to
be answered than there were clear-cut answers. Neverthe-
less, the author had undoubtedly thrown more light on
such a complicated problem as that concerning the flow
through a centrifugal pump impeller.
Mr J. A. Shaw, B.A. (Associate Member), wrote that
Dr Varley’s paper not only provided information that
would be of value to the designers of pumps, but presented
clearly, revelations that would arouse the interest of the
ordinary practical engineer. The following comments while
providing evidence of such interest would, it was hoped,
lead the investigation a little farther.
Effect of number of blades
The effects of varying the number of blades in an impeller
arose from the influence the blades had upon internal
circulation and upon the hydraulic through-flow losses.
‘Ineda circulation’ would take place more easily in the
wide passages of a sparsely bladed impeller and the real
discharge angle for any given blade angle would suffer
accordingly. Conversely the hydraulic through-flow losses
would be greatest in the narrow passages of a multi-bladed
impeller.
The author’s findings on the relationship between the
number of blades and the head-flow and efficiency charac-
teristics were therefore to be expected.
It was not very clear, however, why a multi-bladed im-
peller should tend to produce an unstable characteristic,
and some further investigation of that undesirable pheno-
menon might be worth while.
Instability was known to be related to large discharge
angles, and a possible explanation of that fact was that large
discharge angles made for high shock losses, and that shock
losses were greatest at shut off and at extreme output. That
would mean that the differencebetween the real and ‘input’
heads at shut off and extreme output would be greater in a
design having, for any reason, large discharge angles, and
that such a design would therefore tend to have an unstable
characteristic.
It would be interesting to know to what extent those
undesirable attributes of large discharge angles or multi-
vanes could be mitigated by the introduction of other
design features such as for example diffusers.
Expedients of that kind might be worth while where, as
in certain types of process pump, it was desirable to make
a single casing cover as wide a range of duties as possible.
Effect of varying blade angles
The foregoing remarks were also generally true in relation
to blade angles for, as already mentioned, discharge angle
was the dominant factor in determining the form of head-
flow characteristics.
In regard to efficiency, the optimum blade outlet angle
for the pump tested had been found to be 27”, and though
not greatly affected by outlet angle, the efficiency tended to
fall as the angle was increased beyond that point.
YoI 175 No 21 1961
 EFFECTS OF IMPELLER DESIGN AND SURFACE ROUGHNESS ON THE PERFORMANCE OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
Since blade length and therefore presumably through-
flow loss was decreasing as blade outlet angle increased, it
seemed probable that the fall in efficiency was again due to
increased shock losses.
The same question again arose therefore; namely,
whether the advantages of increased outlet angle could be
obtained with a smaller loss of efficiency, by working on the
collection area so as to obtain a more nearly shockless
discharge ?
Blade inlet angle was shown to have relatively little effect
upon either output or efficiency and in the case of process
pumps with which the writer was mostly concerned, it was
presumably dictated principally by considerations of
n.p.s.h.
Effect of varying surface finish
Apart from the impeller vanes where, as might be expected,
roughness merely had a spoiling effect upon efficiency, a
substantial amount of extra’pumping was achieved by
increasing the roughness of the impeller surfaces.
The extra pumping so achieved was, however, of low
efficiency so that the overall efficiency of the pump suffered
considerably when the impeller surfaces were roughened.
In studying the mechanism of that phenomenon, an
important factor seemed to be that the extra output was
achieved without changing the form of the HiQ character-
istics. The effect was, in fact, similar to that which might
be obtained by fitting a larger impeller.
The effect of roughening the outside of the shroud was
easy to visualize, for it would be obvious that a roughened
surface would grip more effectively the disc of water lying
between the impeller shroud and the casing, and thereby
impart centrifugal components to it. An indiscriminately
roughened surface would, however, resist relative movement
in any direction. It seemed probable, therefore, that the
additional pumping attributable to the outside ofthe shroud
surfaces could be achieved at higher efficiency if, instead of
being roughened, the shrouds were fitted with rudimentary
vanes of correct form, the shroud surfaces being highly
polished.
The effect upon pump output of roughening the inside of
the shrouds and hub was less easy to understand.
The gain in pump output attributable to the roughening
of those surfaces was comparable to that obtained when the
outsides of the shrouds had been treated, and the fall in
efficiency was slightly greater.
The author attributed the increased pumping associated
with the roughening of the inner shroud surfaces to the
suppression of inertia circulation within the impeller
passages. Increased head so obtained, would arise from a
reduction of slip, resulting in an increased discharge angle,
and that would logically be productive of an unstable
characteristic.
As the author himself observed, however, the form of
the characteristics was substantially unaltered by any of the
roughening experiments, although there was just a sugges-
tion of ‘humpiness’ in that produced by the impeller with
roughened internal surfaces.
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983
He submitted therefore that the amount of extra pump-
ing resulting from the suppression of inertial circulation
was negligible, and that the bulk of the increased output
associated with the roughened internal surfaces, Came from
the impeller hub.
That theory should be easy to test by experiment and if
it was upheld, it would seem probable that the pumping
effect of the hub could be exploited with a much smaller
loss in efficiency than was suffered when the whole of the
interior of the impeller was treated.
The object of those arguments was to suggest that moder-
ate increases in performance could be obtained by com-
paratively minor modification to an impeller of any given
diameter, and that if done in the correct manner, those
increases could be obtained at the expense of very little in
terms of efficiency.
It was true that comparable increases in output could be
obtained from a slightly larger impeller with little or no
penalty in lost efficiency, but as he had already mentioned,
in process work there was often an incentive to make a single
casing cover the largest possible range of duties.
The pumping effect of the outer shroud surfaces would
presumably make considerable contributions to the axial
thrusts in a pump.
Differences in finish between the two sides of an impeller
might, therefore, account for some of the baffling cases of
axial loading which occurred from time to time in ostensibly
balanced designs.
The writer had had experience of a very large, double
suction, pump that persistently failed its thrust pads in one
direction untd fitted with a tilting pad thrust-bearing of
high capacity.
IMr W. H. Young, B.Sc. (Eng.) (Associate Member),
wrote that the number of interrelated variablesin centrifugal-
pump impeller design and the numerous possible com-
binations which resulted presented the investigator with a
very real problem. A choice had to be made between a
protracted step-by-step experimental procedure which
would be extremely costly and time-consuming, if the
ground were fully covered, or a procedure directed and
limited by the application of some theory or formula which
related and controlled at least some of the variables. Whde
it was clear that the author was familiar with such theories
and formulae, and while he had examined some of the
results in the light of Pfleiderer’s equation relating number
of blades to blade angle and radii, no attempt had been
made to use any such devices to guide and control the
pattern of experimentation.
It was paradoxical that therein lay the limitations and
much of the value of the work. While a Merent approach
would almost certainly have produced a number of better
impellers, the present step-by-step procedure, untram-
melled by any preconceived ideas, had produced specific
and undeniable data which should be of considerable value
to pump designers and which would also be of considerable
interest to those concerned with the design of medium-
pressure fans and blowers.
Vol175 No 21 1961
98-1 COMMUNICATIONS
The danger inherent in the present type of approach
was that misleading conclusions might be drawn. The
author had shown considerable restraint in his h a l con-
clusions and apart from those under (3) there would seem
little to dispute. The danger referred to might be largely
avoided provided it was accepted that the effect on per-
formance of changes in any one element of an impeller
might vary considerably according to the particular com-
bination of the other elements present.
Turning first to the author’s conclusions under (3) and
in particular to the question of the inlet angle of the blades,
the range of inlet angles investigated appeared to have
been influenced by the design procedure described by the
author in his opening remarks under the heading of Inlet
Angle. Such an approach tended to produce high inlet
angles and in the present instance had concentrated atten-
tion on inlet anglesbeyond the criticalrange. Further, it was
suggested that the pump design approach described, by
assuming some pre-rotation in the design stage, would
inevitably result in actual pre-rotation when the pump was
operating at the design point. Experiments with fans
certainly seemed to support that argument and had, as a
result, led to an almost opposite design procedure. That
assumed, as a first step, no pre-rotation at the design point.
That step was followed by a modification (reduction) of
the blade inlet angle so as to give a small positive angle of
incidence when treating the blade as an aerofoil. Such a
design procedure applied to the present pump impellers
suggested that the most satisfactory blade inlet angles might
lie between 20” and 30”,or even between 15” and 20”. It
was probable however that full advantage of the smaller
angles would not be obtained with the rather highly cam-
bered blades used in the present series of experiments.
Straight blades, generally as those in impeller 11, or those
where r1 cos approached r2 cos P2 were likely to produce
better results.
Very satisfying results had been achieved by using that
approach in medium-pressure fan design where it had been
found that even a flat laminar blade could be utilized to
introduce an aerofoil form of circulation opposing and
limiting the interblade circulation normally inherent in a
centrifugal impeller. It was perhaps significant that the
Reynolds number and the ‘equivalent’ specific speeds of
those small pumps were of the same order as those of a
comparatively large range of medium-pressure, low-volume
Proc Instn Mcch Engrs Downloaded from pme.sagepub.com at UNIV OF DELAWARE LIB on June 11, 2012
fans (often referred to as ‘blowers’ or ‘exhausters’). Many
of the results obtained by the author were typical of results
obtained elsewhere on fan prototypes and it would seem
certain that much could be learned on both sides if there
were closer co-operation between the two spheres oE
engineering research,
The author’s conclusions in regard to variations in blade
form were to some extent supported by experiments on
fans provided blades of laminar form only were considered.
Startling advances in centrifugal fan efficiency and per-
formance had been achieved in the last decade by the
adoption of aerofoil blading. The pump industry appeared
to have been slow in adopting such blade forms though it
would seem that the provision of such blading would be a
simpler matter for pumps than it was for fans. Some support
for the author’s conclusions on the effects of variations in
blade form had been obtained from a series of experiments
carried out some years ago on fans, when an attempt had
been made to get the beneficial effects of aerofoil blading
while still retaining laminar blades. Blades had been curved
to top and mean chord profiles of aerofoils. The results had
been disappointing in that the performance was generally
similar to that obtained with blades of circular arc form but
inferior to the performances obtained with flat blading.
Mere, it now seemed, was a clear case of irreconcilable
parameters.
When Meiderer’s empirical equation for optimum
number of blades (equation (2)) was applied to present-day
fans, again it would seem that fans and pumps had much
in common. I n place of the constant 6.5 the following
values appeared to be more usual for backward bladed
fans :4.5 to 5 for circular arc blades, 4 to 4.5 for flat blades,
3.5 to 4 for blades of aerofoil section. He wondered whether
it might be that Pfleiderer’s constant was only applicable
to machines where no effective steps had been taken in the
design to limit interblade circulation.
The experiments on varying roughness were of very
great interest and value and, among other benefits, would
seem to dispose of the possibility of efficiently limiting
interblade circulation by means of introducing artificial
roughness on the suction side of blades or elsewhere, In
addition the author bad done a service by throwing doubt
on conventional energy balances, as it was felt that in the
past that type of exercise might have frequently deterred
efforts to improve impeller efficiency.
Vol175 NO 21 1961

Author 's Reply
Dr F. A. Varley wrote, in reply to the communications,
that he was grateful to the contributors for their extensive
and valuable comments on the paper. Their contributions
reflected the widespread interest in the factors affecting the
design and performance of centrifugal pumps and related
machines and provided ample justification for his work.
A number of points of general interest had been raised
by several contributors and could conveniently be dealt
with first.
The object of varying the different impeller design para-
meters had not been to improve the performance of an
existing pump, nor to demonstrate the excellence of its
design, but to establish, initially, which of these parameters
were decisive in determining impeller performance gener-
ally. The experimental data thus obtained then provided
the evidence necessary to review current empirical design
methods and existing mathematical theories. The ultimate
objective was an analytical approach to pump design, from
first principles, based on a fuller knowledge of the flow
conditions inside the pump, of the various losses and of
where they occurred.
In the interests of brevity he had dealt only briefly in the
paper with the experimental technique and the accuracy
of the resulting data, but he fully appreciated their im-
portance. Flow measurements had been made by means of
a Venturi meter and a V-notch, both of which had been
carefully installed and calibrated independently, in situ, by
volumetric methods. The discharge figures computed from
them were found to agree to within f1 per cent right down
to the lowest flow measured (about 30 galimin). Using the
mean of the two figures would therefore suggest that the
accuracy of the flow measurements was within &+per cent.
Similarly, with the precautions described to measure
dynamometer torque, and checking tachometer speed by
means of a stroboscope, the errors in the determination of
power input were assessed at less than i-+ per cent, About
the absolute accuracy of the head measurements there was
less certainty since no attempt was made to investigate the
variation in flow conditions across the pipes at the static-
pressure tappings by means of Pitot-tube traverses. How-
ever, because of the geometry of a double-entry pump, it
was unlikely that any significant swirl was present at the
suction flange. Indeed, with the supply tank water level
being kept approximately constant, conditions on the supply
side of the pump were so consistent that the suction head
manometer readings could well have been used to determine
the flow. Thc Bourdon gauge used to measure the delivery
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985
head was frequently cahbrated and could certainly be read
to &$ per cent in the region of maximum efficiency condi-
tions. Thus the accuracy of the experimental readings was
such that the resulting efficiency figures obtained were not
more than &2 per cent in error.
Each individual curve shown in Figs. 5,9,15,18 and 20
represented a mean line, drawn by eye, through about
50 test points. It was not practical, therefore, to show all
the experimental data on these curves but the author had
analysed the scatter of the points on the performance curves
for impeller 1. The standard deviation of the scatter on the
head curve was 0.365 ft and on the efficiency curve 0.442 per
cent. Figs. 6, 10, 12, 16, 19 and 21, which summarized the
effects of varying the several impeller design parameters on
the optimum performance of the pump, should be studied
with these accuracy limitations in mind, although he
thought that such considerations did not alter the con-
clusions drawn.
Several contributors had mentioned the effects of change
of speed on the performance of the pump. The author's
findings agreed with the experience of Mr Arkless, that the
affinity laws held over a comparatively wide speed range.
On converting the experimentalreadings over a speed range
of 1000-1508 revlmin to a standard speed of 1400 rev/min,
it was impossible to differentiate between the points
obtained at the different speeds on the resultant head and
efficiency characteristics. Fig. 31, which showed the
variation of pzak efficiency with speed for one particular
impeller, might be of some interest.
Other contributors had raised the question of Reynolds
number effects due to the variation of viscosity with water
temperature. I!: was regretted that no temperature figures
Fig. 31. Variaation of pump eBciency with speed (impeller
No. 5 )
V Q17s
~ No 21 1961
986
had been quoted. The average water temperature in the
tests had been 15.8"C with maximum and minimum values
of 18 and 13-2°C. However, such variations were unlikely
to have had any appreciable effect on the pump perform-
ance. Ippen's* work on the influence of Reynolds number
changes brought about by variation of viscosity and speed
indicated that such changes had little effect on centrifugal
pump performance when the Reynolds number (based on
impeller radius) was above 106. At the standard test speed
of 1400 revlmin and the average water temperature of
15.SoC, the Reynolds number was 1.94~106. It was
interesting to note that reduction of the pump speed to
1000 revlmin together with a water temperature of 13.2"C
reduced the Reynolds number to 1 . 2 7 ~ 106, and thus the
fall in peak efficiency below this speed, shown in Fig. 31,
gave some confirmation of Ippen's findings.
The findings of Mr Hurden and Mr Rimmer on the
optimum number of impeller vanes, in development work
on small high-speed pumps, had been very similar to those
of the author. I n the allied field of fan design, Mr Young
had also suggested that current practice was to use a lower
number of vanes than would be suggested by Pfleiderer's
equation. Although the duties and configurations of these
various machines differed widely from that tested by the
author, their specific speeds were all comparable and that
might be a possible basis for selecting the number of vanes.
Professor Petermann had explained why the ideal number
of vanes was less for a double-entry impeller than for a
single-entry impeller, but the reasoning was not applicable
to the other machines mentioned.
Mr Ferguson had offered a possible explanation for the
change in shape of the head characteristic with the number
of impeller vanes, based on the reduced head slip as the
number increased. A similar argument might apply to the
'humped' head curve for an impeller with an exaggeratedly
large outlet angle. Mr Shaw would be interested in Mr
Rimm.er's tests with different diffusers. It was unlikely that
instability could be eliminated by fitting diffuser vanes
since these could only be designed for shock-free entry at
normal flow and departures from these flow conditions would
inevitably lead to increased losses. Nor did it seem likely
that in a small pump diffuser vanes would improve the
efficiency. However, it was normal experience that an
increase in casing area led to a better efficiency, and there
was little doubt that with a larger casing the improved out-
put of the pump with a larger number of vanes or an
increased outlet angle could have been achieved without
any sacrifice in efficiency. Accepting the inevitable influence
of the diffuser/volute configuration on changes in the
performance of the pump brought about by modification
of the impeller design, the author could not agree with
Mr Peck that his experimentalfindings disagreed with those
of Schroder and Kasai. Table 5 showed the variations of
head slip with outlet angle and of the product of head slip
and number of vanes with the number of vanes. Both
variations were small but consistent over the normal range
* WEN, A. T. 1946 Trans.Amer. SOC. mech. Engrs, vol. 68, p. 823,
'The Influence of Viscosity on Centrifugal Pump Performance'.
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AUTHOR'S REPLY
Table 5. Variation of h a d slip
Number of Head Number of Outlet Haad
blades slip, ft bladcs x slip angle, deg.
_~_____slip, ft
37.7 20 24.3
33.8 30 1 29.0
28.2 110 I 29.3
I
21.0
12.0
50
60 I 28.6
27.2
of design values, and it was worth noting that both had
maximum values in the region of optimum blade angle and
number of vanes.
A number of contributors had commented on pre-
rotation effects at entry to the impeller. The author agreed
with Mr Nixon that with the double-suction impeller used,
there was unlikely to be any swirl due to secondary flow
such as occurred in a single-entry pump with a straight
suction pipe leading directly into the impeller eye. He
agreed further that any swirl due to secondary flow or
imparted by contact with the rotating elements before
reaching the vane passages required a power input from the
impeller and should not be allowed for in the Euler equation.
There was a third possible cause of swirl and that was the
configuration of the casing between the suction branch and
the impeller eye. As Mr Carslaw had pointed our, the
incoming water had to turn through two 90" bends which
would impart a swirl to the water in the direction of
impeller rotation, the strength of the swirl increasing with
the flow. However, none of these causes of pre-rotation
seemed dependent on the entry angle of the vanes and, if
the Stepanoff hypothesis was rejected, the small effects of
varying the inlet angle on the performance of the pump must
be accounted for by the incidence losses and the variation
in the length of the impeller passages. He agreed with
Mr Elvitsky that the inlet conditions were vital in deter-
mining the n.p.s.h. requirements and that the test pump
design was poor in that respect.
The experiments had shown that for given vane angles
even radical departures from the basic circular arc profile
had resulted in only minor changes in performance. Several
contributors did not accept the criterion of the simplest
shape being the best. Mr Anderson's opinion was that
control of the acceleration through the impeller by reitera-
tive computation was necessary; Mr Elvitsky had suggested
a logarithmic-spiral profile and had also mentioned Francis-
type vanes; Professor Sadek thought Pantell's method of
constant deceleration of the relative flow was likely to lead
to optimum efficiency. It seemed to the author that the
improvement in performance consequent on such refine-
ments of the blade profile would depend on both the size
and specific speed of the pump, and he would be grateful if
these contributors could supply him with further informa-
tion. He was interested in Mr Young's comments on the
improvements in centrifugal fan performance resulting
from the adoption of aerofoil blading and agreed with his
observations on the advantages to be gained from exchanges
of experiences in the spheres of pump and fan design. In
Vol175 No 21 1961
 EFFECTS OF IMPELLER DESIGN AND SURFACE KOUGHNESS ON THE PERFORhIANCE OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
reply to Mr Ferguson he had no direct experience of
centrifugal pumps using blades of aerofoil section and was
grateful for the reference given.
The section of the paper that had aroused most comment
from contributors was that dealing with the effects of
varying surface finish and, in particular, the pumping action
of the shrouds. Undoubtedly the flow conditions between
the shroud surfaces and the casing walls were most complex.
There was a boundary layer adjacent to the rotating
impeller in which the water flowed spirally outwards and a
similar inward-flowing layer on the stationary casing wall,
the two flows being separated by a core of fluid revolving
as a forced vortex whose angular velocity was about half
that of the impeller. The outward flow along the impeller
was less than the inward flow along the casing by an amount
equal to the leakage through the wearing rings at the centre.
For the type of pump tested, one with appreciable axial
clearance between the impeller and the casing and with
free communication between this space and the volute, it
had been shown, as Mr Peck had stated, that the net
secondary flow into and out of the volute could well
approach the same order as the pump delivery. Part of the
energy conveyed in this secondary flow was recovered in the
volute which accounted for the contribution of the external
shroud surfaces to the pump output. Because of the different
orders of the leakage flow and the net secondary flow, he
could not agree with Mr Annand and Dr Myles that the
primary effect of roughening the outside surfaces of the
shrouds was to reduce the leakage through the wearing rings.
He felt that the effect of the roughness was to increase the
boundary layer thickness and thus to increase the angular
momentum imposed on the outward secondary flow. About
a third of the disc friction power was recovered in the volute
so that although the output of the pump rose when the
shrouds were roughened, its efficiency fell.
It seemed to him that the fan modification shown by
Dr Myles in Fig. 27 had not only eliminated leakage but
had considerably reduced the secondary flow into and out
of the volute proper, which would contribute to the increase
in efficiency. It would be interesting to know whether a
corresponding reduction in head had been noted. Simple
radial vanes fitted to the casing or to the outside surfaces of
the shrouds (thus decreasing or increasing the whirl), had
been successful in reducing end thrust in pumps. As Mr
Carslaw had pointed out, such modifications could lead to
erosion damage if the resulting clearances were too small,
but the author wondered what the effects had been on the
characteristics of the pump.
He did not follow the comments on Table 4 made by
Mr Annand and Dr Myles. Both (u) and (b) applied to the
same impeller (with a smooth surface finish throughout),
the difference being that in (6) the fraction of the disc
friction power estimated as being recovered in the volute
was added to the internal input in the blade passages to
give the net useful impeller input. The size of that fraction
had been determined by extrapolation from the tests with
roughened impellers, as shown in Fig. 22, but there was no
question of different roughness or leakage rates between
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987
4(u) and 4(b). He agreed with Dr Myles that the input
head (Hi) could not be calculated from equation (4) at pump
deliveries less than normal without allowing for backflow,
from the volute into the impeller, in the total flow Q,. How-
ever, at optimum flow, as Dr Myles had stated, it was un-
likely that any backflow occurred particularly in low specific
speed pumps. Since the analysis shown in Table 4 referred
to optimum flow performance, it was justifiable to omit any
consideration of backflow. Accepting this, Dr Myles’s
energy balance became identical with Table 4(a) and did
not show the contribution of the disc friction power to the
net impeller input.
In reply to Mr Annand, the pressure head across the
wearing rings had not been measured in all the tests with
different surface finishes, and he was unable to draw from
such measurements any reliable conclusions on the effect
of shroud roughness on the leakage flow. Further investi-
gation of this point was certainly required.
The author thought that Mr Peck had misunderstood
the reasoning under Table 3. The estimated disc friction
power for the smooth shrouds was 0.419 h.p., of which it
was suggested that only 69.5 per cent (0.222 h.p.) was a
true loss. On roughening the shrouds the disc friction power
had gone up by 0.387 h.p. (to a total of 0-706 h.p.) and the
water horsepower had increased by 0.103 h.p. The true loss
had thus increased by 0-284 h.p. to a total of 0.506 h.p.
He accepted the suggestion of Professor Itaya and Dr
Nishikawa that the disc friction power calculated from
equation (5) was unlikely to be precise, but he did not
think it could be determined accurately by the experimental
method they had suggested. I n such a determination it was
essential that the secondary flow pattern into and out of the
volute, from the space between the impeller and the casing
walls, should be the same as when the pump was delivering
normally. In particular, the whirl velocity in the volute
must correspond to that prevailing in normal flow condi-
tions. Simply connecting a second pump to the delivery
flange to put the casing under pressure and to supply the
leakage flow would not fulfil those requirements. A recent
investigation by Bennett and Worster* helped considerably
in understanding this problem and gave some hope of a
more accurate estimation of disc friction power. According
to that reference the disc friction power for the test impeller
in a smooth, close-fitting casing would be about 0.26 h.p.
With a rough, loose-fitting casing the power would be
increased and the value of 0.319 h.p., estimated from the
Gibson equation, was not unduly high.
Because of the relatively small surface area of the hub
compared with the shrouds, the author did not think it
likely, as Mr Shaw had suggested, that the increased output
resulting from roughening the internal surfaces of the
impeller was chiefly due to the increased pumping action
of the hub. The last paragraph of the contribution from
Mr Arkless was an apt summary of the author’s view. How-
ever, Professor Itaya and Dr Nishikawa had reported that
* BENNETT,T. P. and WORSTER, R. C . 1961 Brit. Hydromech. res.
Assoc., R.R. 691, ‘The Friction on Rotating Discs and the Effect
on Nett Radial Flow and Externally Applied Whirl’.
Vo1175 No 21 1961
988
their experimentalhdings on the effects of internaI impeller
roughness differed from those of the author. He had not yet
had an opportunity to study their reference but felt it was
possible that in a wider impeller (of higher specific speed),
the thickening of the boundary layers on the shrouds might
have less influence on the pump output. Here again wa5 a
point that needed further investigation.
Mr Anderson’s contributions to the literature on centri-
fugal pumps were well known and the author owed him an
apology for not referring to them. There was no doubt
about the effectiveness of Mr Anderson’s approach to
pump design based on the chart shown in Fig. 23. It was a
considerable improvement on conventional design charts,
which showed head and velocity coefficients on a basis of
specific speed, because it eliminated the effects of change of
hydraulic efficiency with change of pump size. However, it
did not follow that the area ratio of impeller to casing, y,
was the major parameter in pump design. Worster (24) had
also demonstrated that y was related to specific speed, and
to the ratio of impeller width to diameter, so that the basis
of Mr Anderson’s design chart could be considered to be
specific speed (an equivalent specific speed scale was in
fact given at the top of Fig. 23). The author’s objection to
empirical design methods based on such charts was that
they were essentially interpolations from existing designs
and as such could not lead to any improvementsin perform-
ance nor to a greater understanding of the basic flow prob-
lems involved. He agreed entirely that the successful design
of a pump required that the casing design should match
that of the impeller. Worster’s main conclusion was that for
good design the velocity distribution in the casing should
correspond to that in a free vortex having a circulation
determined by the impeller head. There seemed to be no
fundamental reason why the optimum impeller design
could not be evaluated first and the casing proportions then
calculated according to this rule.
He accepted Mr Anderson’s contention that tests of a
number of impellers in a given casing must result in some
masking of the full effects of the impeller changes. How-
ever, he thought that the correlation of his data with the
curves in Figs. 23 and 24 was fair, bearing in mind the low
specific speed of the pump and the fact that Worster’s theory
assumed, for simplicity, a volute of square section. He
would also point out that in the calculation of the head and
quantity coefficients shown by those curves, Worster had
employed the Busemann equation to derive the input head
( H / T ~and
) , thus both coefficients depended on the number
of impeller blades and their outlet angle.
He would like to allay some of Mr Anderson’s misgivings
about the background of the investigation. It had been
initiated about 11 years ago at the instigation of Dr R. F.
McMahon who was then a member of the B.H.R.A.
committee concerned with centrifugal pump research.
Both that association and the pump manufacturer had been
kept informed on the progress of the work, and together
with the Fluids Division at the N.E.L. had shown great
interest.
Dr Hall had commented on the responsibility of the
Proc Instn Mech Engrs Downloaded from pme.sagepub.com at UNIV OF DELAWARE LIB on June 11, 2012
AUTHOR’S REPLY
experimenter for defining the uncertainty of his experi-
mental data, and the author hoped that his earlier remarks
on accuracy had fdtilled this responsibility. He did not
accept Dr Hall’s assessment of the experimental errors nor
his suggestion that insufficient consideration has been
given to the problem in the initial planning stages of the
investigation. Young and Nixon* had discussed the a-
culties involved in achieving absolute accuracy in pump
testing at the N.E.L., and it was to research establishments
of this nature that the theorist must turn if he required
experimental data of great precision and was not prepared
to undertake such work himself.
He was interested in the suggestion of a theoretical
approach to the prediction of impeller performance based
on boundary layer theory and hoped that Dr Hall would
find time to pursue his idea further. He was not sure,
however, that the exercise would prove very rewarding since
his experimental findings had indicated that the boundary
layers on the blade surfaces had little significance, in an
impeller of this geometry, compared with the boundary
layers on the shrouds. For a two-dimensional impeller of
large aspect ratio the primary requirement was to be able
to determine the velocity distribution across the whole
passage, from blade to blade, and here the Stodola and
Busemarm theories were of direct application. The problem
was that in conventional pumps the flow was not two-
dimensional. For a low specific speed impeller with narrow
blade passages, the flow was essentially radial but the end
effects of the shrouds were dominant; whereas in a wider
impeller, of higher specific speed, the flow was no longer
radial.
Dr Baxter had questioned the use of a mean value for the
mechanical losses. It was true that these losses formed a
high proportion of the total and thus relatively small
variations in them would have masked the changes in
performance brought about by modification of the impeller
configuration. There were two ways of overcoming the
difficulty-by eliminating the mechanical losses altogether
and showing efficiencies based on an input of b.h.p. less
mechanical losses, or, by using a mean value of mechanical
losses averaged over all the tests. He had preferred the
latter. The range of variation of the mechanical losses had
been from 0-14 to 0-28 h.p. with an average of 0-196 h.p.
It was the use of this average figure and the disc friction
power of 0.319 h.p. that had led him to quote the b.h.p.
calculations to the degree of accuracy that Dr Hall had
queried. Dr Hall had also misunderstood his comment on
measuring the mechanical losses with the pump running
‘dry’. Although the pump casing had been drained, the
feed pipes to the lantern rings had remained full of water,
and tests had shown that the pump could be run in this
condition for some time before the packing began to dry
out thus causing an increase in the gland friction losses.
The author accepted Dr Hall’s criticism that he should
have stated that optimum efficiency required the impeller
* YOUNG,L. and NIXON, R. A. 1960 Proc. Instn mech. Engrs, Lond.,
vol. 174, p. 535, ‘Power,Flow and Pressure Measurements in
Pump Testing’.
Val 175 NO21 I961
 EFFECTS OF IMPELLER DESIGN AND SURFACE ROUGHNESS ON THE PERFORMANCE OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
surfaces to be hydraulically smooth rather than, simply, as
smooth as possible. However, it was worth noting that the
roughness tests had shown that a coating of sand grains of
a mean size of 0-005 in. on the shrouds had an appreciable
effect on the pump performance. The suggestion that local
roughness might improve the efficiency by modifying
separation effects was somewhat hypothetical in view of the
practical difficulties involved.
In reply to Mr Elvitsky, the line showing the variation
of absolute velocity with radius in Fig. 13 was rather mis-
leading. There was an appreciable kink in it at a radius
corresponding to the hub diameter but it was concealed by
the scale used in the upper part of the figure. The blade
profiles for impellers 1 and 19 could be compared in
Fig. 8 (c). In the determination of the blade profiles for
impellers 18-22 and the velocity variations in Fig. 13, the
Aow areas used were obtained by continuing the hub side-
contours up to meet on the centre-line. However, the
R o c Insin Mech Engrs Downloaded from pme.sagepub.com at UNIV OF DELAWARE LIB on June 11, 2012
989
impeller geometry was such that there were still relatively
abrupt changes in flow area in the region of the hub
periphery. Turning to the question of estimating the
boundary layer thickness inside the impeller, he thought
that this would prove most complex unless gross assump-
tions were made to simplify the problem.
He hoped that Mr Annand would find that most of his
points had been dealt with in his earlier general replies. As
to the other queries, he had used the phrase ‘head developed
by the pump’ as synonymous with manometric head. The
static-pressure tappings had been tin. diameter holes
drilled through the pipe flanges and tapped on the outside
to &in. b.s.p, for the manometer leads. Due precautions
had been taken to remove burrs from the inner wall of the
pipe.
In conclusion, the author thanked the contributors who
had made valuable suggestions for further investigation.
He intended to continue the work along those lines.
Yo1 175 No 21 1961