Ship Construction

MINIMUM STANDARD OF COMPETENCE IN PREPARATORY COURSE FOR OFFICER IN
CHARGE OF A NAVIGATIONAL WATCH ON SHIPS OF 500GT OR MORE

TRAINING COURSE
GENERAL SHIP KNOWLEDGE- SHIP CONSTRUCTION
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COURSE NOTES PHASE 3-5
In accordance with the STCW regulation 1978 as amended
2010, Reg. II/1, Sec. A-II/1, Table A-II/1
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
1.General knowledge of the principal structural members of a ship and the proper names for the various
parts
1.1 Ship dimensions and form, General definitions and General arrangements of vessel types
Defines and illustrates following Definitions
ACD/02/LN/P 3-5 Issue No: 00 Date of Issue: 01/10/2014 Rev.No:00 Rev. Date: 00/00/0000 Page 1 of 160
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1.1.1 Camber
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Curvature of decks in the transverse direction. Measured as the height of deck at centre above the
height of deck at side.
1.1.2 Rise of floor
The rise of the bottom shell plating line above the base line.
1.1.3 Tumblehome
The inward curvature of the side shell above the summer load line.
1.1.4 Flare
The outward curvature of the side shell plating in the foremast part of the vessel above the
waterline.
It promotes dryness and is therefore associated with the fore end of ship.
1.1.5 Sheer
Curvature of decks in the longitudinal direction. This is the curvature of the deck in the fore & aft
direction.
1.1.6 Stem Rake
Inclination of the stem line from the vertical.
1.1.7 Keel rake
Inclination of the keel line from the horizontal. It is measured from the top side of the keel to the
top of the deck plating, at the side of the vessel
1.1.8 Parallel middle body

The length over which the midship section remains constant in area and shape.
1.1.9 Entrance and run

Entrance
The immersed body of the vessel forward of the parallel middle body.
Run
The immersed body of the vessel aft of the parallel middle body.
1.1.10 FP
A perpendicular drawn to the waterline from a point on the summer load line where it meets the stem post.
1.1.11 AP
A perpendicular drawn to the waterline at a point where the aft end of the rudder post meets the summer
load line.
1.1.12 LBP
It is the distance between fwd & Aft perpendiculars Measured along the summer load line.
1.1.13 LWL
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The waterline at which the ship will float when fully loaded .
1.1.14 LOA
The maximum length measured from the extreme fwd & aft points of the vessel.
1.1.15 Base line
A imaginary horizontal datum line line drawn at the top of the keel plate. All vertical moulded dimensions
are measured relative to this line.
1.1.16 Moulded depth beam and draft,
Moulded Beam (Breadth)

Measured at the midship section is the maximum moulded breadth of the ship.
Moulded Draft:
Measured from the base line to the summer load line at the midship section.
Moulded Depth:
Measured from the base line to the heel of the upper deck beam at the ship’s side amidships.
1.1.17 Extreme depth beam and draft.
Extreme breath(Beam)
Measured between the outside edge of the shell plating on the either side of the vessel.( maximum beam
taken over all extremities).
Extreme Draft:
Taken from the lowest point of keel to the summer load line. Draft marks represent extreme drafts.
Extreme Depth:
Depth of vessel at ship’s side from upper deck to lowest point of keel.( bottom side of the keel to top of the
deck beam)
1.1.18 Freeboard
The vertical distance measured at the ship’s side between the summer load line (or service draft) and the
freeboard deck.
The freeboard deck is normally the uppermost complete deck exposed to weather and sea which has
permanent means of closing all openings, and below which all openings in the ship’s side have watertight
closings.
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1.1.19 Moulded depth
Measured from the base line to the heel of the upper deck beam at the ship’s side amidships.
Vessel types
Illustrates the general arrangement of the following ship types.
Ships
Ships are made in order to use as an efficient mode of transport at seas. They should be capable of carrying
numerous types of cargo. Early days there were only few types of ships available and several types of cargo
carried by the same ship. However, as increase of shipments with expansion of trades, those conventional
types of vessels couldn’t fulfill the requirements. Ship designers had to think a way of expanding merchant
fleet, which can do more efficient cargo operations. Therefore, they came with a solution of making
specified ships for particular cargo. At present, there are about nine basic types of ships.
Advantages of having specified ship type for that cargo
1. Easy and quick loading and discharging

2. Better stowing, increases the volume can carry
3. More cargo security
1.1.20 General cargo
 Size – Medium sized

 These are old type of ships, which used to carry several types of cargo in the same ship. Now becoming
obsolete.
 Cargo: sugar, flour, rice, fertilizer – as bags
 Tea, coffee, spices, valuables – as packages
 Oil, – as drums
 Machinery and vehicles – on wooden crates
 Structure:
 Normally these ships consist of 3-5 cargo holds, which are divided into several decks by tween-decks
 These ships are equipped with cranes or derricks as cargo handling gear.
1.1.21 Tanker
A tanker v/l is a vessel intended for carriage liquid cargo in bulk such as heavy oil, Diesel, petrol , etc.
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1.1.22 Bulk carrier
These ships are provided with top side tanks at both shoulders and bilge hoppers in both double bottom wings in
the cargo space.The cargo hold structure with top side tanks at both shoulders and double bottoms with hoppers
at both wings has been designed as the best structure for dry bulk cargo transportation. The shape of the top side
tanks provides sufficient stability to prevent dangerous of cargo shift and bilge hoppers contribute to convenience
in collecting the cargo on discharge.
In general bulk carriers are grouped into three categories in according to there sizes.These are CAPE SIZE ,
PANAMAX , and other smaller ships of 30,000 to 40,000 DWT having 5 cargo holds are called “Handy bulk
carriers”.Panamax bulkers are bulk carriers having the breadth of 32.2 m which are the largest ships able to
transit the panama canal.The ships of this kind usually have 7 cargo holds,and dwt of around 50.000 to
60,000 tons.Bulkers with dimensions greater than the panamax ships are called “Cape size bulkers”.Cape
size bulkers have 9 or more cargo holds and dwt in excess of 100,000t.Smaller bulkers have there own cargo
gear to unloade their cargo.While panamax or cape size bulk carriers are gearless.
1.1.23 Combination carriers
An ore-bulk-oil carrier, also known as combination carrier or OBO, is a ship designed to be capable of

carrying wet or dry cargoes. The idea is to reduce the number of empty (ballast) voyages, in which large
ships only carry a cargo one way and return empty for another. These are a feature of the larger bulk trades
(e.g. crude oil from the Middle East, iron ore and coal from Australia, South Africa and Brazil).
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1.1.24 Container
 Size- medium to large

 Cargo: any type of cargo, which are stuffed into containers.
 Containers: are steel made boxes mainly comes in 20ft and 40 ft
 20ft –TEUs 40ft- FEUs
 There are different types of containers suits for different cargo.
 E.g.: reefer, dry, tanktainers , open top, flat racks
 Construction: consist of several cargo holds, which can stack number of containers. It is also possible to
load on top of hatch covers. Equipped with cranes for cargo operations.
 Advantages of containerization:
 More cargo security from handling, undesirable sea conditions, pilferage.
 Fast turn around
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 Containers can be re used.

 Cargo carrying capacity increased.
 Labor cost decreased.
1.1.25 Ro-Ro
roll-on/roll-off (or ro/ro) ships are ships that have specially designed ramps to allow
cargo to be driven on board. a car carrier is a good example, but roll on / roll off
also relates to trucks, ferry type ships and other ships providing landing ramps for
the cargo.
1.1.26 Passenger
Ships that carrying passengers are called as passenger liners.
1. The passenger traveling in such a ship pays for, and expects, a superior standard of
accommodation and leisure facilities.
2. Large amounts of superstructure are therefore an essential feature of passenger ships.
3. Several tiers of decks are filled with large open lounges, ballrooms, swimming pools and
promenade areas.
4. Stabilizers are fitted for reduce rolling and bow thrust devices are employed for improved
maneuverability.
1.1.27 Lives stock carrier
Ship that are carrying animals
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1.1.28 Draws an elevation of a general cargo ship showing hold , engine room, peak tanks, db tanks ,
hatchways and fore and aft area.
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1.1.29 Draws an elevation of typical crude oil carrier showing bulkheads, cofferdams pump rooms, engine
room, bunker and peak tanks, cargo tanks and permanent ballast tanks.
1.1.30 Draw a plan view of a tanker showing the arrangement of tanks
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1.2 Ship stresses

1.2.1 Shearing force and bending moments
1.2.1.1 Describes in qualitative terms shear force and bending moments
When a section such as a beam is carrying a load there is a tendency for some parts to be pushed upwards
and for other parts to move downwards, this tendency is termed Shearing.
The Shear force at a point or station is the vertical force at that point. The shear force at a station may also
defined as being the total load on either the left hand side or the right hand side of the station; load being
defined as the difference between the down and the upward forces, or for a ship the weight would be the
downward force and the buoyancy would be the upward thrust or force.
The longitudinal stresses imposed by the weight and buoyancy distribution may give rise to longitudinal
shearing stresses. The maximum shearing stress occurs at the neutral axis and a minimum at the deck and
keel. Vertical shearing stresses may also occur.
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Bending Moment
The beam, which we have been considering, would also have a tendency to bend and the bending moment
measures this tendency.Its size depends upon the amount of the load as well as how the load is placed
together with the method of support. Bending moments are calculated in the same way as ordinary
moments that is multiplying force by distance, and so they are expressed in weight – length units.
As with the calculation of shear force the bending moment at a station is obtained by considering moments
either to the left or to the right of the station.
1.2.2 Hogging and sagging
1.2.2.1 Explains what is meant by hogging and sagging and distinguish between them.
Hogging – When a beam is loaded or other wise is subjected to external forces such that the beam bends
with the ends curving downwards it is termed as hogging stress.
For a ship improper loading as well as in a seaway when riding the crest of a wave the unsupported ends of
the ship would have a tendency similar to the beam above.
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1.2.2.2 Describes the loading conditions which give rise to Hogging and sagging stresses.
For Hogging the ship ends to curve downwards would mean that the weight/ load amidships is much less
than at the end holds/ tanks.
For Sagging the ship would have been loaded in such a manner that a greater percentage of the load is
around the midship area.
1.2.2.3 Explain how hogging and sagging stresses result in Tensile for compressive forces in the deck and
bottom structure.
Hogging and sagging cause compressive and tensile stresses on the ship beam – notably on the deck and the
keel structure
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1.2.2.4
Describes how hogging and sagging stresses are caused by the sea state
In a seaway the hogging and the sagging stresses are amplified when riding the crests and falling into the
troughs. Thus especially for large ships there are two conditions in the stability software – Sea Condition and
Harbour condition.
1.2.3 Water pressure loads on the ship’s hull
1.2.3.1 Describes water pressure loads on the ship’s hull
Water pressure and Thrust
Pressure is force per unit area and water pressure is dependent on the head of the water column affecting
the point of the measurement of the pressure.
Let us assume an area of 1sq.m. then this area of water up to a depth of 1 m below the surface would have a
volume of 1sq.m. x 1m = 1cbm and the weight of this volume would be 1cbm x density of the water = 1MT
(assuming that it is FW) or 1000kgf, therefore the pressure exerted by this mass would be 1000kgf/sq.m.
Similarly if now the depth of measurement is increased to 3m then the volume of this area subtending up to
the 3m mark would be 1sq.m x 3 = 3cbm and the weight of the water would be 3MT or 3000kgf and the
pressure exerted would be 3000kgf/sq.m.
If now the liquid had not been FW but any other then the weight would be found by multiplying the volume
by the density of the liquid. And thus the pressure exerted would be found.
If we now increase the area of the square of water plane would it make a difference in the pressure?
Let us consider a area of 2000sq.m then the volume of this water at a depth of 1 m would be 2000cbm and
the weight would be 2000MT (consider FW) and the pressure exerted would be 2000,000kgf/ 2000sq.m
which would give us again 1000kgf/sqm, thus the pressure is independent of the area of the water plane.
Thrust however is different, thrust is taken to be the total weight of the liquid over an area. Thus for the
previous example the thrust would be 2000 tonnes.
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Thus the thrust is given by: the area of the water plane x pressure head x density of the liquid.
Thrust always acts at right angles to the immersed surface and for any depth the thrust in any of the
directions is the same. The pressure head which is used in the above calculation of thrust is the depth of the
geometrical centre of the area below the surface of the liquid.
For a ship the thrust on the ship side changes as the depth increases, however the bottom is affected
uniformly for a set depth.
Centre of pressure of an area is the point on the area where the thrust could be considered to act. It is taken
that the centre of pressure is at 2/3rds the depth below the surface for ordinary vertical bulkheads and at
half the depth in the case of collision bulkheads.
1.2.4 Racking stress and its causes.
1.2.4.1 Describes racking stress and its causes
Racking stress and its causes
In a seaway as a ship rolls from one side to the other the different areas of the ship have motion which are
dependent on the nature of the subject area. The accelerations are thus not similar due to the various
masses of the different sections (although joined together). These accelerations on the ships structure are
liable to cause distortion in the transverse section. The greatest effect is under light ship conditions.
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1.2.5 Stresses caused by localised loading.
1.2.5.1 Explains what is meant by pounding or slamming and states which part of the ship is affected.
Panting
This is a stress, which occurs at the ends of a vessel due to variations in water pressure on the shell plating
as the vessel pitches in a seaway. The effect is accentuated at the bow when making headway.
Pounding:
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Heavy pitching assisted by heaving as the whole vessel is lifted in a seaway and again as the vessel slams
down on the water is known as pounding or slamming. This may subject the forepart to severe blows from
the sea. The greatest effect is experienced in the light ship condition.
Stresses caused by localized loading
1.2.5.2 Describes liquid pressure loading on the tank structure.
1.2.5.3 calculates the pressure at any depth below the liquid surface, given the density of the liquid
1.2.5.3 Describes qualitatively the stresses set up by liquid Sloshing in a partly filled tank
1.2.5.4 Explains what is meant by panting and states which part of the ship is affected.
1.2.5.5 describes stresses caused by localized loading
Stresses caused by localized loading
 Localized heavy loads may give rise to localized distortion of the transverse section.
 Such local loads may be the machinery (Main engine) in the engine room or the loading of
concentrated ore in the holds.
 Heavy loads can distort the structure of the area as shown in the diagram. Additional stiffeners
thicker plating are used in such areas
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1.3 Hull structures

1.3.1 Shell Plating
1.3.1.1 describes the types of materials that are used in the construction of a ship
Steel for hull construction purposes is usually mild steel containing 0.15 to 0.23 per cent carbon, and a
reasonably high manganese content. Both sulphur and phosphorus in the mild steel are kept to a minimum
(less than
0.05 per cent). Higher concentrations of both are detrimental to the welding properties of the steel, and
cracks can develop during the rolling process if the sulphur content is high. Steel for a ship classed with
Lloyds Register is produced by an approved manufacturer, and inspection and prescribed tests are carried
out at the steel mill before dispatch. All certified materials are marked with the Society’s brand and other
particulars as required by the rules.
1.3.1.2 Identifies the content of a shell expansion plan.
The arrangement of the shell plating taken from the 3-dimensional model may be represented on a 2-
dimensional drawing referred to as a shell expansion. All vertical dimensions in this drawing are taken
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around the girth of the vessel rather than their being a direct vertical projection. This technique illustrates
both the side and bottom plating as a continuous whole. In above Figure a typical shell expansion for a
tanker is illustrated. This also shows the numbering of plates, and lettering of plate strakes for reference
purposes and illustrates the system where strakes ‘run out’ as the girth decreases forward and aft.
1.3.1.3 Sketches the deck edge showing attachment of sheer strake and stringer plate
The upper strake of plating adjacent to the strength deck is referred to as the ‘sheerstrake’. As the
sheerstrake is at a large distance from the neutral axis it has a greater thickness than the other strakes of
side shell plating.
1.3.1.4 Sketches a radiuses sheer strake and attached structure
1.3.1.5 Identifies the numbering of plates of a ship hull
Each shell plate is numbered and the integral arrangement of numbered shell plates is shown on a shell
expansion plan. Shell plates are counted from the one next to the keel plate, and are named A strake, B
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strake, and so on. Shell plates in each strake are numbered from the aft. For example, plate "C—5" is the
fifth plate in C strake counted from the aft. Generally, K means keel plates, and S sheer strake. To avoid
confusion, letters I and 0 are not used.
1.3.2 Framing
1.3.2.1 Describe and illustrates Standard steel sections used in ship construction.
1.3.2.1.1 Flat plate
1.3.2.1.2 Offset bulb plate
1.3.2.1.3 Equal angle
1.3.2.1.4 Unequal angle
1.3.2.1.5 Channel
1.3.2.1.6 Tee
1.3.2.2 Explains the Properties of good ship building steel
• Can be welded with available simple methods.
• Ductility
• Homogeneity
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• High yield point according to tensile stress.
• Resistance to corrosion
• Reasonable cost
1.3.2.3 Identifies longitudinal, transverse and combined framing system on Transverse sections of ships
1.3.2.4 Sketches the arrangement of frames, webs and transverse members of each system
1.3.2.5 illustrates double-bottom structure for longitudinal and transverse framing
Terms of frames are called differently according to the direction of installation; i.e., longitudinal frames and
transverse frames.
Transverse framing
The transverse system has been used conventionally for a long- time, but it is used today only for
small ships. The transverse system has been used conventionally for a long- time, but it is used today
only for small ships. The transverse system has been used conventionally for a long- time, but it is used
today only for small ships.
Longitudinal framing system
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Combined framing system of a ship.
This is a very success full system providing sufficient longitudinal strength with good tank drainaging
1.3.2.6 illustrates hold drainage systems and related structure
1.3.3 Tank Side Brackets
1.3.3.1 Describe and illustrates tank side brackets
The lower end of the frame may be connected to the tank top or hopper
side tank by means of a flanged or edge stiffened tank side bracket .
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1.3.4 Bilge Keel
1.3.4.1 Describe the purpose of bilge keels and how they are attached to the ships side.
Bilge Keel
 Bilge keel is fitted along the bilge radii along the hull either side of the vessel and so placed to
minimise the resistance to forward movement of the ship. Free end of the bilge keel is stiffened
to have a bulb plate like cross section.
 Fixed end is fastened to a doubling plate on the hull, since the area is subjecting to high stress
and so constructed to break off the bilge keel with out damaging the hull in case of a grounding
or collision. and increased longitudinal strength at the bilge.
 Bilge keel reduce the rolling by providing some resistance. For this it must be in the water but
not too deep. This construction does not project beyond extreme breadth.
 It is carefully positioned on the ship so as to avoid excessive drag when the ship is under way;
and to achieve a minimum drag, various positions of the bilge
 This bilge keel then generally runs over the midship portion of the hull, often extending further
aft than forward of amidships and being virtually perpendicular to the turn of the bilge.
 In general bilge keels are attached to a continuous ground bar with the butt welds in the shell
plating,
 ground bar and bilge keel staggered Direct connection between the ground bar butt welds and
the bilge plate and bilge keel butt welds and the ground bar are avoided. In ships over 65 m in
length, holes are drilled in the bilge keel butt welds as shown in Figure .The ground bar thickness
is at least that of the bilge plate or 14 mm whichever
is the lesser, Connection of the ground bar to the shell is by
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continuous fillet welds and the bilge keel is connected to the ground
bar by light continuous or staggered intermittent weld.
 Bilge keels are gradually tapered (at least 3 to 1) at their ends and finish in way of an internal
stiffening member.
1.3.4.2 .structural components on ships plans
1.3.4.2.1 Identifies structural components on ships plans and drawings:
1.3.4.2.2 frames, Floors, transverse frames, deck beams, knees, brackets, shell plating , Decks, tank
tops, stringers, pillars, bulkheads and stiffener, hatch Girders and beams, comings and bulwarks, bow and
stem framing, cant Beams, breast-hooks.
1.3.4.2.3 illustrates the connection of superstructures to the hull at the ship's side
BOTTOM STRUCTURE
Keels & duct keels
Mainly two types of keels in merchant ships
Flat plate keel
Duct keel
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Keels runs along the centre of bottom plating from fore peak and after peak bulk heads. Keels is the first lay
at the building stage of the ship and structure is developed on that.This provides longitudinal strength to the
structure and resistance to bending.
Duct keel is a constructed of two girders spaced not more than 2 m to provide strength as she sitting on keel
chocks. No duct keel is necessary in the machinery space or aft of it. The keel plate and the tank top above
the duct keel must have their scantlings increased to compensate for the reduced strength of the transverse
floors. Since this is a water tight construction The space in the duct keel is used to carry pipe lines and cables
which run along the ship. Water tight man holes are provided at the terminations of this keel for
maintenance and inspections.
Flat plate keel
Duct keel
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Single Bottom Structure
In some smaller vessels, a single-bottom construction is employed. The single bottom in smaller
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ships is similar to double-bottom construction but without the inner skin of plating. The upper edge
of all plate floors must therefore be stiffened to improve their rigidity.
Center keelson the same depth as the bottom frames is required for docking. A center girder or center
keelson is required for docking.The center keelson and side keelsons are intended primarily to keep the
floors from buckling, or tripping, and to assist them in acting together. When the ship is in dry dock, the
center keelson has the additional duty of transferring the pressure from the keel blocks into the floors and
bulkheads, and thus into the hull as a whole. The scantlings of these members increase with the length of
the ship because of their contribution to the longitudinal strength of the hull.
Double Bottom Structure
Longitudinally framed double bottom
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This is the system favored as a result of tests and it provides adequate resistance to distortion on ships of
120 m in length or greater. Offset bulb plates are used as longitudinal stiffeners on the shell and inner
bottom plating, at intervals of about 1 m. Solid floors provide support at transverse bulkheads and at
intervals not exceeding 3.8 m along the length of the ship. Brackets are fitted at the center girder and side
shell at intermediate frame spaces between solid floors. These brackets are flanged at the free edge and
extend to the first longitudinal. Channel bar or angle bar struts are provided to give support at intervals of
not more than 2.5 m where solid floors are widely spaced.
Intercostal side girders are again fitted, their number depending upon classification society rules. When the
longitudinals (stiffeners, frames) run longitudinally effectively continuous through transverse bulkheads,
they contribute the section modulus of the hull girder and thus assist in resisting the longitudinal bending of
the ship's hull. They also greatly increase the critical
compressive buckling strength of the plating to which they are attached. ABS Rules provide for reduction of
the required thickness of deck and bottom plating when longitudinally framed. For oil tankers, bulk carriers,
general cargo vessels, containerships, and Great Lakes ore carriers, longitudinal framing is generally
adopted, at least for the strength deck plating and bottom shell. An exception is made at the ends of the
vessel, where the advantages of longitudinal framing disappear and where transverse framing is simpler to
build.
Transversely framed double bottom
1.Solid floor of a Transversely framed double bottom
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2. Bracket floor of a Transversely framed double bottom
When transversely framed, the double-bottom structure consists of solid plate floors and bracket floors
with transverse frames. The bracket floor is fitted between the widely spaced solid floors. It consists of
transverse bulb angle sections stiffening the shell and inner bottom plating. Vertical support is provided by
brackets at the side shell and center girder, any side girders and intermediate struts. The number of
intercostal side girders fitted is determined by classification society rules.
BULKHEADS AND PILLARS
strength as support for the decks and to resist deformation caused by broadside waves (racking).The
spacing of watertight bulkheads, which is known as the watertight subdivision of the ship, is governed by
rules dependent upon ship type, size, etc. All ships must have:
(1) A collision or fore peak bulkhead which is to be positioned not less than 0.05 X length of the
ship, nor more than 0.08 X length of the ship, from the forward end of the load waterline.
(2) An after peak bulkhead which encloses the stern tube(s) and rudder
trunk in a watertight compartment.
(3) A bulkhead at each end of the machinery space; the after bulkhead
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may, for an aft engine room,be the after peak bulkhead ,the purpose of
this watertight subdivision is to contain water in a compartment if
flooded and to protect machinery spaces in such a case. water tight
floor is fitted directly under the every transverse watertight bulk head.
where these water tight bulk heads are penetrated for piping or cables
water tight enclosure around the penetration must be ensured.
mainly two types of bulk heads are found
In addition to subdividing the ship, transverse bulkheads also provide considerable structural
plain Watertight bulkhead
Watertight bulkheads, because of their large area, are formed of several strakes of plating. They are
welded to the shell, deck and tank top. The plating strakes are horizontal and the stiffening is vertical. Since
water pressure in a tank increases with depth and the watertight bulkhead must withstand such loading, the
bulkhead must have increasingly greater strength towards the base. This is achieved by increasing the
thickness of the horizontal strakes of plating towards the bottom.
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The collision bulkhead must have plating some 12% thicker than other watertight bulkheads. Also, plating
in the aft peak bulkhead around the stemtube must be doubled or increased in thickness to reduce
vibration. The bulkhead is stiffened by vertical bulb plates or toe-welded angle bar stiffeners spaced about
760 mm apart. This spacing is reduced to 610 mm for collision and oiltight bulkheads. The ends of the
stiffeners are bracketed to the tank top and the deck beams. In tween decks, where the loading is less, the
stiffeners may have no end connections.
Corrugated watertight bulkheads
The use of corrugations or swedges in a plate instead of welded stiffeners produces as strong a structure
with a reduction in weight. The troughs are vertical on transverse bulkheads but on longitudinal bulkheads
they must be horizontal in order to add to the longitudinal strength of the ship.
The corrugations or swedges are made in the plating strakes prior to fabrication of the complete bulkhead.
As a consequence, the strakes run vertically and the plating must be of uniform thickness and adequate to
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support the greater loads at the bottom of the bulkhead. This greater thickness of plate offsets to some
extent the saving in weight through not adding stiffeners to the bulkhead.
The edges of the corrugated bulkhead which join to the shell plating may have a stiffened flat plate fitted
to increase transverse strength and simplify fitting the bulkhead to the shell. On high bulkheads with vertical
corrugations, diaphragm plates are fitted across the troughs. This prevents any possible collapse of the
corrugations.
1.4 Bow and stern
1.4.1 Bow thrust units
1.4.1.1 Describes and illustrates the structural arrangement to withstand panting

showing transverse, cross section and plan view of fore end section.
Panting
This is a stress, which occurs at the ends of a vessel due to variations in water pressure on the shell plating
as the vessel pitches in a seaway. The effect is accentuated at the bow when making headway.
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1.Fore End Structure
Fore end structure is the forward of the collision bulkhead. This the portion of a ship forward of the collision
bulkhead. This has designed to enter the water smoothly and direct the flow smoothly along the hull to
reduce turbulence and resistance.
The chain locker is included as it is usually fittedforward of the collision bulkhead below the second deck or
upper deck, orin the forecastle itself. it can be seen that the panting stiffening arrangements areof
particular importance.
On the forecastle deck the heavy windlass seating is securely fastened,and given considerable support. The
deck plating thickness is increasedlocally, and smaller pillars with heavier beams and local fore and aft
intercostals,or a centre line pillar bulkhead, may be fitted below the windlass.
2.Stem
On many conventional ships a stem bar, which is a solid round bar, is fittedfrom the keel to the waterline
region, and a radiused plate is fitted abovethe waterline to form the upper part of the stem. This forms what
is referredto as a ‘soft nose’ stem, which in the event of a collision will buckle underload, keeping the impact
damage to a minimum. Older ships had solid barstems which were riveted and of square section, and as the
stem had norake it could cause considerable damage on impact because of its rigidity.Small ships such as
tugs and trawlers may still have a solid stem bar extendingto the top of the bow, and some existing large
passenger ships may havesteel castings or forgings forming the lower part of the stem.
Also plate stem provides larger area to divert sea spry away from the ship in rough weather
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The solid round bar is welded inside the keel plate at its lower end, andinside the radiused stem plate at its
upper end, the shell being welded eachside . It is necessary to support that part of the stem which isformed
by radiused plates with ‘breast hooks’, i.e. horizontal plate webs,between the decks and below the lowest
deck, in order to reduce the unsupportedspan of the stem. Where the plate radius is large, further
stiffeningis provided by a vertical stiffener on the centre line. The thickness of these plates will be in excess
of that required for the side shell forward thickness may taper to that of the side shell at the stem head.
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3. Bulbous Bows
Bulb is fitted to reduce the resistance while the ship is moving through the water. Reduction of bow
wave and turbulence is also noticeable in ship with this type of bow.Deferent Shapes of this bow can be
seen from globule shape to cylindrical. Any way this provides additional buoyancy at the forward end
and reduce pitching.
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Vessels operating at higher speeds, and those with high block coefficients,are often found to have a
bulbous or protruding bow below the waterline.but it may be indicated that like most peculiarities of
the immersed hull form this feature is usuallyintended to reduce the vessel’s resistance to motion under
certain conditions.From the construction point of view the bulbous bow does not present
any great difficulty if this aspect has been considered when the bulb formis designed. In general
however a greater degree of plate curvature is involved, unless a rather convenient cylindrical form is
adopted and fitted into the bow as a single unit. Floors arefitted at every frame space in the bulb, and a
centre line wash bulkhead is introduced when the bulb is large. Transverses are fitted at about every
fifth frame in long bulbs. Smaller bulbs have a centre line webbut not a wash bulkhead; and in all
bulbous bows horizontal diaphragmplates are fitted. Shell plating covering the bulb has an increased
thicknesssimilar to that of a radiused plate stem below the waterline. This increasedthickness should in
particular cover any area likely to be damaged by theanchors and chains; and in designing the bow
fouling of the anchors shouldbe taken into consideration.
1.4.1.2 Describes the provision of additional structural strength to withstand

pounding at stem
Pounding:
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Heavy pitching assisted by heaving as the whole vessel is lifted in a seaway and again as the vessel slams
down on the water is known as pounding or slamming. This may subject the forepart to severe blows from
the sea. The greatest effect is experienced in the light ship condition.
1.4.1.3 Describes the tunnel, bow thruster with fixed or controllable pitch propeller
Shaft Tunnel
When the ship’s machinery is not located fully aft it is necessary to enclose the propeller shaft or shafts in a
watertight tunnel between the aft end of the machinery space and the aft peak bulkhead. This protects the
shaft from the cargo and provides a watertight compartment which will contain any flooding resulting from
damage to the watertight gland at the aft peak bulkhead. The tunnel should be large enough to permit
access for inspection and repair of the shafting. A sliding watertight door which may be opened from either
side is provided at the forward end in the machinery space bulkhead. Two means of escape from the shaft
tunnel must be provided, and as a rule there is a ladder in a watertight trunk leading to an escape hatch on
the deck above the waterline, at the aft end of the shaft tunnel. The additional space under this tunnel flat is
often used to stow the spare tail shaft. Shaft tunnels also provide a convenient means of carrying piping aft,
which is then accessible and protected from cargo damage.
curved roof shaft tunnelflat roof shaft tunnel
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Bow Thruster Units
1.4.2 Aft end structure
1.4.2.1 Describes the basic concept of aft end structure
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Aft End Structure
Considerable attention is paid to the overall design of the stern in order toimprove flow into and away from
the propeller. The cruiser stern was for many years the favored stern type for ocean going ships, but today
most of these vessels have a transom stern . A cruiserstern presents a more pleasant profile and is hydro
dynamically efficient, butthe transom stern offers a greater deck area aft, is a simpler construction,and can
also provide improved flow around the stern
1.4.2.3 Stern construction
1.4.3.1 Describes and illustrates the construction cruiser stern
cruiser stern
As the cruiser stern overhang may be subjected to large slamming forces asubstantial construction with
adequate stiffening is required. Solid floorsare fitted at every frame space, and a heavy centre line girder is
fitted rightaft at the shell and decks. The stern plating is stiffened by cant frames orwebs with short cant
beams supporting the decks and led to the adjacent.
1.4.3.2 Describes and illustrate the construction of a transom stern showing the
connection to the stem frame
Transom stern
Heavy transverse deck beam. Further stiffening of the plating is provided, oradopted in lieu of cant frames,
by horizontal stringers extending to the firsttransverse frame. flat stern plating may be stiffened with
vertical stiffeners Deep floors and a centre line girder are provided at the lower region of the transom stern
construction.
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1.4.4 Stern frame
1.4.4.1 Describes the functions of stern frame
Stern Frame
• Stern frame is usually castings, but fabrications or forging are some times used. In a single screw
ship this has the boss for the tail shaft to pass to the propeller.
 This part has to withstand the part of the vibrations coming from the propeller and lower part of the
frame supports the rudder. Gudgeons for the rudder pintles are provided in the upper part. Transom
post and the vibration post are attached to the stern frame and sound connection at these points
reduce the propeller vibration.( To prevent serious vibration at theafter end there must be adequate
clearances between the propeller
and stern frame)
• Aperture of the frame must be large enough to allow sufficient clearance at the propeller blade tips
unless vibrations will be set at the aft end.
Sternpost sections are of a streamline form, in order to prevent eddiesbeing formed behind the posts,
which can lead to an increase in the hullresistance
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The rudder post is carriedup into the main hull and connected to the transom floor which has
anincreased plate thickness. Also the propeller post may be extended into thehull and connected to a
deep floor, the lower sole piece being carriedforward and connected to the keel plate. Side shell plates
are directlywelded to the stern frame , a ‘rabbet’, i.e. a recess, sometimesbeing provided to allow the
shell plate to fit flush with the sternpost section.
1.4.4.2 Describes and sketches the stern frame for a single screw ship
1.5 Fittings
1.5.1 Bulbous bows
1.5.1.1 Describes and illustrate bulbous bow construction

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1.5.1.2 Explain the advantages of having a bulbous bow construction
Bulbous Bows
Bulb is fitted to reduce the resistance while the ship is moving through the water. Reduction of bow
wave and turbulence is also noticeable in ship with this type of bow.Deferent Shapes of this bow can be
seen from globule shape to cylindrical. Any way this provides additional buoyancy at the forward end
and reduce pitching.
Vessels operating at higher speeds, and those with high block coefficients,are often found to have a
bulbous or protruding bow below the waterline.but it may be indicated that like most peculiarities of
the immersed hull form this feature is usuallyintended to reduce the vessel’s resistance to motion under
certain conditions.From the construction point of view the bulbous bow does not present
any great difficulty if this aspect has been considered when the bulb formis designed. In general
however a greater degree of plate curvature is involved, unless a rather convenient cylindrical form is
adopted and fitted into the bow as a single unit. Floors arefitted at every frame space in the bulb, and a
centre line wash bulkhead is introduced when the bulb is large. Transverses are fitted at about every
fifth frame in long bulbs. Smaller bulbs have a centre line webbut not a wash bulkhead; and in all
bulbous bows horizontal diaphragmplates are fitted. Shell plating covering the bulb has an increased
thicknesssimilar to that of a radiused plate stem below the waterline. This increasedthickness should in
particular cover any area likely to be damaged by theanchors and chains; and in designing the bow
fouling of the anchors shouldbe taken into consideration.
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1.5.2 Chain locker
1.5.2.1 Describes the construction of the chain locker and how cables are secured
inside
1.5.2.2 Anchors explain how to secure and make spurling pipes watertight in
preparation of sea passage
Chain Locker
• Cable lockers normally placed in front of the collision bulkheads big enough to store the cable and to
have adequate empty space. Divided locker or two separate lockers are provided for port and
starboard anchors.
• The chain locker must be low as practicable to reduce the height of COG of considerably heavy cable
for not to effect the stability of the ship.
Arrangement for securing bitter end is provided in the chain locker and a eductor or bilge pumping
out system is provide to empty the accumulation of water each time of anchoringA chain locker is
often arranged in the position forward of the collisionbulkhead below either the main deck or the
second eck. It can also be fitted in the forecastle or aft of the collision bulkhead, in which case it
must be watertight and have proper means of drainage.Chain locker dimensions are determined in
relation to the length and sizeof cable, the depth being such that the cable is easily stowedThe
locker does not as a rulehave the same breadth as the ship, but has conventionally stiffened
forwardand side bulkheads, the stiffeners being conveniently arranged outside thelocker if possible
to prevent their being damaged. A false bottom may beformed by perforated plates on bearers
arranged at a height above the floor
of the locker. Where fitted this provides a mudbox which can be cleaned andis drained by a centre line
suction, the bottom plating sloping inboard. Toseparate the locker into port and starboard compartments a
centre linebulkhead is fitted. This bulkhead does not extend to the crown of the locker,but allows working
space above the two compartments. Access to thebottom of the locker is provided by means of foot holes
cut in the bulkhead,and the stiffeners fitted to this bulkhead are of the vertical flush cope bartype. Any
projections which would be damaged by the chains are thusvoided. The upper edge of the bulkhead is
similarly stiffened and mayprovide a standing platform, with a short ladder leading from the hatch inthe
deck forming the crown of the locker. Each cable is fed to the appropriatelocker compartment through port
and starboard chain pipes from theforecastle deck. These chain pipes or spurling pipes are of tubular
constructionwith castings or other rounded end mouldings to prevent chafing.
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1.5.2.3 Describes the bitter end internal external securing system
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a) Internal securing of bitter end of anchor cable by Use of clench system inside cable locker. In some
cases the link may pass through the bulkhead, the pin being placed on the other side. It is not then
necessary for a man to enter the chain locker at all inorder to slip cable.
b) Alternative method of securing bitter end.An external fitment is situated outsideand usually above the
chain locker. Thehinge cover when in position preventsremoval of the locking pin holding the bitterend of
the cable. This method allows thecable to be slipped without any person beingordered into the locker. The
locking pin isremoved by a simple sliding motion oncethe hinged cover has been lifted. The cableis then
released and the bitter end is allowedto fall back into the locker.
1.5.3 Hawse pipe
1.5.3.1 Describes the anchor handling arrangement from hawse pipe to spurling
pipe
1.5.3.2 Describes the construction and use of a cable stopper
Hawse Pipes
To provide an easy lead for the cable from the windlass to the anchors, thehawse pipes must be carefully
fitted. the best hawse pipe arrangement will permit theanchor to be raised and lowered smoothly, and
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housed properly.Tubular hawse pipes are generally fabricated, and castings are weldedat the shell and deck
to prevent chafing. Additional stiffeningin way of the hawse pipes is required at the side shell. On
higherspeed vessels a recess is often provided in the shell for anchor stowage;this helps to reduce any drag
caused by the stowed anchor and prevents serious damage in the event of a collision
1.5.4 Fore castle mooring and anchoring arrangement
1.5.4.1 Sketches typical forecastle mooring anchoring arrangements showing the

leads of the mooring
Forecastle mooring and anchoring arrangements
(plan view).
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A typical forecastle mooring and anchoring arrangement, showing the leads of moorings
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1.5.4.2 States types of attachments to the deck
1.5.4.3 Describes the construction and attachment to the deck tension winches and
explain how they are used
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1.5.4.4 Describes roller, multi-angle, pedestal and panama leads
 Roller, Multi-angle, Pedestal and Panama fairleads
 A roller is to be found on the forward and after stations area – generally at the leads to the mooring
ropes as well as on top of ‘old man’ pedestals.
 These facilitate the hauling of ropes since they reduce the friction when the rope is hauled through a
panama fairlead which has no rollers.
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A panama fairlead is o named since they were mostly used in the Panama Canal. The ship is hauled by small
locomotives and the wires are sent out through these leads – they are of adequate strength to prevent the
metal being cut open by the wires.
A multi angle fairlead again is a fairlead used due necessity when in the great Lakes. The ship moves through
numerous locks as the ship is made to climb a great height – the Welland Canal system itself uses about 13
lock gates to cross the Niagara falls. The movement of the ship being fast and the difference in height being
enormous the ship steadies itself with 2 wires forward and 2 wires aft, when in the locks. These wires are
passed through the multi angle fairleads to reduce the enormous friction generated.
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1.5.4.5 Sketches mooring bitts, showing their attachments to the deck
Mooring bitts are prefabricated and then are welded onto the deck. The size of the bitts are dependent on
their use. Thus a small set may be fitted next to an occasional winch while the larger ones are fitted at the
mooring stations.
The bitts are hollow and as such require care to ensure that the sides do not corroded and holed
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1.6. Rudders and propellers
1.6.1 Rudders
1.6.1.1 Describes the action of the rudder in steering a ship
Turning action of the ship depends on the area of rudder. Area of the rudder is usually 1/6 to 1/7 of
length X depth of the ship.
Usually three types of rudder are there.

1. Unbalanced rudder (All the area aft of turning axis)
2. Semi-balanced rudder (small part of area fwd of T/A)
3. Balanced rudder. (more than 25% fwd of T/A)
1.6.1.2 Produces drawings of modern rudders such as semi balanced, balanced and
un balanced
1. Unbalanced rudder
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2. Semi-balanced rudder
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3. Balanced rudder.
RUDDER CONSTRUCTION
Modern rudders are of streamlined form except those on small vessels, and are fabricated from steel plate,
the plate sides being stiffened by internal webs. Where the rudder is fully fabricated, one side plate is
prepared and the vertical and horizontal stiffening webs are welded to this plate. The other plate, often
called the ‘closing plate’, is then welded to the internal framing from the exterior only. This may be
achieved by welding flat bars to the webs prior to fitting the closing plate, and then slot welding the plate as
shown in Figure. Other rudders may
have a cast frame and webs with welded side and closing plates which are also shown in Figure . Minor
features of the rudders are the provision of a drain hole at the bottom with a plug, and a lifting hole which
can take the form of a short piece of tube welded through the rudder with doubling at the side and closing
plates. To prevent internal corrosion the interior surfaces are suitably coated, and in some cases the rudder
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may be filled with an inert plastic foam. The rudder is tested when complete under a head of water 2.45 m
above the top of the rudder.
1.6.1.3 explains the purpose of rudder carrier and pintles
RUDDER PINTLES
Pintles on which the rudder turns in the gudgeonshave a taper on the radius, and a bearing length which
exceeds the diameter.Older ships may have a brass or bronze liner shrunk on the pintles whichturn in
lignum vitae (hardwood) bearings fitted in the gudgeons. Modernpractice is to use synthetic materials like
‘Tufnol’ for the bearings, and insome cases stainless steels for the liners. In either case lubrication of
thebearing is provided by the water in which it is immersed. Until recently ithas not been found practicable
to provide oil-lubricated metal bearings forthe pintles.
1.6.1.4explains how the weight of the rudder is supported by the rudder carrier
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1.6.1.5 Describes the rudder trunk
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1.6.1.6 Describes the arrangement of a watertight gland round the rudder stock
1.6.2 Steering gear
1.6.2.1 Describe ram type and rotary vane steering gear
Steering Gear
Unless the main steering gear comprises two or more identical power units, every ship is to be provided
with a main steering gear and an auxiliary steering gear. The main steering gear is to be capable of putting
the rudder over from 35˚on one side to 35˚on the other side with the ship at its deepest draft and running
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ahead at maximum service speed, and under the same conditions from 35˚on either side to 30˚on the other
side in not more than 28 seconds. It is to be power operated where necessary to meet the above
conditions and where the stock diameter exceeds 120mm. The auxiliary steering gear is to be capable of
putting the rudder over 15˚on one side to 15˚on the other side in not more than 60 seconds with the ship at
its deepest draft and running ahead at half the maximum service speed or 7 knots whichever is greater.
Power operated auxiliary steering gear is required if necessary to meet the forgoing requirement or where
the rudder stock diameter exceeds 230 mm. The main steering gear for oil tankers, chemical tankers or gas
carriers of 10 000 gross tonnage or more and every other ship of 70 000 gross tonnage or more is to consist
of two or more identical power units which are capable of operating the rudder as indicated for the main
steering gear above and whilst operating with all power units. If a passenger ship, this requirement
is to be met when any one of the power units is inoperable. Steering gear control for power operated main
and auxiliary steering gears is from the bridge and steering gear compartment, the auxiliary steering gear
control being independent of the main steering gear control (but not duplication of the wheel or steering
lever). Steering gear on ocean-going ships is generally of the electro-hydraulic type. Where the rudder stock
is greater than 230 mm an alternative power supply is to be provided automatically from the ship’s
emergency power supply or from an independent source of power located in the steering gear
compartment.
Steering Gear Arrangement
Rotary vane RV/IRV steering gear
Max working torque 604 to 6,000 kNm
Rolls-Royce RV steering gear has a proven service record on all types of vessels. Today’s range is suitable for
medium to large ships, including large container vessels and VLCCs. System weight is typically 50-60 per
cent that of a comparable ram-type steering gear with a much smaller space requirement.
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A dual, submerged pump power packs makes installation easy, as no expansion tank is needed. Installation
is further simplified by the integrated storage tank and rudder carrier.
The RV and IRV series are suitable for medium-sized to large vessels
The modulated flow control system gives special handling characteristics. In particular, precise rudder
positioning is ensured for course keeping, while the full flow ensures maximum vessel manoeuvring
capability when needed.
The IRV series meets IMO regulations requiring compliance with the principle of single failure criteria for
large tankers of over 100,000dwt. Significant advances in structural strength and performance are provided
by the design of the 4-vane steering gear option.
A unitised steering gear concept combines the steering gear actuator, power packs, oil storage tank and
actuator foundations on a single, compact skid – a design that cuts labour costs, minimises risks and helps
ensure punctual installation.
Rotary vane RV/IRV steering gear – benefit
 Light-weight – typically 50-60 per cent of a RAM-type steering gear
 High levels of manoeuvring and positioning precision
 No expansion tank required
 Integrated oil storage tank
 4 vane system satisfies statutory requirements for tankers over 100,000 tonnesdwt
 Modulated flow control
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Ships steering systems

RAM-TYPE
Ram-type steering gear is the ideal steering gear system when installation space is at a premium. Mounted
on a single adjustable foundation plate, the Van der Velden COMMANDER™ Ram-type system offers
considerable savings in time and money when installed at shipyards.This plug and play solution is very easy
to maintain. Its double acting cylinders ensure reliability and redundancy. Two cylinders provide single
rudder operation and 50% of the capacity remains available when one cylinder is bypassed.
1.6.2.2 Describes a telemotor control system
Working of the Steering Gear
When the ship is required to be turned on receiving an order (say by 10° to port) from the Master or, the
Duty Officer, the helmsman turns the steering wheel towards port until the rudder has reached 10° to port
as read on rudder indicator. The mechanism of the Steering Gear works as under;
Complete Steering Gear system consists of three main parts namely
1. Telemotor
2. Control Unit
3. Power Unit.
A brief description about the construction and working of these components is as follows
Telemotor unit comprises of two parts namely, Transmitter and Receiver. The Transmitter is located on the
navigation bridge in the form of a wheel, which transmits the given order to the Receiver located in the
steering gear compartment, by turning the steering wheel. The Receiver conveys this order to the Control
Unit, also located in the steering gear compartment, via linear motion.
The Telemotor is generally hydraulic type, electric type or, as is the case with modern steering systems, it
could be electro-hydraulic type. In olden days, Telemotors were purely mechanical type consisting of
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linkages and chains with sprockets. As they were operated manually, they required very healthy sailors to
operate them.
Control Unit is the link between the Telemotor and the Power Unit. I receives signal from the Telemotor and
operates the Power Unit until it receives another signal, this time from the Rudder through the Hunting
Gear, to stop the operation of Power Unit.
Power Unit can be any prime mover like steam engine, diesel engine or, an electric motor, directly coupled
to the Rudder; it can be an electro-hydraulic unit or, an all- electric unit complete with the Telemotor.
An emergency steering system, as the name suggests, is a system which is used during the failure of the
main steering system of the ship. The article explains as to what exactly is the steering system and what the
procedure for starting the emergency steering system is.
1.6.2.3 Describe Electric steering control system
Electric steering
Conventional power steering systems use an engine accessory belt to drive the pump, providing pressurized fluid that
operates a piston in the power steering gear or actuator to assist.
In electro-hydraulic steering, one electrically powered steering concept uses a high efficiency pump driven by an
electric motor. Pump speed is regulated by an electric controller to vary pump pressure and flow, providing steering
efforts tailored for different driving situations. The pump can be run at low speed or shut off to provide energy savings
during straight ahead driving (which is most of the time in most world markets).
Direct electric steering uses an electric motor attached to the steering rack via a gear mechanism (no pump or fluid). A
variety of motor types and gear drives is possible. A microprocessor controls steering dynamics and driver effort. Inputs
include vessel speed and steering,
1.6.2.4 Explains how the change over from remote to local control in the steering
gear compartment
1.6.2.5 Explains emergency steering system
Emergency steering
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A ship consists of electromechanical steering gear unit which steers the vessel from one port to other.
Normally steering gear unit is 2 or 4 ram electro-hydraulically operated unit with two or more hydraulic
motor for the ram movement.
A situation can occur in which the remote control operation may fail to work and their can be a sudden loss
of steering control from the bridge. This can be due to sudden power failure, any electrical fault in the
system or the control system which includes faulty tele-motor or servo motor which is used for transferring
the signal from bridge to the steering unit.
To have control the steering of the ship at such emergency situation with manual measure from within the
steering gear room, an emergency steering system is used.
Procedure for Emergency steering Operation
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The following points should be followed for emergency steering operation.
 The procedure and diagram for operating emergency steering should be displayed in steering gear
room and bridge.
 Even in emergency situation we cannot turn the massive rudder by hand or any other means, and
that’s why a hydraulic motor is given a supply from the emergency generator directly through
emergency switch board (SOLAS regulation). It should also be displayed in the steering room.
 Ensure a clear communication for emergency operation via VHF or ships telephone system.
 Normally a switch is given in the power supply panel of steering gear for tele motor; switch off the
supply from the panel.
 Change the mode of operation by selecting the switch for the motor which is supplied emergency
power.
 There is a safety pin at the manual operation helms wheel so that during normal operation the
manual operation always remains in cut-off mode. Remove that pin.
 A helms wheel is provided which controls the flow of oil to the rams with a rudder angle indicator.
Wheel can be turned clockwise or anti clockwise for going port or starboard or vice versa.
 If there is a power failure, through sound power telephone receive orders from the bridge for the
rudder angle. As soon as you get the orders, turn the wheel and check the rudder angle indicator.
A routine check should always be done for proper working of manual emergency system and steering gear
system. An emergency steering drill should be carried out every month (prescribed duration – 3 months) in
the steering gear room with proper communication with bridge to train all the ship’s staff for proper
operation of the system so that in emergency situation ships control can be regained as soon as possible,
avoiding collision or grounding.
1.6.3 Stern tube
1.6.3.1 Sketches the arrangement of an oil lubricated stern tube and tail shaft
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1.6.4 shaft bossing a bracket
1.6.4.1 Describes and sketches shaft bossing and a bracket
Shaft Bossing and ‘A’ Brackets
Twin-screw or multi-screw vessels have propeller shafts which leave the line of shell at some distance
forward of the stern. To support the shaft overhang, bossings or ‘A’ brackets may be fitted. Bossings are a
common feature on the larger multiple-screw passenger ships and are in effect a moulding of the shell
which takes in the line of shaft for some distance. Access from inside the hull is thus provided to the shaft
over a great proportion of its length, and it is afforded greater protection. Many large liners having high
speeds are shown to have benefited by a decrease in resistance when bossing have been fitted rather than
‘A’ brackets. However large liners of more recent design have in some instances had extended shafts solely
supported by ‘A’ brackets of improved design.
CONSTRUCTION OF BOSSING AND ‘A’ BRACKETS
The shaped frames and plating forming the bossing terminate in a casting known as the‘spectacle frame’
which provides the aftermost bearing for the shaft. This may be cast or fabricated and forms a box-like
section athwartships which is rigidly connected to heavy plate floors. The arms carrying the shafts
extendfrom this section which may be split in two or more parts in some instances to aid alignment when it
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is erected ‘A’ brackets may be cast, or fabricated, particular attention being paid to the strut section to
avoid increases in resistance and cavitation. The connections to the main hull are of particular importance
since considerable rigidity of the structure is required.
1.6.5 Propellers
1.6.5.1 Explains the principle of screw propulsion
1.6.5.2 States how the propeller is attached to the tail shaft
Propellers
Ship propellers may have from three to six similar blades, the number being consistent with the design
requirements. It is important that the propeller is adequately immersed at the service drafts and that there
are good clearances between its working diameter and the surrounding hull structure. The bore of the
propeller boss is tapered to fit the tail shaft and the propeller may be keyed onto this shaft; a large locking
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nut is then fitted to secure the propeller on the shaft. For securing the propeller a patent nut with a builtin
hydraulic jack providing a frictional grip between the propeller and tail shaft is available. This ‘Pilgrim nut’
may also be used with keyless bore propellers. A fairing cone is provided to cover the securing nut.
1.6.5.3 compares fixed pitch propeller with CPP
1.6.5.4 Describes the arrangement and operation of a controllable pitch propeller
1.6.5.5 Sketches a propeller and defines following with respect to it boss, rake,
skew, face, back, tip, radius, pitch and cone
CONTROLLABLE PITCH PROPELLERS
These are propellers in which the blades are separately mounted on the boss, and in which the pitch of
theblades can be changed, and even reversed, by means of a mechanism in the boss, whilst the propeller is
running. The pitch is mechanically or electromechanically adjusted to allow the engines’ full power to be
absorbed under different conditions of operation. It is incorrect to refer to such a propeller as a variable
pitch propeller since virtually all merchant ship propellers have a fixed pitch variation from blade root to
blade tip. Propellers of this type are often found on diesel-engined tugs and trawlers where the propeller
pitch may be changed to allow the full torque to be absorbed under towing or trawling conditions, and also
when the vessel is running freely at full revolutions and a higher speed. It is possible to reverse the pitch in
order to stop the vessel rapidly and go astern, with the propeller shaft and propeller still rotating in the one
direction. Large controllable pitch propellers have been fitted to large diesel-driven bulk carriers in recent
years.
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Boss or Hub
The central portion of a screw propeller to which the blades are attached and through which the driving
shaft is fitted.
Rake
The point displacement, from the propeller plane to the generator line in the direction of the shaft axis. Aft
displacement is considered positive rake (see Figure 2). The rake at the blade tip or the rake angle are
generally used as measures of the rake. The strength criteria of some classification societies use other
definitions for rake.
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Skew
The displacement of any blade section along the pitch helix measured from the generator line to the
reference point of the section (see Figure 2). Positive skew- back is opposite to the direction of ahead
motion of the blade section. The skew definition pertains to midchord skew, unless specified otherwise.
Back (of blade)
The side of a propeller blade which faces generally in the direction of ahead motion. This side of the blade is
also known as the suction side of the blade because the average pressure there is lower than the pressure
on the face of the blade during normal ahead operation.
Tip
The maximum reach of the blade from the center of the propeller hub. It separates the leading edge from
the trailing edge.
Radius
Radius of any point on a propeller.
Pitch
The pitch of a propeller is the theoretical distance the propeller would move forward in one revolution
(similar to a screw) and conceptually is the same as the pitch of a screw, namely the distance between
threads if the propeller were a screw. For this reason, propellers will frequently be stamped with a
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designation such as “D 2550/P2610”. This means that the diameter (in this case length of propeller or
thickness of a screw) is 2.550 meters, and the pitch is 2.610 meters, so that in a mathematical sense, one
revolution of this propeller would move it forward a distance of 2.610 meters.
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1.7 Bottom structure
1.7.1 Keels and duct keels
1.7.1.1 Describes and illustrate flat plate keel
Mainly two types of keels in merchant ships
Flat plate keel
Duct keel
Keels runs along the centre of bottom plating from fore peak and after peak bulk heads. Keels is the first lay
at the building stage of the ship and structure is developed on that.This provides longitudinal strength to the
structure and resistance to bending.
Duct keel is a constructed of two girders spaced not more than 2 m to provide strength as she sitting on keel
chocks. No duct keel is necessary in the machinery space or aft of it. The keel plate and the tank top above
the duct keel must have their scantlings increased to compensate for the reduced strength of the transverse
floors. Since this is a water tight construction The space in the duct keel is used to carry pipe lines and cables
which run along the ship. Water tight man holes are provided at the terminations of this keel for
maintenance and inspections.
Flat plate keel
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1.7.1.2 Describes and illustrate duct keel
Duct keel
1.7.2 Single bottom structure
1.7.2.1 Illustrates the longitudinally framed single bottom structure of an oil tanker
midship section
1.7.2.2 Illustrates the combined framed single bottom structure of an oil tanker
midship section
Single Bottom Structure
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In some smaller vessels, a single-bottom construction is employed. The single bottom in smaller
ships is similar to double-bottom construction but without the inner skin of plating. The upper edge
of all plate floors must therefore be stiffened to improve their rigidity.
Center keelson the same depth as the bottom frames is required for docking. A center girder or center
keelson is required for docking.The center keelson and side keelsons are intended primarily to keep the
floors from buckling, or tripping, and to assist them in acting together. When the ship is in dry dock, the
center keelson has the additional duty of transferring the pressure from the keel blocks into the floors and
bulkheads, and thus into the hull as a whole. The scantlings of these members increase with the length of
the ship because of their contribution to the longitudinal strength of the hull.
1.7.3 Double bottom structure
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1.7.3.1 Illustrate the bracket floor of a longitudinally framed double bottom
1.7.3.2 Illustrates the solid floor of a longitudinally framed double bottom
Double Bottom Structure
Longitudinally framed double bottom
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This is the system favored as a result of tests and it provides adequate resistance to distortion onships of
120 m in length or greater. Offset bulb plates are used as longitudinal stiffeners on the shelland inner
bottom plating, at intervals of about 1 m. Solid floors provide support at transversebulkheads and at
intervals not exceeding 3.8 m along the length of the ship. Brackets are fitted atthe center girder and side
shell at intermediate frame spaces between solid floors. These bracketsare flanged at the free edge and
extend to the first longitudinal. Channel bar or angle bar struts areprovided to give support at intervals of
not more than 2.5 m where solid floors are widely spaced.
Intercostal side girders are again fitted, their number depending upon classification society rules.When the
longitudinals (stiffeners, frames) run longitudinally effectively continuous throughtransverse bulkheads, they
contribute the section modulus of the hull girder and thus assist inresisting the longitudinal bending of the
ship's hull. They also greatly increase the critical
compressive buckling strength of the plating to which they are attached. ABS Rules provide forreduction of
the required thickness of deck and bottom plating when longitudinally framed. For oiltankers, bulk carriers,
general cargo vessels, containerships, and Great Lakes ore carriers,longitudinal framing is generally adopted,
at least for the strength deck plating and bottom shell. Anexception is made at the ends of the vessel, where
the advantages of longitudinal framing disappearand where transverse framing is simpler to build.
1.7.3.3 Illustrate the bracket floor of a transversely framed double bottom
Bracket floor of a Transversely framed double bottom
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1.7.3.4 Illustrates the solid floor of a transversely framed double bottom
1.Solid floor of a Transversely framed double bottom
When transversely framed, the double-bottom structure consists of solid plate floors and bracketfloors with
transverse frames. The bracket floor is fitted between the widely spaced solid floors. Itconsists of transverse
bulb angle sections stiffening the shell and inner bottom plating. Verticalsupport is provided by brackets at
the side shell and center girder, any side girders and intermediatestruts. The number of intercostal side
girders fitted is determined by classification society rules.
1.8 Bulk head and pillars
1.8.1 Bulkheads
1.8.1.1 Sketches a plain water tight bulk head

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1.8.1.2 Sketches a plain water tight bulk head showing connections to deck, sides
and double bottom and the arrangement of the stiffners
strength as support for the decks and to resist deformation caused by broadside waves (racking).The spacing
of watertight bulkheads, which is known as the watertight subdivision of the ship, is governed by rules
dependent upon ship type, size, etc. All ships must have:
(1) A collision or fore peak bulkhead which is to be positioned not less than 0.05 X length of the
ship, nor more than 0.08 X length of the ship, from the forward end of the load waterline.
(2) An after peak bulkhead which encloses the stern tube(s) and rudder
trunk in a watertight compartment.
(3) A bulkhead at each end of the machinery space; the after bulkhead
may, for an aft engine room,be the after peak bulkhead,the purpose of
this watertight subdivision is to contain water in a compartment if
flooded and to protect machinery spaces in such a case.water tight
floor is fitted directly under the every transverse watertight bulk head.
where these water tight bulk heads are penetrated for piping or cables
water tight enclosure around the penetration must be ensured.
mainly two types of bulk heads are found
In addition to subdividing the ship, transverse bulkheads also provide considerable structural
1.plain Watertight bulkhead
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Watertight bulkheads, because of their large area, are formed of several strakes of plating. Theyare welded
to the shell, deck and tank top. The plating strakes are horizontal and the stiffening isvertical. Since water
pressure in a tank increases with depth and the watertight bulkhead mustwithstand such loading, the
bulkhead must have increasingly greater strength towards the base.This is achieved by increasing the
thickness of the horizontal strakes of plating towards thebottom.
The collision bulkhead must have plating some 12% thicker than other watertightbulkheads. Also, plating in
the aft peak bulkhead around the stemtube must be doubled orincreased in thickness to reduce vibration.
The bulkhead is stiffened by vertical bulb plates or toe-welded angle bar stiffeners spaced about 760 mm
apart. This spacing is reduced to 610 mmfor collision and oiltight bulkheads. The ends of the stiffeners are
bracketed to the tank top andthe deck beams. In tween decks, where the loading is less, the stiffeners may
have no endconnections.
1.8.1.3 Sketches a corrugated watertight bulkhead

1.8.1.4 Explains why transverse watertight bulkheads have vertical corrugation and
fore and aft water tight bulk heads have horizontal ones
Corrugated watertight bulkheads
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The use of corrugations or swedges in a plate instead of welded stiffeners produces as strong astructure
with a reduction in weight. The troughs are vertical on transverse bulkheads but onlongitudinal bulkheads
they must be horizontal in order to add to the longitudinal strength of theship.
The corrugations or swedges are made in the plating strakes prior to fabrication of thecomplete bulkhead.
As a consequence, the strakes run vertically and the plating must be ofuniform thickness and adequate to
support the greater loads at the bottom of the bulkhead. Thisgreater thickness of plate offsets to some
extent the saving in weight through not addingstiffeners to the bulkhead.
The edges of the corrugated bulkhead which join to the shell platingmay have a stiffened flat plate fitted to
increase transverse strength and simplify fitting thebulkhead to the shell. On high bulkheads with vertical
corrugations, diaphragm plates are fittedacross the troughs. This prevents any possible collapse of the
corrugations.
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1.8.2 Watertight doors

1.8.2.1 States the opening in watertight bulkheads must be fitted with water tight
doors
Watertight Doors
in order to maintain the efficiency of a watertight bulkhead it is desirablethat it remains intact. However in
some instances it becomes necessary toprovide access between compartments on either side of a
watertight bulkheadand watertight doors are fitted for this purpose. A particular exampleof this in cargo
ships is the direct means of access required betweenthe engine room and the shaft tunnel.
Where a doorway is cut in the lower part of a watertight bulkhead care
must be taken to maintain the strength of the bulkhead. The opening is tobe framed and reinforced, if the
vertical stiffeners are cut in way of theopening. If the stiffener spacing is increased to accommodate the
opening,the scantlings of the stiffeners on either side of the opening are increased togive an equivalent
strength to that of an unpierced bulkhead. The actualopening is kept as small as possible, the access to the
shaft tunnel beingabout 1000 to 1250 mm high and about 700 mm wide. In passenger accommodationthe
openings would be somewhat larger.
Mild steel or cast steel watertight doors fitted below the water line areeither of the vertical or horizontal
sliding type. A swinging hinged type ofdoor could prove impossible to close in the event of flooding and is
notpermitted. The sliding door must be capable of operation when the ship islisted 15˚, and be opened or
closed from the vicinity of the door as well asfrom a position above the bulkhead deck. At this remote
control positionan indicator must be provided to show whether the door is open or closed.
1.8.2.2 Draw and explain horizontal sliding watertight doors

1.8.2.3 Draw and explain vertical sliding watertight doors
Vertical sliding doors
Vertical sliding doors may be closed by a vertical screw thread which isturned by a shaft extending above the
bulkhead and fitted with a crankhandle. This screw thread turns in a gunmetal nut attached to the top of
thedoor, and a crank handle is also provided at the door to allow it to be closed
from this position.
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Horizontal sliding doors
These may have a vertical shaft extending above the bulkhead deck, which may beoperated by hand from
above the deck or at the door. This can also bepower driven by an electric motor and worm gear, the
vertical shaft workingthrough bevel wheels, and horizontal screwed shafts turning in bronze nutson the
door. The horizontal sliding door may also be opened and closed bya hydraulic ram with a hydraulic hand
pump and with control at the doorand above the bulkhead deck. With the larger number ofwatertight doors
fitted in passenger ships the doors may be closed by means of hydraulic power actuated by remote control
from a central positionabove the bulkhead deck. In approved positions in the upper tween decks well above
the waterline
1.8.2.4 Draw and explain hinged watertight door arrangement

Hinged watertight doors
These may be similar to the weathertight doors fitted in superstructures, but are to have gunmetal pins in
thehinges.
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1.8.3 Penetration of bulkheads

1.8.3.1 Sketch and illustrate penetrating a watertight bulkhead
PENETRATION OF BULK HEADS
Penetrating a watertight bulkhead
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1.8.4 Deep tanks

1.8.4.1 Describe the construction of a deep tank
Deep Tanks
Deep tanks were often fitted adjacent to the machinery spaces amidships toprovide ballast capacity,
improving the draft with little trim, when the shipwas light. These tanks were frequently used for carrying
general cargoes,and also utilized to carry specialist liquid cargoes. In cargo liners wherethe carriage of
certain liquid cargoes is common practice it was often anadvantage to have the deep tanks adjacent to the
machinery space for cargoheating purposes. However in modern cargo liners they may require to
bejudiciously placed in order to avoid excessive stresses in different conditionsof loading. Most ships now
have their machinery arranged aft orthree-quarters aft, and are fitted with deep tanks forward to improve
thetrim in the light conditions.
CONSTRUCTION OF DEEP TANKS
Bulkheads which form the boundariesof a deep tank differ from hold bulkheads in that they are
regularlysubjected to a head of liquid. The conventional hold bulkhead may beallowed to deflect and
tolerate high stresses on the rare occasions when ithas to withstand temporary flooding of a hold, but
deep tank bulkheadswhich are regularly loaded in this manner are required to have greaterrigidity, and be
subject to lower stresses. As a result the plate and stiffener
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scantlings will be larger in way of deep tanks, and additional stiffening maybe introduced. The greater
plating thickness of the tank boundary bulkheads increaseswith tank depth, and with increasing stiffener
spacing. To provide the greaterrigidity the vertical stiffeners are of heavier scantlings and more
closelyspaced.
They must be bracketed or welded to some other form of stiffeningmember at their ends. Vertical stiffener
sizes may be reduced, however, byfitting horizontal girders which form a continuous line of support on
thebulkheads and ship’s side. These horizontal girders are connected at theirends by flanged brackets and
are supported by tripping brackets at the toesof the end brackets, and at every third stiffener or frame.
1.8.5 Topside tanks

1.8.5.1 Describe and sketches a transverse section through an upper hopper tank or
saddle tank of a bulk carrier
Topside Tanks
Standard general bulk carriers are fitted with topside tanks which may beused for water ballast, and in some
instances are used for the carriage oflight grains. The thickness of the sloping bulkhead of this tank is
determinedin a similar manner to that of the deep tank bulkheads. the topside tank is generally stiffened
internallyby longitudinal framing supported by transverses. Transversesare arranged in line with the end of
the main cargo hatchways; and inlarge ships, a fore and aft diaphragm may be fitted at half the width of the
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tank, between the deck and the sloping plating.
1.8.6 Shaft tunnel

1.8.6.1 Sketches a cross section of a curved roof shaft tunnel
1.8.6.2 Sketches a cross section of a flat roof shaft tunnel
1.8.6.3 sketches a cross section of a shaft tunnel for water cooled and oil cooled
type
1.8.6.4 Explains why the shaft tunnel must be of watertight construction and how
water is prevented from entering the engine room if the tunnel becomes flooded
Shaft Tunnel
When the ship’s machinery is not located fully aft it is necessary to enclose the propeller shaft or shafts in a
watertight tunnel between the aft end of the machinery space and the aft peak bulkhead. This protects the
shaft from the cargo and provides a watertight compartment which will contain any flooding resulting from
damage to the watertight gland at the aft peak bulkhead. The tunnel should be large enough to permit
access for inspection and repair of the shafting. A sliding watertight door which may be opened from either
side is provided at the forward end in the machinery space bulkhead. Two means of escape from the shaft
tunnel must be provided, and as a rule there is a ladder in a watertight trunk leading to an escape hatch on
the deck above the waterline, at the aft end of the shaft tunnel. The additional space under this tunnel flat is
often used to stow the spare tail shaft. Shaft tunnels also provide a convenient means of carrying piping aft,
which is then accessible and protected from cargo damage.
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curved roof shaft tunnelflat roof shaft tunnel
1.8.7 pillars
1.8.7.1 Explain the structural design of hold pillars machinery space pillars and
accommodation space pillars
1.8.7.2 Sketch and describe the machinery space pillar arrangement
Pillars
Pillars provide a means of transferring loads between decks and fastening together thestructure in a vertical
direction. The pillars, which transfer loads, as in the cargo holds orbeneath items of machinery, are largely in
compression and require little or no bracketing tothe surrounding structure.
Pillars, which tie structure together and are subjected to tensileforces are adequately bracketed at the head
or top and the heel or bottom.
Hold pillars are usually large in section and few in number to reduce interference with cargo stowage to a
minimum. Pillars are provided to reduce the need for heavy webs to support the hatch girders or end
beams. The use of pillars also enables a reduction in size of the hatch girders and beams, since their
unsupported span is reduced. Where pillars are fitted between a number of vertical decks they should be in
line below one another to efficiently transfer the loads.
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Hold pillar
Hold pillar sections are usually a hollow fabricated shape manufactured from steel plate.
Typical sections are round, square and sometimes octagonal. Additional structural material must be
provided at the head and heel of pillars to evenly distribute the load. At the head a plate is used, often with
tripping brackets to surrounding structure. At the heel an insert plate or doubling plate is used. with or
without brackets depending upon the type of loading .
Machinery space pillars
Machinery space pillars are usually fabricated from sections and, while smaller in dimensions than hold
pillars, a greater number are fitted
Accommodation pillars
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small pillars Within the accommodation and in relatively smallvessels solid round steel pillars having
diameters seldom exceeding 150mmmay be fitted. These may have forged palms at their head and heel,
thehead being welded to a continuous angle fore and aft runner which supportsthe deck.Rolled hollow steel
section pillars of similar size with direct welded headand heel fittings are commonly used today in lieu of
small solid pillars.
1.9 Decks, hatches and superstructure
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1.9.1 Decks
1.9.1.1 Sketches the deck edge showing attachment of sheer strake and stringer plate
1.9.2 Hatches
1.9.2.1 Sketches a transverse section through a hatch coaming showing the arrangement of coaming and
deep webs
1.Decks
The weather decks of ships are cambered, the camber being parabolic or straight. There may be advantages
in fitting horizontal decks in some ships,particularly if containers are carried and regular cross-sections are
desired.
Short lengths of internal deck or flats are as a rule horizontal. Decks are arranged in plate panels with
transverse or longitudinal stiffening, and local stiffening in way of any openings. Longitudinal deck girders
may support the transverse framing, and deep transverses the longitudinal framing
Longitudinally/ Transversely Framed Decks
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Longitudinally Framed Deck
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Transversely Framed Deck
Gusset Plate Detail Connecting the face plates of the deck side girder and deck ransverse
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The heaviest deck plating will be found abreast the hatch openings of the strength deck. Plating which lies
within the line of the hatch openings contributes little to the longitudinal strength of the deck and it is
therefore appreciably lighter. As the greatest longitudinal bending stresses will occur over the midship
region, the greatest deck plate thickness is maintained over 40 per cent of the length amidships, and it
tapers to a minimum thickness permitted at the ends of the ship.
Any openings abreast the hatch openings in a deck are kept to a minimum and clear of the hatch corners. If
such openings are cut, compensation is required to restore the sectional area of deck. All large openings in
the decks have well rounded corners, with insert plates fitted, unless the corners are parabolic or elliptical
with the major axis fore and aft, local stress concentrations being reduced if the latter type of corner is cut
DECK STIFFENING Decks may be framed transversely or longitudinally but outside the line of openings it is
preferred that longitudinal framing should be adopted for the strength deck. When the decks are
longitudinally framed the scantlings of the longitudinal are dependent on their spacing, the length of ship,
whether they are inside or outside the line of hatch openings, their span and the deck loading. Deck
transverses support the longitudinals, and these are built from a deep web plate with flange or welded face
flat, and are bracketed to the side frame. Within the forward 7.5 per cent of the ship’s length, the forecastle
and weather deck transverses are closely spaced and the longitudinal scantlings increased,
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2.Hatch covers
 Although there were wooden hatch covers with wooden boards and portable beams in old ships
modern ships are with steel hatch covers. Lift on lift off, self supporting and folding are some of the
types employed in modern day ships.
 When there is several hatch covers for a one hatch, inter locking and sealing mechanism between them
to be provided for water tightness.
 Hatch covers sits on the compression bar of the coming The rubber packing
attached around the pontoon compresses against the coming and provide water tightness at as in the
diagram below. Screwing cleats and quick acting cleats are often provided for securing the hatch hatch
covers vary in type the principal ones being fore and aft single pull, folding, roll-up, piggy back,
pontoon and side rolling. Single pull covers may be opened or closed by built in electric motors in the
leading cover panel first out of stowage) which drive chain wheels, one on each outboard side of the
panel. Each panel wheel is permanently engaged on a fixed chain located along each hatch side
coaming. In operation the leading panel pushes the others into stowage and pulls them into the
closed position Alternatively.
 single pull covers are opened or closed by hydraulic or electric motors

situated on the hatch end coaming at the ships centre line driving endless
chains running along the full length of the hatch side coaming port and
starboard and connected to the leading panel. Vertical stowage of panels
is at one end of the hatch and covers may have a nesting characteristic if
space is at a premium, also on large hatches opening may be to both
ends with vertical stowage at each end.
 Folding covers may be of direct pull type where suitable lifting gear is
carried onboard or can be opened or closed by externally mounted
hydraulic cylinders actuating the leading panels.
 The roll-up cover is effectively a continuous articulated slab which

is opened by rolling it onto a powered stowage drum at the hatch end.
The drum rotation is reversed to close the hatch.
 Piggy back covers permit horizontal stowage of panels avoiding fouling of lifting devices particularly in
way of very large openings such as on bulk carriers and container ships where the hatch need only be
partially open for working. The covers consist of a dumb panel which is raised by high lift cylinders and
a motorised panel which is rolled underneath the dumb panel. Both panels can then be moved ‘piggy
back’ style to the fully opened hatch position port or starboard or partially opened position fore and
aft.
 Pontoon covers are commonly used on container ships being lifted by the ships or shore cranes with
the container spreader. They are closed weathertight in a similar manner to the other patent covers.
 Side rolling covers can operate on similar principles to the single pull cover except that they remain in
the horizontal stowed position when the hatch is open.
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 The cross wedges are used to ensure the pontoon rubber gaskets compress against the compression
bars of the forward pontoons.
 The side cleats ensure that the pontoons stay compressed to the trackway compression bar and the
ship motion is effectively compensated or removed.
 These hatch cover systems consist of various parts:
 The pontoons, eccentric wheels, trackway wheels, cross wedges, and the side cleats.
3.CONSTRUCTION OF BULWARKS
Bulwarks are mainly solid or open type.solid type made out of plate and the open type made out of
railings.Both type of bulwarks should be at least 1m high
on the exposed freeboard and superstructure decks, but a reduced height may be permitted if this interferes
with the working of the ship. The bulwark consists of a vertical plate stiffened at its top by a strong rail
section (often a bulb angle or plate) and is supported by stays from the deck. Where the bulwark is cut for
any reason, the corners are well rounded and compensation is also provided. No openings are permitted in
bulwarks near the ends of the superstructures.Where the solid bulwark meets the deck ,freeing ports must
be fitted to allow for the rapid drainage of any water shipped.open bulwark railings lower railings must be
maximum of 230mm ,where railings above may have maximum spacing of 380mm
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4.Watertight integrity
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Oil tight hatchcover
These hatch covers are small in size and may have butterfly nut locking arrangement. The sealing is done by
Hi-nitrile rubber which is not affected by oil.
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1.10 Derricks, masts and rigging
1.10.1 masts and Samson posts

Masts and Sampson Posts
Masts on a general cargo ship may fulfil a number of functions but their prime use in modern ships is to
carry and support the derricks used for cargo handling. Single masts are often fitted, but many ships now
have various forms of bipod mast which are often more suitable for supporting derricks, although some
types can restrict the view from the bridge. Sampson posts are also popular, particularly at the ends of
houses, and are often fitted at the other hatches also. The strength of masts and sampson posts is indicated
by the classification societies. As a result of the span loads and derrick boom thrusts, a single mast or post
may be considered similar to a built-in cantilever with axial and bending loads. Some torque may also be
allowed for where the post has a cross-tree arrangement to an adjacent post. Where shrouds and
preventers are fitted these must be allowed for, which makes the calculations
somewhat more difficult. In modern ships there is a tendency to simplify the rigging which can restrict cargo
handling. Shrouds are often dispensed with and preventers may only be rigged when heavy derricks are
used. Each mast or post has adequate scantlings so that they may remain unstayed.
1.10.1.1 Describe the construction of masts and how they supported at the base
1.10.1.2 Describes the construction of Sampson post and how they are supported
at the base
MAST CONSTRUCTION AND STIFFENING
Tubular steel sections are commonly used in mast and post construction, the sections being rolled in short
lengths and welded in the shipyard. The short lengths may be tapered and are of different plate thickness to
allow for the greater stresses experienced at the base of the mast. Where connections are made for fittings
such as the gooseneck and a masthead span swivel, doubling or
welded reinforcing pads may be provided. To obtain the necessary mast scantlings, excessive doubling or
internal stiffeners are rarely found in modern practice, except where a heavier derrick than that for which
the mast was originally designed is carried. Higher tensile steels are often used to advantage in mast
construction, giving less weight high up in the ship and dispensing with the need for any form of support,
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without excessive scantlings. Cross-trees, mast tables, etc., may be fabricated from welded steel plates and
sections. Derrick booms are as a rule welded lengths of seamless tubular steel. The
middle length may have a greater diameter to allow for the bending moment, to which the boom is subject
in addition to the axial thrust. At the base of the mast adequate rigidity must be provided, the amount of
additional structural stiffening increasing with the size of derricks carried by the mast. Many cargo ships
have mast houses into which the masts are built, the house being suitably strengthened. These houses need
not be designed to support the mast, the structure being of light scantlings, and the support provided by
stiffening in the tweens. Where the house is strengthened
the masts or posts generally land on the upper deck, but where heavy derricks are installed the mast may
then land on the upper tween deck. Since the derricks and mast are as a rule midway between holds they
land over the hold transverse bulkheads which lend further support. Heavy derrick masts will require
extensive stiffening arrangements in the mast house, and also in the tweens, with support for the transverse
bulkhead so that the loads are transmitted through the structure to the ship’sbottom.
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1.10.2 Derrick rigs
1.10.2.1 Describes the construction of derricks
1.10.2.1.1 Union purchase rig system
1.10.2.1.2 Single swinging derrick rig
1.10.2.1.3 YoYo heavy lift derrick
1.10.2.1.4 Stulken heavy lift derrick
Both the ‘butterfly’ and ‘yo-yo’ rigs give a load pattern similar to the ‘union purchase’ and ‘single swinging
derrick’ rigs for which calculations are made, but the guy loads with each can be particularly severe. Patent
derricks are generally of the single swinging type with some form of powered slewing. The Hallen swinging
derrick is shown diagrammatically in Figure 24.3(a). This type of derrick may be installed at the ship’s centre
line to reach outboard on both sides of the ship and is controlled by a single operator in a manner not unlike
the operation of a mechanical crane. As a rule the safe working load of this type of derrick is between 10
and 80 tonnes. Of particular note in the very heavy lift range is the patent Stülken derrick (Figure 24.3(b))
marketed by Blohm and Voss AG, which may have
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a safe working load of between 80 and 300 tonnes. One advantage that this derrick has is its ability to serve
two hatches, the boom swinging through an arc between the posts in the fore and aft direction.
1.10.3 Deck cranes
1.10.3.1 Describes the construction of different types of deck cranes

Deck Cranes
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A common feature on many modern cargo ships is deck cranes, which replace the derricks. Generally they
are considered as an alternative to the union purchase rig. Deck cranes have a number of advantages, the
rigging time being negligible, and the crane is able to pick up and land permitted
loads anywhere within its working radius. The safe working loads of cranes is generally of the order of 10 to
15 tonnes and larger cranes are available capable of lifts from 30 to 40 tonnes. As with the union purchase
rig the crane is intended for rapid cargo loading and discharging duties with loads
which only occasionally exceed, say, 3 tonnes. There is some controversy regarding the merits of cranes as
opposed to the union purchase rig, but evidence is available to show that the crane is perhaps less efficient
with very light loads. Cranes may often be positioned on the ship’s centre line, but this may require an
extremely long jib when the ship’s beam is large and a reasonable outreach is desired. Transverse positional
cranes may then be fitted which, when not under load, can be moved port or starboard and secured to work
the hatch and give the desired outreach. Alternatively fixed cranes, one at each end of the hatch, may be
placed at opposite corners. This is an arrangement which is useful in discharging to port and starboard
simultaneously. There is also a crane which is mounted on a hatch cover section capable of travelling under
load along the hatch coaming in the longitudinal direction. Deck cranes are available from specialist
manufacturers and the shipbuilder would be responsible for installation, any local strengthening, and
seatings.
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1.11 Corrosion control and paint system
1.11.1 Nature and forms of corrosion
1.11.1.1 Explain corrosion erosion and formation of a corrosion cell

Corrosion
Corrosion is the environmental degradation of a metal. Metal react with the gases and the liquids of the
environment and produce its oxide, hydrate oxide or sulphate on its surfaces.
Steel produce a oxide layer which is brittle and having a deferent coefficient of thermal expansion than steel.
Hence it does not act as a protective layer around the mettle. This layer of oxide flakes off to expose a
rougher steel surface and expedite the corrosion
CORROSION
Corrosion is the decaying of metal by chemical or electro chemical process with the environment.
EROSION
Erosion is the decaying of metal due to abrasive action of liquid or gas. (It is a purely mechanical reaction
with no chemical reaction involved).
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Corrosion Cell
• (Ship Hull Fe) Ni/Br/Cu

(Propeller)
• Sea Water
2e + H
Na+ , Cl-1, H+ (OH)-1
Electrolyte (Sea Water)
• At anode At Cathode
Fe-2e = Fe+2 2H+2e = H2
Fe+2 + 2Cl = FeCl2 8
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As shown in the diagram when the metal is exposed to the atmosphere by discontinuation of protective
coating the metal becomes the anodic area of the cell and corrode deeper and deeper. This is known as
pitting.
1.11.2 Electro chemical corrosion

ELECTRO CHEMICAL CORROSION
 This occurs at a faster rate. A galvanic cell forms when two Dissimilar metal’s presence at a
electrolyte. (Electrolyte is media which is capable of transporting ions (e) or current.)
1.11.2.1 Define anode cathode and electrolyte
1.11.2.2 Describe Galvanic series of metal in sea water

GALVANIC SERIES
 K
 Na
 Ca More Noble Metals (Anode)=decay fast
 Mg
 Al
 Zn
 Cr
 Fe
 Sn
 Pb
 Cu
 Ni
 Br Less Noble Metals (Cathode) = Nodecay
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 Ag
 Pt
 Au
The metal places on top of the series are nobler than the one placed below them. These more noble metals
acts as anodes in relation to the less noble metal which acts as cathodes also the sea water acts like
electrolyte.
This will forms a galvanic cell.When considering ship less noble metal (Ni, Br propeller) catholically
protected while the more noble metal (Fe Ships Hull) becomes an anode and gets corroded away.
1.11.2.3 Explain corrosion of metal is due to difference in surface condition and

stress concentration
Corrosion Triangle
For corrosion it requires to have metal water and oxygen (air). This is known as the corrosion triangle. By
eliminating water or air will stop the reaction
1.11.3 corrosion control
1.11.3.1 Explains cathodic protection and where it is used

CATHODIC PROTECTION
The technique can only be use where the concern metal are immersed in a electrolyte. There are two types
of cathodic protection systems are used in modern ships
1.Sacrificial Anode System
Sacrificial anodes are metals or alloys attached to the hull which have a more anodic, i.e. less noble,
potential than steel when immersed in sea water. These anodes supply the cathodic protection current, but
will be consumed in doing so and therefore require replacement for the protection to be maintained. This
system has been used for many years, the fitting of zinc plates in way of bronze propellers and other
immersed fittings being common practice. Initially results with zinc anodes were not always very effective
owing to the use of unsuitable zinc alloys. Modern anodes are based on alloys of zinc, aluminium, or
magnesium which have undergone many tests to examine their suitability; high purity zinc anodes are also
used. The cost, with various other practical considerations, may decide which type is to be fitted. Sacrificial
anodes may be fitted within the hull, and are often fitted in ballast tanks. However, magnesium anodes are
not used in the cargo-ballast tanks of oil carriers owing to the ‘spark hazard’. Should any part of the anode
fall and strike the tank structure when gaseous conditions exist an explosion could result. Aluminium anode
systems may be employed in tankers provided they are only fitted in locations where the potential energy is
less than 28 kg.m.
2.IMPRESSED CURRENT SYSTEM
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Electric from a power unit is supplied to anodes (unlike in the cathodic protection system these anodes are
insulated from the hull) fitted around the hull. The electrons from the D.C power source travel into the hull
at the same rate at which ions formed in the cathode thus preventing loss of electrons from the hull.
Therefore the iron ions are not formed and the hull is not wasted. A reference electrode is used to measure
the potential difference and supply a D.C Current accordingly.
1.11.4 Paints
1.11.4.1 Describe of treatment of steel preparation of steel work and the use of
shop primers in ship yard
Methods of preparing areas of hull and superstructure for painting.
If the paint surface has broken down to a significant degree then the complete surface should be
cleaned to bare metal. The chipping hammer and wire brush method does not produce a satisfactory
surface for the adhesion of the modern paints.
The modern chipping methods are
(a) Power wire brushing
(b) Power disking
(c) Air hammer

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(d) High pressure water blasting
(e) Sand blasting
(f ) Heating
(g) Pickling
1.11.4.2 Explain types of modern paint and their use in various parts of the ship
SHIP’S PAINTING SYSTEMS
The paint system applied to any part will be dictated by the environment to which that part of the structure
is exposed. traditionally the painting of the external ship structure was divided into three regions
1.Below the light load line where the plates are continually immersed in water
The ship’s bottom has priming coats of corrosion inhabiting paint applied, followed by an antifouling paint.
Coatings used for steel immersed in sea water are required to resist alkaline conditions. The antifouling
paints are applied after the corrosion inhibiting coatings and should not come into direct contact with the
steel hull since the copper and mercury compounds present in the paint may cause corrosion
International Convention on the Control of Harmful Anti-fouling Systems on Ships
• The International Convention on the Control of Harmful Anti-fouling Systems on Ships will prohibit
the use of harmful organotins in anti-fouling paints used on ships and will establish a mechanism to
prevent the potential future use of other harmful substances in anti-fouling systems
• Anti-fouling paints are used to coat the bottoms of ships to prevent sealife such as algae and
molluses attaching themselves to the hull – thereby slowing down the ship and increasing fuel
consumption.
• The new Convention defines “anti-fouling systems” as “a coating, paint, surface treatment, surface
or device that is used on a ship to control or prevent attachment of unwanted organisms”.
• In the early days of sailing ships, lime and later arsenic were used to coat ships' hulls, until the
modern chemicals industry developed effective anti-fouling paints using metallic compounds.
• These compounds slowly "leach" into the sea water, killing barnacles and other marine life that have
attached to the ship. But the studies have shown that these compounds persist in the water, killing
sealife, harming the environment and possibly entering the food chain. One of the most effective
anti-fouling paints, developed in the 1960s, contains the organotintributytin (TBT), which has been
proven to cause deformations in oysters and sex changes in whelks
2.Between the light and statutory load lines. i.e the boot topping area where immersion in
intermittent and much abrasion occurs
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The modern practice requires a paint system for the hull above the waterline. These systems are often
based on vinyl and alkyd resins or on polyurethane resin paints
3.The top side and superstructure which are exposed to an atmosphere laden with salt spray and are
subject to damage by cargo handling and general wear and tear.
Red lead or zinc chromate based primers are commonly used with white finishing paints. Linseed oil
based paints which yellow on exposure are generally avoid on modern ships. zinc chromate paints
should be used on aluminum superstructures.
1.11.4.3 States that paint consist mainly of a vehicle a pigment a solvent and
explains the purpose of each
PAINTING
Before painting the steel plate should be free of rust & exposed the bear metal. Barrier or blast primer
(which contains Zn) to be applied to the metal to give cathodic protection. Several under coat with a top
coat to be applied to prevent water & Oxygen been contact with the metal.
Painting is the most common and simple way of preventing corrosion. Effectiveness of this depends on the
prior surface preparation and the quality of the paints used.
Primer coat of paint applies immediately after preparation of the surfaces and followed by secondary primer
coats and finish coats according to the painting scheme.
Composition of paints.
Pigment, Binding agent (vehicle), Solvent
1.11.4.4 List common paint vehicles as drying oils, oileo resins alkid resins
polymerizing chemicals and bitumen
Different types of marine paints
(a)Bitumen or pitch
Used as a superstructure paint but more commonly for internal surfaces exposed to a high degree of
wetness such as fresh water tanks.
(b)Chlorinated rubber
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This paint is used where good chemical and water resistance coatings are required. The paint dries by
the evaporation of the solvents. It is often used when the ships are being built in winter or poor climatic
conditions.
(c)Coal tar epoxy
A two pack paint in which the components are pigments epoxies resins and curing agents. The paint
provides hard thick films in which the chemical resistance qualities of epoxy resin are combined with the
water impermeability of coal tar.
(d)Epoxy
The epoxy resin paints have extremely good chemical, water ,and abrasion resistance qualities but
are very expensive. They are generally two pack consisting of an epoxy base and a hardener or curing
agent. The paint are very hard when cured and give long term protection against corrosion.
(e)Polyurethane
Usually two pack paint. These paints have many good qualities abrasion resistance ,hardness, a
high gloss, chemical resistance, and when well cured have very good water and weather resistance.
Used for tank coatings but white polyurethane is good external superstructure paint as it remains bright
for long periods and is not subject to rapid yellowing.
(f)Primers
Steel plates must be protected from corrosion while the ship is being built and prefabrication
primers must also be rapid drying, have non toxicvapor ,not affect weld quality or speed. be suitable for
spray application, and be suitable for first coat of ship’s paint system. Mariners must ensure that any
primers used are compatible with following coatings, e.g. vinyl primer must be used underneath a vinyl
topcoat
1.11.4.5 Describe typical paint schemes for underwater areas boot topping
topsides weather decks superstructures and tank interior
1.11.5 Protection by means of paints
1.11.5.1 Explains that the required preparation of steelwork depends upon the
type of paint to be applied.
Methods of preparing areas of hull and superstructure for painting.
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If the paint surface has broken down to a significant degree then the complete surface should be
cleaned to bare metal. The chipping hammer and wire brush method does not produce a satisfactory
surface for the adhesion of the modern paints.
The modern chipping methods are
(a) Power wire brushing
(b) Power disking
(c) Air hammer
(d) High pressure water blasting
(e) Sand blasting
(f ) Heating
(g) Pickling
1.11.5.2 State the precautions to be taken when using paints
1.11.6 Antifouling convention requirements

International Convention on the Control of Harmful Anti-fouling Systems on Ships
• The International Convention on the Control of Harmful Anti-fouling Systems on Ships will prohibit
the use of harmful organotins in anti-fouling paints used on ships and will establish a mechanism to
prevent the potential future use of other harmful substances in anti-fouling systems
• Anti-fouling paints are used to coat the bottoms of ships to prevent sealife such as algae and
molluses attaching themselves to the hull – thereby slowing down the ship and increasing fuel
consumption.
• The new Convention defines “anti-fouling systems” as “a coating, paint, surface treatment, surface
or device that is used on a ship to control or prevent attachment of unwanted organisms”.
• In the early days of sailing ships, lime and later arsenic were used to coat ships' hulls, until the
modern chemicals industry developed effective anti-fouling paints using metallic compounds.
• These compounds slowly "leach" into the sea water, killing barnacles and other marine life that have
attached to the ship. But the studies have shown that these compounds persist in the water, killing
sealife, harming the environment and possibly entering the food chain. One of the most effective
anti-fouling paints, developed in the 1960s, contains the organotintributytin (TBT), which has been
proven to cause deformations in oysters and sex changes in whelks
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1.11.6.3 Describe the cathodic protection system on hull
1.11.6.3.1 sacrificial anode system
1.11.6.3.2 impressed current system

CATHODIC PROTECTION
The technique can only be use where the concern metal are immersed in a electrolyte. There are two types
of cathodic protection systems are used in modern ships
1.Sacrificial Anode System
Sacrificial anodes are metals or alloys attached to the hull which have a more anodic, i.e. less noble,
potential than steel when immersed in sea water. These anodes supply the cathodic protection current, but
will be consumed in doing so and therefore require replacement for the protection to be maintained. This
system has been used for many years, the fitting of zinc plates in way of bronze propellers and other
immersed fittings being common practice. Initially results with zinc anodes were not always very effective
owing to the use of unsuitable zinc alloys. Modern anodes are based on alloys of zinc, aluminium, or
magnesium which have undergone many tests to examine their suitability; high purity zinc anodes are also
used. The cost, with various other practical considerations, may decide which type is to be fitted. Sacrificial
anodes may be fitted within the hull, and are often fitted in ballast tanks. However, magnesium anodes are
not used in the cargo-ballast tanks of oil carriers owing to the ‘spark hazard’. Should any part of the anode
fall and strike the tank structure when gaseous conditions exist an explosion could result. Aluminium anode
systems may be employed in tankers provided they are only fitted in locations where the potential energy is
less than 28 kg.m.
2.IMPRESSED CURRENT SYSTEM
Electric from a power unit is supplied to anodes (unlike in the cathodic protection system these anodes are
insulated from the hull) fitted around the hull. The electrons from the D.C power source travel into the hull
at the same rate at which ions formed in the cathode thus preventing loss of electrons from the hull.
Therefore the iron ions are not formed and the hull is not wasted. A reference electrode is used to measure
the potential difference and supply a D.C Current accordingly.
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1.12 Structural fire protection
1.12.1 Requirements
1.12.1.1 Outlines the basic principles of the regulations on fire protection

Requirements
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Ships carrying more than thirty-six passengers are required to have accommodation spaces and main
divisional bulkheads and decks which are generally of incombustible material in association with either an
automatic fire detection and alarm system or an automatic sprinkler and alarm system. The hull,
superstructure, and deckhouses are subdivided by ‘A’ class divisions into main vertical zones the length of
which on any one deck should not exceed 40m. Main horizontal zones of ‘A’ class divisions are fitted to
provide a barrier between sprinklered and non-sprinklered zones of the ship. Bulkheads within the main
vertical zones are required to be ‘A’, ‘B’ or ‘C’ class divisions depending on the fire risk of the adjoining
spaces and whether adjoining spaces are within sprinkler or non-sprinkler zones. Passenger vessels carrying
not more than thirty-six passengers are required to have the hull, superstructure and deckhouses
subdivided into main vertical zones by ‘A’ class divisions. The accommodation and service spaces are to be
protected either by all enclosure bulkheads within the space being of at least ‘B’ class divisions or only the
corridor bulkheads being of at least ‘B’ class divisions where an approved automatic fire detection and alarm
system is installed. Cargo ships exceeding 500 gross tonnage are generally to be constructed of steel or
equivalent material and to be fitted with one of the following methods of fire protection in accommodation
and service spaces
1.12.2 A, B, C class divisions
1.12.2.1 Describes the requirements meet by class A divisions formed by bulkheads

and decks
1.12.2.2 Describes the requirements meet by class B divisions formed by bulkheads
1.12.2.3 Describes the requirements meet by class C divisions made of non

combustible materials
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1.12.2.4 explains briefly the properties of class A,B divisions

‘A’, ‘B’ and ‘C’ Class Divisions
‘A’ class divisions are constructed of steel or equivalent material and are to be capable of preventing the
passage of smoke and flame to the end of a one-hour standard fire test. A plain stiffened steel bulkhead or
deck has what is known as an A–O rating. By adding insulation in the form of approved incombustible
materials to the steel an increased time is taken for the average temperature of the unexposed side to rise
to 139°C above the original temperature or not more than 180°C at any one point above the original
temperature during the standard fire test. The ‘A’ class division rating is related to this time as follows.
Figure 32.1 shows typical steel divisions with typical proprietary non-asbestos fibre reinforced silicate board
insulation. ‘B’ class divisions are those which are constructed as to be capable of preventing the passage of
flame to the end of half an hour of the standard fire test. Various patent board materialsare commonly used
where ‘B’ class divisions are required and there are two ratings B–0 and B–15. These relate to the insulation
value such that the average temperature of the unexposed side does not rise more than 139 °C above the
original temperature and at any one point more than 225 °C
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1.12.3 Openings in fire protection divisions
1.12.3.1 Explain the means of closures such as dampers self closing doors fitted at
all openings A,B and C divisions
Openings in Fire Protection Divisions
Generally openings in fire divisions are to be fitted with permanently attached means of closing which have
the same fire resisting rating as the division. Suitable arrangements are made to ensure that the fire
resistance of a division is not impaired where it is pierced for the passage of pipes, vent trunks, electrical
cables, etc. Greatest care is necessary in the case of openings in the main fire zone divisions.
Door openings in the main fire zone bulkheads and stairway enclosures are fitted with fire doors of
equivalent fire integrity and are self- closing against an inclination of 3½° opposing closure. Such doors are
capable of closure from a control station either simultaneously or in groups and also individually from a
position adjacent to the door.
Vent trunking runs are ideally contained within one fire zone but where they must pass through a main
fire zone bulkhead or deck a fail safe automatic-closing fire damper is fitted within the trunk adjacent to the
bulkhead or deck. This usually takes the form of a steel flap in the trunk which is held open by a weighted
hinge secured by an external fusible link. The flap must also be capable of being released manually and there
is some form of indication as to whether the flap is open or closed
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1.14 Surveys
1.14.1 Statutory surveys/ trading certificates including MARPOL certificates
1.14.1.1 Describes Statutory surveys/ trading certificates including MARPOL certificates
statutory certificates
a) Certificate of registry
b) International load line certificate
c) Cargo ship safety construction certificate
d) Cargo ship safety equipment certificate
e) Cargo ship safety radio certificate
f) Cargo ship safety certificate (instead of above c, d & e)
g) Passenger ship safety certificate
h) Exemption certificate - same as the relevant convention certificate
i) IOPP certificate
j) International Pollution Prevention certificate for NLS in bulk
k) International certificate of fitness for gas carriers
I) International certificate of fitness for chemical tankers
m) DOC
n) SMC
o) Interim DOC not longer than 12 months
p) Interim SMC not longer than 6 months
q) ISSC
r) Interim ISSC not longer than 6 months
s) Certificate of fitness for ships carrying dangerous goods
t) IAPP certificate
All these certificates to be issued by the administration, but the classification societies which are approved
by the administration can issue all the certificates except the certificate of registry on behalf of the
administration. They will be using the letter headings of the flag states in doing so.
^According to the old system, the validity period of cargo ship safety- equipment certificate is 02 years and
the cargo ship safety radio certificate is 01 year. Under the harmonize system of surveying, the validity'
period of both these certificates are 05 years.
Non-statutory certificates
a. Class certificate
b. Suez canal certificate
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c. Panama canal certificate

d. Insurance certificate
e. Derating certificate
f. Registry of cargo gear and lifting appliances certificate
Ttrading certificates
These are the special certificates issued depending upon the trading of a vessel. These include,
a) Certificates required for ice class vessels
b) Certificates required for timber carriers
c) Certificates required for grain carriers
Certificates to be carried on board a tanker other than the certificates mentioned above
a) Apart from above certificates oil tankers should carry OPIC (Oil Pollution Insurance Certificate). This
certificate should be carried by tankers carrying more than 2000t of oil as cargo, for financial security against
oil pollution as per civil liabilities convention.
b) Certificates issued by P & I club on behalf of administration.
Main features of SOPEP'
Under the MARPOL 73/78 every tanker of 150 GT or more and every non tanker of 400 GT or more must
have a SOPEP. SOPEP stands for Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plan. It has following features.
a) It gives reporting procedures for masters in events of pollution.
b) Steps to control discharge of oil in operational incidents such as bunkering, loading, discharging & also
steps to control discharge in casualty incidents.
c) National & local Co-operational details for master in initializing shore based actions.
d) Details of reviewing (he plan, drill & training procedures, public affairs information for masters as per
owners & operators.
e) Details of record keeping.
f) Details of oil pollution prevention and containment equipment to be carried on board,
g) Details of duties of personnel onboard in prevention and containment of an oil pollution.
1.14.2 Class surveys
1.14.2.1 Explains basic concept of class surveys
A classification survey is a visual examination that normally consists of:

• an overall examination of the items identified in the Rules for survey;
• detailed checks of selected parts, on a sampling basis;
• witnessing tests, measurements and trials where applicable.
When a surveyor identifies corrosion, structural defects or damage to hull, machinery
and/or piece of equipment which, based on the Society’s Rules and in the opinion of the
surveyor, affects the ship’s class, remedial measures and/or appropriate
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recommendations/conditions of class are specified in order to retain class.

‘Recommendation’ and ‘condition of class’ are different terms used by IACS Societies for
the same thing i.e. requirements to the effect that specific measures, repairs, request for
surveys etc., are to be carried out within a specified time limit in order to retain class.
Each classed vessel is subject to a specified programme of periodic surveys after delivery.
These are based on a five-year cycle and consist of annual surveys, an intermediate
1.14.3 Harmonizing of surveys
1.14.3.1 Explains the basic concept of Harmonizing of surveys
A harmonized system of survey and certification covering international shipping regulations adopted by the
International Maritime Organization enters into force on 3 February 2000.
The system covers survey and certification requirements of the,
 International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), 1974,
 The International Convention on Load Lines, (LL) 1966 and
 The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, as modified by the
Protocol of 1978 relating thereto (MARPOL 73/78),
 The International Code for the Construction and Equipment of Ships Carrying Dangerous Chemicals
in Bulk (IBC Code),
 Code for the Construction and Equipment of Ships Carrying Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk (BCH Code)
 Code for the Construction and Equipment of Ships Carrying Liquefied Gases in Bulk (IGC Code).
All these instruments require the issuing of certificates to show that requirements have been met and this
has to be done by means of a survey which can involve the ship being out of service for several days. The
harmonized system will alleviate the problems caused by survey dates and intervals between surveys which
do not coincide, so that a ship should no longer have to go into port or repair yard for a survey required by
one convention shortly after doing the same thing in connection with another instrument.
The harmonized system
In practice, many Administrations and classification societies already operate a form of harmonized survey
and certification. Moreover, a resolution adopted by the IMO Assembly in 1991, and amended in 1993
(Resolution A.718(17), as modified by resolution A.745(18)), allowed for Governments which had ratified the
1988 SOLAS and Load Lines Protocols to implement the harmonized system ahead of the entry into force
date of the protocols.
The harmonized system provides for:
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 One-year standard interval between surveys, based on initial, annual, intermediate, periodical and
renewal surveys as appropriate;
 Scheme for providing the necessary flexibility for the execution of each survey with the provision
that the renewal survey may be completed within three months before the expiry date of the
existing certificate with no loss of its period of validity;
 Maximum period of validity of five years for all certificates for cargo ships;
 Maximum period of validity of 12 months for the Passenger Ship Safety Certificate;
 System for the extension of certificates limited to three months to enable a ship to complete its
voyage (or one month for ships engaged on short voyages);
 When an extension has been granted, the period of validity of the new certificate is to start from the
expiry date of the existing certificate before its extension.
The main changes to the SOLAS and Load Lines Conventions are that annual inspections have been made
mandatory for cargo ships and unscheduled inspections have been discontinued. Other changes refer to
survey intervals and requirements.
1.15 Identifying the ship’s certification and prepare the ship for survey
1.15.1 Cargo ship safety construction certificate
1.15.1.1 Describes the things to be checked during a ship safety construction survey.
 Structural strength of the vessel is good.

 No part of deck or hull is not badly corroded.
 Water tight doors are in good condition. Remote and local controls working properly.
 Bilge pumping and drainage arrangements are in good condition.
 Electrical equipment and installation
 Emergency sources of electrical power
 Electric and electro hydraulic steering gears
 Precaution against shock, fire and other hazards of electrical origin
 Fire protection arrangements, fixed and portable fire fighting equipment are well maintained and in
good operational condition.
 Boilers and machinery
 Means of going astern
 Shaft
 Boiler feed system in good condition.
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 Steam pipe systems in good condition.

 Air pressure systems are in good condition.
 Cooling water systems are in good condition.
 Fuel, lubricating and other oil systems are in good condition.
 Means of communications are in good condition.
 Steering gear
 Anchor chain and cables
 Means of escapes are well maintained and in good condition.
 Means of stopping machinery
 Shutting off fuel suction pipes
 Closing of openings
 For specialized tankers and UMS ships, additional items.
1.15.2 Cargo ship safety equipment certificate
1.15.2.1 Explains the things to be checked during a ship safety equipment survey.
All safety equipment should be kept in excellent condition and a “Planned Maintenance Schedule” which
includes the safety equipment will ensure that a satisfactory survey can be carried out at any time. The
official log book will also be examined to establish whether the 1986 Muster regulation have been adhered
to.
The following preparation should be carried out shortly before the expected survey date :
 Inspect all the lifeboat stores and equipment. Overhaul and renew as necessary.
 Inspect the lifeboats, pay particular attention to buoyancy material and check that bottom boards
and thwarts are not cracked. Repaint the ship’s name, port of registery, and the life boat numbers,
and ensure that the lifeboat particulars on the bow have not been obliterated.
 Thoroughly overhaul davits, winches, and blocks and grease all moving parts. Renew or ‘End for End’
the Falls. Inspect lifeboat embarkation arrangements and launching arrangements and lower the
boats into the water.
 When the boats are in the water run any lifeboat engine both ahead and astern.
 Check that the inflatable liferaft have been serviced within the previous 12 months. Inspect the
stowage, release, launching and embarkation arrangements of the liferafts and if necessary, renew
the launching instructions. Inspect any rigid liferafts.
 Inspect the survival craft portable radio equipment.
 Overhaul the lifebuoys, especially the self-igniting light and self activating smoke signals, and ensure
that the life buoys are correctly located throughout the ship.
 Examine the lifejackets and check that they are correctly distributed throughout the vessel.
 Ensure that all pyrotechnics, including the linethrowing appliance, rockets are not out of date.
Inspect the linethrowing appliance.
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 Test the emergency lighting at one of the times that the general alarm system is tested.
 Check that the Fire control plans are still posted and clearly eligible.
 Test, where possible, the fire/ and smoke detection system.
 Run each fire pump including the emergency fire pump, to check that each pump can supply via the
fire main the required two jets of water simultaneously from separate hydrants.
 Check that fire hoses, nozzles and applicators are in good condition and correctly located.
 Test and overhaul the fixed fire fighting system. Note that the instruction are posted and that
controls and pipes are correctly marked.
 Overhaul portable and non portable extinguishers and check the securing arrangements. Ensure that
the extinguishers are correctly located and that spare charges are available.
 Where possible, confirm that all remote controls are operable.
 Overhaul any applicable closing arrangements for ventilators, skylights, doorways, funnel spaces,
and the tunnel.
 Overhaul the fireman’s outfit and recharge, when possible the compressed air cylinders.
 Inspect the pilot ladders, pilot host, if carried and all ancillary equipment.
 Remember that the navigation equipment is also surveyed, e.g. Navigation lights, shapes, sound
signaling equipments, Day light signaling lamp, Radar, Echo sounder, Gyro Compass, and Direction
Finder. The compass deviation book, charts and the publications that are required by the merchant
shipping. (carriage of nautical publications) rules 1975, S.I. 1975 NO. 700, are also inspected.
Tanker have an additional survey which covers :
 The piping of the fixed fire fighting system of the cargo pump room.
 The deck foam system and the deck sprinkler system.
 The inert gas system.
 The intermediate of a tanker of ten years and over should includes as a minimum all the relevant
items mentioned above but it should also be ‘sufficiently’ extensive to ensure that the ships degree
of compliance with the cargo ship safety equipment certificate warrants the ships continued
possession of that certificate and that the ship can continue to be operated with safety.
1.15.3 Cargo ship safety radio certificate
1.15.3.1 Discuss the things to be checked during a ship safety radio certificate survey.
 confirming that any new equipment has been properly approved before installation and that no
changes have been made such as would affect the validity of the certificate;
 confirming that a record has been kept in the period since the last survey to the satisfaction of the
Administration and as required by the Radio Regulations
 checking documentary evidence that the actual capacity of the battery has been proved in port
within the last 12 months
 checking the radio operator's certificates of competence
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 checking the radio record (log)

 checking the carriage of up-to-date ITU publications
 checking the carriage of operating manuals for all equipment
 checking the carriage of service manuals for all equipment when at-sea maintenance is the declared
option
 Checking that the annual test has been carried out for the Satellite EPIRB and, if applicable, shore-
based maintenance has been carried out at intervals not exceeding five years.
 visually checking all antennas, including Inmarsat antennas, and feeders for satisfactory siting and
absence of defects
 checking insulation and safety of all antennas;
 examining the reserve source of energy
 examining the VHF transceiver(s)
 examining the VHF DSC controller and channel 70 DSC watch receiver
 examining the HF radiotelex equipment
1.15.4 Cargo ship safety certificate
1.15.4.1 Explains the things to be checked during a ship safety survey.
Vessel safety surveys are important during the life of a vessel for better safety and security. These controls
are directed by the classification societies and are very different (safety equipment, security, hoist, dock
survey).
1.15.5 International Load-line certificate
1.15.5.1 Explains the things to be checked during a ship Load-line certificate survey.
Check that all access openings at ends of enclosed structures are in good conditions. All dogs, clamps and
hinges to be free and well greased. All gaskets and water-tight seals should be crack free. Ensure that the
doors open from both sides
 Check all cargo hatches and access to holds for weather tightness
 Check the efficiency and securing of portable beams
 If portable wooden hatch covers are used check that they are in good condition
 If tarpaulins are used at least two should be provided for each hatch and in good condition
 Inspect all machinery space opening on exposed deck
 Check that any manholes and flush scuttles are capable of being made watertight
 Check that all ventilator openings are provided with efficient weather tight closing appliance
 All airpipe should be provided with satisfactory means for closing and opening
 Inspect any cargo ports below the freeboard deck and ensure that all of them are watertight
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 Ensure that non return valves on overboard valves are operating in a satisfactory manner
 Side scuttles and openings below the freeboard deck must have efficient internal watertight
deadlights
 Check that all freeing ports are in satisfactory conditions
 All guard-rails and bulwarks should be satisfactory condition
 Derust and paint the deck line, loadline marks, load line and the draught marks
1.16connection of dis-similar material
1.16.1 describes the method of connection of dis-similar materials
1.17 welding
1.17.1 Welding and Cutting Processes used in Shipbuilding
Process of Gas welding
Gas Welding
A gas flame was probably the first form of heat source to be used for fusion welding, and a variety of fuel
gases with oxygen have been used to produce a high temperature flame. The most commonly used gas in
use is acetylene which gives an intense concentrated flame (average temperature 3000°C) when burnt in
oxygen. An oxy-acetylene flame has two distinct regions, an inner cone, in which the oxygen for combustion
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is supplied via the torch, and a surrounding envelope in which some or all the oxygen for combustion is
drawn from the surrounding air. By varying the ratio of oxygen to acetylene in the gas mixture supplied by
the torch it is possible to vary the efficiency of the combustion and alter the nature of the flame . If the
oxygen supply is slightly greater than the supply of acetylene by volume, what is known as an ‘oxidizing’
flame is obtained. This type of flame may be used for welding materials of high thermal conductivity, e.g.
copper, but not steels as the steel may be decarburized and the weld pool depleted of silicon. With equal
amounts of acetylene and oxygen a ‘neutral’ flame is obtained, and this would normally be used for welding
steels and most other metals. Where the acetylene supply exceeds the oxygen by volume a ‘carburizing’
flame is
obtained, the excess acetylene decomposing and producing sub-microscopic particles of carbon. These
readily go into solution in the molten steel, and can produce metallurgical problems in service. Oxy-
acetylene welding tends to be slower than other fusion welding processes because the process temperature
is low in comparison with the melting temperature of the metal, and because the heat must be transferred
from the flame to the plate. The process is therefore only really applicable to thinner mild steel plate,
thicknesses up to 7 mm being welded with this process with a speed of 3 to 4 metres per hour.
Process of electric welding
Electric Arc Welding
The basic principle of electric arc welding is that a wire or electrode is connected to a source of electrical
supply with a return lead to the plates to be welded. If the electrode is brought into contact with the plates
an electric current flows in the circuit. By removing the electrode a short distance from
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the plate, so that the electric current is able to jump the gap, a high temperature electrical arc is created.
This will melt the plate edges and the end of the electrode if this is of the consumable type.
Electrical power sources vary, DC generators or rectifiers with variable or constant voltage characteristics
being available as well as AC transformers with variable voltage characteristics for single or multiple
operation. The latter are most commonly used in shipbuilding. Illustrated in Figure 9.2 are the range of
manual, semi-automatic, and automatic electric arc welding processes which might be employed in
shipbuilding. Each of these electric arc welding processes is discussed below with its application.
Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG)
Welding In the TIG welding process the arc is drawn between a watercooled non-consumable tungsten
electrode and them plate (Figure 9.6). An inert gas shield is provided to protect the weld metal from the
atmosphere, and filler metal may be added to the weld pool as required. Ignition of the arc is obtained by
means of a high frequency discharge across the gap since it is not advisable to strike an arc on the plate with
the tungsten electrode. Normally in Britain the inert gas shield used for welding aluminium and steel is
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argon. Only plate thicknesses of less than 6mm would normally be welded by this process, and in particular
aluminium sheet, a skilled operator being required for manual work.
Metal Inert Gas (MIG)
Welding This is in effect an extension of TIG welding, the electrode in this process becoming a consumable
metal wire. Basically the process is as illustrated in Figure 9.6, a wire feed motor supplying wire via guide
rollers through a contact tube in the torch to the arc. An inert gas is supplied to the torch to shield the arc,
and electrical connections are made to the contact tube and workpiece. Welding is almost always done with
a DC source and electrode positive for regular metal transfer, and when welding aluminium to remove the
oxide film by the action of the arc cathode. Although the process may be fully automatic, semi-automatic
processes as illustrated with hand gun are now in greater use, and are particularly suitable in many cases for
application to shipyard work.
GAS CUTTING
Gas cutting is achieved by what is basically a chemical/ thermal reaction occurring with iron and iron alloys
only. Iron or its alloys may be heated to a temperature at which the iron will rapidly oxidize in an
atmosphere of high purity oxygen. The principle of the process as applied to the cutting of steel plates and
sections in shipbuilding is as follows. Over a small area the metal is pre- heated to a given temperature, and
a confined stream of oxygen is then blown onto this area. The iron is then oxidized in a narrow band, and
the molten oxide and metal are removed by the kinetic energy of the oxygen stream. A narrow parallel sided
gap is then left between the cut edges. Throughout the cutting operation the preheat flame is left on to heat
the top of the cut since most of the heat produced by the reaction at the cutting front is not instantaneous,
and tends to be liberated at the lower level of the cut only.
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1.17.1.1 Explain the General ideas on welding, riveting and burning and the precaution to be taken
when such processes are carried out aboard
Non-destructive Testing
For obvious reasons some form of non-destructive test is required to enable the soundness of ship welds to
be assessed. The various available nondestructive testing methods may be summarized as follows:
Visual examination
Dye penetrant
Magnetic particle
Radiographic
Ultrasonic
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Of these five methods, the dye penetrant and magnetic particle tests have a small application in ship hull
construction, being used for examining for surface cracks in stern frames and other castings. Visual,
radiographic, and ultrasonic examinations are considered in more detail, as they are in common use.
Magnetic particle testing is carried out by magnetizing the casting, and spreading a fluid of magnetic
particles (e.g. iron fillings suspended in paraffin) on the surface. Any discontinuity such as a surface crack will
show up as the particles will concentrate at this point where there is an alteration in the magnetic field. A
dye penetrant will also show up a surface flaw if it remains after the casting has been washed following the
application of the dye. To aid the detection of a surface crack the dye penetrant used is often luminous and
is revealed under an ultra-violet light.
Visual inspection of welds is routine procedure, and surface defects are soon noticed by the experienced
inspector and surveyor. Incorrect bead shape, high spatter, undercutting, bad stop and start points,
incorrect alignment, and surface cracks are all faults which may be observed at the surface. Sub-surface and
internal defects are not observed, but the cost of visual inspection is low, and it can be very effective where
examination is made before, during, and after welding.
The principle of radiographic inspection is simply to subject a material to radiation from one side, and
record the radiation emitted from the opposite side. Any obstacle in the path of the radiation will affect the
radiation density emitted and may be recorded. As radiation will expose photographic plate,
for all practical weld test purposes this is used to record the consistency of the weld metal. The
photographic plate records changes in radiation density.
Ultrasonic energy is being used increasingly as a tool for locating defects in welds, and has several
advantages over radiography, particularly as no health hazard is involved. The technique is particularly
useful for locating fine cracks which are often missed by radiography, particularly where they lie
perpendicular to the emission source.
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1.17.1.1 The purpose of flux during welding
1.17.1.2 Process of Gas and electric arc welding
Process of Gas welding
Gas Welding
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A gas flame was probably the first form of heat source to be used for fusion welding, and a variety of fuel
gases with oxygen have been used to produce a high temperature flame. The most commonly used gas in
use is acetylene which gives an intense concentrated flame (average temperature 3000°C) when burnt in
oxygen. An oxy-acetylene flame has two distinct regions, an inner cone, in which the oxygen for combustion
is supplied via the torch, and a surrounding envelope in which some or all the oxygen for combustion is
drawn from the surrounding air. By varying the ratio of oxygen to acetylene in the gas mixture supplied by
the torch it is possible to vary the efficiency of the combustion and alter the nature of the flame . If the
oxygen supply is slightly greater than the supply of acetylene by volume, what is known as an ‘oxidizing’
flame is obtained. This type of flame may be used for welding materials of high thermal conductivity, e.g.
copper, but not steels as the steel may be decarburized and the weld pool depleted of silicon. With equal
amounts of acetylene and oxygen a ‘neutral’ flame is obtained, and this would normally be used for welding
steels and most other metals. Where the acetylene supply exceeds the oxygen by volume a ‘carburizing’
flame is
obtained, the excess acetylene decomposing and producing sub-microscopic particles of carbon. These
readily go into solution in the molten steel, and can produce metallurgical problems in service. Oxy-
acetylene welding tends to be slower than other fusion welding processes because the process temperature
is low in comparison with the melting temperature of the metal, and because the heat must be transferred
from the flame to the plate. The process is therefore only really applicable to thinner mild steel plate,
thicknesses up to 7 mm being welded with this process with a speed of 3 to 4 metres per hour.
Process of electric welding
Electric Arc Welding
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The basic principle of electric arc welding is that a wire or electrode is connected to a source of electrical
supply with a return lead to the plates to be welded. If the electrode is brought into contact with the plates
an electric current flows in the circuit. By removing the electrode a short distance from
the plate, so that the electric current is able to jump the gap, a high temperature electrical arc is created.
This will melt the plate edges and the end of the electrode if this is of the consumable type.
Electrical power sources vary, DC generators or rectifiers with variable or constant voltage characteristics
being available as well as AC transformers with variable voltage characteristics for single or multiple
operation. The latter are most commonly used in shipbuilding. Illustrated in Figure 9.2 are the range of
manual, semi-automatic, and automatic electric arc welding processes which might be employed in
shipbuilding. Each of these electric arc welding processes is discussed below with its application.
1.17.1 Explain manual welding and automatic welding process by using flux
1.17.2 Welding Practice and Testing Welds
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Non-destructive Testing
For obvious reasons some form of non-destructive test is required to enable the soundness of ship welds to
be assessed. The various available nondestructive testing methods may be summarized as follows:
Visual examination
Dye penetrant
Magnetic particle
Radiographic
Ultrasonic
Of these five methods, the dye penetrant and magnetic particle tests have a small application in ship hull
construction, being used for examining for surface cracks in stern frames and other castings. Visual,
radiographic, and ultrasonic examinations are considered in more detail, as they are in common use.
Magnetic particle testing is carried out by magnetizing the casting, and spreading a fluid of magnetic
particles (e.g. iron fillings suspended in paraffin) on the surface. Any discontinuity such as a surface crack will
show up as the particles will concentrate at this point where there is an alteration in the magnetic field. A
dye penetrant will also show up a surface flaw if it remains after the casting has been washed following the
application of the dye. To aid the detection of a surface crack the dye penetrant used is often luminous and
is revealed under an ultra-violet light.
Visual inspection of welds is routine procedure, and surface defects are soon noticed by the experienced
inspector and surveyor. Incorrect bead shape, high spatter, undercutting, bad stop and start points,
incorrect alignment, and surface cracks are all faults which may be observed at the surface. Sub-surface and
internal defects are not observed, but the cost of visual inspection is low, and it can be very effective where
examination is made before, during, and after welding.
The principle of radiographic inspection is simply to subject a material to radiation from one side, and
record the radiation emitted from the opposite side. Any obstacle in the path of the radiation will affect the
radiation density emitted and may be recorded. As radiation will expose photographic plate,
for all practical weld test purposes this is used to record the consistency of the weld metal. The
photographic plate records changes in radiation density.
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Ultrasonic energy is being used increasingly as a tool for locating defects in welds, and has several
advantages over radiography, particularly as no health hazard is involved. The technique is particularly
useful for locating fine cracks which are often missed by radiography, particularly where they lie
perpendicular to the emission source.
1.18.1 Illustrates hold drainage systems and related structure
All cargo ships are provided with pumping and piping arrangements so that any watertight
compartment or watertight section of a compartment can be pumped out when the vessel has a list of up to
5°, and is on an even keel. In the case of passenger ships, each compartment or section of a compartment
may be pumped out following a casualty under all practical conditions
whether the ship is listed or not. The arrangements in the machinery space are such that this space may be
pumped out through two suctions under the above conditions. One suction is from the main bilge line and
the other from an independent power driven pump. An emergency bilge suction is also provided in
machinery spaces, and may be connected to the main circulating water pump (for condenser) in steam
ships, or the main cooling water pump in motor ships.
1.18.2 Describes the bilge pumping system of a cargo ship.
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BILGE SUCTIONS
As the vessel is to be pumped out when listed it is necessary to fit port and starboard suctions in other than
very narrow spaces.
1.18.3 Each section is fitted with a screw down n/r suction valve.
Generally vessels are designed to have a moderate trim by the sternin service, and the suctions will
therefore be placed in the after part of the compartment. However, where a ship has a single hold which
exceeds 33.5m in length suctions are also arranged in the forward half length of the hold. On many vessels a
sloping margin plate is fitted and a natural bilge is formed with the suctions conveniently located within this
recess. Adequate drainage to the bilge is provided where a ceiling covers this space. If however the tank top
extends to the ship sides, bilge wells having a capacity of at least 0.17m3, may be arranged in the wings of
the compartment.
In apassenger ship these bilge wells must not extend to within 460mm of the bottom shell so as to retain a
reasonable margin of safety where the innerbottom height is effectively reduced. The shaft tunnel of the
ship is drained by means of a well located at the after end, and the bilge suction is takenfrom the main bilge
line . At the open ends of bilge suctions in holds and other compartments, outside the machinery space and
shaft tunnel, a strum box is provided.
Thestrum box is a perforated plate box welded to the mouth of the bilge line .which prevents debris being
taken up by the bilge pump suction. Perforations in the strum box do not exceed 10 mm in diameter,and
their total cross-sectional area is at least twice that required for the bore of the bilge pipe.
Strums are arranged at a reasonable height above the bottom of the bilge or drain well to allow a clear flow
of water and to permit easy cleaning. In the machinery space and shaft tunnel the pipe from the bilges is led
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to the mud box which is accessible for regular cleaning. Each mud box contains a mesh to collect sludge and
foreign objects entering the end of the pipe.
1.18.4 Describes and sketches a bilge strum box
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1.18.5 Describes a ballast system in a cargo ship
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1.18.6 Describes the arrangement of a fire main and states what pumps may be used to pressurise it
Arrangement of a fire main
Capacity of fire pumps
The capacity of the fire pumps is stated in SOLAS but need not exceed 25m 3 per hour.Arrangements of fire
pumps and of fire mainsShips shall be provided with independently driven fire pumps as follows:
Passenger ships of 4,000 tons gross tonnage and upwards at least threePassenger ships of less than 4,000
gross tonnage and cargo ships of 1,000 tons gross tonnage and upwards at least two Cargo ships of less than
1,000 tons gross tonnage to the satisfaction of the Administration.
Sanitary, ballast, bilge or general service pumps may be accepted as fire pumps, provided that they are not
normally used for pumping oil and that if they are subject to occasional duty for the transfer or pumping of
oil fuel, suitable change-over arrangements are fitted.
Number and position of hydrants
The number and position of hydrants shall be such that at least two jets of water not emanating from the
same hydrant, one of which shall be from a single length of hose, may reach any part of the ship normally
accessible to the passengers or crew while the ship is being navigated and any part of any cargo space when
empty, any ro-ro cargo space or any special category space in which latter case the two jets shall reach any
part of such space, each from a single length of hose. Furthermore, such hydrants shall be positioned near
the accesses to the protected spaces.
Pipes and hydrants
Mainly galvanised steel pipes are used and during repairs no doublers or such part renewals are allowed –
change is flange to flange renewal.The arrangement of pipes and hydrants are to be such as to avoid the
possibility of freezing.
On cargo ships where deck cargo may be carried, the positions of the hydrants are to be such that they are
always readily accessible and the pipes are to be arranged, as far as practicable, to avoid risk of damage by
such cargo.
A valve is to be fitted at each fire hydrant so that any fire-hose may be removed while the fire pump is at
work.
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The arrangement of sea connections, fire pumps and their sources of power shall be such as to ensure that:
The above figure shows a typical fire mains line. Note that the emergency fire pump is located away from
the machinery space as per rules.Isolation valves are provided so that any system being damaged the other
system may be used for example the port system and the starboard system.
In the machinery space a separate pump (Fire and GS pump) is also coupled, this is generally used when
washing decks, and as an emergency measure while the fire pump is being overhauled.
1.18.7 Describes the provision of sounding pipes and sketches a sounding pipe arrangement
Air and Sounding Pipes
Air pipes are provided for all tanks to prevent air being trapped underpressure in the tank when it is filled, or
a vacuum being created when it isemptied. The air pipes may be fitted at the opposite end of the tank to
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thefilling pipe and/or at the highest point of the tank. Each air pipe from adouble bottom tank, deep tanks
which extend to the ship’s side, or any tank
which may be run up from the sea, is led up above the bulkhead deck. Fromoil fuel and cargo oil tanks,
cofferdams, and all tanks which can be pumpedup, the air pipes are led to an open deck, in a position where
no danger willresult from leaking oil or vapours. The heights above decks and closing
arrangements are covered by the Load Line Conditions of Assignment Sounding pipes are provided to all
tanks, and compartments not readilyaccessible, and are located so that soundings are taken in the vicinity of
thesuctions, i.e. at the lowest point of the tank. Each sounding pipe is made asstraight as possible and is led
above the bulkhead deck, except in somemachinery spaces where this might not be practicable.
A minimum bore of32 mm is in general required for sounding pipes; but where they passthrough
refrigeration spaces, to allow for icing, a minimum bore of 65mmis required where the temperature is at 0
C or less. Underneath the soundingpipe a striking plate is provided where the sounding rod drops in the
bilge well, etc. Sometimes a slotted sounding pipe is fitted to indicate thedepth of liquid present, and the
closed end must be substantial to allow forthe sounding rod striking it regularly. Various patent tank
sounding devicesare available and can be fitted in lieu of sounding pipes, as long as theysatisfy the
requirementsofthe classification society.
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Sounding pipes
Sounding pipes covers come with varied designs. That shown below is a sunken cap type generally the cap is
made of brass. The justification being that of the two thread and cap assembly the thread of the brass is to
wear out first and that of the deck pad. The renewal of the brass cap being inexpensive and convenient
rather than the deck pad which entails hot work.The metal cap (not sunken) type of covers have a chain
attached to them to prevent their being washed overboard.
1.18.8 describes the fitting of air pipes to ballast tanks or fuel oil tanks
Air pipes to ballast tanks or fuel oil tank
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The above figure shows a design of air pipe cover.
In normal condition – the ball remains at the bottom of the air pipe head and the tank breathes in and out
through the vent.
However in the event that the air pipe is submerged then the ball floats up and closes the opening at the top
thus preventing any water from entering the tank.
Sea spray and rain is prevented from entering the tank by the design of the head. It is totally enclosed and a
rectangular plate, which leaves a small gap between the mesh and itself, allowing the breathing of the tank.
1.18.8 describes the arrangement of fittings and lashings for the carriage of containers on
deck
Securing equipment will vary depending on the type of ship but is likely to include;
Twistlocks Lashing bars Turnbuckles Extension hooks Stacking cones (single and double) Twist
Stackers Lashing D rings Shoes/Sockets for base twistlocks
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In addition it should be remembered that the container frame itself is an integral part of the
securing system. The stow will remain secure only if the frame is in good condition and if the
loads acting on it remain within safe limits.
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1.19 Load lines and draught marks
1.19.1 explains where the deck line is marked
The deck line is a horizontal line 300 millimeters in length and 25 millimeters in breadth.
It shall be marked amidships on each side of the ship, and its upper edge shall normally pass
through the point where the continuation outwards of the upper surface of the freeboard deck
intersects the outer surface of the shell, provided that the deck line may be placed with
reference to another fixed point on the ship on condition that the freeboard is correspondingly
corrected. The location of the reference point and the identification of the freeboard deck shall
in all cases be indicated on the International Load Line Certificate
1.19.2 defines 'freeboard'
freeboard, distance from the waterline to the freeboard deck of a fully loaded ship; it is
measured amidships at the side of the hull. The freeboard deck is the deck below which all
bulkheads are made watertight; above it that precaution is not necessary.
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1.19.3 explains what is meant by 'assigned summer freeboard'
The minimum freeboard in summer salt water which summarily assigned summer freeboard is the distance
measured vertically downwards amidships from the upper edge of the deck line to the upper edge of the
related load line for the permissible loading. This amount calculates according to design waterline on
stability calculations booklet or international convention on load-line 1966.
1.19.4 draws to scale the load line mark and the load lines for a ship of a given summer
moulded draught, displacement and tonnes per centimetre immersion in salt water
1.19.5 explains how the chart of zones, areas and seasonal periods is used to find the
applicable load line
This map summarises data from the International Convention on Load Lines 1966 and Protocol
of 1988, as amended in 2003. With effect from January 2014 the Southern Winter Seasonal
Zone boundary has changed
The International Load Line Zones and Areas map outlines Summer, Winter and Tropical
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Zones, Seasonal Areas as well as their Fresh Water equivalents. Also included are the new
boundary changes coming into effect from January 2014.
1.19.6 demonstrates how to read draughts
• The following figure shows the draught marks between 11m and 12m.
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• It means that the mark is submerged up to the level of the mark, measurement of
draught being from the bottom up.
• When the water is touching exactly the 11M mark at the bottom, only then is the
draught read as 11m. anywhere above that is more than 11m.
• The height of the mark being 20cm, therefore the top of the 11m mark would read a
draught of 11.20 m.
• The decimal marks are each 10 cm in height
1.19.7 explains that the freeboard, measured from the upper edge of the deck line to the
water on each side, is used to check that the ship is within its permitted limits of loading
1.19.8 lists the items in the conditions of assignment of freeboard
 Dimensions and form of the ship

 Means of freeing water on deck
 Means of closing/opening (doors/sills)
 Structural strength (hull, deckhouse, hatches)
 Hull penetrations ( piping inlets & discharges)
 Cargoes (oil, timber, GC)
 routes, weather and seas likely to be found
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1.19.9 describes why the height of sill area varies between different type of vessels based on
Load Line Rules
Doc No: ACD/F-59

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MINIMUM STANDARD OF COMPETENCE IN PREPARATORY COURSE FOR OFFICER IN

CHARGE OF A NAVIGATIONAL WATCH ON SHIPS OF 500GT OR MORE

Defines and illustrates following Definitions

1.1.8 Parallel middle body

1.1.9 Entrance and run

1.1.15 Base line

1.1.16 Moulded depth beam and draft,

Moulded Beam (Breadth)

1.1.17 Extreme depth beam and draft.

1.1.19 Moulded depth

Illustrates the general arrangement of the following ship types.

Advantages of having specified ship type for that cargo

1. Easy and quick loading and discharging

1.1.20 General cargo

 Size – Medium sized

1.1.22 Bulk carrier

1.1.23 Combination carriers

An ore-bulk-oil carrier, also known as combination carrier or OBO, is a ship designed to be capable of

 Size- medium to large

 Containers can be re used.

Ships that carrying passengers are called as passenger liners.

1.1.27 Lives stock carrier

Ship that are carrying animals

1.1.30 Draw a plan view of a tanker showing the arrangement of tanks

1.2 Ship stresses

1.2.1.1 Describes in qualitative terms shear force and bending moments

1.2.2 Hogging and sagging

1.2.3 Water pressure loads on the ship’s hull

1.2.3.1 Describes water pressure loads on the ship’s hull

Water pressure and Thrust

1.2.4 Racking stress and its causes.

1.2.4.1 Describes racking stress and its causes

Racking stress and its causes

1.2.5 Stresses caused by localised loading.

Stresses caused by localized loading

1.2.5.2 Describes liquid pressure loading on the tank structure.

1.2.5.5 describes stresses caused by localized loading

Stresses caused by localized loading

1.3 Hull structures

1.3.1.2 Identifies the content of a shell expansion plan.

1.3.1.4 Sketches a radiuses sheer strake and attached structure

1.3.1.5 Identifies the numbering of plates of a ship hull

1.3.2.1.1 Flat plate

1.3.2.1.2 Offset bulb plate

1.3.2.1.3 Equal angle

1.3.2.1.4 Unequal angle

1.3.2.2 Explains the Properties of good ship building steel

• Can be welded with available simple methods.

• High yield point according to tensile stress.

1.3.2.5 illustrates double-bottom structure for longitudinal and transverse framing

Longitudinal framing system

Combined framing system of a ship.

1.3.2.6 illustrates hold drainage systems and related structure

1.3.3 Tank Side Brackets

1.3.3.1 Describe and illustrates tank side brackets

1.3.4 Bilge Keel

1.3.4.2 .structural components on ships plans

1.3.4.2.1 Identifies structural components on ships plans and drawings:

Keels & duct keels

Mainly two types of keels in merchant ships

Flat plate keel

Flat plate keel

Single Bottom Structure

Double Bottom Structure