Ultrasound For Dummies PDF

Ultrasound for Dummies
and MR and stuff
A. H. Jarmund1 T. Nguyen2 Please Help
November 2017
Norges Teknisk-Naturvitenskapelige Universitet, Trondheim, Norway.
1
Contact: anderhja@stud.ntnu.no
2
Contact: thanhqn@stud.ntnu.no
Contents
Introduction v
Todo list v
I Medical Imaging Systems: Introductions and con-

cepts 1
1 Let’s start easy 2
1.1 Useful terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 General imaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2 Signal Processing 4
2.1 What is a signal? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.2 Looking at things . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.3 What is a filter? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3 Ultrasound 6
3.1 What is ultrasound? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.1.1 How to make an image? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.1.2 Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.1.3 Sound wave in medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.1.4 Beam steering and focusing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.1.5 Array system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.1.6 Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.2 Limitations and artefacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.2.1 Shadows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.2.2 Reverberations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.2.3 Ring down artefacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.2.4 Side lobes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.2.5 Angle dependency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.2.6 Foreshortening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.2.7 Out of plane motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.3 Clinical applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4 X-ray Computed Tomography 10
i
CONTENTS ii
4.1 Production of X-rays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

4.2 Interactions with biological matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.2.1 Photoelectric effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.2.2 Compton scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.2.3 Pair production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.3 Computed Tomography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5 Magnetic Resonance 11
6 Optical Coherence Tomography 12

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
6.2 Simple optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
II Ultrasound 15
7 On Wavy Things 16
7.1 Developing the wave equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
7.2 Transmission and reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
7.3 Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
8 Give me some Helmholtz 22

8.1 Solve’em all . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
8.2 Peace and Harmony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
8.3 Going General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
9 Oh no! The Approximations are Coming! 35

9.1 Fraunhofer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
9.2 Tissue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
9.3 Loss and absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
9.3.1 Plane wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
9.4 Inhomogeneous matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
9.5 Born approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
10 Turn Up the Music 45

10.1 Curved, circular transducer and Continuous Wave . . . . . . . . 47
10.1.1 On the central axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
10.1.2 Off the central axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
10.1.3 Far-field approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
10.1.4 More on focusing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
10.2 Linear, circular transducer and Continuous Wave . . . . . . . . . 56
10.2.1 On the central axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
10.2.2 Off the central axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
CONTENTS iii
10.3 Rectangular transducer and Continuous Wave . . . . . . . . . . . 58

10.4 Summary Continuous Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
10.5 Curved, Circular Transducer and a Pulse . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
10.6 Linear, Circular Transducer and a Pulse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
10.7 Multi element transducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
11 Scattering 64
11.1 The Born Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
11.2 Scattering and absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
12 It’s Alive! On Doppler Ultrasound 68

12.1 The Doppler Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
12.1.1 Moving source, stationary observer . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
12.1.2 Moving observer, stationary source . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
12.1.3 Moving scatterer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
12.2 Continuous Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
12.3 Pulse Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
A MATLAB examples 77
III CT 84
13 Some electromagnetics 85
13.1 Maxwell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
13.2 Make it hetero . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
13.3 Quick and dirty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
14 Make it smile 90
14.1 Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
14.2 Getting an image back . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
14.2.1 Inverse Radon Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
14.2.2 Inverse Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
14.2.3 Simple Back Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
14.2.4 Filtered Back Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
B MATLAB examples 97
IV MR 100
15 The Easy Parts 101
15.1 Love and attraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
15.1.1 Electrons and protons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
15.1.2 Some mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
15.2 Hit Me Baby One More Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
CONTENTS iv
15.3 Stop Dreaming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
16 Gradients 111
16.1 Adding a gradient field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
17 Show Me Something 115
18 NMR 117
18.1 NMR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
C MATLAB examples 118
References 119
Introduction
In the process of trying to learn some basic medical imaging techniques, it

became apparent for us that the number of introductory texts were limited. We
thus started the work of collecting some information and presenting it in an
informal way. You should however be familiar with some elementary physics
and mathematics.
This text is based on the work of Angelsen [2000] and where no other refer-
ences are given, that is where to search for answers.
A tip: If you do not have access to MATLAB, most code could be run for
free at https://octave-online.net/.
There will be two kind of boxes,
Important 0.0.1: Important stuff
Important insights and expressions
Example 0.0.1: Examples
Examples, either numerical or symbolical, and old exam exercises
v
Todo list
What about scattering? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

addref . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
addref . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
addref . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Figure: An example of medical image made by the imaging method . . . 9
Add reference. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Move this chapter to after CT where Maxwell is introduced . . . . . . . . 12
Figure: A sketch of the system set up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Add reference. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
proofread section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Finish example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Add reference. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Remake figures using radon() function in matlab and reduce size . . . . . 92
Figure: An example of simple radon transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Add reference. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Is this figure wrong? θ in zy 0 plane? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Is this wrong? Should x0 and y 0 switch place? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
When a todo is done, change ”todo” to ”done”.
vi
Part I
Medical Imaging Systems:

Introductions and concepts
1
Chapter 1
Let’s start easy
1.1 Useful terms

Acoustic Physics of mechanical waves
Optical Physics of light
Tomography Imaging by slices or sections
1.2 General imaging

In the following chapters we will look at different ways of looking inside things
without destroying them. The images are in general made by variations inside
the item inspected. What kind of variation depends on the imaging method we
are using,
Ultrasound Variations in mass density and compressibility

X-rays Variations in absorption coefficient (mostly electron
density)
MRI Variations in proton density, time constants, temper-
ature, oxygenation, gyromagnetic ratio
Optical Coherence Variation in relative permeability and permittivity
Tomography
Another distinction is for which penetration depth and which resolution we
are interested in. This is illustrated in Figure 1.1.
2
CHAPTER 1. LET’S START EASY 3
Figure 1.1: ***. Shamelessly stolen from http://obel.ee.uwa.edu.au/

research/fundamentals/introduction-oct/.
Chapter 2
Signal Processing
2.1 What is a signal?

A signal is basically a function s. It should be real valued, often continuous,
and often we want it to be infinitely. That said, it is often finite so that most
of it is zero. To make this analogue signal, we have to do some sampling. This
has two important aspects * time * value
We may talk about signals in somewhat different ways: the signal sent and
the signal received.
2.2 Looking at things

The are two fundamental ways of visualising a signal: in the time domain or in
the frequency domain.
Usually, at least in ultrasound, we are looking at the
P power spectra of some
signal. If S is the Fourier transform of a signal s = n A(ωn ) cos(ωn t), then
the power spectra, using dB, is
P (ω) = 10 log10 |S|2 = 20 log10 A(ω). (2.1)
Example 2.2.1: Power plots
In MATLAB the power plot of a signal (vector) s is simply
2.3 What is a filter?

When we talk about filters, we are talking about convolutions in the time do-
main between a filtering function and the signal. Often we operate in the Fouri-
er/frequency space (see Example 8.1.3 for more on Fourier analysis) so that it
4
CHAPTER 2. SIGNAL PROCESSING 5
is simply a multiplication. If s is the signal and h the filtering function, the

filtered signal sf is thus
ˆ ∞
sf (t) = h(t) ∗t s(t) = dτ h(t − τ )s(t) = F −1 {H(ω) · S(ω)}. (2.2)
−∞
Chapter 3
Ultrasound
3.1 What is ultrasound?

Medical ultrasound in medical imaging is an imaging techniques based on the
properties of mechanical waves in interaction with body tissues. Ultrasound is
sound wave with frequency higher than what is audible to human (>20000 Hz)
and with a high frequency or a low wavelength, it is able to give a sufficient
resolution. Different tissues in body will interact differently in response to an
incoming pulse or waves, which can be used to make an image.
3.1.1 How to make an image?

Depends on what type of image we want to make, there are different technique
that can be used but the principle is the same.
Important 3.1.1: Basic in ultrasound imaging
Ultrasound waves or pulses are transmitted from a transducer and scat-

tered by spatial fluctuations in the mass density and compressibility of
the medium in which the wave propagates. The scatted waves/pulses
are detect by a transducer, (usually the same as the transmitted) and an
image can be developed.
3.1.2 Modes
As mention there are many technique that can be used to get an image and
depend on the image quality and functionality, we define different modes:
• A-mode (Amplitude): measure the the arrive time of the echoes relative
to the time it was transmitted for a single pulse.
• B-mode (Brightness): measure a large number of pulse-echo, send in dif-
ferent angular direction, which can be used to generate 2D or 3D image.
6
CHAPTER 3. ULTRASOUND 7
• M-mode (motion): give real-time image using A or B-mode.

• Color doppler: display the speed as colour on top of a B-mode image.
• Continuous wave (CW) doppler: continuous transmission and reception of
waves along a single line, gives good speed resolution, but no information
about the location.
• Pulse wave (PW) doppler: measure Doppler signal from a small volume
at a specific location.
3.1.3 Sound wave in medium

Threemain physical phenomena occur when sound waves propagate through a What about
medium: scattering?
• Reflection: When a beam strikes an acoustic boundary, part of its will
get transmitted, while some of it is reflected back. The reflected beam
is referred as the echo (most important interaction). If the reflection
interface has a dimension smaller than the beam and is irregular in shape,
we get scattering i.e. reflection in different directions. We will return to
this subject in section ***. addref
• Refraction: The wave of speed is changing when going from one medium
to another. We will return to this subject in section ***. addref
• Attenuation: When traverse through the medium some the energy of the
waves are transferred (mostly heat) to the medium. We called this for
absorption which decrease the energy of the beam. We will return to this
subject in section ***. addref
3.1.4 Beam steering and focusing

Steering and focusing is important in order to receive a signal from a specific
location. It can be done geometrically by having a spherical transducer inter-
face or electronically by introducing a time delay at each element or activation
selection of elements.
3.1.5 Array system

In order steer and focus the beam, we used various type of array system, also
to achieve more functionality.
Important 3.1.2: Array systems
• Annular array: Composed of a set of rings (flat or geometrically

pre-focused) with decreasing thickness outward. Focusing in the
radial direction is done by time delays on each of the rings. Beam
steering can only be done by mechanical sweeping.
• Phased array: Linear array where beam focusing and steering is

done by time delay applications at each element.
• Switched array: Linear array where beam steering is obtained by
selecting which element is active and not. Focusing is done by time
delay application.
3.1.6 Resolution
The spatial resolution of ultrasound imaging is determine by a number of factors:
• The axial resolution is determine by the pulse length.
• The lateral resolution is determine by the wide of the beam, frequency

and density of the lines.
• Temporal resolution is determine by the depth of penetration, number
focal point and scan line per frame.
Both axial and lateral resolution will decrease with the depth of the tissue due
to the absorption and scattering.
Table 3.1: Advantages (+) and drawbacks (−).
CW PW
+ Range resolution No Yes
− Frequency aliasing No Yes
− Range ambiguity No Yes
− Limited max. c measure No Yes
− Smaller transducer aperture (reduced resolution) Yes No
Example 3.1.1: Exam 2014.1.b
What are advantages and drawbacks of pulse waves and continuous waves
in relation to Doppler measurements? Some are listed in Table 3.1.
3.2 Limitations and artefacts

In our later discussions regarding ultrasound, we will usually make five assump-
tions, namely that
1. the speed of sound is constant,

2. the beam is narrow and straight,
3. the attenuation does not change with depth,
4. our signal is scattered and/or reflected only once,
5. the tissue we are imaging does not move.

Of course, none of them are completely true. This produces artefacts in our
finale image.
This section is mainly based on the work of Støylen [2017].
3.2.1 Shadows
3.2.2 Reverberations
3.2.3 Ring down artefacts
3.2.4 Side lobes
3.2.5 Angle dependency
3.2.6 Foreshortening
3.2.7 Out of plane motion
3.3 Clinical applications
Missing
An example of medical image made by the imag-
figure
ing method
Chapter 4
X-ray Computed Tomography
4.1 Production of X-rays

4.2 Interactions with biological matter
4.2.1 Photoelectric effect
4.2.2 Compton scattering
4.2.3 Pair production
4.3 Computed Tomography

Missing
figure
ing method
10
Chapter 5
Magnetic Resonance
Missing
figure
ing method
11
Chapter 6
Optical Coherence
Tomography
6.1 Introduction
From the technique’s name, you probably know a lot already. We are dealing
with light, its coherence, and we are doing scanning. Add refer-
ence.
6.2 Simple optics

An electromagnetic wave, such as monochromatic light, could be represented as Move this
an oscillating field chapter to af-
Ei = E0 e−ikz (6.1) ter CT where
Maxwell is
with wave number k = 2π/λ.
introduced
You should also know that we can analyse rays of light using matrices. For
example, a mirror or beam splitter with reflectivity r and transmitivity t could
be described as
−r it
M (r, t) = . (6.2)
it −r
From the beam splitter, the sample is placed in a distance ls and the mirror in
a distance lr . If the beam splitter transmits half of the light, and reflects the
other half, (6.2) will take the values

1 −1 i
MBS = √ (6.3)
2 i −1
so that the fields moving towards the sample and the mirror becomes

Er 1 −1 i Ei 1 −Ei
=√ =√ . (6.4)
Es 2 i −1 0 2 iEi
12
CHAPTER 6. OPTICAL COHERENCE TOMOGRAPHY 13
For the moment, assume both the sample and the reflector act as mirrors (that
is, no depth dependcence on backscattering in sample). Then we have to new
mirrors with reflectivities rs and rr ,

−rrs 0
Mrs = . (6.5)
0 −rrs
Also the beams travel some distance lrs ,resulting in the transfer matrix
Ml = ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ (6.6)
twice before entering the beam splitter again.
Missing
figure A sketch of the system set up
Finally, the electrical field entering the detector will look like
i 1 i 1
ED = rr √ √ Ei e−i2klr + rs √ √ Ei e−i2kls ≡ ER e−i2klr + ES e−i2kls (6.7)
2 2 2 2
We define the autocorrelation function as
Γ12 (τ ) = hE1 (t)E2∗ (t + τ )iT (6.8)
and the complex degree of coherence,
Γ12 (τ )
γ12 (τ ) = √ (6.9)
I1 I2
often also referred to as g (1) (τ ) in the literature. This function will take values
such as
Laser light g (1) (τ ) = e−iω0 τ
2
Gaussian chaotic light g (1) (τ ) = e−iω0 τ −π(τ /τc ) /2
for central frequency ω0 and coherence time τc . For a fully coherent system,
|g (1) (τ )| = 1.
The intensity detected will be
ID = h|ED |2 i = h|ER |2 i + h|ES |2 i + (ER ES∗ + ES ER

∗ −i2klr +i2kls
)e
p
= IR + IS + 2 Re{γrs (τ )} Ir Is cos (2k∆l)
CHAPTER 6. OPTICAL COHERENCE TOMOGRAPHY 14
for ∆l = lr − ls . We see that for a fully coherent system and k = 2π/λ,

p
ID = IR + IS + 2 Ir Is cos (4π∆l/λ),
from which you easily see the effect of constructive (∆l = nλ/2) and destructive
(∆l = (2n + 1)λ/4) interference as you change ∆l (integer n).
Another approach is by using an electrical field of the form Add refer-
ence.
Ei (ω, t) = s(ω)e−i(ωt+kz) , (6.10)
that is, a wave packet where s(ω) is the amplitude spectrum. The beam is split
as before, but we assign a spatial response function H to the sample, so that
the field reflected from the sample is
√
Es = tr tt Ei H (6.11)
and the one from the reflector is simply

√
Er = tr tt Ei e−iφ(∆z) (6.12)
where ∆z = ∆tc/nair and φ = 2ωnair ∆z/c.
Missing
figure
ing method
Part II
Ultrasound
15
Chapter 7
On Wavy Things
7.1 Developing the wave equations

Imagine a plane being influenced by an incoming wave travelling along a direc- proofread
tion ẑ, causing a displacement ψ(z, t) of the plane from equilibrium position z. section
Further define
Important 7.1.1: Velocity and acceleration
∂ψ
u(z, t) = (Vibration velocity), (7.1)
∂t
∂u
a(z, t) = (Acceleration of plane). (7.2)
∂t
We want to describe the pressure p at the equilibrium position z. The

pressure is generated by ψ causing a compression of the material. Therefore we
define the bulk or volume compressibility κ. By linearisation we approximate
Important 7.1.2: Pressure
1 ∂ψ
p≈− (Pressure), (7.3)
κ ∂z
which by (7.1) implies that
∂p 1 ∂ ∂ψ 1 ∂ ∂ψ 1 ∂u
=− =− =− . (7.4)
∂t κ ∂t ∂z κ ∂z ∂t κ ∂z
The mass has to be conserved as the wave passes, keeping the mass ∆m
between two neighbouring planes, say at equilibrium positions z and z + dz,
constant. Define ρ0 as the mass density in the unstrained material in the volume
16
CHAPTER 7. ON WAVY THINGS 17
∆V between the planes, hence

∆m
ρ0 = (Mass density in unstrained material). (7.5)
∆V0
During compression ∆m is conserved whilst ∆V and local mass density ρ(z, t)
are changing. Assume the compression is small so that ∆V = ∆V0 + δV . This
small deviation δV has to equal the displacement ψ times the area of the plane,
and thus δV /∆V0 = ∂ψ ∂z . We assume that the compression only causes a small
deviation δρ(z, t) from ρ0 , so that ρ(z, t) = ρ0 + δρ(z, t). Conservation of mass
yields
∂ψ
∆m = ρ∆V = (ρ0 + δρ)(∆V0 + δV ) = (ρ0 ∆V0 + δρ∆V0 )(1 + )
∂z
∂ψ ∂ψ
= ∆m(1 + ) + δρ∆V0 (1 + ),
∂z ∂z
dividing by ∆V0 and using the approximation 1/x ≈ 1 − x for small x gives
∂ψ ∂ψ
ρ0 = (ρ0 + δρ)(1 + ) = ρ(1 + )
∂z ∂z
ρ0 ∂ψ
⇒ρ= ≈ ρ0 (1 − ) (Mass density).
1 + ∂ψ
∂z
∂z
We now turn to Newton’s laws. Pressure is force per unit area. The area
of each plane is A, and thus the force at the volume element ∆V equals the
pressure difference between the two planes at z and z dz,
∆F ∂p
= p(z, t) − p(z + dz , t) ≈ p(z, t) − [p(z, t) + dz ]
A ∂z
∂p
= − dz .
∂z
As ∆V0 = A dz, we get
∂p
∆F = − ∆V0 (Net force on ∆V ). (7.6)
∂z
From (7.2) we know the acceleration of ∆V , hence
∂u ∂p
∆F = ∆ma = ∆m = − ∆V0 .
∂t ∂z
We remember that the mass density of unstrained material is ρ0 = ∆m/∆V0 ,
giving
Important 7.1.3: Newtons acceleration equation
∂u ∂p
ρ0 = − . (Newtons acceleration equation) (7.7)
∂t ∂z
This equation represents kinetic energy, as the traditional ma = F.
The wave equations are made by combining (7.4) and (7.7) by differentiating
(7.7) with respect of t and z. Starting with t,
∂ ∂u ∂ ∂p
ρ0 =−
∂t ∂t ∂t ∂z
∂2u ∂2p
ρ0 2 = −
∂t ∂t∂z
∂2u 1 ∂2u
ρ0 2 = .
∂t κ ∂z 2
Similarly, by differentiation with respect to z,
∂ ∂u ∂ ∂p
ρ0 =−
∂z ∂t ∂z ∂z
∂2u ∂2p
ρ0 =− 2
∂z∂t ∂z
2 2
∂ p ∂ p
ρ0 κ 2 = 2 .
∂t ∂z
We define the wave propagation velocity c as
Important 7.1.4: Wave Propagation Velocity
1
c= √ , (7.8)
ρ0 κ
and summarise the two results as the wave equations,
∂2u 1 ∂2u
− = 0, (7.9)
∂z 2 c2 ∂t2
2 2
∂ p 1 ∂ p
2
− 2 2 = 0. (7.10)
∂z c ∂t
In three dimensions you have to introduce some vectors and be more careful
when developing the two equations. However, the results are very similar to
(7.9) and (7.10), namely
Important 7.1.5: Homogeneous Wave Equation in 3D
1 ∂2u
∇2 u − = 0, (7.11)
c2 ∂t2
2
1 ∂ p
∇2 p − 2 2 = 0, (7.12)
c ∂t
where u is a vector derived from ψ and z → r.

Example 7.1.1: Exam 2012.2a
Write two equations of physical phenomena that are the basis for ultra-
sound wave propagation in tissue and explain the material parameters
and the field variables that are found in the equations. What energy
forms do the two equations represent.
Answer
Newtons acceleration equation:
∂u(r, t)
ρ(r) = −∇p(r, t), (7.7 revisited)
∂t
representing kinetic energy. Linear elasticity equation:
∂p(r, t) ∂p(r, t)
κ(r) + hab (r, t) ∗t κ(r) = −∇ · u(r, t),
∂t ∂t
first term representing elastic potential energy, the second representing
absorption.
Arguments, variables and parameters are
r Spatial coordinate
t Time coordinate
p(r, t) Acoustic pressure
u(r, t) Vibration velocity
ρ(r) Mass density
κ(r) Elastic compressibility
hab (r, t) Acoustic power absorption kernel
7.2 Transmission and reflection

Let us look at a wave in a medium with mass density ρ1 and compressibility κ1
which hits the surface of another material with mass density ρ2 and compress-
ibility κ2 . Often some of the energy will be transmitted into the new material,
whilst some energy is reflected. Define the acoustic impedance
zj = ∗ ∗ ∗, j = 1, 2. (7.13)
7.3 Energy
Example 7.3.1: Exam 2012.2b
According to the Kirchoffsa decomposition of vector fields, any continu-

ous vector field v(r, t) can be expressed as
v(r, t) = ∇φ(r, t) + ∇ × Σ(r, t).
What do we call φ(r, t) and Σ(r, t)?
Answer
φ(r, t) Scalar potential

Σ(r, t) Vector potential
a The exam question states Kirchhoff but it should be Helmholtz, as it is Helmholtz
who has a decomposition theorem.

Definitions
ψ(z, t) Displacement
u(z, t) = ∂t ψ Vibration velocity
−1
p(z, t) = −κ ∂z ψ Pressure
κ Volume compressibility
ρ0 Mass density in unstrained material
ρ Mass density
c = (ρ0 κ)−1/2 Wave propagation velocity
21
Chapter 8
Give me some Helmholtz
8.1 Solve’em all

The wave equations are in fact a bit boring as they are given. We want to add a proofread
source term representing the source of the wave. On the right hand side, simply section
add
− s(r, t) (Wave source), (8.1)
giving the inhomogeneous wave equations
Important 8.1.1: The Inhomogeneous Wave Equations
1 ∂2u
∇2 u − = −s(r, t), (8.2)
c2 ∂t2
1 ∂2p
∇2 p − 2 2 = −s(r, t). (8.3)
c ∂t
Solving these equations requires, at least if you want a particular solution,

both initial conditions and boundary conditions.
For the general initial conditions, we’ll use
p(r, 0) = g(r), (8.4)

∂p(r, 0)
= h(r), (8.5)
∂t
and for the boundary condition, we define a surface S and the general operator
B̂ so that
B̂p(r, t) = 0, r ∈ S. (8.6)
Often the boundary condition implies that pressure and particle velocity has to
be continuous across interfaces. Two examples of boundary conditions are
B̂p(r, t) = p(r, t) = 0, r ∈ S (Pressure release condition) (8.7)
22
CHAPTER 8. GIVE ME SOME HELMHOLTZ 23
which represents the fluid-vacuum interface, and
B̂p(r, t) = ∇n p(r, t) = 0, r ∈ S (Rigid interface condition) (8.8)
representing fluid-rigid surface interfaces with fluid being able to slip along the
surface.
We introduce power loss through the Sommerfeld radiation condition
∂p 1 ∂p
lim r − = 0. (Sommerfeld radiation condition) (8.9)
r→∞ ∂r c ∂t
This removes solutions entering from the infinity, making sure s is a source and
not a sink of energy.
Let us assume that the source s is confined to some volume in space and that
there is no reflections or refractions of the wave. Now we start to transform,
and we denote the Fourier transform of a function as capital letters. (Fourier
who? See Example 8.1.3 Fourier transform) Thus (8.3) takes the form
ω2
(k 2 − )P (k, ω) = S(k, ω)
c2
S(k, ω)
P (k, ω) = 2 ≡ G(k, ω)S(k, ω), (8.10)
(k − ω 2 /c2 )
hence
1
G(k, ω) = . (Fourier of Green’s Function) (8.11)
(k 2 − ω 2 /c2 )
In position and time space Green’s function, through transforming back (8.11),
gets the form
δ(t − r/c)
g(r, t) = F −1 {G} = . (Green’s Function) (8.12)
4πr
And as we know, multiplication in Fourier space is convolution elsewhere, so
p(r, t) = F −1 {P } = F −1 {S(k, ω)G(k, ω)} = s(r, t) ∗ g(r, t)

ˆ ˆ
= d3 r0 dt0 g(r − r0 , t − t0 )s(r0 , t0 )
ˆ ˆ
3 s(r0 , t0 )δ(t − t0 − |r − r0 |/c)
= d r0 dt0 .
4π|r − r0 |
As the δ-function only contributes when its argument is zero, only
t − t0 − |r − r0 |/c = 0
t0 = t − |r − r0 |/c
will will give any contribution to the integral. We call this the retarded time,
as is takes into account the time needed for the wave to propagate from r to r0
with speed c,
tr = t − |r − r0 |/c (Retarded time). (8.13)
So, in short,
ˆ
s(r0 , tr )
p(r, t) = d3 r0 . (Retarded potential) (8.14)
4π|r − r0 |
But the general principle is so important, that we will put it in red:
Important 8.1.2: Pressure
If s is a source function and g a Green’s function, then the pressure at

some point will be
ˆ ˆ
3
p(r, t) = d r0 dt0 g(r − r0 , t − t0 )s(r0 , t0 ). (8.15)
Example 8.1.1: Smashing a hammer and retarded potentials
Multiplication in Fourier space is convolution in position space. Thus, if

we send an impulse in position space, eg. smash a hammer into some-
thing, in position r1 at time t1 which has the form
s(r, t) = δ(r − r1 )δ(t − t1 ), (Hammer smashing at (r1 , t1 ))
creating a pressure
ˆ ˆ
3 δ(t − t1 − |r − r1 |/c)
p(r, t) = d r0 dt0 g(r − r0 , t − t0 )s(r0 , t0 ) = .
4π|r − r1 |
This is a sharp crest wave, spherical symmetric, propagating with speed

c, with an amplitude 1/|r − r1 |. Further we may, as before, interpret
tr = t − |r − r0 |/c (8.13 revisited)
as a retarded time, taking into account the time the wave needs to prop-
agate from r0 to r. So a bit more general, assuming a source s,
ˆ
s(r0 , tr )
p(r, t) = d3 r0 , (8.14 revisited)
4π|r − r0 |
resembling retarded functions from electrostatics. Finally, we note that

if we have a point source in the origin (tr = t − r/c) sending a spherical
symmetric signal f , we achieve
s(r, t) = f (t)δ(r),
f (tr )
p(r, t) = ,
4πr
that is, the pressure is the signal from the point source taking the delay
into account.
Finish exam-
Example 8.1.2: Dipole source ple
Place two sources at r1 and r2 so that l = r2 − r1 , and make them equal

in magnitude but of opposite signs,
s1 (r1 , t0 ) = −s2 (r2 , t0 ) = −s2 (r1 + l, t0 ).
We assume small l = |l| and approximate
s(r + l, t0 ) ≈ s(r, t0 ) + l∇s(r, t0 ),
so that the two sources in sum contribute with
s(r, t0 ) − s(r + l, t0 ) ≈ l∇s(r, t0 ).

Example 8.1.3: Fourier transform
We will use this normalisation for n-dimensional spatial transform

ˆ ∞
F (k) = F {f (r)} = dn r f (r)eik·r , (Forward transform) (8.16)
−∞
ˆ ∞
1
f (r) = F −1 {F (k)} = dn k F (k)e−ik·r . (Inverse transform)
(2π)n −∞
(8.17)
where k is the reciprocal of r.

We often transform with regards to time too, so the temporal transforms
are
ˆ ∞
F (ω) = F {f (t)} = dt f (t)e−iωt , (Forward transform) (8.18)
−∞
ˆ ∞
1
f (t) = F {F (ω)} =
−1
dω F (ω)eiωt . (Inverse transform)
2π −∞
(8.19)
There are several important properties of the Fourier transform. Multi-

plication in Fourier space is convolution in the inverse space
F −1 {F G} = F −1 {F } ∗ F −1 {G} = f ∗ g,
where ∗ denotes convolution (not multiplication), and vice versa. Also

you should now that
∂f (t)
→ iωF (ω),
∂t
∇f (r) → ikF (k).
Interpretation: time dependent signals will be transformed into weighted

frequencies, whilst spatial coordinates are transformed into a reciprocal
space.
8.2 Peace and Harmony

Introduce now time harmonic sources (and thus time harmonic pressures) with proofread
angular velocity ω, packed into a complex envelope se of the source field or pe section
of the pressure field. Complex notation is useful, so let the actual signal be the
real part of eiωt times this envelope. That is,
s(r, t) = Re se (r, ω)eiωt ,

(8.20)
p(r, t) = Re pe (r, ω)eiωt .

(8.21)
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Figure 8.1: Illustration of pe and p = Re pe eiωt , for f = 3, pe = e−t |3 sin(t)t +

7t2 − 30 sin(0.3t)t3 | normalised to 1. This is just an example of the relation

between p and pe , it may not solve the wave equation. For code, see A.
What this means is illustrated in Figure 8.1 and 8.2. We apply the wave equa-
tions, and it can easily be argued that the one for pressure achieve the form,
∇2 pe (r, ω) + k12 pe (r, ω) = −se (r, ω), (Helmholtz equation) (8.22)

ω
k1 = . (Propagation factor). (8.23)
c
Note that k1 will be real in the absence of absorption. We will later add ab-
sorption, if you are curious, look at (9.5).
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Figure 8.2: Illustration of pe and p = Re pe eiωt , for f = 0.7 and pe as shown.
This is just an example of the relation between p and pe , it may not solve the
wave equation. For code, see A.
We perform a Fourier transform as before, r → k, ∇2 → (ik)2 , yielding
k 2 Pe (k, ω) − k12 Pe (k, ω) = Se (k, ω)

Se
Pe = 2 ≡ Ge Se
k − k12
1
Ge = 2
k − k12
e−ik1 r
ge (r, ω) = F −1 {Ge } = (8.24)
4πr
iωt cos ωtr
g(r, t; ω) = Re ge e = (8.25)
4πr
tr = t − r/c.
An interpretation: spherical wave, amplitude attenuates as 1/r, propagating

with velocity c.
Important 8.2.1: Green’s function of different kinds
So, we have now got three forms of the Green’s function, namely
δ(tr )
g(r, t) = , (Pulse) (8.12 revisited)
4πr
e−ik1 r
ge (r, ω) = , (Harmonic source (complex)) (8.24 revisited)
4πr
cos ωtr
g(r, t; ω) = . (Harmonic source (real part)) (8.25 revisited)
4πr
The latter is illustrated in Figure 8.3.
8.3 Going General

Now we want to formulate the solution to the wave equations in a very general proofread
integral form. Then all sources confined to some limited space will enter via section
a volume integral, whilst all other sources contributing will enter through a
surface integral.
First we need to know that
1 ∂ 2 g(r, t)
∇2 g(r, t) − = −δ(r)δ(t). (8.26)
c2 ∂t2
How do we know? Remember from (8.10) that P = GS, and for S = 1, G has
to be as good a solution as P . Right hand side arrives through F −1 {S = 1} =
δ(r)δ(t).
We’ll just repeat all the important equations so that they are readily available
Figure 8.3: Illustration of (8.25), for ω = 60π and c = 1500 m s−1 For code,
see A.
to us,
1 ∂ 2 p(r0 , t0 )
∇20 p(r0 , t0 ) − = −s(r0 , t0 ), (8.3 revisited)
c2 ∂t20
1 ∂ 2 g(r − r0 , t − t0 )
∇20 g(r − r0 , t − t0 ) − 2 = −δ(r − r0 )δ(t − t0 )
c ∂t20
(8.26 revisited)
δ(tr − t0 )
g(r − r0 , t − t0 ) = , (8.12 revisited)
4π|r − r0 |
tr = t − |r − r0 |/c, (Retarded time) (8.27)
where ∇20 is differentiation with respect to r0 .

Now there will be some calculations, so we’ll skip the arguments of the
functions for simplicity. Multiply the first equation with g,
g ∂2p
g∇20 p − = −gs
c2 ∂t20
the second with p,
p ∂2g
p∇20 g − = −pδ(r − r0 )δ(t − t0 )
c2 ∂t20
subtract the second from the first,
" # " # " # " #
2 g ∂2p 2 p ∂2g
g∇0 p − 2 2 − p∇0 g − 2 2 = − gs − − pδ(r − r0 )δ(t − t0 )
c ∂t0 c ∂t0
g ∂2p p ∂2g
g∇20 p − − p∇ 2
0 g + = pδ(r − r0 )δ(t − t0 ) − gs
c2 ∂t20 c2 ∂t20
and integrate over the volume V and all time, that is
ˆ ˆ ∞ " #
3 2 g ∂2p 2 p ∂2g
d r0 dt0 g∇0 p − 2 2 − p∇0 g + 2 2
V −∞ c ∂t0 c ∂t0
ˆ ˆ ∞ " #
3
= d r0 dt0 pδ(r − r0 )δ(t − t0 ) − gs . (8.28)
V −∞
Now we have to revisit the δ-function. Inside the volume V we get δ = 1,

on the surface S of the volume we only get half the contribution (δ = 1/2), and
outside the volume and excluding the surface we get no contribution (δ = 0).
Define therefore a new function α(r) to replace the δ-function

1, r ∈ V

α(r) = 1/2, r ∈ S (8.29)

0. r ∈ / V ∪S

Also, δ(t − t0 ) only contributes for t = t0 . Thus

ˆ ˆ ∞
3
d r0 dt0 pδ(r − r0 )δ(t − t0 ) = α(r)p(r, t).
V −∞
Clean up a bit by collecting terms and using the above result,

ˆ ˆ ∞ " #
3

2 2
1 ∂2p ∂2g
α(r)p(r, t) = d r0 dt0 gs + g∇0 p − p∇0 g − 2 g 2 − p 2 .
V −∞ c ∂t0 ∂t0
We need a trick or two. Notice that
∇ · (g∇p − p∇0 g) =(∇g∇p + g∇2 p) − (∇p∇g + p∇2 g) =

g∇2 p − p∇2 g.
Do you remember Gauss’s theorem?

˚ ‹
dV ∇ · F = dS F · n̂, (Gauss’s theorem) (8.30)
V S
where V is a volume contained by the surface S with an outward pointing normal

vector n̂. If we set F = g∇0 p − p∇0 g,
˚ ˚ ˚
3 2 2 3
d r0 g∇0 p − p∇0 g = d r0 ∇ · (g∇p − p∇0 g) = d3 r0 ∇ · F
V
‹ V
‹ V
= dS F · n̂ = dS n̂ · (g∇0 p − p∇0 g).

S S
Next trick assumes that p → 0 as t → ±∞. Notice that, a bit similar to the
one above,
∂2p ∂2g

∂ ∂p ∂g ∂g ∂p ∂p ∂g
g −p = +g 2 − −p 2
∂t0 ∂t0 ∂t0 ∂t0 ∂t0 ∂t0 ∂t0 ∂t0 ∂t0
2 2
∂ p ∂ g
=g 2 −p 2.
∂t0 ∂t0
By insertion and using the fundamental theorem of calculus,

ˆ b
∂f
dx = f (b) − f (a) (Second fundamental theorem of calculus),
a ∂x
we see that
ˆ ∞ ˆ ∞
∂2p ∂2g

∂ ∂p ∂g
dt0 g 2 −p 2 = dt0 g −p
−∞ ∂t0 ∂t0 −∞ ∂t0 ∂t0 ∂t0
∞
∂p ∂g
= (g −p ) =0
∂t0 ∂t0 −∞
Add the two tricks together, and we are done. In all its beauty, the Helmholtz-
Kirchhoff’s formula takes the form
Important 8.3.1: Helmholtz-Kirchhoff ’s formula
ˆ ˆ ∞
3
α(r)p(r, t) = d r0 dt0 g(r − r0 , t − t0 )s(r0 , t0 )
V −∞
ˆ ˆ ∞
d2 r0

+ dt0 n̂0 · g(r − r0 , t − t0 )∇0 p(r0 , t0 ) (8.31)
S −∞

− p(r0 , t0 )∇0 g(r − r0 , t − t0 ) .
Remember the interpretation: All sources s within V is taken care of in

the first integral, whilst everything happening outside is taken care of in
the surface integral.
Definitions
−1
ρ Mass density
s(r, t) Source
S(k, t) Spatial Fourier transform of s(r, t)
S(r, ω) Temporal Fourier transform of s(r, t)
S(k, ω) Spatial and temporal Fourier transform of s(r, t)
se (r, ω) Complex envelope for source field
pe (r, ω) Complex envelope for pressure field
k1 = ω/c(= kr ) Propagation factor in the Helmholtz equation
m
k1 = ω/c − ia|ω| Propagation factor with damping
α(r) Describing the δ-function inside V , on S and outside
V
k Fourier space coordinate of r
tr = t − |r − r0 |/c Retarded time
∇0 Differentiation (as ∇) with respect to r0
34
Chapter 9
Oh no! The Approximations

are Coming!
I know what you are thinking: Why on Earth do we want to do more approxi-
mations?
There is basically three regions we will look at. Now, assume a circular
transducer of radius a and diameter D = 2a centered at r0 , then the three
regions will be (r = |r − r0 |)
1. Extreme nearfield r < 0.25D2 /2λ
2. Nearfield (Fresnel region) r < D2 /2λ

3. Farfield (Fraunhofer region) r > D2 /2λ
9.1 Fraunhofer
So, there is basically two approximations we should remember from this section,
namely
35
CHAPTER 9. OH NO! THE APPROXIMATIONS ARE COMING! 36
Important 9.1.1: Approximation of |r − r0 | for r r0
when r → ∞ (or at least is quite large compared to r0 ), we use
|r − r0 | ≈ r − r̂ · r0 , (9.1)
1
where r = |r| and r0 = |r0 | (as usual). When we are looking at |r−r0 | ,
we even skip the last term,
1 1
≈ . (9.2)
|r − r0 | r
Also, more strictly speaking, it is appropriate to use the far-field approx-

imation when the signal from the source s passes through an opening of
some sort with diameter D, r fulfils
D2
r> . (Rayleigh condition) (9.3)
2λ
A short derivation is as follows

p q
|r − r0 | = (r − r0 )2 = r2 − 2r · r0 + r20
r r
2r · r0 r02 2r̂ · r0 r2
=r 1− 2
+ 2 =r 1− + 02 ,
r r r r
quite straightforward
√ if you remember r̂ = r/r. We approximate, now into first
order using 1 + x ≈ 1 + x/2,
r02
r
2r̂ · r0 r2 − 2r̂·r 0
+ r2
r02
r 1+ − + 02 ≈ r 1 + r
= r − r̂ · r0 + ,
r r 2 2r
r2
but we see that 2r0 → 0 as r → ∞, so we just skip that term when we are talking
about far-field, where r in all cases are pretty large (or at least r r0 ). So, by
removing the last term,
|r − r0 | ≈ r − r̂ · r0 , (Fresnel approximation)
and there we are.

Ok, so let us use this to something. Look back at the expression for pressure
as a retarded potential,
ˆ
s(r0 , tr )
p(r, t) = d3 r0 . (8.14 revisited)
4π|r − r0 |
for tr = t − |r − r0 |/c and some source s. We quickly see that our two approxi-
mation can both be used, yielding
Important 9.1.2: Far-field approximation
ˆ
s(r0 , tr ) r − r̂ · r0
p(r, t) ≈ d3 r0 , tr ≈ t − , (Far-field approximation)
4πr c
(9.4)
which is called both Fraunhofer approximation and far-field approximation.

*Radiation diagram
*Impedance
9.2 Tissue
So
∂u
ρ = −∇p
∂t
and thus
∂∇u
−∇2 p = −ρ
∂t
9.3 Loss and absorption

************4.323 fra angelsen, men den er ikke med i scan
∇2 pe (r, ω) + k12 (ω)pe (r, ω) = 0

k12 (ω) = ω 2 ρκ∞ (1 + H∞ (ω)) = ω 2 ρκ(ω)
9.3.1 Plane wave

Make a plane wave that travels along k̂ with a wave vector k = k k̂,
ψ = Aei(ωt−k·r) . (Plane wave)
From the differential equations, with thus get
∇2 ψ + k12 (ω)ψ = 0
k 2 = k12 (ω) = ω 2 ρκ∞ (1 + H∞ (ω)) = ω 2 ρκ(ω)
We now split k into a real and an imaginary part,
kr ≡ Re{k1 } (Propagation factor)

kd ≡ Im{k1 } (Damping factor)
so that
ψ = Ae−kd ·r ei(ωt−kr ·r) ,
which makes it obvious that kd is a damping factor and that propagation velocity
only involves kr , c = ω/kr !
We often use a wave vector of the form
Important 9.3.1: Wave vector with damping factor
ω
− ia|ω|m
k1 (ω) ≈ (9.5)
c
where m will depend on which material we are looking at.
This will affect our Green’s function. But in fact, only by adding a loss
function
L(r, ω) = e−kd (ω)r (Loss function) (9.6)
so that
e−ikr (ω)r e−ikr (ω)r
ge (r, ω) = e−kd (ω)r = L(r, ω)
4πr 4πr
We can also transform back to time space,
ˆ ∞
1 e−ikr (ω)r l(r, tr )
g(r, t) = dω L(r, ω) ≈
2π −∞ 4πr 4πr
where tr = t − r/c is retarded time and c = ω/kr . Thus it follows

ˆ ∞
1
l(r, t) = dω eiωt−kd (ω)r . (Loss function) (9.7)
2π −∞
Example 9.3.1: Loss function for a → 0
If we use
ω
k1 (ω) ≈ − ia|ω|m (9.5 revisited)
c
we get for a → 0, by definition,
lim l(r, tr ) = δ(tr ),

a→0
for l as defined in (9.7), that is with no absorption and agrees perfectly

with (8.12) as before.
Example 9.3.2: Loss function for m = 1
If we use
ω
c
we get for m = 1, according to Angelsen [2000, eq. 4.375],
1 ar c acr
l(r, tr ) = = ,
π (ar)2 + t2r π (acr)2 + (r − ct)2
for l as defined in (9.7).
Example 9.3.3: Loss function for m = 2
If we use
ω
c
we get for m = 2, according to Angelsen [2000, eq. 4.374],
2
e−tr /4ar
l(r, tr ) = √ ,
4πar
for l as defined in (9.7). This wave is shown in Figure 9.1.
9.4 Inhomogeneous matter

So, we assume that the mass density ρ and compressibility κ will fluctuate
around some means ρa and κa , so that
ρ(r) = ρa + ρf (r) (9.8)

κ(r) = κa + κf (r) (9.9)
We further define
1
c= √ (9.10)
ρa κa
κf (r)
β(r) = , (9.11)
κa
ρf (r)
γ(r) = , (9.12)
ρ(r)
please note that the definitions are not equal, for β the denominator is a con-
stant, whilst for γ it is the total, spatial function.
Figure 9.1: ***. See appendix for code.

Example 9.4.1: Exam 2009.3.a-c
The following calculation has been given as an exercise on exams, with

some hints, but still. You should read it carefully (and get the points),
even if it just calculations.
Starting from
∂ρu
= −∇p,
∂t
1
p = − ∇ψ,
κ
we want to deduce a wave equation for φ. Remember that ∇φ = −ρu. Thus
∇φ = −ρu
∂∇φ ∂ρu
=− = ∇p
∂t ∂t
∂φ
p=
∂t
∂p ∂2φ
= 2
∂t ∂t
∂2φ ∂ 1∇ · ψ
2
=− κ
∂t ∂t
∂2φ 1 ∂ψ
2
=− ∇·
∂t κ ∂t
∂2φ 1
=− ∇·u
∂t2 κ
∂2φ 1 1
= ∇ · ∇φ
∂t2 κ ρ
Now,
1 1 1 ρa 1 ρ − ρf 1 ρ − ρf
= = = =
ρ ρa + ρf ρa ρa + ρf ρa ρ − ρf + ρf ρa ρ
1 ρf 1
= 1− = 1−γ
ρa ρ ρa
so that
" #
1 1 1 2 1 1
∇· ∇φ = ∇ ∇φ + ∇ φ = ∇ 1 − γ · ∇φ + 1 − γ ∇2 φ
ρ ρ ρ ρa ρa
" #
1 γ 1
=∇ − · ∇φ + 1 − γ ∇2 φ
ρa ρa ρa
1 1
= − ∇γ · ∇φ + 1 − γ ∇2 φ
ρa ρa
Plug this back in,
∂2φ 1 1
κ =− ∇γ · ∇φ + 1 − γ ∇2 φ
∂t2 ρa ρa
∂2φ
ρa (κa + κf ) 2 = −∇γ · ∇φ + ∇2 φ − γ∇2 φ
∂t
1 ∂2φ ∂2φ
+ ρa κf 2 = −∇γ · ∇φ + ∇2 φ − γ∇2 φ
c2 ∂t2 ∂t
1 ∂2φ κf ∂ 2 φ
+ ρa κa = −∇γ · ∇φ + ∇2 φ − γ∇2 φ
c2 ∂t2 κa ∂t2
2
1 ∂ φ β ∂2φ
2 2
+ 2 2 = −∇γ · ∇φ + ∇2 φ − γ∇2 φ
c ∂t c ∂t
Finally, we notice that
∇ · (γ∇φ) = ∇γ · ∇φ + γ∇2 φ,
yielding
1 ∂2φ β ∂2φ
2 2
+ 2 2 = −(∇γ · ∇φ + γ∇2 φ) + ∇2 φ
c ∂t c ∂t
1 ∂2φ β ∂2φ
+ = −∇ · (γ∇φ) + ∇2 φ.
c2 ∂t2 c2 ∂t2
Or by flipping things around,
1 ∂ 2 φ(r, t) β(r) ∂ 2 φ(r, t)

∇2 φ(r, t) − = + ∇ · (γ(r)∇φ(r, t)) (9.13)
c2 ∂t2 c2 ∂t2
should look familiar.
Another parallel is to the Helmholtz equation (k = ω/c),
∇2 pe (r, ω) + k 2 pe (r, ω) = −se (r, ω), (8.22 revisited)

but we enter the envelope φe , defined so that φ = Re φe eiωt ,
∇2 φe + k 2 φe = −k 2 βφe + ∇ · (γ(r)∇φ(r, t)) (Helmholtz equation) (9.14)

Example 9.4.2: Exam 2009.3.d
Use the Fourier version of (9.13) for φ → p and the Greens function
e−ik|r−r0 |
ge (r − r0 , ω) = ,
4π|r − r0 |
with k = ω/c, to make an integral equation for the sum of incident and
scattered field. Also discuss how this new integral equation cna be solved
through iterations.
Answer:
The last part of the question will be answered later, after we have looked
at Born approximations. Remember that the temporal Fourier trans-
∂
forms ∂t → iω. Also, for temporal transfoms, we often do not use
capital letters. But here we go,
1 ∂ 2 φ(r, t) β(r) ∂ 2 φ(r, t)

F {∇2 φ(r, t) − }(r, ω) = F {
c2 ∂t2 c2 ∂t2
+ ∇ · (γ(r)∇φ(r, t))}(r, ω)
ω2 β(r)ω 2
∇2 φ(r, ω) + φ(r, ω) = − φ(r, ω)
c2 c2
+ ∇ · (γ(r)∇φ(r, ω))
∇2 φ(r, ω) + k 2 φ(r, ω) = −β(r)k 2 φ(r, ω)
+ ∇ · (γ(r)∇φ(r, ω))
∇2 φ(r, ω) + k 2 φ(r, ω) ≡ −s(r, ω)
s(r, ω) = β(r)k 2 φ(r, ω) − ∇ · (γ(r)∇φ(r, ω))
****Add the last part
9.5 Born approximation

Definitions
−1
ρ Mass density
s(r, t) Source
m
V
D Opening diameter of some sort through which a wave
is passing
44
Chapter 10
Turn Up the Music
You may have noticed that the word ’Ultrasound’ until now only has been
mentioned in the title. Of course it may function as click-bait, but since you
haven’t stopped reading yet, I think you deserve your moneysworth as well.
The ultrasound equipment consists of mainly two parts,
1. Transducer
2. Receiver
which are quite self-describing names. The transducer sends out a pulse or
harmonic wave, and the receiver detects what is reflected from things inside
the body. The transducer is important and can be made several ways. You
could have one vibrating element, or you could have several, and you can also
experiment with the shape. We will look into several kinds of transducers and
waves, like
• Transducers
– Single element
– Multi element
– Circular
– Elliptical
– Rectangular
– Flat (planar)
– Bent (concave)
• Waves
– Continuous wave
– Pulse
45
CHAPTER 10. TURN UP THE MUSIC 46
0 0
0.005 0.005
0.01 0.01
0.015 0.015
0.02 0.02
0.025 0.025
0.03 0.03
-0.01 -0.005 0 0.005 0.01 -0.01 -0.005 0 0.005 0.01
(a) *** (b) ***
Figure 10.1: ***. Source code at A and A
If un denotes the surface velocity of the transducer normal to its surface, we

often can separate this into two parts,
un (r, t) = Un (r)fn (t) (Surface velocity of transducer) (10.1)
where Un contains the spatial information and fn (t) the temporal.

Example 10.0.1: Single element
If the transducer is just one single element, all parts of the surface moves
at the same time and there is no spatial variation in the normal velocity,
thus
Un = 1.
This we will use several times in the sections to come.
If ρ is the mass density (and it is), we define the surface momentum distri-
bution as
Mn (r) = ρUn (r). (Surface momentum distribution) (10.2)
*****What happens here?

*****Draw lines to the earlier defined convolution with greens function?
What’s the difference? Why are we doing this?
In the same way that a force field is the gradient of a potential, we can define
the momentum p = ρu as the gradient of a momentum potential φ
p = ρu = −∇φ
and then
1
u = − ∇φ. (10.3)
ρ
It should be noted that one usually refers to the velocity potential, which is
closely related, only missing the factor 1/ρ. Also, it is worth noting that since
∂u
ρ = −∇p, (7.7 revisited)
∂t
it follows that
∂φ
p= . (10.4)
∂t
Example 10.0.2: Exam 2010.2a
How is the relationship between the impulse potential φ(r, t), the
vibration velocity u(r, t) and the pressure p(r, t)?
Answer
In short
1
u(r, t) = − ∇φ(r, t) (10.3 revisited)
ρ(r)
∂φ(r, t)
p(r, t) = (10.4 revisited)
∂t
The radiated field is

ˆ ∞
φ(r, t) = dt0 h(r, t − t0 )f (t0 ) (Momentum potential) (10.5)
−∞
Important 10.0.1: Impulse response function
So h is actually describing what the system/tissue is doing with the

temporal signal f on its way to the point r.
ˆ
h(r, t) = d2 r0 gp (r − r0 , t − t0 )Mn (r0 )
St
h may also function as a filter, which is easiest to see in the frequency space.
There H may be close to zero for some frequency and thus the signal in the
point we are looking, will have low amplitudes of this signal. Usually there is
also a damping effect as a function of distance from the source, as the signal
will lose energy on its way.
10.1 Curved, circular transducer and Continuous

Wave
We usually want to have some focusing. In this section we will achieve this by
using a single element, circular, curved transducer with
F
D = 2a
P
z
Figure 10.2: ***.
a Radius of transducer
D = 2a Diameter of transducer
F Radius of curvature
FN = F/D F-number
λ Wavelength of signal
A sketch is shown in Figure 10.2. At the focus point F = (0, 0, F ) the intensity
will be at its highest. In a plane normal to z containing the focus point, we may
move some distance aF , and the intensity will decrease. These is things we will
look into.
Important 10.1.1: Main idea
To see what happens, we need to grasp that the wave sent out by the
transducer will depart from the whole surface at the same time. Thus
there will be interference with itself along its way. In the focus point,
the whole thing will add up as all parts of the transducer has the same
distance and there is no phase shift.
proofread
section
10.1.1 On the central axis
So first, let us look at a general point P = (0, 0, zP ) located at the z-axis as
shown in Figure 10.2 and even better in Figure 10.3 and try to understand how
the wave will look like as it interfere with itself at P . Let Q(α) be a point on the
transducer so that the angle between z-axis and QF is α. What is the distance
Q
D = 2a
P α F
z
αmax
Figure 10.3: ***.
rQP from Q to P ?
rQP = rP − rQ
rQ = rF − rQF
rQP = rP − rF + rQF
rQP = −rP F + rQF
q q
|rQP | = (rQF − rP F )2 = rQF 2 + rP2 F − 2rQF rP F cos(α)
p
= F 2 + (F − zP )2 − 2F (F − zP ) cos(α)
q
= zP2 + 2F (F − zP )(1 − cos(α))
There exists an αmax which denotes the boundary of the transducer. The
depth d of the transducer then becomes
d = F − F cos(αmax ) = F (1 − cos(αmax )). (10.6)
Also,
F 2 = (F − d)2 + a2
F 2 = F 2 − 2dF + d2 + a2
0 = d2 − 2dF + a2
√
2F ± 4F 2 − 4a2 p
d= = F ± F 2 − a2
2
p a2
= F 1 − 1 − (a/F )2 ≈ F 1 − (1 − )
2F 2
a2
= .
2F
√
where we have used the approximation 1 + x ≈ 1 + x/2 and only looked at the
negative sign as d < F . The distance from P to the boundary of the transducer
is
q

rbP = |rQP | = zP2 + 2F (F − zP )(1 − cos(αmax ))
α=αmax
q
= zP2 + 2d(F − zP )
by using (10.6).
Now, all points on the transducer between an angle α and α + dα will have
the same distance to P . Remember that we are in 3D, so this is a circular strip
on the transducer. The area of this strip will be
dA = 2πrA dr = 2πF sin(α)F dα = 2πF 2 sin(α) dα
where dr = F dα and rA = F sin(α) follows from the geometry.
Do you remember the spatial frequency response for nonabsorbing materials?
Well, here it is
ˆ
e−ikr |r−r0 |
H(r, ω) = d2 r0 Mn (r0 )
St 2π|r − r0 |
kr = ω/c = 2π/λ
Mn = ρUn
where Mn is the surface momentum distribution. We choose Un = 1. This
integral we evaluate with d2 r0 = dA = 2πF 2 sin(α) dα and r = rP so that
|r − r0 | = |rQP |, which we recently found an expression for, and for all circular
strips, i.e. from 0 to αmax . Put it all together,
ˆ
e−ikr |rQP |
H(rp , ω) = dA ρ
St 2π|rQP |
ˆ αmax √ 2
2 e−ikr zP +2F (F −zP )(1−cos(α))
= ρF dα sin(α) p 2
0 zP + 2F (F − zP )(1 − cos(α))
which according to Angelsen can be evaluated to
H(rp ) = ρde−ikr (rbP −zP )/2 G(zP ),
F rbP − zP sin(kr (rbP − zP )/2)
G(zP ) = . (10.7)
d F − zP kr (rbP − zP )/2
This is exciting because sin(x) = 0 for x = nπ for any non-zero inte-
ger n, leaving H = 0 for (but NB: for rbP − zP = 0 we need to use that
limx→0 sin(x)/x = 1)
kr (rbP − zP )/2) = nπ
2π rbP − zP
= nπ
λ 2
rbP − zP = nλ
q
zP2 + 2d(F − zP ) = nλ + zP (Condition for minimum)
What about maxima? As mentioned will rbP − zP = 0 constitute one such

maxima. Others will also occur when sin(x)/x is maximum, namely for non-zero
integer n,
rbP − zP = 0, (Focal point)

λ
rbP − zP = ±|2n + 1| (Condition for maximum)
2
But we will analyse this even further. Remember that
q q
rbP = zP2 + 2d(F − zP ) = zP 1 + 2d(F − zP )/zP2 .
For zP close to√F , (F − zP )/zP2 will be small, and we can use our familiar
approximation 1 + x ≈ 1 + x/2,
d(F − zP ) d(F − zP )
rbP ≈ zP (1 + ) = zP + ,
zP2 zP
which yields for (10.7)
F sin(kr d(F − zP )/2zP )
H(zP ) ≈ ρde−ikr (zP +d(F −zP )/2zP ) .
zP kr d(F − zP )/2zP
We will find the intensity on the axis for zP close to F . Introduce the Fresnel
parameter
λ
S= . (Fresnel parameter)
2d
If you remember well, d ≈ a2 /2F and FN = F/D, D = 2a, so that
λ Fλ Fλ 4FN
S≈ = 2 = 2 =
a2 /F a D /4 D/λ
which you can put into
!2
ωkr π F sin(π(F − zP )/2SzP )
I(zP ) = |H(zP )|2 ≈ I0 ,
2ρ S zP π(F − zP )/2SzP
where I0 is the intensity at the transducer surface. I plotted this thing in

Figure 10.4.
What do you notice? Well, among several things, that the peaks are getting
wider as FN increases.
10.1.2 Off the central axis

What happens outside the central axis? Let us first look at a special surface, proofread
namely the focal plane Sf , normal to z-axis and containing the focal point F . section
All points in Sf could be described as
r=F+w
40
FN = 0.5, m = 4
35 FN = 1, m = 3
FN = 3, m = 2
FN = 3, m= 1
30 FN = 4, m = 0.5
25
20
15
10
0
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5
Figure 10.4: ***. For F = 0.3 m, FN = 4, f = 1 MHz, c = 1500 m s−1 ,

D = F/FN, λ = c/f . Because of differences in magnitude, we have scaled them
with 10−m . For code, see A.
where w is a vector in the focal plane, thus w is normal to F and w · F = 0. If

Q is a point on the transducer as before and we are still only looking at points
in Sf ,
q
|r − rQ | = |F + w − rQ | = (F − rQ )2 + 2(F − rQ ) · w + w2
q
= (F − rQ )2 − 2rQ · w + w2 .
Since r = F + w it follows that r2 = F 2 + w2 . Also note that by definition is

|F − rQ | = F as the focus point is defined as the point of equal distance to all
points on the transducer. So we can insert r2 = (F − rQ )2 + w2 ,
q q
|r − rQ | = r2 − 2rQ · w = r 1 − 2rQ · w/r2 .
√
As several times before, we use the approximation 1 + x ≈ 1 + x/2,
|r − rQ | = r − rQ · w/r.
If |r − rQ | appears in the denominator, we also skip the last term so that

1 1
≈
|r − rQ | r
Looks familiar? Well, it is the Fraunhofer approximation that we have encoun-
tered before in . Put it into the spatial frequency response function (kr = ω/c = Add refer-
2π/λ, Mn = ρUn , St is the transducer surface), ence.
ˆ ˆ
e−ikr |r−rQ | e−ikr (r−rQ ·w/r)
H(r, ω) = d2 rQ Mn (rQ ) ≈ d2 rQ Mn (rQ )
St 2π|r − rQ | St 2πr
ˆ
e−ikr r
= d2 rQ eikr rQ ·w/r Mn (rQ )
2πr St
To do anything more, we need to refresh Bessel functions,

ˆ a ˆ 2π
2J1 (ka sin θ)
dr0 r0 dγ eik·r0 sin θ cos γ = πa2 ,
0 0 ka sin θ
we end up with (for Un = 1)
a2 e−ikr r 2J1 (kr aw/F )

H(r = F + w, ω) = ρ (10.8)
2r kr aw/F
10.1.3 Far-field approximation

This is a hard one. I think the best thing is to look it up if you want to proofread
know how you get there, and will only state the result by [Angelsen, 2000, eq. section
5.277]. r = (xP , yP , zP ), but we define θ = arctan (x2P + yP2 )/(zP − F )2 as in
Figure 10.5.
θ
F z
Figure 10.5: ***.
eikr (−zP +F (1−F/zP )(1−cos θ))

H(zP , θ) = ρF 2
zP
ˆ αmax h
· dα sin αeikr F (1−F/zP ) cos θ(1−cos α) (10.9)
0
i
· J0 kr F (1 − F/zP ) sin θ sin α
10.1.4 More on focusing

This is quite important. Looking back at the off central axis approximation that
we did, we note that the amplitude of H is decreasing when |w| is increasing.
Well, more precisely it is oscillating, but also decreasing. I have made a little
plot of J1 (x)/x just so you know how it is working, in Figure 10.6.
So, moving away from the focal point F will cause a decrease in H, and
thus also most other parameters that we are interested in. We would like to put
some numbers on that.
We have seen this one before, for the focal plane
a2 e−ikr r 2J1 (kr aw/F )

H(r = F + w, ω) = ρ (10.8 revisited)
2r kr aw/F
and that in the focal point, w = 0,
a2 e−ikF
H(F, w = 0) = ρ .
2F
What about the depth? Obviously, the maximum occurs for zP = F .
*****Add more
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
-0.1
-100 -50 0 50 100
Figure 10.6: ***. For code, see A.

10.2 Linear, circular transducer and Continuous

Wave
So, what is brilliant, is that this transducer is in fact the curved one with an
infinite curvature, F → ∞.
10.2.1 On the central axis

For the curved, we had proofread
section
F rbP − zP sin(kr (rbP − zP )/2)
H(rp , ω) = ρde−ikr (rbP −zP )/2
d F − zP kr (rbP − zP )/2

2ρ −ikr (rbP −zP )/2 F rbP − zP
= e sin kr ,
kr F − zP 2
q
rbP = zP2 + 2d(F − zP ),
a2
d=
2F
q
rbP = zP2 + a2 (1 − zP /F ),
and then we simply use F → ∞, making

F 1
= →1
F − zP 1 − zP /F
q q
rbP = zP2 + a2 (1 − zP /F ) → zP2 + a2
leaving
2ρ −ikr (√z2 +a2 −zP )/2

p !
zP2 + a2 − zP
H(rp , ω) = e P sin kr . (10.10)
kr 2
Pretty neat, right?
10.2.2 Off the central axis

Far-field approximation(?)
ˆ
e−ikr
Hl (r, ω) ≈ L(·) d2 rQ eik(r̂·rQ ) Mn (rQ )
2πr St

p
a2 e−ikr r J1 (kr a x2P + yP2 /r)
H(r, ω) = ρ p (10.11)
r kr a x2P + yP2 /r
This is the |H| shown in Figure 10.7.
Figure 10.7: ***. |H| for a = 5 cm, c = 1500 m s−1 , f = 1 MHz, F = 0.5 m,
ρ = 1 kg m−3 . For code, see A.
10.3 Rectangular transducer and Continuous Wave

We do as we have done before. Assume a transducer centred at z = 0 normal to
the z-axis, with dimensions 2a × 2b. Let Q be a point on the transducer. The
distance from Q to a point P is then
q q
rQP = |rP − rQ | = (rP − rQ )2 = r2P + r2Q − 2rP · rQ
q
= rP 1 + (rQ /rP )2 − 2rP · rQ /rP2
1
≈ rP 1 + (rQ /rP )2 − 2rP · rQ /rP2
2
2
rQ
= rP + − r̂P · rQ
2rP

We approximate as we have done before, so that 1/|rP − rQ | ≈ 1/rP and
|rP − rQ | ≈ rP − r̂P · rQ . This means that the transducer is small compared to
the distances we are looking at. Put it into our usual integral, setting Un = 1
and thus Mn = ρ,
ˆ
e−ikr |rP −rQ |
H(rP , ω) = d2 rQ Mn (rQ )
St 2π|rP − rQ |
ˆ
1
≈ d2 rQ e−ikr (rP −r̂P ·rQ ) Mn (rQ )
2πr St
ˆ
e−ikr rP
=ρ d2 rQ eikr r̂P ·rQ
2πr St
ˆ ˆ b
e−ikr rP a
=ρ dxQ eikr (xP xQ )/rP dyQ eikr (yP yQ )/rP
2πrP −a −b
e−ikr rP 2 sin(akr xP /rP ) 2 sin(bkr yP /rP )
=ρ (10.12)
2πrP kr xP /rP kr yP /rP
This is the |H| shown in Figure 10.8.
10.4 Summary Continuous Waves

Ok, so let us do a short review of the last sections. Let C refer to the circular,
curved transducer, L to the circular, linear, and R to the rectangular. P denotes
a point on the central axis. a is the radius of the transducer (projected normal
to the central axis), kr = ω/c = 2π/λ. F is radius of curvature and ρ mass
density.
Figure 10.8: ***.|H| for a × b = 5 × 10cm, c = 1500 m s−1 , f = 1 MHz, zP =

0.5 m, ρ = 1 kg m−3 . For code, see A.
On the central axis

2ρ −ikr (rbP −zP )/2 F rbP − zP
HC (rp , ω) = e sin kr , (10.7 revisited)
kr F − zP 2
2ρ −ikr (√z2 +a2 −zP )/2
p !
zP2 + a2 − zP
HL (rp , ω) = e P sin kr (10.10 revisited)
kr 2

Far-field for r = (xP , yP , zP ) and θC = arctan (x2P + yP2 )/(zP − F )2 ,
eikr (−zP +F (1−F/zP )(1−cos θC ))

HC (zP , θC , ω) = ρF 2 (10.9 revisited)
zP
ˆ αmax h
· dα sin αeikr F (1−F/zP ) cos θC (1−cos α)
0
i
· J0 kr F (1 − F/zP ) sin θ sin α
p
a2 e−ikr r J1 (kr a x2P + yP2 /r)
HL (r, ω) = ρ p (10.11 revisited)
r kr a x2P + yP2 /r
e−ikr r 2 sin(akr xP /r) 2 sin(bkr yP /r)
HR (r, ω) = ρ (10.12 revisited)
2πr kr xP /r kr yP /r
which are more beautifully expressed as
e−ikr r J1 (θL )
HL (r, ω) = ρAL ,
πr θL
q
θL = kr a x2P + yP2 /r
AL = πa2
e−ikr r sin(θR (a)) sin(θR (b))
HR (r, ω) = ρAR
2πr θR (a) θR (b)
θR (x) = xkr yP /r
AR = 2a2b
We note that limθ→0 sin(θ)/θ = 1 and limθ→0 J1 (θ)/θ = 1/2, so that the limiting
values for HL and HR are equal.
10.5 Curved, Circular Transducer and a Pulse

10.6 Linear, Circular Transducer and a Pulse
10.7 Multi element transducers
Now it gets exciting again. Maybe you remember that one large benefit for the
curved transducer was that we were able to focus our beam quite well. Guess
what? We could achieve that by using multiple transducer elements too! We

usually call this a multiarray transducer. The elements may be placed and
oriented as we like, and each of them are operating on their own. In other
words, we can set both starting and stopping times and frequencies individually
for each one.
Definitions
−1
ρ Mass density
s(r, t) Source
m
V
is passing
φ Momentum potential
a Radius of circular transducer
D = 2a Diameter of circular transducer
62
F Radius of curvature/Focal length

FN = F/D F-number
Mn (r) = ρUn (r) Surface momentum distribution
S = 4λFN/D Fresnel parameter
H(rp , ω) Spatial frequency response
Chapter 11
Scattering
11.1 The Born Approximation

proofread
Assume we have an incoming wave φi (r, t) from some source outside a volume section
V . Inside V there will be scatterers, that is variations in compressibility κ and
mass density ρ. This source will be accounted for in the surface integral in the
Helmholtz-Kirchhoff’s formula, ****. Thus we get
ˆ h 1 ∂ 2 φ(r , t )
1 0 r
φ(r, t) = φi (r, t) − d3 r0 β(r0 ) (11.1)
V 4π|r − r0 | c2 ∂t2
i
+ ∇ · (γ(r0 )∇φ(r0 , tr )) ,
where the retarded time is tr = t − |r − r0 |/c.

We call this type of equation a Fredholm type integral equation. We define
the scattered field φs as the deviation between φi given γ = 0 and β = 0, and
when there exist scatterers in the volume, i.e. non-zero β and γ,
φ(r, t) = φi (r, t) + φs (r, t) (11.2)
To find this scattered field, we use an iterative method, as both φ and φs
are unknowns. Our first try for φs will be (in the integral)
φ = φi (First iteration).
which we substitute into (11.1), that is
ˆ h 1 ∂ 2 φ (r , t )
1 i 0 r
φ1 (r, t) = φi (r, t) − d3 r0 β(r0 )
V 4π|r − r0 | c2 ∂t2
i
+ ∇ · (γ(r0 )∇φi (r0 , tr )) .
We continue doing this, but for φs , and because

φk = φi + φks
64
CHAPTER 11. SCATTERING 65
we can flip over the equation, and find that

ˆ h 1 ∂ 2 φk−1 (r , t )
1 0 r
φks (r, t) = − d3 r0 β(r0 )
V 4π|r − r0 | c2 ∂t2
i
+ ∇ · γ(r0 )∇φk−1 (r0 , tr ) .
φk−1 = φi + φk−1
s ,
φ0 = φi .
Using partial (spatial) differentiation
r̂r−r0 ∇φk−1 (r0 , tr )

∇ · γ(r0 )∇φk−1 (r0 , tr ) →

γ(r0 ),
|r − r0 |
where = r̂r−r0 ∇|r − r0 | is the unit vector in the direction r − r0 .

We often interpret this iterative method as describing wave being scattered
multiple times, once for the first order approximation, two times for the second
etc.
11.2 Scattering and absorption

Now we will look at what happens if there is some variation in mass density or
compressibility. This is usually caused by variations in tissue composition.
Let our transducer vibrate with a normal velocity un (r, t) = Un (r)f (t) as
in (10.1). This vibration results in a momentum potential wave φt propagat-
ing through the medium. The medium will transform our signal as it moves
according to
ˆ ∞
φt (r, t) = dt0 ht (r, t − t0 )f (t0 ) (10.5 revisited)
−∞
where h is the spatial impulse response. The exact form of h depends on the
situation, as we have looked into before. Scatterers in the medium will scatter
φt and create a scattered wave φs . The total wave received will be
ˆ ˆ ∞
1
φ(t) = d3 r0 dt0 hr (r0 , t − t0 )s(r0 , t0 ) (11.3)
ρ −∞
where s is the signal emitted from the scatterer.

**** ˆ
Sr (ω) = Up (ω) d3 r0 C(r0 , ω)[β(r0 ) − r̂t · r̂r γ(r0 )] (11.4)
Definitions
−1
ρ Mass density
s(r, t) Source
m
V
is passing
66
CHAPTER 11. SCATTERING 67

FN = F/D F-number
κa Mean of the compressibility κ(r)
κf (r) Fluctuation in compressibility around mean κa
ρa Mean of the mass density ρ(r)
ρf (r) Fluctuation in mass density around mean ρa
Chapter 12
It’s Alive! On Doppler

Ultrasound
12.1 The Doppler Effect

I guess you have already had some experience with the Doppler effect. It is quite
easy. However, in Doppler ultrasound we first emit a wave from a transducer
which is later scattered by a moving scatterer. The scatterer is thus both a
moving observer and a moving source. We will first analyse both situations
individually, and then combine the results.
12.1.1 Moving source, stationary observer

A wave source is moving with constant velocity v and sending out spherical proofread
waves with a frequency f . The first wave is sent at time t0 = 0, moving with a section
speed c in the medium. The next wave is sent at time t1 = 1/f etc, so wave n
is sent at time tn = n/f . But as the source is moving, its position also changes
before a new wave is emitted.
Place an stationary observer in a non-moving frame of reference at ro . The
position of the source is rs (t), which could be written as
ˆ t
rs (t) = rs,0 + dt1 v(t1 ), (12.1)
0
where rs,0 is the position of the source at t = 0. The distance between the
source and the observer is
d(t) = |ro − rs (t)|, (Distance function) (12.2)
and wave front number n will need to travel a distance of
d(tn ) = |ro − rs (tn )| = |ro − rs (n/f )|
68
CHAPTER 12. IT’S ALIVE! ON DOPPLER ULTRASOUND 69
and the next
d(tn+1 ) = |ro − rs (tn+1 )| = |ro − rs ((n + 1)/f )|.
The waves will then reach the observer at times
t0n = tn + d(tn )/c,

t0n+1 = tn+1 + d(tn+1 )/c = tn + 1/f + d(tn+1 )/c.
The observed frequency is

1 1 c
fo = 0
= 0 0
=
∆t tn+1 − tn c/f + d(tn+1 ) − d(tn )
c
=
c/f + |ro − rs ((n + 1)/f )| − |ro − rs (n/f )|
in general. Assume a constant velocity v = |v|, so that
rs (t) = rs,0 + vt
and
|ro − rs ((n + 1)/f )| − |ro − rs (n/f )|

= |ro − rs,0 − v(n + 1)/f | − |ro − rs,0 − vn/f |
= |d0 − vn/f − v/f | − |d0 − vn/f |,
use the far-field approximation,
|d0 − vn/f − v/f | − |d0 − vn/f |

≈ (d0 − d̂0 · (vn/f + v/f )) − (d0 − d̂0 · vn/f )
= −d̂0 · v/f = −v cos θ/f
yielding
c
fo = f
c − v cos θ
and the Doppler shift is
c v cos θ v
fD = fo − f = f −1 =f ≈ f cos θ (12.3)
c − v cos θ c − v cos θ c
when c v. Let f → ω, then
ω
ωD (r̂) = r̂ · v (12.4)
c
is a nice formulation, and r = ro − rs,0 .
Example 12.1.1: Velocity of Blood in Humans
Are our approximations justified? The velocity of blood depends on

several factors, such as which artery/vein/capillary we are look at and
the state of the subject (arousal, age, cardiovascular health etc), and it
will pulsate.
Some values are listed in Table 12.1. As the speed of sound in tissue
often is c ≈ 1500 m s−1 and we are working at high frequencies (∼ MHz),
and as you see we are dealing with blood velocities around 1 m s−1 , hence
our approximations are justified.
Table 12.1: Blood velocities in cm s−1 in inferior venae cavae (IVC) and superior
venae cavae (SVC) in rest and exercise during systole (S) and diastole (D). The
exercise was performed by D. B. for 150 s, L. W. for 90 s and J. M. for 165 s.
The peaks are averages for 10 cardiac cycles during shallow breathing. Data
from Wexler et al. [1968].
Subject D. B. I. G. L. W. J. M.
Age 35 39 29 30
Height [cm] 184 185 174 169
Weight [kg] 80 85 78 67
Rest (peak) S IVC 45.3 44.3 31.5 35.8

D IVC 34.4 26.6 18.9 13.0
S SVC 16.4 32.5 12.2
D SVC 12.4 15.0 6.7
Rest (mean) IVC 26.0 19.5 11.2 16.1
SVC 7.9 9.8 6.5
Exercise (peak) IVC 146.7 57.9 106.4
12.1.2 Moving observer, stationary source

This analysis is quite similar to the one above, but ro → ro (t) and rs (t) → rs . proofread
Let the observer move with velocity v. It is then rather obvious that the result section
will be the same, as the distance function in (12.2) is not changed. In other
words, it is just a change of reference, and (12.4) is still valid, but r → ro,0 − rs .
12.1.3 Moving scatterer

A scatterer is moving with velocity v and we have stationary transducer and proofread
receiver directed towards r̂t and r̂r respectively. We use angular velocity instead section
of frequency, but the Doppler shift is the same. First the scatterer receives a
signal shifted by ωD (r̂t ) from the transducer, it scatters the signal, and the
signal will be shifted a second time before it reaches the receiver. Let ω0 be
the original angular velocity from the transducer, and ω the one measured by
the receiver. We can then combine the earlier results, and get a total shift for
ωd = ω − ω0 ,
v
ωd = ωD (r̂t ) + ωD (r̂r ) = ω0 (r̂t + r̂r ) · = k(r̂t + r̂r ) · v = kv(cos θt + cos θr ),
c
Important 12.1.1: Doppler Shift
The Doppler shift is

v
ωd = ω0 (r̂t + r̂r ) · (Doppler shift) (12.5)
c
where we have
ωd = ω − ω0 Doppler shift
ω Received angular velocity
ω0 Emitted angular velocity
v Velocity of scatterer
r̂t Direction of transducer
r̂r Direction of receiver
c Speed of sound in the medium
and we have assumed (1) far-field (the distance moved by the scatterer
between each scattering is small compared to distance to transducer/re-
ceiver) and (2) c v.
which easily yields

ωd c
v= . (12.6)
ω0 cos θt + cos θr
Example 12.1.2: Simple Doppler Effect
The simplest case is when the transducer and receiver is very close in
space so that θt = θr . Then
ωd c
v= .
ω0 2 cos θ
For c = 1500 m s−1 , a plot of v is shown in Figure 12.1.

If the receiver and transducer is placed at 90◦ , we get
ωd c
v= .
ω0 cos θ + sin θ
400
200
-200
-400
0.8
0.6 0.02
0.4 0.01
0
0.2
-0.01
0 -0.02
Figure 12.1: Velocity as a function of Doppler shift and angle between velocity
of scatterer and transducer/velocity (approximately at the same position). c =
1500 m s−1 . For code, see A.
In reality, the situation is a bit more complex. We have used many pages to
analyse how the tissue affects the signals sent, and we will continue in the same
path.
12.2 Continuous Wave

Ok, so we have a transducer pointing in direction r̂t and a receiver directed
along r̂r . The receiver detects a signal s(t). As usual, we write this as the real
part of a complex function sc , and contained in an envelope se ,
s(t) = Re{sc (t)} = Re se (t)eiω0 t . (Received, physical signal)

(12.7)
As you might guess, we only detects thing in the overlap between the area
irradiated by the transducer, and the area where the receiver listens. Let us call
this volume V the overlap region. As we soon will see, this is achieved through
a product of the form Ht Hr .
Let the transducer surface vibrate as
u(t) = Re{uc } = Re aρeiω0 t ,

(12.8)
a parallell to (10.1).
Introduce a single scatterer, positioned at rs (t) (rs,0 = rs (t = 0)) and with
velocity vs (t). As this scatterer is moving, it will influence the cell concentration
according to
n(r, t) = f (rs,0 )δ(r − rs (t)), (12.9)
in other words, a fluctuation in the concentration located at the same place
as the scatterer. Then the signal emitted from the scatterer will be, as the
δ-function only contributes for r = rs (t) inside the integral,
ˆ
se (t) = ak02 υa d3 r1 Ht (r1 , ω0 )Hr (r1 , ω0 )n(r1 , t) (12.10)
= ak02 υa Ht (rs (t), ω0 )Hr (rs (t), ω0 )f (rs,0 ) (12.11)

for k0 = ω0 /c and υa = βa − r̂t · r̂r γa .
To better see what is going on, we introduce the function A,
A(r, ω) = At (r, ω)Ar (r, ω) = Ht (r, ω)e−iφt (r,ω) Hr (r, ω)e−iφr (r,ω)
= Ht (r, ω)Hr (r, ω)e−i(φt +φr ) = Ht (r, ω)Hr (r, ω)e−iφ
φ = φ t + φr
so that
se (t) = ak02 υa Aeiφ f (rs,0 ). (12.12)
In short, A defines the observation region V adn could be interpreted as the
amplitude of a phasor in complex space, rotating with angular velocity φ(r).
The acceleration of this phasor we call the instantaneous frequency,
dφ(r) dr
ωi (t) = = ∇φ · = ∇φ · v. (12.13)
dt dt
Note that this is not very different from
ωd = k0 (r̂t + r̂r ) · v (12.4 revisited)
As we have showed before, the received signal at the receiver, will be

ˆ
sr (t) = up (t) ∗t d3 r1 κ hr ∗t ht β(r1 ) − kr ∗t kt γ(r1 )

(12.14)
ki (r1 , t) = F −1 Kj (r, ω) (12.15)

1
Kj ≈ ∇Hj (12.16)
ik1
for j = t, r.
ˆ
iω0 t
sc (t) = e ak02 υa d3 r1 Ht (r1 , ω0 )Hr (r1 , ω0 )n(r1 , t) (12.17)
ˆ
se (t) = ak02 υa d3 r1 Ht (r1 , ω0 )Hr (r1 , ω0 )n(r1 , t) (12.18)
for k0 = ω0 /c and υa = βa − r̂t · r̂r γa .
12.3 Pulse Wave

Definitions
−1
ρ Mass density
s(r, t) Source
m
V
is passing
75

FN = F/D F-number
κa Mean of the compressibility κ(r)
κf (r) Fluctuation in compressibility around mean κa
ρa Mean of the mass density ρ(r)
ρf (r) Fluctuation in mass density around mean ρa
Appendix A
MATLAB examples
A.1 Figure
Source for Figure 10.7.
x = -0.1:0.0005:0.1;
y = -0.1:0.0005:0.1;
rho = 1;
a = 0.05; % diameter 10 cm
omega = 2* pi *10^6; % f =1 MHz
c = 1500; % m / s
k_r = omega / c ;
F = 0.5;
[X , Y ] = meshgrid (x , y ) ;
w = sqrt ( X .^2+ Y .^2) ;
r = sqrt ( X .^2+ Y .^2 + F ^2) ;
theta = k_r .* a .* w ./ F ;
H = rho * a ^2 * ( exp ( -1 i * k_r .* r ) ./ r ) .* besselj (1 , theta )
,→ ./ theta ;
h = surf (X ,Y , abs ( H ) ) ;
set (h , ’ LineStyle ’ , ’ none ’)
colormap parula
xlabel ( ’ $x$ ’ , ’ Interpreter ’ , ’ latex ’)
ylabel ( ’ $y$ ’ , ’ Interpreter ’ , ’ latex ’)
zlabel ( ’ $ | H |$ ’ , ’ Interpreter ’ , ’ latex ’)
A.2 Figure
77
APPENDIX A. MATLAB EXAMPLES 78
x = -0.1:0.0005:0.1;
y = -0.1:0.0005:0.1;
rho = 1;
a = 0.05; %10 cm
b = 0.10; %20 cm
omega = 2* pi *10^6; % f =1 MHz
c = 1500; % m / s
k_r = omega / c ;
z_P = 0.5;
[X , Y ] = meshgrid (x , y ) ;
r = sqrt ( X .^2+ Y .^2 + z_P ^2) ;
theta1 = k_r .* a .* X ./ r ;
theta2 = k_r .* b .* Y ./ r ;
H = rho * ( exp ( -1 i * k_r .* r ) ./(2* pi * r ) ) .* (2* sin ( theta1
,→ ) ./ theta1 ) .* (2* sin ( theta2 ) ./ theta2 ) ;
h = surf (X ,Y , abs ( H ) ) ;
colormap parula
zlabel ( ’ $ | H |$ ’ , ’ Interpreter ’ , ’ latex ’)
A.3 Figure
x = -100:0.1:100;
y = besselj (1 , x ) ./ x ;
plot (x , y )
ylabel ( ’ $J_1 ( x ) / x$ ’ , ’ Interpreter ’ , ’ latex ’)
A.4 Figure
F = 0.3;
FN = [0.5 1 2 3 4];
m = [4 3 2 1 0.5];
c = 1500;
f = 10^6;
lambda = c / f ;
zP = 0.2:0.00005:0.5;
for i = 1: length ( FN )
D = F / FN ( i ) ;
S = 4* FN ( i ) * lambda / D ;
theta = pi * (F - zP ) ./ (2* S * zP ) ;
I = (( pi / S ) * ( F ./ zP ) .* ( sin ( theta ) ./ theta ) )
,→ .^2;
plot ( F ./ zP , I *10^( - m ( i ) ) )
hold on ;
end
legend ({ ’ FN = 0.5 , m = 4 ’ , ’ FN = 1 , m = 3 ’ , ’ FN = 3 , m =
,→ 2 ’ , ’ FN = 3 , m = 1 ’ , ’ FN = 4 , m = 0.5 ’}) ;
xlabel ( ’ $F / z_P$ ’ , ’ Interpreter ’ , ’ latex ’)
ylabel ( ’ $ ( I / I_0 ) \ cdot 10^{ - m }$ ’ , ’ Interpreter ’ , ’ latex ’)
A.5 Figure
r = 0:0.001:0.5;
t = 0:0.001:0.5;
c = 1500;
a = 0.05;
[r , t ] = meshgrid (r , t ) ;
t_r = t - r / c ;
l = exp ( - t_r .^2 ./ (4* a * r ) ) ./ sqrt (4* pi * a * r ) ;

h = surf (r , t , abs ( l ) ) ;
colormap parula
xlabel ( ’ $r$ ’ , ’ Interpreter ’ , ’ latex ’)
ylabel ( ’ $t$ ’ , ’ Interpreter ’ , ’ latex ’)
zlabel ( ’ $ | l |$ ’ , ’ Interpreter ’ , ’ latex ’)
A.6 Figure
f = 3; % Hz
omega = 2* pi * f ;
t = 0:0.0001:12;
phi_e = exp ( - t ) .* abs (3* sin ( t ) .* t + 7* t .^2 - 30* sin
,→ (0.3* t ) .* t .^3) ;
phi_e = phi_e / max ( phi_e ) ;
phi = real ( phi_e .* cos ( omega * t ) ) ;
plot (t , phi )
hold on ;
plot (t , phi_e , ’r - - ’)
xlabel ( ’ $t$ ’ , ’ Interpreter ’ , ’ latex ’)
legend ({ ’ $p$ ’ , ’ $p_e$ ’} , ’ Interpreter ’ , ’ latex ’)
A.7 Figure
f = 0.7; % Hz
omega = 2* pi * f ;
t = 0:0.00001:12;
phi_e = zeros (1 , length ( t ) ) ;
a = round ( length ( t ) /2) ;
phi_e ( round ( a *0.8) : round ( a *1.3) ) = 1;
phi_e ( round ( a *0.2) : round ( a *0.5) ) = 0.5;
phi = real ( phi_e .* cos ( omega * t ) ) ;
plot (t , phi )
hold on ;
plot (t , phi_e , ’r - - ’)
xlabel ( ’ $t$ ’ , ’ Interpreter ’ , ’ latex ’)
legend ({ ’ $p$ ’ , ’ $p_e$ ’} , ’ Interpreter ’ , ’ latex ’)
A.8 Figure
t = 0:0.0001:0.1;
r = 0. 01:0.000 1:0.11;
c = 1500;
t_r = t - r / c ;
[r , t_r ] = meshgrid (r , t_r ) ;
omega = 2* pi *30;
g = cos ( omega * t_r ) ./ (4* pi * r ) ;
h = surf (r , t , g ) ;
colormap parula
ylabel ( ’ $t$ ’ , ’ Interpreter ’ , ’ latex ’)
zlabel ( ’ $g$ ’ , ’ Interpreter ’ , ’ latex ’)
A.9 Figure
c = 1500;
w = (0 .99:0.00 1:1.01) - 1;
th = 0.4:0.05:0.7* pi ;
[W , Th ] = meshgrid (w , th ) ;
v = W .* c ./(2* cos ( Th ) ) ;
h = surf (W , Th / pi , v ) ;
colormap parula
xlabel ( ’ $ \ omega_d / \ omega_0$ ’ , ’ Interpreter ’ , ’ latex ’)
ylabel ( ’ $ \ theta / \ pi$ ’ , ’ Interpreter ’ , ’ latex ’)
zlabel ( ’ $v$ [ m / s ] ’ , ’ Interpreter ’ , ’ latex ’)
A.10 Figure
Source for Figure ??.
% Continuous wave from point sources
%15.01.01 Hans Torp
% last update 11.01.2017
clf ;
f0 =2 e6 ;% frequency
c =1540;% speed of sound
k =2* pi * f0 / c ;% wave number
xmax =10 e -3;% +/ - size x direction

zmax =30 e -3;% size z direction
Nx =300;% number of points in x direction
Nz =400;% antall punkter i zretning
xaxis = linspace ( - xmax , xmax , Nx ) ;

zaxis = linspace (0 , zmax , Nz ) ’;
x = ones ( Nz ,1) * xaxis ;
z = zaxis * ones (1 , Nx ) ;
p =0* x ;
image ( xaxis , zaxis , real ( p ) ) ;
colormap ( gray ) ; axis ( ’ image ’) ;
%%
disp ( ’ Click to set point source position ’) ;
disp ( ’ press return to finnish ’) ;
[ x0 , z0 ]= ginput (1) ;
while ~ isempty ( x0 ) ,
r = sqrt (( x - x0 ) .^2+( z - z0 ) .^2) ;
p = p + exp ( i * k * r ) ./ r ;
image ( xaxis , zaxis ,0.05* real ( p ) ) ;
axis ( ’ image ’) ;
[ x0 , z0 ]= ginput (1) ;
end ;
%% circular source
dx0 =0.3 e -3;
r0 =9 e -3;
x0 = -5e -3: dx0 :5 e -3;
z0 = 1.5* r0 - sqrt ( r0 ^2 - x0 .^2) ;
p =0* x ;
for j = 1: length ( x0 ) ,
r = sqrt (( x - x0 ( j ) ) .^2+( z - z0 ( j ) ) .^2) ;
p = p + exp ( i * k * r ) ./ r ;
pause (0.01) ;
end ;
A.11 Figure
% Continuous wave from point sources
%15.01.01 Hans Torp
% last update 11.01.2017
clf ;
f0 =2 e6 ;% frequency
c =1540;% speed of sound
k =2* pi * f0 / c ;% wave number
xmax =10 e -3;% +/ - size x direction

zmax =30 e -3;% size z direction
Nx =300;% number of points in x direction
Nz =400;% antall punkter i zretning
xaxis = linspace ( - xmax , xmax , Nx ) ;

zaxis = linspace (0 , zmax , Nz ) ’;
x = ones ( Nz ,1) * xaxis ;
z = zaxis * ones (1 , Nx ) ;
p =0* x ;
image ( xaxis , zaxis , real ( p ) ) ;
colormap ( gray ) ; axis ( ’ image ’) ;
%% plane source
z0 =5 e -3;
dx0 =0.3 e -3;
p =0* x ;
for x0 = -5e -3: dx0 :5 e -3 ,
r = sqrt (( x - x0 ) .^2+( z - z0 ) .^2) ;
p = p + exp ( i * k * r ) ./ r ;
pause (0.01) ;
end ;
Part III
CT
84
Chapter 13
Some electromagnetics
13.1 Maxwell
Ok, I hope you know some electrodynamics already. Let us, however, do a quick
review.
85
CHAPTER 13. SOME ELECTROMAGNETICS 86
Important 13.1.1: Maxwell Equations
The Maxwell Equations,

∂B
∇×E=− , (13.1)
∂t
∂D
∇×H=j+ , (13.2)
∂t
∇ · D = ρ, (13.3)
∇ · B = 0. (13.4)
These four childhood acquaintances should be in your dreams every

night. But we need some more relations,
F = qE, (13.5)
F = qv × B, (13.6)
D = 0 r E = E, (13.7)
B = µ0 µr H = µH. (13.8)
We call (13.7) and (13.8) constitutive material equations.

All the variables and stuff are
E(r, t) Electric field
B(r, t) Magnetic flux density
j(r, t) Current density (field source)
ρ(r, t) Charge density (field source)
q A charge
v(t) Velocity of charged
F(r, t) Force on charge q
D(r, t) Electric displacement
H(r, t) Magnetic field strength
0 Electric permittivity constant of vacuum
r Relative dielectric constant of some material
µ0 Magnetic permeability constant of vacuum
µr Relative magnetic permeability constant of
some material
where
0 = 8.85 × 10−12 F m−1 ,

µ0 = 4π × 10−7 H m−1 .
If ∇r = 0, then we can develop some easy wave equations by combining the
Maxwell Equations. We start by finding the curl of (13.1) and inserting (13.2)
(through (13.8)),
∂∇ × B
∇ × (∇ × E) = ∇(∇ · E) − ∇2 E = −
∂t
∂j ∂2E
= −µ − µ 2
∂t ∂t
becoming
1 ∂2E ∂j ∇ρ
∇2 E − =µ + , (13.9)
c2 ∂t2 ∂t
√
where c = 1/ µ. This is indeed very similar to
1 ∂2u
∇2 u − = −s(r, t), (8.2 revisited)
c2 ∂t2
∂j
showing that ∂t and ∇ρ at the right hand side are sources.
In an equivalent way, we combine the two others,
∂∇ × D
∇ × (∇ × H) = ∇(∇ · H) − ∇2 H = ∇ × j +
∂t
∂2H
= ∇ × j − µ
∂t2
making
1 ∂2H
∇2 H − = −∇ × j, (13.10)
c2 ∂t2
which also resembles (8.2), making ∇ × j a source.
We know from **** that a vector field can be decomposed into a scalar
potential and a vector potential, and from (13.4) that ∇B = 0, leaving
B=∇×A (13.11)
for the magnetic vector potential A. Similarly things we can do for E, but here
we use that the curl of a gradient field is zero, yielding
∂A
E = −∇φ − . (13.12)
∂t
This allows us, by applying the Lorentz condition/gauge to A (which we are
free to do, just check),
∂φ
∇ · A + µ = 0, (Lorentz condition) (13.13)
∂t
to transform our wave equations into
1 ∂2A
∇2 A − = −µj (13.14)
c2 ∂t2
1 ∂2φ ρ
∇2 φ − 2 2 = − (13.15)
c ∂t
√
where c = 1/ µ as before. This is even more similar to our acoustical wave
equations (8.2) and (8.3), but the sources are for A the µj (current density) and
for φ the free current ρ/.
We now need boundary conditions ****write about boundary conditions
13.2 Make it hetero

Now we will look at heterogeneous materials with absorption, i. e. tissue. First,
we find the temporal Fourier transform of the Maxwell Equations,
∇ × E = −ωB, (13.16)
∇ × H = j + iωD, (13.17)
∇ · D = ρ, (13.18)
∇ · B = 0, (13.19)
look back to Maxwell Equations if you need to refresh things, but remember
that (r, t) → (r, ω). As we did for acoustics in ***, we split the permitivitty
and permeability into a slowly term representing an average over a larger area,
a , and one that varies more rapidly, f , representing local deviations. That is,
(r, ω) = a (r, ω) + f (r, ω), (13.20)

µ(r, ω) = µa (r, ω) + µf (r, ω). (13.21)
Now we can rewrite (13.18) and (13.19) as
ρ ∇
∇·E= − E, (13.22)

∇µ
∇·H=− H. (13.23)
µ
√
We can also rewrite (13.16) and (13.17) as, for k1 = ω µ = ω/c

ρ ∇
∇2 E + k12 E = ∇ + iωµj − ∇ · E − iωH × ∇µ (13.24)

∇µ
∇2 H + k12 H = −∇ × j − ∇ · H + iωE × ∇. (13.25)
µ
These are Helmholtz type wave equations as we have looked at before, ****
meaning the first equation contains two active sources (first two terms) and two
scatterers (last two terms), whilst the latter equation only have one active term
(the first) but also two scatterers.
According to Angelsen we often have µ ≈ µ0 , so that it is variations in
which is causing scattering in tissues.
Similarly to ***, we can make it more beautiful by writing (using the Lau-
rentz condition)
∇(µ) ∇µ
∇2 A + k12 A = −µj + ∇ · A + (∇ × A)∇ × , (13.26)
µ µ
ρ ∇
∇2 φ + k12 = − + · E, (13.27)

√
where k1 = ω µ = ω/c as before.
13.3 Quick and dirty

If we make things swing very fast, say as an optical wave, then we can neglect
the free currents and set j = 0 and ρ = 0, and we also set µ = µ0 .
********Add more
Chapter 14
Make it smile
14.1 Basics
We introduce the coordinate systems given in Figure 14.1. proofread
As it is useful to be capable of transforming back and forth between the section
systems, we see that the unit vectors becomes
x̂ = cos θr̂ − sin θŝ, (14.1)

ŷ = sin θr̂ + cos θŝ, (14.2)
r̂ = cos θx̂ + sin θŷ, (14.3)
ŝ = − sin θx̂ + cos θŷ. (14.4)
Thus a vector r can be written equivalently as
r = xx̂ + yŷ = rr̂ + sŝ

= (r cos θ − s sin θ)x̂ + (r sin θ + s cos θ)ŷ
= (x cos θ + y sin θ)r̂ + (−x sin θ + y cos θ)ŝ.
Look back to Figure 14.1. The source sends a ray which is detected at the
detector. This ray is parallel to the s-axis and for the moment we will call the
ray path for a given r and angle θ for L (r, θ). The detected signal will be the
sum of all attenuation f on this line L ,
ˆ
p(r, θ) = ds f (x, y) = R{f }(r, θ), (14.5)
L (r,θ)
and this is the Radon transform of f . Following Bolles [2011] and Beatty [2012],
90
CHAPTER 14. MAKE IT SMILE 91
y
Source
S r
θ L (r, θ)
x
r Detector
Figure 14.1: ***.

we define the Radon as transform,

ˆ ∞
R{f (x, y)}(r, θ) = ds f (x(s), y(s)) (14.6)
ˆ−∞
= ds f (x, y) (14.7)
L (r,θ)
ˆ∞
= ds f (r cos θ − s sin θ, r sin θ + s cos θ) (14.8)
−∞
ˆ∞ ˆ ∞
= dx dy f (x, y)δ(r − x cos θ − y sin θ), (14.9)
−∞ −∞
where a requirement is that f has compact support, that is, f = 0 outside a

compact set.
An example of projections are shown in Figure ?? and 14.2. In the following, Remake fig-
we will refer to both the projection p and the radon transform R{f } but they ures using
are in fact the same thing. Radon transform is more fancy, I guess, whilst radon() func-
projection is more intuitive. tion in mat-
We will continue to keep the angle fixed, but will sum up for all distances r, lab and re-
that is, we integrate along the r-axis, in addition we multiply p with e−ikr r , duce size
ˆ ˆ ˆ
P (kr , θ) = dr p(r, θ)e−ikr r = dr ds f (x, y)e−ikr r = F (kr , ks = 0).
L (d,θ)
(14.10)
The right hand side is recognised as the Fourier transform of f into a plane
parallel to the r-axis (as ks = 0)! Please note that F (k = (kr , ks = 0)) is a
function of kr , but also θ. If we express k in the xy-coordinate system so that
k = kx x̂ + ky ŷ, we will eventually fill the k-space as we measure the projections
for all θ.
In short, this means that the Fourier transform of the Radon transform
equals the 2D Fourier transform of f ,
F2D {f } = F1D {R{f }}. (14.11)
This relation is often called the central slice theorem, the Fourier slice theorem
or the slice projection theorem.
14.2 Getting an image back

There are several ways of using our projection data, i. e. the radon transform, to
get an image. However, time is a valuable asset in this context, and in addition
we can only do a finite, discrete number of measurements. We will see that
these limitations are vital for which methods we can apply in the real world.
14.2.1 Inverse Radon Transform

The inverse Radon transform is maybe the most direct way of getting an image,
ˆ ˆ ∞
1 π
f (x, y) = lim dθ dr R{f (r − x cos θ − y sin θ, θ)}Γz (r)
z→0 π 0 −∞
ˆ ˆ ∞
1 π
= lim dθ dr p(r − x cos θ − y sin θ, θ)}Γz (r) (14.12)
z→0 π 0 −∞

 12
Γz (r) =
πz for − z ≤ r ≤ z (14.13)
1 1
 πz2 1 − √ 2
for |r| > z
1−(z/r)
14.2.2 Inverse Fourier Transform

Another direct inverse transform, is the inverse transform, with reference to
Example 8.1.3,
ˆ ∞
1
f (r) = F −1 {F (k)} = dn k F (k)e−ik·r , (8.17 revisited)
(2π)n −∞
or by applying (14.10),
ˆ ∞ ˆ ∞
1
f (x, y) = dk x dk y F (kx , ky )e−i(kx x+ky y) , (14.14)
(2π)2 −∞ −∞
where we have found F (kx , ky ) through (14.10). The problem with doing this,
is that we must approximate the k-space values into a grid, which introduces
artefacts in our final image.
14.2.3 Simple Back Projection

An alternative to the methods mentioned before, which is quite computational
demanding, we could use a simpler method: back projection. As the name
imply, we just project back our data into a picture and see what we get. In
other words, we average out the projection along the whole line L of which the
projection was a result.
If f (r) is the actual density at some point r but we only have access to the
projection p of f , as we have seen before, we make an estimate for fˆ for f ,
m
X
fˆ(x, y) = p(x cos φj + y sin φj , φj )∆φ, (14.15)
j=1
that is, fˆ is estimated by the sum of all projections crossing this point.
We will compare this method with the Fourier method later. Approximate
(14.15) with a continuous integral
ˆ
1 π
fˆ(x, y) = B{p} = dφ p(x cos φ + y sin φ, φ), (14.16)
π 0
where B is back projection. Or, we can formulate it as
fˆ(x, y) = B{R{f }(r, θ)}(x, y)

= B{F −1 {F {R{f }}}} (14.17)
14.2.4 Filtered Back Projection

We continue the thought from the last subsection regarding back projection.
So, to do the math directly,
f (x, y) = F −1 {F {f (x, y)}(kx , ky )}

ˆ ∞ ˆ ∞
1
= dk x dk y F {f (x, y)}(kx , ky )ei(kx x+ky y)
(2π)2 −∞ −∞
ˆ π ˆ ∞
1
= dθ dk r |kr |F {f }(kr cos θ, kr sin θ)eikr (x cos θ+y sin θ)
(2π)2 0 −∞
ˆ π ˆ ∞
1
= dθ dk r
(2π)2 0 −∞
|kr |F {R{f }(kr , θ)}(kr cos θ, kr sin θ)eikr (x cos θ+y sin θ)
ˆ π
1
= dθ 2πF −1 {|kr |F {R{f }(kr , θ)}(x cos θ + y sin θ, θ)}
(2π)2 0
1
= B{F −1 {|kr |F {R{f }(kr , θ)}(x, y)}}, (14.18)
2
where B is the back projection given in (14.16). Let us compare them closely,
1
f (x, y) = B{F −1 {|kr |F {R{f }(kr , θ)}(x, y)}} (14.18 revisited)
2
fˆ(x, y) = B{F −1 {F {R{f }}}} (14.17 revisited)
Now, this is not very useful as it contains a lot of sums and stuff, so we want
to find a function φ so that
F {φ(r)}(kr ) = |kr |,
because we then can write

1
f (x, y) = B{F −1 {|kr |F {R{f }(kr , θ)}(x, y)}}
2
1
= B{F −1 {F {φ(r)}(kr )F {R{f }(kr , θ)}(x, y)}}
2
1
= B{F −1 {F {φ(r) ∗ R{f }(kr , θ)}(x, y)}}
2
1
= B{φ(r) ∗ R{f }(kr , θ)}(x, y)
2
which is pretty nice. ∗ denotes convolution as usual.
Unfortunately, for a function to be transformable it has to approach zero

when the argument approaches plus or minus infinity. This goes for the trans-
form too, but not for the absolute value. Thus, φ is only a dream. We need
to approximate to come any further. This we do by introducing a band limited
function
Example 14.2.1: Something circular
As an example, we will look a solid circular thing of radius R, that is

(
1, x2 + y 2 ≤ R2
f (x, y) =
0, elsewhere
This is a simple example as we are not dependent on θ at all. So
p(d, θ) = p(d).
Geometry yields that R2 = d2 + m2 and the thickness of the circle at a

distance d will be 2m, so that
p
2m = 2 R2 − d2
This means ( √
2 R 2 − d2 , d ≤ R
p(d) =
0, elsewhere
and
ˆ ˆ R p J1 (Rkr )
F (k) = dr p(r)e−ikr r = dr 2 R2 − r2 e−ikr r = 2πR2
−R Rkr
where J1 is the first order Bessel function.

As p is independent of θ, F will be rotational symmetric and only depend
on the radial direction kr q
in k-space.
From *** and ****, kr = kx2 + ky2 so that
ˆ ˆ
q
2πR2 ∞ ∞ J1 R kx2 + ky2
f (x, y) = dk x dk y ei(kx x+ky y)
(2π)2
q
−∞ −∞ 2
R kx + ky2
Figure 14.2: ***.
Missing
figure An example of simple radon transform
f (x, y) Attenuation of a thing

p(r, θ) = R{f } Projection of f
R{f }(r, θ) = p Radon transform of f
F (kx , ky ) = F {f (x, y)} 2D Fourier transform of f
P (kr , θ) = F {p(r, θ)} 1D Fourier transform of p
B{p(r, θ)}(x, y) Back projection of p
We need to keep all these straight.

Appendix B
MATLAB examples
B.1 Figure
len = 101;
% make things
f = zeros ( len ) ;
rV = - floor ( len /2) : floor ( len /2) ;
thetaV = [0 pi /2];
f (20:30 ,20:30) = 0.5;

f (50:65 ,60:85) = 1;
% project things
i = 0;
j = 0;
for r = rV
i = i + 1;
for theta = thetaV
j = j + 1;
temp = 0;
for x = 1: len
for y = 1: len
if ( checkCoord (r , theta , x , y , len ) )
temp = temp + f (x , y ) ;
end
end
end
p (i , j ) = temp ;
97
APPENDIX B. MATLAB EXAMPLES 98
end
j = 0;
end
% plot things
[X , Y ] = meshgrid ( rV , rV ) ;
h = surf (X ,Y , f ) ;
hold on
p = p / max ( max ( p ) ) ;
plot3 ( rV , rV ( end ) * ones (1 , length ( rV ) ) ,p (: ,2) )
plot3 ( rV ( end ) * ones (1 , length ( rV ) ) ,rV , p (: ,1) )
zlabel ( ’ $z$ ’ , ’ Interpreter ’ , ’ latex ’)
legend ({ ’ $f (x , y )$ ’ , ’ $ \ theta = \ pi /2 $ ’ , ’ $ \ theta = 0$
,→ ’} , ’ Interpreter ’ , ’ latex ’)
view (3)
function out = rT (x ,y , theta )

out = x * cos ( theta ) + y * sin ( theta ) ;
end
function out = checkCoord (r , theta , x , y , len )

r2 = rT ( x - floor ( len /2) , y - floor ( len /2) , theta )
,→ ;
if ( round ( r2 ) == r )
out = 1;
else
out = 0;
end
end
B.2 Figure
len = 101;
% make things
f = zeros ( len ) ;
rV = - floor ( len /2) : floor ( len /2) ;
thetaV = 0:0.05: pi ;
f (20:30 ,20:30) = 0.5;

f (50:65 ,60:85) = 1;
APPENDIX B. MATLAB EXAMPLES 99
% project things
i = 0;
j = 0;
for r = rV
i = i + 1;
for theta = thetaV
j = j + 1;
temp = 0;
for x = 1: len
for y = 1: len
if ( checkCoord (r , theta , x , y , len ) )
temp = temp + f (x , y ) ;
end
end
end
p (i , j ) = temp ;
end
j = 0;
end
% plot things
[r , th ] = meshgrid ( rV , thetaV ) ;
p = p / max ( max ( p ) ) ;
contourf (r , th , transpose ( p ) ,15)
ylabel ( ’ $ \ theta$ ’ , ’ Interpreter ’ , ’ latex ’)
colorbar ( ’ southoutside ’)
set ( gcf , ’ Renderer ’ , ’ opengl ’)
function out = rT (x ,y , theta )

out = x * cos ( theta ) + y * sin ( theta ) ;
end
function out = checkCoord (r , theta , x , y , len )

r2 = rT ( x - floor ( len /2) , y - floor ( len /2) , theta )
,→ ;
if ( round ( r2 ) == r )
out = 1;
else
out = 0;
end
end
Part IV
MR
100
Chapter 15
The Easy Parts
15.1 Love and attraction

15.1.1 Electrons and protons
So, MR. We will start by looking at some properties of the electron, even if MR
usually are working with protons. Also, we will do this classically (no offence).
An electron is rotating around a nucleus in a radius r carrying a charge of
q = −e with the speed v. Then the angular velocity is
v 2πr 1 2π
ω0 = = = (Angular velocity)
r Tp r Tp
where Tp is the period, i.e. the time the electron uses for one rotation, which of
course is the inverse of the frequency,
1
f= (Frequency)
Tp
This rotation is de facto a current (defined as charge crossing a surface per time)
q q eω0
j= = =− (Current) (15.1)
Tp 2π/ω0 2π
creating a magnetic dipole moment (the subscript o for orbit to distinguish it

from spin later)
eω0 r2
Mo = jπr2 = − . (Orbital magnetic dipole moment)
2
There is also an angular magnetic momentum
Io = me ω0 r2 (Orbital mechanical moment)
where me is the electron mass.
101
CHAPTER 15. THE EASY PARTS 102
A natural constant is then the gyromagnetic ratio

Mo e
γo = =− . (Orbital gyromagnetic ratio)
Io 2me
Example 15.1.1: Gyromagnetic Ratio: some numbers
The (angular/orbital) gyromagnetic ratio γo can be given in many units,

some values are
Mo e
γa = =−
Io 2me
= 8.7941 × 1010 s A kg−1
= 8.7941 × 107 C g−1
= 5.4888 × 1029 e g−1
Now, the electron also possesses a spin which give rise to a magnetic dipole
moment Ms and a mechanical one Is . Experimentally, one has found that
Ms
γs = = ge γo , (Spin gyromagnetic ratio)
Is
where ge is the g-factor or the spectroscopic splitting factor measured to be
ge ≈ 2.0023 (Splitting factor).
*****More about g here

Similar properties exist for the proton, but it will not have any orbit, so then
we are only looking at the spin. This you should remember,
Important 15.1.1: Gyromagnetic ratio
The gyromagnetic ratio γ is the ratio between magnetic dipole moment

and mechanical moment,
M
γ= . (Gyromagnetic ratio)
I
And when we are talking about MR and protons, we are talking about
intrinsic spin, not any angular orbiting.
15.1.2 Some mechanics

It due to do some mechanics. Introduce an external magnetic field proofread
section
B = Bx x̂ + By ŷ + Bz ẑ (External magnetic field)
affecting a dipole magnet with magnetic dipole moment
M = Mx x̂ + My ŷ + Mz ẑ (Magnetic dipole moment)
and angular momentum I. Then we know that the torque T is, by definition
(and that γ = M/I)
dI 1 dM
T= = (Torque)
dt γ dt
but also
T=M×B
giving
1 dM
= M × B. (The Bloch Equation) (15.2)
γ dt
Solving (15.2) is best done using matrices as it contains three components
d    
dt Mx 0 Bz −By Mx
 d My  = γ −Bz 0 Bx My 
dt
d By −Bx 0 Mz
dt Mz
which is not easy to solve. As we like it easy, we take B = Bz ẑ. As Bx = By = 0,

we see from above that dM dt = 0, and (15.2) is simplified to
z
d
dt Mx = γ 0 Bz Mx
.
d
dt My
−Bz 0 My
Thus Mz stays unchanged (as its derivative is zero). The next can be shown to
have the solution
Mx = M⊥ cos(−γBz t + φ),
My = M⊥ sin(−γBz t + φ).
We introduce the Larmor frequency

Important 15.1.2: Larmor Frequency
(ok, this is actually the angular velocity, so there is a factor 2π off)
ωL = −γBz . (The Larmor Frequency) (15.3)
hence
Mx = M⊥ cos(ωL t + φ),
My = M⊥ sin(ωL t + φ),
Mz = Mz .
Interpretation: M rotates/precesses around ẑ (the direction of B) with a fre-

quency ωL as illustrated in Figure 15.1. Note that the magnetisation is a group
z
B
ωL
Figure 15.1: ***.
process made by all the particles in some area as a sum, the spin of each single
atom is not known.
Add refer-
Example 15.1.2: Some numerical values ence.
For an external magnetic field of strength |B| = Bz = 1 T, one achieves

for the electron’s intrinsic spin
ge e
|ωL | = Bz ≈ 17.56 × 1010 s−1
2me
ωL
|fL | = ≈ 2.8 GHz.
2π
For nuclei, the masses are higher and thus the Larmor frequency fL
decreases. For a similar external field, some examples are
fL (1 H) = 42.57 MHz,
fL (31 P) = 17.24 MHz,
fL (23 Na) = 11.26 MHz.
So that is one reason protons are more practical to work with.
15.2 Hit Me Baby One More Time

We now apply so called RF-pulses to our precessing magnetic dipole M . RF proofread
means Radio Frequency, which denotes the range 20 kHz-300 GHz. The aim is section
to tilt the precession angle so that our m is precessing in the xy-plane, normal
to the external field B. We achieve this by introducing a rotating external field
in the xy-plane, rotating with the same frequency as the magnetisation, making
it absorb energy.
To look more deeply into this, a rotating coordinate system is useful. We

want it to rotate in the xy-plane with a velocity ω, thus ẑ is unchanged. Denote
this rotating coordinate system with a prime 0 . After a time t, x̂ should have
moved an angle ωt, and simple geometric considerations yields
x̂0 = cos(ωt)x̂ + sin(ωt)ŷ,

ŷ0 = − sin(ωt)x̂ + cos(ωt)ŷ, (Rotating coordinate system)
ẑ0 = ẑ.
We notice that this introduces some more terms into (15.2),
dM dMx0 x̂0 dMy0 ŷ0 dMz0 ẑ0

= + +
dt dt dt dt
dM 0
x 0 dx̂0 dMy0 0 dŷ0 dMz0 0 dẑ0
= x̂ + Mx0 + ŷ + My0 + ẑ + Mz0 .
dt dt dt dt dt dt
We differentiate
dx̂0 d(cos(ωt)x̂ + sin(ωt)ŷ)
= = −ω sin(ωt)x̂ + ω cos(ωt)ŷ = ωŷ0 ,
dt dt
dŷ0 d(− sin(ωt)x̂ + cos(ωt)ŷ)
= = −ω cos(ωt)x̂ − ω sin(ωt)ŷ = −ωx̂0 ,
dt dt
dẑ0
= 0,
dt
and see that
dM dMx0 0 dM 0
y
dM 0
z 0

= x̂ + Mx0 ωŷ0 + ŷ0 − My0 ωx̂0 + ẑ + 0
dt dt dt dt
dM 0 dM 0 dMz0 0
x 0 y 0
= − ωMy0 x̂ + + ωMx0 ŷ + ẑ ,
dt dt dt
which, componentwise, has to equal γM0 ×B0 as before. We write it as a matrix,
also as before, and remembering that ẑ0 = ẑ,
d    
dt Mx − ωMy 0 Bz −By0 Mx0
0 0
 d My0 + ωMx0  = γ −Bz 0 Bx0 My0 

dt
d By0 −Bx0 0 Mz
dt Mz
d ω
Bz + γ −By0 Mx0
   
dt Mx
0 0
 d My0  = γ −Bz − ω 0 Bx0 My0 
dt γ
d Mz
dt M z B y 0 −B x 0 0
What we see is that in the rotating coordinate system, the dipole experiences
an external magnetic field
ω
B0 = (Bz + )ẑ
γ
instead of simply B = Bz ẑ in the stationary coordinate system.
Now we turn on a rotating magnetic field Brot

Brot = B1 (cos(ωt)x̂ + sin(ωt)ŷ) = B1 x̂0 , (Rotating magnetic field)
making a new external field
ω
B0 = (Bz + )ẑ + B1 x̂0 .
γ
If you still remember
ωL = −γBz , (15.3 revisited)
it becomes evident that Bz = −ωL /γ and
ωL ω
B0 = (− + )ẑ + B1 x̂0 = B1 x̂0
γ γ
for ω = ωL .
Important 15.2.1: Effect of the RF-pulse
When we introduce an external, rotating magnetic field in the xy-plane

Brot , and a stationary one in the normal direction z, B, and the rotating
field has a frequency equal to the Larmor frequency ωL = −γBz , the
precessing magnetic dipole will experience a torque towards the xy-plane.
However, ω = ωL simplifies the matrix equation to

(Bz + ωγ ) = 0 −By0 = 0 Mx0
d    
dt Mx
0 0
 d My0  = γ (−Bz − ω ) = 0 0 Bx0 = B1 My0 
dt γ
d Mz
dt M z By 0 = 0 −Bx0 = −B1 0
that is
d
Mx0 = 0
ddt
dt My 0 B1 My 0
0
d =γ ,
dt M z −B 1 0 Mz
which is very similar to before, but for precession around x̂0 instead of ẑ,
Mx0 = Mx0
My0 = M⊥0 cos(ω 0 t + φ),
Mz = M⊥0 sin(ω 0 t + φ).
with an angular velocity of ω 0 = −γB1 as illustrated in Figure 15.2. Is this figure
If we project M0 (t) into the x0 z-plane (ignore My0 ), we see it will be deflected wrong? θ in
an angle ω 0 t + φ from the z-axis. We assume φ = π/2 so Mz = M⊥0 for t = 0 zy 0 plane?
(when Brot is turned on), and thus
Is this
Mx0 = Mx0 wrong?
My0 = M⊥0 sin(ω 0 t), Should x0
Mz = M⊥0 cos(ω 0 t). and y 0 switch
place?
z
B
M0
ω0
Brot
x0
y0
Figure 15.2: ***.

|M|
Ta
Tb
t
T1 (Tb ) T1 (Ta )
Figure 15.3: ***.
so the deflection from the z-axis will be,
θ = |ω 0 t| = γB1 t. (Deflection from z-axis) (15.4)
Let us take a short step back and look how M is behaving in the stationary
coordinate system,
M0 = Mx0 x̂0 + My0 ŷ0 + Mz ẑ

= Mx0 (cos(ωL t)x̂ + sin(ωL t)ŷ) + My0 (− sin(ωL t)x̂ + cos(ωL t)ŷ) + Mz ẑ
= (Mx0 cos(ωL t) − My0 sin(ωL t))x̂ + (My0 cos(ωL t) + Mx0 sin(ωL t))ŷ + Mz ẑ
= (Mx0 cos(ωL t) − M⊥0 sin(ω 0 t) sin(ωL t))x̂
+ (M⊥0 sin(ω 0 t) cos(ωL t) + Mx0 sin(ωL t))ŷ
+ M⊥0 cos(ω 0 t)ẑ
Now we turn off the rotating field, and measure the magnetic field in the
xy-plane, sometimes using the same coils as are generating the RF-pulses. Let
us take a look at what we will detect.
15.3 Stop Dreaming

Ok, so in the real world things take time and there will be interactions inside
the matter we are trying to magnetise. The magnetisation time is often called
the transverse time constant,
T1 , (Transverse time constant)
and will depend on temperature T . This is due to the maximal magnetisation

also being dependent on temperature as illustrated in Figure 15.3. If Ta < Tb ,
then T1 (Ta ) > T1 (Tb ) and Mmax (Ta ) > Mmax (Tb ).
This means, if we apply a rotating magnetic field Brot with the Larmor
frequency ωL for a time given by (15.4) and then turn it off, the magnetisation
M will deflect back to precession around ẑ during a period governed by T1 . If T1

is rather big, the return to precession around ẑ will take a long time. The signal
we receive, that is the magnetisation, in the xy-plane will fall exponentially.
*** Write something
dMx Mx
= γ(M × B)x − (15.5)
dt T2
dMy My
= γ(M × B)y − (15.6)
dt T2
dMz Mz − M0
= γ(M × B)z − (15.7)
dt T1
1 1 ∆Bz (r)
= +γ (15.8)
T2∗ (r) T2 (r) 2
m0 (r) = µ0 ρ(r)(1 − e−tm /T1 (r) ) (15.9)
∗
m(r, t) = m0 (r)e−t(1/T2 (r)+1/T2 (r)) ≡ m0 (r)e−t(1/Tt (r)) (15.10)
1 1 1
= + (Local transversal dephasing time constant) (15.11)
Tt (r) T2 (r) T2∗ (r)
t = 0 at the end of rf pulse
T1 Local longitudinal time constant

T2 Intrinsic transversal time constant (local dipole-dipole
interaction)
T2∗ Transversal dephasing time constant (local field ho-
mogeneity)
Tt Local transversal dephasing time constant
dsc (r, t) = d3 r m(r)eiωL (r)t (15.12)

ˆ
sc (t) = d3 r m(r)eiωL (r)t (15.13)
Ra
s(t) = Re{sc (t)} (Physical signal) (15.14)
for Ra being the region of tissue contributing to the FID signal.

Definitions
me Mass of electron
M Magnetic dipole moment
I Mechanical angular momentum
T Torque
γ = M/I Gyromagnetic ratio
γo Orbital gyromagnetic ratio
γs Spin gyromagnetic ratio
g Splitting factor
ge Splitting factor for electron
ωL Larmor Frequency (even if it is an angular velocity)
fL = ωL /2π Larmor Frequency
110
Chapter 16
Gradients
16.1 Adding a gradient field

To keep you awake, we know add a gradient field
∂Bz ∂Bz ∂Bz
G = ∇Bz (r) = x̂ + ŷ + ẑ (Gradient field) (16.1)
∂x ∂y ∂z
to B0 .
111
CHAPTER 16. GRADIENTS 112
Example 16.1.1: Strength of gradient fields and biological ef-

fects
A typical number for G may be 40 mT m−1 , but it should not be too

high as we often want to change these fields rapidly. In fact, rapidly
changing magnetic fields not only affects the currents and hardware, but
also may induce physical effects such as a tingling feeling in the hands
or twitching of fingers. This is known as peripheral nerve stimulation
(PNS). Also, MRISafety [2017] says that
. . . studies performed in human subjects have indicated that
anatomical sites of peripheral nerve stimulation vary depend-
ing on the activation of a specific gradient (i.e. x-, y- or,
z-gradient). For example, stimulation sites for x-gradients
included the bridge of the nose, left side of the thorax, iliac
crest, left thigh, buttocks, and the lower back. Stimulation
sites for y-gradients included the scapula, upper arms, shoul-
der, right side of the thorax, iliac crest, hip, hands, and upper
back. Stimulation sites for z-gradients included the scapula,
thorax, xyphoid, abdomen, iliac crest, and upper and lower
back. Peripheral nerve stimulation sites were typically found
at bony prominences.
But it depends on how long the gradient pulse is, and you can also apply
only local gradients, not whole body.
Interested? Then google it or look at some of the references (eg. Schmitt
[2013], MRISafety [2017], Ham et al. [1997]).
So Bz (r) = B0 + G · r, which will produce position specific Larmor frequen-

cies,
ωL (r) = −γ(B0 + G · r) = ω0 − γG · r. (16.2)
Remember that our physical signal s is represented by the real part of the
complex sc ,
s(t) = Re{sc (t)}

ˆ
sc (t) = d3 r m0 (r)e−t/Tt (r)+iωL t
Ra
ˆ
=e iω0 t
d3 r m0 (r)e−t/Tt (r)−iγG·rt
Ra
iω0 t
≡e se (t, G).
Look closely, and imagine k = γGt, and you will see that this looks very much
CHAPTER 16. GRADIENTS 113
like a Fourier transform,

ˆ ˆ
−t/Tt (r)−iγG·rt
se (t, G) = 3
d r m0 (r)e = d3 r m0 (r)e−t/Tt (r) e−ik·r
Ra Ra
= F {m0 (r)e−t/Tt (r) }(k = γGt, t) = M (γGt, t),
where m = m0 (r)e−t/Tt (r) as in (15.10). Hence, we can find m(r) by inverting

the transform,
ˆ
1
Se (t, r) = d3 G se (t, G)eiG·r
(2π)3
ˆ ˆ
1
= 3
d G d3 r0 m0 (r)e−t/Tt (r0 )−iγG·r0 t eiG·r
(2π)3 Ra
ˆ ˆ
1
= d3
G d3 r0 m0 (r)e−t/Tt (r0 ) eiG·(r−γr0 t)
(2π)3 Ra
ˆ ˆ
1
= d r0 m0 (r)e−t/Tt (r0 )
3
3
d3 G eiG·(r−γr0 t)
R (2π)
ˆ a
= d3 r0 m0 (r)e−t/Tt (r0 ) δ(r − γr0 t)
Ra
ˆ
1
= d3 r0 m0 (r)e−t/Tt (r0 ) δ(r/γt − r0 )
(γt)3 Ra
m0 (r/γt)e−t/Tt (r/γt) m(r/γt)
= = ,
(γt)3 (γt)3
and thus,
m(r) = (γt)3 Se (t, γrt). (16.3)
Definitions
me Mass of electron
T Torque
g Splitting factor
G(r) = ∇Bz Gradient field
PNS Peripheral Nerve Stimulation
s Measured, real signal
sc Complex representation of s
se Envelope in sc
114
Chapter 17
Show Me Something
So how do we turn all this data into an image? In the last chapter, we saw that
m(r) = (γt)3 Se (t, γrt), (16.3 revisited)
where Se (t, r) = F {se (t, G)} is the envelope in sc = se eiω0 t , which in turn is
the complex representation of our measured signal s = Re{sc }.
115
Definitions
me Mass of electron
T Torque
g Splitting factor
G(r) = ∇Bz Gradient field
PNS Peripheral Nerve Stimulation
s Measured, real signal
sc Complex representation of s
se Envelope in sc
116
Chapter 18
NMR
18.1 NMR
117
Appendix C
MATLAB examples
118
References
Bjørn A. J. Angelsen. Ultrasound imaging: waves, signals, and signal processing,

volume 1-2. Emantec, 2000.
Asbjørn Støylen. Basic ultrasound for clinicians, 2017. URL http://folk.
ntnu.no/stoylen/strainrate/Basic_ultrasound. Read 2017-12-29.
Lewis Wexler, Derek H. Bergel, Ivor T. Gabe, Geoffrey S. Makin, and Christo-
pher J. Mills. Velocity of blood flow in normal human venae cavae. Circulation
Research, 23(3):349–359, 1968. ISSN 0009-7330. doi: 10.1161/01.RES.23.3.
349. URL http://circres.ahajournals.org/content/23/3/349.
Kailey Bolles. Mathematics of medical imaging: Inverting the radon
transform, 2011. URL https://www.whitman.edu/Documents/Academics/
Mathematics/SeniorProject_KaileyBolles.pdf. Read 2017-12-10.
Jen Beatty. The radon transform and the mathematics of medical imaging,
2012. URL https://digitalcommons.colby.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?
article=1649&context=honorstheses. Read 2017-12-10.
MRISafety. Bioeffects of gradient magnetic fields, 2017. URL http://www.
mrisafety.com/SafetyInfov.asp?SafetyInfoID=250. Read 2017-11-24.
F. Schmitt. Understanding gradients from an em perspective: (gradient linear-
ity, eddy currents, maxwell terms & peripheral nerve stimulation). 2013.
C. L. G. Ham, J. M. L. Engels, G. T. van de Wiel, and A. Machielsen.
Peripheral nerve stimulation during mri: Effects of high gradient ampli-
tudes and switching rates. Journal of Magnetic Resonance Imaging, 7(5):
933–937, 1997. ISSN 1522-2586. doi: 10.1002/jmri.1880070524. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jmri.1880070524.
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Ultrasound for Dummies

and MR and stuff

A. H. Jarmund1 T. Nguyen2 Please Help

I Medical Imaging Systems: Introductions and con-

4 X-ray Computed Tomography 10

4.1 Production of X-rays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

6 Optical Coherence Tomography 12

8 Give me some Helmholtz 22

9 Oh no! The Approximations are Coming! 35

10 Turn Up the Music 45

10.3 Rectangular transducer and Continuous Wave . . . . . . . . . . . 58

12 It’s Alive! On Doppler Ultrasound 68

15.3 Stop Dreaming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

17 Show Me Something 115

C MATLAB examples 118

In the process of trying to learn some basic medical imaging techniques, it

Important insights and expressions

Example 0.0.1: Examples

Examples, either numerical or symbolical, and old exam exercises

What about scattering? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Medical Imaging Systems:

Let’s start easy

1.1 Useful terms

1.2 General imaging

Ultrasound Variations in mass density and compressibility

Figure 1.1: ***. Shamelessly stolen from http://obel.ee.uwa.edu.au/

2.1 What is a signal?

2.2 Looking at things

P (ω) = 10 log10 |S|2 = 20 log10 A(ω). (2.1)

Example 2.2.1: Power plots

In MATLAB the power plot of a signal (vector) s is simply

2.3 What is a filter?

is simply a multiplication. If s is the signal and h the filtering function, the

3.1 What is ultrasound?

3.1.1 How to make an image?

Ultrasound waves or pulses are transmitted from a transducer and scat-

• M-mode (motion): give real-time image using A or B-mode.

3.1.3 Sound wave in medium

3.1.4 Beam steering and focusing

3.1.5 Array system

Important 3.1.2: Array systems

• Annular array: Composed of a set of rings (flat or geometrically

• Phased array: Linear array where beam focusing and steering is

• The lateral resolution is determine by the wide of the beam, frequency

Table 3.1: Advantages (+) and drawbacks (−).

Example 3.1.1: Exam 2014.1.b

3.2 Limitations and artefacts

1. the speed of sound is constant,

5. the tissue we are imaging does not move.

3.3 Clinical applications

X-ray Computed Tomography

4.1 Production of X-rays

4.3 Computed Tomography

5.1 Clinical applications

6.2 Simple optics

twice before entering the beam splitter again.

Γ12 (τ ) = hE1 (t)E2∗ (t + τ )iT (6.8)

and the complex degree of coherence,

ID = h|ED |2 i = h|ER |2 i + h|ES |2 i + (ER ES∗ + ES ER

for ∆l = lr − ls . We see that for a fully coherent system and k = 2π/λ,

and the one from the reflector is simply

where ∆z = ∆tc/nair and φ = 2ωnair ∆z/c.

Important 9.1.1: Approximation of |r − r0 | for r r0