Proceedings of the Combustion Institute, Volume 28, 2000/pp.

1119–1135

INVITED PLENARY LECTURE

OPTICAL DIAGNOSTICS FOR COMBUSTION PROCESS DEVELOPMENT

OF DIRECT-INJECTION GASOLINE ENGINES

WERNER HENTSCHEL
Volkswagen AG
Research and Development
Wolfsburg, Germany

This paper describes the operating principle and the combustion process of spark-ignition engines op-
erating with direct injection (DI) of gasoline and used in passenger cars. This new type of engine has an
advantage in efficiency on the order of 15% compared with current port-injected gasoline engines using a
three-way catalyst and has a high potential for further improvements. Current knowledge of the combustion
process of DI gasoline engines benefits from the application of optical diagnostic techniques which permit
deep insights into the in-cylinder processes such as flow development, fuel injection, and spray-air inter-
action. This paper explains the optical techniques used in research and development (R&D) and shows
how laser diagnostics can contribute to the analysis and optimization of various phenomena associated with
this promising combustion concept.

Motivation view (with 381 references) of R&D work in both

The permanent aim of the automotive industry is
to continue reducing the fuel consumption of inter-
nal combustion engines, thus reducing the contri-
bution of the anthropogenic CO2 emissions, caused
by individual transportation, to the global green-
house phenomenon.
The European automotive industry has voluntarily
agreed to reduce by 25% the average fuel consump-
tion of new passenger cars by the year 2008 com-
pared with 1995; see Fig. 1 for the fuel consumption
of new German passenger cars and the target for
reduction in Germany. The increase in the late 1980s
was the result of the introduction of three-way cat-
alysts. Engines with direct injection of the fuel into
the combustion chamber—independent of whether
it is diesel or gasoline—are the most promising mea-
sures to meet this challenging goal. The advanta-
geous combustion process of direct-injection (DI)
diesel engines has been outlined in detail in a pre-
vious paper by the author [1].
Now, this advanced combustion concept has been
transferred to gasoline engines to combine the ad-
vantages of diesel and gasoline engines. The ther-
modynamic potential of such engines offers signifi-
cantly enhanced fuel economy, improved transient
response, and reduced cold-start hydrocarbon (HC)
emissions, thus leading to a large number of research
and development (R&D) projects. The development
of spark-ignition engines with direct injection of gas-
oline into the combustion chamber is now a global
target for all automotive companies. An excellent re-
view of research activities was recently published by
Zhao et al. [2], which gives a comprehensive over-
prototype and production engines.
However, when considering the fuel consumption
of engines on a volumetric basis, one should keep in
mind that, due to differences in density and calorific
value, the energy content of 1 L of diesel fuel is
about 16% higher than that of 1 L of standard gas-
oline.
Introduction
The principal advantages of DI gasoline engines
compared with standard port fuel injection (PFI) en-
gines are their higher thermal efficiency, higher vol-
umetric efficiency, lower fuel consumption, better
driveability, and better cold-start performance. Over
decades, several attempts were made to develop DI
gasoline engines. Although a lower fuel consumption
was achieved, those engines suffered from higher
HC emissions at part load operation and increased
nitric oxide (NOx) emissions. In addition, the well-
known and very effective exhaust three-way catalyst
could not be applied.
Due to recent improvements in fuel injection
technology and the further development of diagnos-
tic and simulation tools, significant achievements
have been made in the past decade. Fan et al. [3]
claimed that in recent mass-produced DI gasoline
engines, cold-start HC emissions can be reduced by
up to 30%, fuel consumption can be improved by up
to 20%, and a 10% power output improvement can
be achieved over traditional PFI engines.
These objectives require DI gasoline engines that

1119
1120 INVITED PLENARY LECTURE
Fig. 1. Fuel consumption of new German passenger cars
and target for reduction.
operate with a stratified charge that can only be
achieved by ensuring a suitable mixture formation in
the cylinder. At the time of ignition, an ignitable mix-
ture has to be formed and convected toward the
spark plug by the bulk flow to allow reliable ignition
and, subsequently, stable combustion.
For analyzing and optimizing these in-cylinder
processes, optical and thus non-intrusive diagnostic
tools are very helpful, as has been demonstrated dur-
ing the development of DI diesel engines (e.g., Ref.
[1]). To meet the special requirements for studying
stratified charge operation, new as well as improved
versions of existing techniques are necessary.
This paper provides details of the mixing and com-
bustion process of DI gasoline engines and focuses
on the laser measurement techniques used to ana-
lyze them. The techniques for the investigation of
the different in-cylinder processes are not explained
in great depth; rather, this article is more focused on
the description of typical results obtained by them.
Special emphasis is placed on very recent literature
reporting scientific or technical results, since DI gas-
oline engines and laser diagnostics are rapidly chang-
ing fields. Finally, an outlook is given with regard to
future trends in laser diagnostics and the potential
for further engine improvements.
Direct-Injection Gasoline Engines
Comparison of PFI and DI Gasoline Engine
Concepts
Spark-ignition engines with PFI and engines with
DI of gasoline mainly differ in their mixture prepa-
ration strategies, which are shown schematically in
Fig. 2. In the PFI engine, fuel is injected into the
intake port of each cylinder, and there is a time delay
between the injection event and the induction of fuel
and air into the cylinder. The fuel is injected at low
pressure of about 0.3 MPa onto the back of the in-
take valve(s) when they are closed. A liquid film is
formed in the intake valve area of the port, which
causes delayed fuel vaporization. Especially during
cold start, it is necessary to supply amounts of fuel
Fig. 2. Comparison of port fuel injection (PFI) and di-
rect injection (DI) combustion process.
that exceed the required quantity for the ideal stoi-
chiometric mixture. This “overfueling” leads to in-
creased HC emissions during cold start. Alterna-
tively, injecting the fuel directly into the combustion
chamber of the engine avoids the problems associ-
ated with fuel wall wetting in the port while provid-
ing enhanced control of the fuel quantity for each
combustion event as well as reduction of the fuel
transport time. The actual mass of fuel entering the
cylinder in a given cycle can thus be more accurately
controlled with DI than with PFI. In addition, due
to the much higher fuel pressure, the fuel atomiza-
tion is improved, which results in an even higher
vaporization rate.
The principal advantages of the DI concept for
gasoline engines have been outlined by many au-
thors in the past few years; see, for example, Harada
et al. [4], Iwamoto et al. [5], Matsushita [6], Nohira
et al. [7], Spicher et al. [8], Geiger et al. [9], and so
on. Compared with PFI engines, the principal ad-
vantages can be summarized as follows: improved
fuel consumption by reduced pumping power, less
heat loss, increased volumetric efficiency and higher
compression ratio and thus reduced CO2 emissions,
improved transient response and less acceleration
enrichment, more precise air/fuel ratio control,
higher tolerance to exhaust gas recirculation, re-
duced cold-start HC emissions, and an enhanced po-
tential for further system optimization.
On the other hand, the development of DI gaso-
line engines has given rise to new challenges: diffi-
culty in controlling the stratified charge motion,
complexity of the injection control, new concepts for
exhaust gas after-treatment under lean conditions
(the standard three-way catalyst is not applicable),
and finally, higher prices for the high-pressure fuel
injection system.
DI Gasoline Engine Concepts
There are three main approaches to the combus-
tion process in DI gasoline engines, depending on
the relative position of the injector with respect to
 OPTICAL DIAGNOSTICS IN DIRECT-INJECTION GASOLINE ENGINES
Fig. 3. Principal configurations of DI gasoline engine concepts.
the spark plug and the way the mixture is trans-
ported inside the cylinder. The principal configura-
tions are outlined in Fig. 3. In the “spray-guided” or
“narrow spacing” configuration, the injector is
placed in a central position in the cylinder head with
the spark plug nearby. In the “wide spacing” config-
uration, the injector is side-mounted and the in-
jected fuel is guided either by the bowl-shaped pis-
ton (“wall-guided”) or by the in-cylinder airflow
(“air-guided”) toward the spark plug. One advantage
of both wide spacing arrangements is that the spray
momentum, which is independent of the engine
speed, is the driving force of the air/fuel mixing pro-
cess, and, therefore, adequate mixing can be per-
formed over a wide range of engine speeds and is
mostly independent of cyclic variations of the in-cyl-
inder flow field. The many conceptual end technical
advantages or disadvantages of the different con-
cepts will not be discussed here in detail since a lot
of R&D work has been done in the past few years.
It has been argued (e.g., by Spicher et al. [10]) that
spray-guided concepts have higher potential for im-
proved fuel consumption, but they are more difficult
to realize. Most of the present production DI gaso-
line engines follow the wide spacing concept, but
there is still a lot of work to be done to meet future
emission requirements.
DI gasoline engines can be operated in two dif-
ferent mixture preparation modes. At high loads and
high engine speeds, early injection is adopted and
homogeneous and mostly stoichiometric mixtures
are used. Due to evaporation cooling, a higher vol-
umetric efficiency is achieved and results in higher
power output. At part and low loads, late injection
and stratified lean burn is advisable, where con-
trolled charge stratification is required to concen-
trate an ignitable mixture in the vicinity of the spark
plug and to ensure fast flame propagation. In what
follows, consideration is given to the stratified opera-
tion because this is the main advantage of DI gaso-
line engines.
1121
To achieve high degree of stratification of the
charge, accurate control of the quantity and timing
of fuel injection is necessary. Today, mostly high-
pressure swirl-type injectors are used in DI gasoline
engines to satisfy the conflicting requirements of
mixture preparation at high load (homogeneous stoi-
chiometric) and part load (stratified overall lean)
conditions. The fuel is injected directly into the cyl-
inder and atomizes during the intake stroke (early
injection) or during the compression stroke (late in-
jection). Additionally, other types of injectors such
as air-assisted injectors are under consideration but
will not be discussed here.
To better understand and distinguish the operat-
ing principle and requirements for optical diagnos-
tics, the typical technical specifications and boundary
conditions of passenger car engines are summarized
in Table 1. Air pressure and temperature are given
at the time of fuel injection. It can be seen that drop-
let sizes decrease with increasing injection pressure
and that the time interval to form an ignitable mix-
ture is becoming shorter and shorter. The values for
DI diesel engines are presented for comparison.
Historical View and Today’s DI Gasoline Engines
Even in the 1930s, engines with DI of gasoline
were built for aircraft to avoid the problem of car-
buretor icing and to make possible unusual flying
positions. In the 1950s, the Benz 300 SL was
equipped at first with a DI gasoline engine to im-
prove its performance. Since then, the cheaper PFI
technique has replaced both DI and carburetor
technologies, and, except for some research cars,
such as the Volkswagen Futura (Schäpertöns et al.
[11]), PFI engines with three-way catalysts became
the dominant type of gasoline engine sold world-
wide.
In the mid 1990s, modern DI gasoline engines
started appearing, first in Japan and then in Europe.
These engines used different flow configurations
1122 INVITED PLENARY LECTURE
TABLE 1
Comparison of characteristic data between engine types
Gasoline Port
Type of Engine Fuel Injection
Fuel pressure, MPa 0.3
Air pressure, MPa 0.03–0.1
Air temperature, K 300
Droplet size, lm 50–150
Time from injection to combustion, ms 30–60
Fig. 4. Volkswagen pressure chamber for spray analysis.
than earlier attempts to guide the mixture cloud in
the stratified mode. For example, the Volkswagen
FSI engine uses a tumble-assisted wide spacing DI
concept for charge stratified operation; details have
been published by Krebs et al. [12,13].
Gasoline DI Injector
Typical injectors for DI gasoline engines are of the
swirl-type mode and produce a hollow-cone spray.
The fuel is pressurized by a high-pressure fuel pump
up to 12 MPa and is guided through a fuel rail to
the injector. The injector is electromagnetically
driven and controlled by the engine management
system. The fuel leaves the injector on the surface
of a hollow cone by means of the injector nozzle
design and penetrates into the surrounding pressur-
ized air. The annular fuel film disintegrates into a
cloud of tiny droplets and forms a hollow-cone spray.
The droplet size was measured by the manufacturer
to be about 16 lm sauter mean diameter for the
standard conditions discussed in this paper; see
DI Gasoline DI Gasoline
Homogeneous Stratified DI Diesel
5.0–10.0 5.0–12.0 30–200
0.03–0.1 0.2–0.6 4.0–8.0
300 400–500 800–1000
5–20 5–20 3–10
15–30 3.0–6.0 0.5–1.0
Preussner et al. [14] and Arndt et al. [15] for addi-
tional details on the spray and injector design.
As a result of the dynamic low pressure formed
inside the spray cone by the spray formation itself,
a recirculating airflow is induced in the direction of
the spray axis, which leads to a contraction of the
spray. This effect is more pronounced when injec-
tion is performed in a high-pressure environment
such as late in the compression stroke of the engine.
In particular, smaller droplets are entrained into this
flow, amplify the axial penetration, and fill up the
cone center with fuel droplets and vapor. This effect
supports the homogeneity of the fuel/air mixture in
the spray volume. The degree of spray contraction
depends on the fuel pressure, pressure and tem-
perature of the surrounding air, and the size and ve-
locity of the fuel droplets.
Experimental Devices for Studying In-
Cylinder Processes
Pressure Chamber
Systematic investigations about the characteristics
of fuel injectors are difficult to performe in engines
because the boundary conditions, such as pressure
and temperature of the air, are not constant during
the period of injection. In addition, the optical access
to the combustion chamber of an engine may be
limited due to design reasons. To perform a large
number of measurements at reproducible initial and
boundary conditions, pressure chamber experiments
have been carried out in many laboratories world-
wide. The Volkswagen pressure chamber used for
most of the investigations described below is shown
in Fig. 4. With four large flat quartz glass windows,
which are mounted symmetrically around the cham-
ber axis, it is possible to observe the spray from the
tip of the injector up to a distance of more than 100
mm without optical distortion. The chamber is con-
tinuously purged from top to bottom by compressed
and heated air that allows operation at up to 6 MPa
and 800 K, covering nearly all typical diesel and gas-
oline engine conditions. The fuel supply used for DI
 OPTICAL DIAGNOSTICS IN DIRECT-INJECTION GASOLINE ENGINES
Fig. 5. Glass ring section of the optical engine.
gasoline operation is provided by a constant pressure
device for the whole span of possible operation from
0.3 MPa to 12 MPa rail pressure. The airflow in the
chamber is so low that the spray development can
be expected to be undisturbed, and any variations in
the spray pattern are due only to shot-to-shot vari-
ations of the injection process under study.
Glass Ring Engine
Engines with optical access to the combustion
chamber are often used for the development and
optimization of the mixing and combustion pro-
cesses because they allow a direct view into the cyl-
inder while maintaining common engine parts such
as the complete cylinder head and the injection sys-
tem as well as the engine management system of the
production engine. Such “transparent engines” have
been in use for nearly 20 years at Volkswagen. For
most of the investigations, complete four-cylinder
engines are used with an intermediate housing in-
stalled between the crankcase and the cylinder head,
together with elongated pistons. Optical access to
the combustion chamber is obtained through the
hollow piston and through the upper part of the in-
termediate housing. Thus, different types of optical
measurement techniques having different require-
ments with respect to window shape and location
can be applied; for details, see, for example, Hent-
schel [1].
In the present setup, the transparent engine is
equipped with a glass ring below the cylinder head
and thereby provides large-scale optical access to the
combustion chamber from all sides. The glass ring
section of such a transparent engine is shown in Fig.
5. This setup allows the use of standard pistons with
typical DI gasoline engine bowls on the piston
crown. This type of engine is operated for minutes
under motored as well as fired conditions at low and
1123
medium loads. Similar designs—mostly as single-
cylinder engines—are used in many research and in-
dustrial laboratories all around the world.
Optical Diagnostics of Flow, Spray, Mixture
Processing, and Combustion
Modern engine combustion concepts such as in
DI gasoline and diesel engines benefit from laser
diagnostic tools, which permit deeper insight into
the in-cylinder processes such as flow development,
fuel injection and spray formation, atomization and
mixing, ignition and combustion, and formation and
reduction of pollutants. Measurement techniques
and typical results obtained with double-pulse par-
ticle image velocimetry (PIV) of the in-cylinder flow
are presented, as well as Mie scattering of droplets
recorded with high-speed filming and video tech-
niques, and laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) using
an excimer laser for spray and fuel vapor analysis. In
addition, one-dimensional spontaneous Raman
spectroscopy (SRS) was used to measure the fuel/
air ratio in and outside the spray. For more details,
see, for example, Ref. [16].
The sequence of presentation is based on the
physical characteristics to be explained and contains
both pressure chamber and engine experiments.
Most times related to spray development are given
in times after start of injection control (SOIC) and
thus include the internal delay of about 0.25 ms until
the first fuel appears at the nozzle exit. In the engine
experiments, times are given in degrees of crank an-
gle (⬚CA) with respect to the top dead center posi-
tion of the piston at combustion.
In-Cylinder Flow Field
The mixture development in the cylinders of in-
ternal combustion (IC) engines is strongly affected
1124 INVITED PLENARY LECTURE
Fig. 6. Setup for PIV measurements in the center cross
section of a glass ring engine; EV: exhaust valve; IV: intake
valve.
by the motion of the in-cylinder flow. For homoge-
neous charge combustion, sufficiently high turbu-
lence levels are required at the time of ignition to
contribute to an accelerated flame propagation and,
thereby, a highly efficient combustion. In the case of
stratified charge combustion, an ignitable mixture
has to be formed and guided to the spark plug by
the internal flow to allow reliable ignition and, sub-
sequently, stable combustion. Typically, in modern
IC engines having a cylinder head with pentroof ge-
ometry, a tumble flow is generated during the intake
phase by the interaction of the air passing through
the intake manifold/port into the cylinder head and
the combustion chamber shape. A tumble flow is a
vortex flow structure with the axis of rotation per-
pendicular to the cylinder axis, parallel to the crank-
shaft. The breakdown of such a tumble motion late
in the compression stroke generates high turbulence
levels in the cylinder at the time of ignition.
Quantitative in-cylinder flow measurements were
carried out by means of PIV. Key elements of the
PIV system are a double-pulse frequency-doubled
Nd:YAG laser, a digital CCD camera with high spa-
tial resolution combined with high sensitivity and dy-
namics, and a computer for off-line data evaluation
of the PIV images by cross-correlation and subse-
quent postprocessing; details about the PIV system
are described in Hentschel et al. [17]. The 8 mm
diameter laser beam is transformed into a light sheet
by a modular optical system allowing a precise align-
ment of the light-sheet thickness and providing a
suitable aperture angle. In the example described
below, the light sheet was 0.5–1.0 mm in width in-
side the engine cylinder, and the pulse energy was 2

20 mJ.
The flow was seeded with oil droplets of 1–2 lm
in diameter which were produced by an aerosol gen-
erator. It is believed that these droplets followed the
airflow faithfully under the flow frequencies ex-
pected in in-cylinder flows. The flow images were
captured with a fast macrolens associated with a 532
nm narrowband interference filter, a high-resolution
double-frame CCD camera with 1024
1280 pixels
for each frame, and 12-bit dynamics. Velocity vectors
were obtained by two-dimensional cross-correlation
with 32
32 pixels interrogation cells. For every
investigated crank angle, at least 20 PIV images were
taken, and the related vector fields were calculated
and averaged afterward. The field of view was 32
mm wide and 25 mm high.
A sketch of the optical setup of the PIV system
applied to the optical engine is shown in Fig. 6. The
engine was mounted on a test bed and was motored
at the desired engine speed without combustion to
avoid fouling of the optical surfaces. Due to the sym-
metrical design of the combustion chamber and the
intake manifold, the flow field is expected to be more
or less symmetrical with respect to the central cross
section.
The sequence of vector plots in Fig. 7 shows the
tumble flow development in the cylinder during in-
take (270 ⬚CA) and during the compression phase
(80 ⬚CA, 60 ⬚CA, and 40 ⬚CA BTDC). The air enters
the cylinder from top right through the open intake
valves. At an engine speed of 2000 rpm, air velocities
are up to 50 m/s in the averaged flow field and above
70 m/s in single cycles. At the end of the intake
phase, the tumble flow is fully developed and covers
nearly the whole cylinder volume. Due to the limited
size of the field of view, only the upper part of the
tumble vortex is visible, with a uniform tangential
velocity of approximately 12 m/s. This large-scale
tumble flow contains the kinetic energy induced by
the intake process. However, when the piston moves
toward the cylinder head during the compression
phase, the tumble is compressed in the remaining
cylinder volume (80 ⬚CA and 60 ⬚CA BTDC) and
the center of rotation is shifted in the direction of
the exhaust valves. When the distance between cyl-
inder head and piston becomes too small late in the
compression stroke, the tumble starts to disinte-
grate. As a result, the kinetic energy stored in the
large vortex is transferred into turbulent kinetic en-
ergy and, thus, leads to the required turbulence lev-
els. The tumble decay is clearly visible in the last
plot of the sequence at 40 ⬚CA BTDC.
Spray Formation
To get detailed knowledge about the spray pene-
tration inside the pressure chamber or the engine
cylinder, the spray formation process was mainly
studied with high temporal resolution by different
floodlight and light sheet techniques, which made
 OPTICAL DIAGNOSTICS IN DIRECT-INJECTION GASOLINE ENGINES
Fig. 7. Tumble flow formation in the cylinder cross section during intake phase (270 ⬚CA), stable tumble flow in the
main compression phase (80 ⬚CA and 60 ⬚CA), and decay of the tumble late in the compression phase (40 ⬚CA).
Fig. 8. Setup for high-speed filming and LIF on the glass
ring engine.
use of the light scattered from the fuel droplets (Mie
scattering) or of the wavelength-shifted fluorescent
light (LIF). The arrangements for these optical tech-
niques used on the glass ring engine are outlined in
Fig. 8; the techniques were not applied simulta-
neously but sequentially. In general, the light sheets
are oriented along the central cross section.
Mie scattering
High-speed filming with floodlight illumination
was used for analyzing the spray formation. In this
arrangement, the spray images were taken by a high-
speed film camera on 16 mm color reversal film with
framing rates of up to 8000 frames/s. The illumi-
nation was performed with a high-power copper va-
por laser emitting light pulses in the green/yellow
spectral range and with 10 ns duration. The laser was
triggered by the film camera and emitted one light
pulse per frame with an energy of about 1.5 mJ. The
light was guided by an optical fiber to the side win-
dow of the pressure chamber or the glass ring of the
1125
engine and thus illuminated the whole spray like a
floodlight projector. High-speed filming temporally
resolved a sequence of injections, typically 10 at
2000 rpm, thus allowing the comparison of cycle-to-
cycle variations on a qualitative basis. After devel-
opment, the films were digitized frame-by-frame by
means of a scanner device, superimposed with tech-
nical data, and arranged as an artificial movie which
could be viewed on a PC. This basic technique was
well suited to compare a large number of engine
settings in a reasonable time.
A typical sequence of the spray development over
a single injection, recorded with a high-speed film,
is presented in Fig. 9. It shows injections inside the
pressure chamber at a gas pressure (pch) of 460 kPa,
gas temperature (Tch) of 180 ⬚C, rail pressure (prail)
of 10 MPa, injection period (ti) of 1 ms, and with
standard gasoline (Euro super) as a fuel. The spray
development starts with the formation of a narrow
prespray which precedes the main spray. However,
new generation injectors do not show this pro-
nounced prespray. The spray cone typical for this
swirl-type injector is formed on the main spray. The
spray contraction caused by the low pressure inside
the spray cone is clearly visible. The time delay be-
tween the SOIC and the first visible fuel at the in-
jector is found to be around 0.25 ms. The main mass
transport is through the main spray.
For a precise study of the spray pattern, a light
sheet was used to visualize Mie scattering from the
spray droplets; the work was done by Ipp et al. [18].
The laser beam of a frequency-doubled Nd:YAG la-
ser was transformed into a thin light sheet 60 mm
high and 200 lm thick; the laser sheet illuminated a
central plane including the spray axis. The images
were recorded by a non-intensified high-resolution
CCD camera with 12-bit dynamics. Fig. 10 shows
the strong influence of the ambient air pressure on
the spray pattern for a high-pressure swirl injector
1126 INVITED PLENARY LECTURE

Fig. 9. Spray formation of a single injection in the pressure chamber, visualized by high-speed filming and copper
vapor laser flood-light illumination.

Fig. 10. Spray formation for different ambient air pressures, pressure chamber experiment with light sheet and video
technique. (Courtesy of W. Ipp.)

Fig. 11. Spray formation in a DI gasoline engine with injection late in the compression stroke, visualized by high-
speed filming and copper vapor laser floodlight illumination.

with an initial cone angle of 60⬚. Air pressure varies
from subatmospheric to elevated pressure levels.
The experimental conditions were prail: 10 MPa, Tch:
20⬚C, and ti: 1.0 ms, while the images were taken
1.3 ms after SOIC; for details, see Wagner et al. [19].
At subatmospheric pressures, the spray cone is fully
developed, and most of the fuel mass is located in
the spray mantle. This behavior corresponds to an
injection during the intake stroke at throttled con-
ditions. At higher air pressures, the spray tends to
contract and becomes slim with even the central re-
gion of the spray cone filled with fuel droplets. In
addition, it can be seen that the penetration depth
is reduced for increasing air pressures. This signifi-
cantly modified spray penetration behavior must be
considered when designing the combustion process.
 OPTICAL DIAGNOSTICS IN DIRECT-INJECTION GASOLINE ENGINES
Fig. 12. Spray formation for different fuel pressures in the pressure chamber, visualized by liquid LIF.
Figure 11 presents the time-resolved injection
process in the glass-ring engine. A single injection
late in the compression stroke is recorded and four
frames are extracted from the high-speed film se-
quence. The spray is injected diagonally into the
combustion chamber and hits the piston surface.
The penetration of the spray can be clearly observed
until the spray enters the piston bowl. The spray is
then directed upward toward the spark plug. Quan-
tities such as spray length, spray velocity, and spray
angle were analyzed from a great number of engine
cycles to allow comparison of different engine set-
tings.
Liquid LIF
The detection of fuel distribution by LIF has been
widely used in the past for different applications.
The fluorescence signal results either from the aro-
matic components in a standard gasoline fuel or
from tracers added to model fuels. Due to the higher
density of the liquid phase compared with the gas-
eous phase, the liquid-phase LIF signal is much
stronger than the gaseous-phase LIF signal. Even
with standard gasoline, it is possible to further im-
prove the fluorescence intensity of the liquid phase
by adding an appropriate tracer. For our experi-
ments, it was verified by sophisticated prestudies
that only the liquid phase contributes to the detected
LIF signal. The spray was illuminated by a light
sheet from an excimer laser at a wavelength of 248
nm or 308 nm, respectively. Both a high-resolution
unintensified CCD camera and an intensified me-
dium-resolution CCD camera were used to record
the fluorescence images. The Mie-scattered light
was suppressed by an optical filter.
LIF images of the sprays are shown in Fig. 12 for
different rail pressures varying from 0.5 MPa to 11.7
MPa. The spray formation is displayed at a gas pres-
sure of 0.46 MPa, gas temperature of 180 ⬚C, injec-
tion period of 1 ms, and standard gasoline (Euro
super) as a fuel. Again, the formation of vortices in
the shear layer zone can be observed. At rail pres-
sures higher than 5.0 MPa, the overall spray shape
does not change much, but the penetration depth is
1127
increased due to the higher momentum of the drop-
lets.
Further, the liquid LIF technique was applied to
study the in-cylinder spray development on an av-
erage basis. Twenty LIF images were taken in suc-
ceeding cycles at the same crank angle, and after-
ward the averaged spray distribution was calculated.
Fig. 13 displays four of the averaged images. These
images are arranged as an animation movie display-
ing the spray penetration and can be directly com-
pared with the results achieved by computational
fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations, since the aspect
of cycle-to-cycle variations in the in-cylinder flow
field and in the spray formation cannot be simulated
with the current codes.
PIV of droplets
The velocity of the spray droplets was also inves-
tigated by the PIV method; these droplet PIV studies
are helpful in analyzing the influence of the in-cyl-
inder flow on spray penetration and droplet char-
acteristics.
First, the velocity of the spray droplets was mea-
sured in the pressure chamber. Typical results of the
spray droplet velocity field, averaged over 20 injec-
tions, are shown in Fig. 14a. The vectors are reliable
at the spray edge and in the spray tip region. How-
ever, in the spray core area, where no droplets can
be identified in the single images due to the very
high droplet density, the calculated results should
not be considered. It is also interesting to compare
velocity profiles across the spray for different times
after SOIC. For a chamber pressure of 0.46 Mpa,
temperature of 180 ⬚C, and a spray duration of 1 ms,
droplet velocity profiles of the flow component in
the direction of the spray axis are shown in Fig. 14b,
taken at a distance of 30 mm below the injector. At
0.75 ms after SOIC, the prespray crosses the eval-
uation area and a narrow sector of high velocity val-
ues appears; 0.25 ms later at 1.0 ms after SOIC, the
main spray reaches the evaluation area and the spray
appears broader, but with lower velocities. At the
end of injection, 1.25 ms after SOIC, the driving
1128 INVITED PLENARY LECTURE

Fig. 13. Averaged spray development in a DI gasoline engine, visualized by liquid LIF.

Fig. 14. Spray droplet velocity measurements by droplet PIV 1.25 ms after SOIC (a); field of view is 32 mm
24
mm and velocity profiles in the spray 30 mm below the injector (b).

Fig. 15. Velocity field of the spray droplets at 55 ⬚CA BTDC inside the DI gasoline glass ring engine, measured by
droplet PIV.
 OPTICAL DIAGNOSTICS IN DIRECT-INJECTION GASOLINE ENGINES
Fig. 16. Droplet diameter distribution of a hollow-cone
swirl-type injector, 30 mm below the injector; pressure
chamber at 0.58 MPa and 450 K. (Courtesy of S. Arndt.)
force has stopped and thus, the pressure in the cen-
tral cone region is reduced. The droplet velocity field
appears divided and the velocities are again reduced.
Second, the droplet PIV technique was applied to
analyze the influence of the in-cylinder airflow on
the spray droplet penetration (Fig. 15); for more de-
tails, see Beushausen et al. [20]. The engine was op-
erated in the stratified charge mode. Droplet veloc-
ities were only obtained on the edge area of the
spray, because inside the spray the droplet densities
were too high to allow reliable velocity calculations.
The vector field presented in Fig. 15 illustrates that
many droplets change their directions and move per-
pendicularly to the spray axis toward the top of the
combustion chamber. The reason for this drastic
change in the flow direction is the strong influence
of the in-cylinder airflow on the smaller droplets.
Fig. 17. Fuel evaporation during the engine cycle at homogeneous operation.
1129
Thus, it is shown that the generation of the in-cyl-
inder flow field at the time of injection is of high
importance for the design of a controlled and reli-
able combustion process.
Phase Doppler anemometry for droplet sizing
Accurate measurements of the droplet size distri-
bution are often obtained by phase Doppler ane-
mometry (PDA). At a certain distance downstream
of the injector, thousands of single droplets are eval-
uated and their resulting sizes are summed up in
droplet size histograms. The technique was re-
stricted to areas where the droplet density was not
too high and to nearly spherical droplets. Typical re-
sults are shown in Fig. 16, based on the work of
Arndt [21]. The frequency of droplet diameters at
30 mm below a DI hollow-cone swirl-type injector
which was operated at the indicated conditions leads
to a Sauter mean diameter (SMD) of 16 lm and an
arithmetic mean of 10 lm. These spatially and tem-
porally averaged data are a function of the fuel pres-
sure.
Vaporization and Mixing
Laser-induced fluorescence
Smaller droplets vaporize faster due to their high
individual velocities more than due to the increasing
air density and pressure in the compression phase of
the engine cycle. It is common in many laboratories
to use planar LIF techniques to visualize the fuel
vapor distribution. The time-dependent vaporization
behavior of fuel droplets for an early injection start-
ing at 310 ⬚CA BTDC in the intake stroke is shown
in Fig. 17. Standard gasoline was used in this exper-
iment; the spray is visible in the top left image by
LIF of the fuel droplets. In the top right image taken
1130 INVITED PLENARY LECTURE
Fig. 18. Phase separation by laser-induced exciplex fluorescence. (Courtesy of W. Ipp.)
Fig. 19. Fuel/air ratio (␾ value) in a spray measured by
SRS and compared with simultaneously recorded LIF sig-
nals.
at 240 ⬚CA BTDC, many fuel droplets are still pres-
ent from the preceding injection. About 12 ms later,
at 100 ⬚CA BTDC, all droplets are completely va-
porized, and a nearly homogeneous distribution of
fuel vapor is found in the combustion chamber. In
this case, the LIF signal detected by an intensified
CCD camera can only be due to the fuel vapor.
When fuel injection occurs during the intake stroke,
the time required to completely vaporize the fuel is
on the order of 150 ⬚CA. Hence, in the stratified
mode with fuel injection late in the compression
stroke, the time between injection and spark ignition
is too short for complete fuel vaporization, and drop-
lets are still present when ignition takes place.
The simultaneous and separate detection of both
the liquid and gaseous phases was performed, for
example, by Ipp et al. [18], by means of an exciplex
technique with two intensified CCD cameras. With
iso-octane as the non-fluorescing model fuel and an
exciplex tracer system of benzene and triethylamine,
the fluorescence spectrum of the liquid phase is red-
shifted against the vapor phase. The sequence of Fig.
18 displays the temporal development of the spatial
distribution of both phases in a pressure chamber.
Late after the end of injection, a distinct vapor cloud
is formed, with only a few larger droplets remaining.
It should be noted that due to cross-talking between
the LIF signals, the vapor-phase image is partly su-
perimposed by the liquid-phase image.
Unfortunately, the simultaneous presence of drop-
lets and vapor makes it difficult to obtain quantitative
information by spectroscopic techniques.
Spontaneous Raman spectroscopy
The SRS technique provides quantitative charac-
terization of the chemical composition of the fuel/
air mixture; for details, see Grünefeld et al. [22]. This
is achieved with high spatial resolution, but only
once during the injection period or per engine cycle.
The relative fuel/air ratio (␾ value) is obtained from
the simultaneous measurement of the relative con-
centrations of the fuel and oxygen or nitrogen. This
allows the calculation of ␾ values to be independent
of laser light fluctuations, window fouling, or any
other signal variations.
In the pressure chamber, quantitative measure-
ments of ␾ were performed by one-dimensional SRS
along an axis perpendicular to the spray axis at a
plane 30 mm below the injector and at 1 ms after
SOIC. Here, a frequency-tripled Nd:YAG laser was
used with a wavelength of 355 nm, a pulse energy
 OPTICAL DIAGNOSTICS IN DIRECT-INJECTION GASOLINE ENGINES
Fig. 20. Temporal development of the air/fuel ratio (k
value) in the engine at homogeneous charge operation by
SRS.
of about 50 mJ, and a beam diameter of about 3 mm.
From the recorded spectra, both the intensity of the
liquid LIF signal and the ␾ value can be evaluated
simultaneously; an example is shown in Fig. 19. The
␾ value is displayed up to a distance of 15 mm from
the spray axis with a spatial resolution of 2 mm; a ␾
value of 1 corresponds to a stoichiometric mixture.
The liquid LIF signal is presented with a much
higher spatial resolution due to the higher signal
strength. As expected, the ␾ value is high inside the
spray and drops at the spray edge to values below
0.2, which is roughly the resolution limit of the sys-
tem. Unfortunately, it is not possible to get SRS data
closer than 2 mm to the spray axis due to the high
LIF background signal level. Both techniques
clearly show that no fuel—in either liquid or gaseous
form—can be found outside the spray envelope.
Therefore, these experiments proved that during in-
jection, almost no fuel vapor is present in the sur-
rounding air up to a distance of 30 mm below the
injector. More results can be found in Schütte et al.
[23].
For an engine operation in the homogeneous
charge mode, the temporal development of the mix-
ture strength is shown in Fig. 20. The measurement
location is about 18 mm below the spark plug in the
middle of the combustion chamber. Here, the rela-
tive air/fuel ratios (k values) are presented. The
measurements start at 150 ⬚CA BTDC when the
droplets have already vaporized (see Fig. 17). Dur-
ing the next 100 ⬚CA, the mixture becomes homo-
geneous, being rich initially with k values of 0.7 and
ending up with a stoichiometric mixture at 50 ⬚CA
BTDC. Measurements closer to ignition proved to
be impossible since the piston obstructed the view
into the cylinder.
It is important to note that the measurement tech-
nique of SRS is, in principle, unable to discriminate
between the liquid and gaseous phases of the fuel;
therefore, the calculated k values or ␾ values rep-
resent the addition of the two phases. It is thus very
1131
difficult to achieve reliable results in the presence of
small fuel droplets, especially when using gasoline
as fuel due to its strong LIF background radiation.
Nevertheless, the ignition behavior of the mixture is
mainly governed by the fuel existing in the gaseous
phase.
A more-sophisticated analysis of two-dimensional
spray characteristics is possible with alcohol as the
fuel and is also based on SRS; for details, see Müller
et al. [24]. This method offers the possibility for si-
multaneous quantitative mapping of the averaged
liquid and vapor phase distributions as well as drop-
let temperatures and droplet diameters in transient
sprays. The physical basis of the method is that the
OH-Raman emission is spectrally separated for the
liquid and gaseous phases. For methanol, the spec-
trally sharp OH emission at 3683 cm1 originates
only from vaporized methanol, whereas the broad
OH emission around 2900–3700 cm1 originates ex-
clusively from liquid methanol. The shift in fre-
quency and the strong spectral broadening are due
to the effect of hydrogen bonding, which generates
a deformation in the electronic potential and sub-
sequently a shift of the vibrational energy levels. The
separation of liquid and vapor and the simultaneous
detection of their spatial distribution inside the spray
is performed by including both OH-Raman emis-
sions into the analysis.
In addition, the resulting spectral shift is influ-
enced by the temperature of the liquid. This results
from the fact that a certain fraction of the molecules
form polymers in the liquid phase, and this fraction
decreases with increasing temperature. It was shown
that the spectral shift of the liquid OH-Raman line
can be used for thermometry purposes by calibration
of the spectral shift.
It is also possible to simultaneously extract the
SMD from the identical set of data. The determi-
nation of the SMD is based on the different depen-
dency of the Raman and Mie-scattered light inten-
sity on droplet diameter. Raman-scattered light from
liquids originates from the whole droplet volume,
and its intensity scales with the third power of the
radius. In contrast, Mie-scattered light originates
from the droplet surface so that the light intensity
scales with the square of the radius. If both inten-
sities are detected simultaneously, their ratio be-
comes proportional to the droplet radius.
Many one-dimensional Raman spectra have been
recorded from selected lines in the spray by use of
a KrF excimer laser and a spatially resolving optical
multichannel analyzer. Due to the high dynamic
range of the CCD camera (16-bit), it is possible to
simultaneously detect both Raman- and Mie-scat-
tered signals. The investigations presented here
were carried out on sprays with moderate droplet
density, and thus depolarization effects by multiple
scattering were considered to be negligible for these
measurements.
1132 INVITED PLENARY LECTURE
Fig. 21. Two-dimensional distributions of liquid (a) and vapor (b) concentrations, droplet temperature (c), and relative
droplet sizes (d); SRS on alcohol sprays.
Two-dimensional maps were obtained by combin-
ing one-dimensional measurements performed at
different distances (2–20 mm) from the injector. The
methanol was injected into ambient air, the line
pressure was 5 MPa, and the injector temperature
was 65 ⬚C. An interpolation algorithm was then ap-
plied to the one-dimensional data sets. The resulting
two-dimensional distributions are shown in Fig. 21.
The signal intensities as well as the measured tem-
peratures and droplet diameters are grey level
coded. The images in the figure show a distinct cor-
relation of the two-dimensional distributions of liq-
uid, vapor, droplet temperature, and droplet size. As
expected, for this hollow-cone spray, the liquid mass
is concentrated on the mantle of the spray, whereas
vaporized methanol appears also in the spray center.
This result correlates well with the droplet size dis-
tribution, where big droplets are present on the hol-
low-spray cone mantle, and small droplets are
shifted toward the spray axis due to air entrainment.
Also, the droplet temperature distribution correlates
well with these results; on the spray cone mantle,
maximum temperatures of about 65 ⬚C are mea-
sured close to the injector. The temperature de-
creases with increasing distance and is found to be
approximately 30 ⬚C at about 20 mm downstream of
the injector. In the center of the spray droplet, tem-
peratures drop even faster, down to approximately
10 ⬚C, due to the enhanced evaporation of the
smaller droplets present in that area.
Unfortunately, this powerful experimental tool is
restricted to alcohol as a fuel. Standard gasoline and
even multicomponent model fuels cannot be used
for studying the evaporation process because they
do not exhibit the spectral separation described
above.
Combustion
The easiest way to study combustion optically is to
perform high-speed filming or to record video im-
ages of the self-luminescence of the flame. The same
approach can be successfully applied for the devel-
opment of the combustion process of DI gasoline
engines and delivers important information about
flame propagation and cyclic variations. To improve
the temporal resolution and simultaneously reduce
the requirement for optical access, the tomographic
combustion analysis (TCA) technique developed by
Philipp et al. [25] was applied. Here, optical access
to the combustion chamber was achieved via optical
fibers which were mounted in a modified cylinder
head gasket. Each fiber accepted light from a narrow
cone angle centred along a specific direction over a
cross section of the cylinder. About 100 optical fibers
were arranged in the head gasket to cover the cross
section forming an optical grid. The spatial flame
position could be localized from the detected signals
by means of a tomographic reconstruction algo-
rithm. The resolution was about 5 mm in space and
better than 0.1 ⬚CA in time.
The TCA technique has been used to compare the
flame propagation in different DI gasoline engine
concepts with different piston bowls and to compare
stratified and homogeneous operating conditions
(see Fig. 22; Winklhofer et al. [26]). Locations of
high flame intensity correspond to the burn-off pat-
tern of rich mixture areas. Even if the piston has
moved downward during the combustion phase, the
fuel-rich regimes shed off the piston bowl and create
showers of bright sooting structures.
During combustion, high temperature affects the
formation of nitric oxide (NO). A better understand-
ing of the formation of NO as one of the main pol-
lutants in the engine is of importance in identifying
 OPTICAL DIAGNOSTICS IN DIRECT-INJECTION GASOLINE ENGINES
Fig. 22. Analysis of flame propagation for different DI gasoline engine concepts by TCA. (Courtesy of E. Winklhofer.)
Fig. 23. Averaged NO distribution fields in the com-
bustion chamber; engine operated at stratified load con-
dition. (Courtesy of C. Schulz [27].)
appropriate measures for its reduction. Especially
for inhomogeneous combustion, it is of particular
interest to minimize NO formation within the com-
bustion process itself because the exhaust gas after-
treatment methods are not as effective as for stoi-
chiometric combustion.
In the experiments by Hildenbrand et al. [27], the
formation of NO was studied in a transparent DI
gasoline engine using two different schemes of LIF
with KrF excimer laser excitation. With detection of
the fluorescence shifted toward the red, strong in-
terference from fluorescence of partially burned fuel
was found, and thus NO structures were not detect-
able. With blue-shifted fluorescence, interference
was minimized, allowing selective detection of NO
during combustion with good spatial resolution. An
1133
example of the temporal development of the aver-
aged NO distribution field in the engine under strat-
ified load conditions is given in Fig. 23. The careful
detection of NO in a stratified charge DI gasoline
engine has proved very difficult, although cycle-re-
solved quantitative NO distributions are definitely
required for comparison with simulations.
Conclusions
Both systematic pressure chamber experiments
under well-defined conditions and measurements in
optically accessible engines are necessary to high-
light phenomena relevant to the combustion process
in DI gasoline engines.
In addition, CFD simulations allow the prediction
of in-cylinder flows, spray development, mixture for-
mation, and combustion; see, for example, Bensler
et al. [28]. Since turbulence is usually approximated
by a k-e model, the cycle-to-cycle variations cannot
be considered correctly. Therefore, there is a strong
need to obtain cycle-averaged experimental data for
validation of calculated results. Many approaches
were developed incorporating submodels for spray
formation and/or vaporization (e.g., Arcoumanis et
al. [29], Fan et al. [3]). Today it is not believed that
CFD simulation will make experiments totally su-
perfluous, but both methods together can improve
existing knowledge and are complementary tools for
engine development.
Powerful tools such as optical diagnostics and
CFD simulation are essential for an efficient com-
bustion analysis, thus assisting in the R&D process.
Modern laser measurement techniques allow the in-
vestigation of in-cylinder flow and of physical and
chemical processes during mixture formation and
1134 INVITED PLENARY LECTURE
combustion. The development and optimization of
combustion in DI gasoline engines necessitates com-
bined application of experimental and numerical
methods to ensure the highest possible performance
and meet increasingly stringent emission regula-
tions.
Future Trends and Discussion
There is still a strong need to obtain detailed
knowledge of all aspects of the physics and kinetics
of multicomponent gasoline fuels in engines or un-
der enginelike conditions to improve the under-
standing of mixture formation and combustion in DI
gasoline engines.
Diagnostics
At present, the development status of many laser-
optical and spectroscopic techniques has passed the
threshold between qualitative and quantitative
states. Simple visualization of the spray formation
has been extremely helpful in providing basic un-
derstanding of the spray flow interaction. Quantita-
tive two-dimensional flow measurements by PIV is
the state of the art now. Some techniques, such as
LIF and SRS, have been successfully applied in en-
gines under homogeneous charged conditions, but
when too many fuel droplets are present, they fail to
yield quantitative data about the air/fuel ratio of the
gaseous phase. Information such as fuel droplet ve-
locities and sizes, mixture distribution of the strati-
fied charge, combustion temperatures, and the lo-
cally resolved concentration of reactants and
combustion products has to be obtained from en-
gines having optical access but at the same time be-
ing very similar geometrically to production engines.
Modeling and simulation
CFD simulation has reached high levels of confi-
dence within the past few years. Many engine con-
figurations can be computed with respect to in-cyl-
inder flow behavior before a piece of hardware
becomes available. In addition, one reason for taking
measurements is to obtain data for modeling the
physical and chemical processes. Precise models are
essential for the design of computer codes for the
complete calculation of mixture preparation and
combustion which cover the whole range from the
spray description to the kinetics of combustion.
Research needs
There are still many unresolved questions con-
cerning the combustion process in DI gasoline en-
gines. For a better understanding of the basic phe-
nomena and more accurate prediction, deeper
knowledge is needed about the formation of the in-
cylinder flow field and its variation from cycle to cy-
cle, the fuel breakup mechanisms and atomization,
the influence of fuel decomposition during vapori-
zation on the formation of an ignitable mixture, the
spray-air and the spray-wall interaction even of very
small droplets, the dependence of ignition and com-
bustion stability on the local mixture composition,
and the formation of pollutants such as NOx and soot
in a non-homogeneous mixture and combustion
field. Further, there is a strong need for information
regarding aspects of physics and kinetics of at least
multicomponent or, even better, of standard gasoline
fuel under high pressure (up to 3 MPa) and high
temperature (up to 2700 K) conditions.
Engine improvements
To improve the worldwide acceptance of DI gas-
oline engines, one has to deal with two essential
tasks: the further improvement of engine efficiency
and the simultaneous reduction of emissions.
Regarding technical issues, the measures which
can be implemented are various and can be sum-
marized as follows:
• Improved in-cylinder gas flow such as a stable and
controlled swirl or tumble flow with well-defined
turbulence, for example, through a variable intake
geometry, multivalve cylinder head, and optimized
shape of the combustion chamber
• Improved injection systems with adopted spray
shapes, multiple injections, and variable injection
pressures
• Improved and controlled combustion through a
sophisticated engine management system
• New and more efficient exhaust gas after-treat-
ment technologies
• Improved fuel quality with lower sulphur content
Advanced tools—diagnostics and models—are re-
quired to improve the understanding of the com-
bustion process in DI gasoline engines and will be
used to further optimize engines with respect to re-
duced emissions together with lower fuel consump-
tion levels for maximum environmental protection.
Acknowledgment
I would like to thank my colleagues in the Metrology,
Engine Research, and Engine Pre-Development Depart-
ments for their support, and M.-A. Beeck for intense dis-
cussions and review of the manuscript. Thanks are also ex-
tended to colleagues in the scientific community who have
contributed to this work with new results, recent papers,
and discussions. The intensive and fruitful cooperation be-
tween universities, research institutes, and industry has
provided an excellent basis for improving our knowledge
about laser diagnostics for the investigation of the com-
bustion process in DI gasoline engines.
Part of the work presented in this paper was conducted
within the frame of the joint BMBF research project Laser
 OPTICAL DIAGNOSTICS IN DIRECT-INJECTION GASOLINE ENGINES
Diagnostic and plasma Technological Basics for the Re-
duction of Emissions and Fuel Consumption in DI IC-
engines. The financial support of the German Federal Min-
istry for Science and Education (BMBF) under
coordination of the VDI-TZ Physical Technologies is grate-
fully acknowledged.
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