Hydrogen Cooling of Electrical

Generators
1

BY

FAHAD KHALIL

Fahad Khalil
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Fahad Khalil
 Generator Cooling Goals
3

1. Minimize drag - “windage”

2. Keep generator internals clean
3. Maximize generator output
4. Minimize electrical, mechanical and corrosion problems
5. Maintain low dewpoint for component durability

The cooling system for the generator needs to meet several

goals, and recirculating closed loop hydrogen systems have
proven to meet these challenging goals for nearly 60 years.
There is every reason to expect that hydrogen cooling will
continue to be the standard approach to base-load utility scale
generator cooling.

Fahad Khalil
 Why Hydrogen Cooling ?
4

1. Lowest density gas yields lowest drag

2. Highest heat conductivity of any gas
3. Controlled atmosphere to maintain Clean & Dry
4. Inexpensive
5. Easy to detect
6. Excellent electrical properties
7. Easy to manage – not readily miscible with CO2
8. purge gas
9. Flammable

Hydrogen has a thermal conductivity of nearly seven (7) times that

of air, and its ability to transfer heat through forced convection
is about 50% better than air.

Fahad Khalil
 Why H2 as Generator coolant?
5

Hydrogen has attractive characteristics as a fluid to

both the windings of the generator, and to remove heat
from the windings and deliver that heat to the cooling
water. Hydrogen is nearly the perfect cooling gas,
except for its one massive flaw (Flammability).

Fahad Khalil
 Hydrogen Flammability Range
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 Operating Above UFL is different
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1. In nearly every case, we try to maintain flammable

gases below LFL (lower flammability limit)
2. Operating below LFL, leaks don’t ignite
3. Above UFL (lower flammability limit) is safe except for
leaks
4. Above UFL, every leak is a potential fire
5. The generator must be kept pressurized, because
air ingress can be catastrophic
6. Procedures are important, and not obvious

Fahad Khalil
Generator Cooling According to Generator Rating
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 H2 Detection
9

Hydrogen is a flammable gas – no more dangerous

than other flammable gases. It is very buoyant, escapes
readily and does not pool.
Hydrogen has no natural odor, and is not odorized, so
leaks require detection equipment.
Hydrogen has no health effects other than potential
flammability, and the ability to displace oxygen.
The chief challenge with hydrogen is managing
inventory and dealing with fast-leaking
gas.
Fahad Khalil
 Power Plant Hydrogen System Layout
10

This is a standard hydrogen-cooled generator equipment layout. There are

basically three hydrogen “systems” – the hydrogen supply side of the generator,
the hydrogen recirculating cooling loop, and the hydrogen scavenge portion of
the system. Hydrogen safety and quality can be affected by the choice,
capabilities, and operation of the technologies in each of the systems.
Fahad Khalil
 Generator cover gas density
11

Because air is 14 times as dense as hydrogen, the density of the fluid in the
generator casing rises quickly with air impurity level. As can be seen from the
equation, every 1 percent of air contamination is worth about 14% increase in fluid
density. Increased fluid density means increased windage loss.
Fahad Khalil
 H2 Purity & Generator Efficiency
12

The gas in the generator casing must be kept at the

manufacturer recommended purity in order to achieve
the manufacturer commitment on heat rate.

Note that the generator capability varies according to

the gas pressure in the casing – if pressure is allowed
to degrade – think Bleed & Feed – then the generator
cannot deliver full capacity.

Fahad Khalil
 Payback from H2 purity enhancement
13

The payback from purity enhancement is immediate

and impressive. An improvement from 95% to 99%
purity, on a generator of 175 MW capacity, with a 60%
CF%, is worth between $48,000 and $77,000 annually
in additional sales dollars. Because there is no
additional fuel burned to achieve these sales, the
profitability is virtually 100%.

Fahad Khalil
 Generator H2 Cooling
14

Hydrogen gas provides a remarkable solution for

generator cooling by virtue of its low density and high
thermal conductivity.
A hydrogen cooled generator can achieve a higher
rating and a greater efficiency compared to an air-
cooled generator of an equal physical size.
All hydrogen-cooled generators are supplied with
auxiliary systems to accommodate hydrogen filling,
purging, monitoring and shaft sealing.

Fahad Khalil
 Moisture Effects on H2 Cooling System
15

Moisture contamination is measured in the hydrogen gas used

to cool large stationary electric generators.
Hydrogen is used to cool the bearings and other rotating parts of
large stationary electric generators. Hydrogen is the best choice
for a cooling gas because of its unique combination of high
thermal conductivity and low viscosity.

In order to maintain these favorable properties, the hydrogen

must be kept dry. Moisture is a contaminant that both reduces
the thermal conductivity and increases the viscosity of the gas.
The presence of moisture indicates that:
a) either the system was not purged adequately after the last
maintenance cycle or
b) that there is an ambient leak, which can be a very hazardous
condition.
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 Moisture Detection Sensors
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Any quartz-crystal based moisture analyzer is

suitable for this application provided the sample
pressure meets the analyzer’s minimum inlet
requirement.
Electrolytic sensors are not suitable due to the
recombination errors that always occur in hydrogen
atmospheres.
Metal-oxide probes should also be avoided as the
reducing hydrogen atmosphere may react with the
probe’s oxide layer resulting in a loss of both
sensitivity and calibration stability.

Fahad Khalil
 Quartz-Crystal Moisture Analyzers Working
17

The cooling hydrogen is continuously circulated

through the generator and then through a molecular
sieve dryer. In order to be certain that the hydrogen is
dry, the sample tap is installed in the return line from
the generator to the dryer.
A second measuring point, at the dryer outlet, will
provide a control signal for dryer switching. This
additional measurement will maximize dryer life,
provide an indication of dryer efficiency, and minimize
the possibility of a dryer upset effecting the generator’s
operation.

Fahad Khalil
Advantages of Quartz-Crystal Moisture Analyzers
18

With a quartz-crystal based moisture analyzer the

actual moisture concentration in the cooling gas is
easily, and accurately measurable. These analyzers are
highly reliable and require little maintenance.

In addition, the performance of this technology is very

stable over long periods of time thereby increasing
operator confidence in the system.

Moisture Range 5 ppmv to 500 ppmv

Fahad Khalil
 Generator Heat Removal Capabilities of Various Fluids
19

Fluid Type Relative Relative Relative Approx.

Specific Density Practical Relative
Heat Vol. Flow heat
removal
Ability
Air 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
H2 30 Psig 14.36 0.21 1.0 3.0
(2.07 bar)
H2 40 Psig 14.36 0.26 1.0 4.0
(3.10 bar)
Water 4.16 1000.0 0.012 50.0

Fahad Khalil
 Issues with Water Cooling of Generators
20

Water cooling adds manufacturing complexity, as well

as, requires the need for auxiliary water cooling and
de-ionizing skid, plus associated piping, control and
protection features.
At higher ratings, the cost of this complexity is offset
by the advantage of producing a generator of
significantly smaller size than a comparable
conventionally cooled generator.

Fahad Khalil
 Newer Generators
21

Newer generators use H2 under pressure (from 15 to

75 Psig) for cooling.
H2 is more effective than air in dissipating heat and
the higher the h2 pressure, the more effective the
hydrogen is in removing heat.

To contain the pressurized h2 gas, thick plate

cylindrical construction is used. End shields are more
rugged and contain a hydrogen seal system to
minimize the leakage.

Fahad Khalil
 Generator H2 Cooling System
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H2/Water Cooled Vs Air or H2 cooled Generators
23

The armature voltage and current of a H2/water

cooled generator is significantly higher than those of
air or H2 cooled units. As a result, the insulation
voltage stress and forces on the armature windings can
be several orders of magnitude larger than those
experienced on lower rated units.

These present unique design requirements that must

be addressed if high reliability and long life of the
equipment is to be maintained.

Fahad Khalil
 Why 4 pole generators are used in NPP’s
24

NPP’s typically use 4 pole generators. 4 pole rotors are

used because a NPP:
1. steam temperature & pressure are lower and
2. the lower the energy content of the steam, the larger
the turbine has to be.
It would not be safe to rotate large steam turbines at 3600
RPM.

Gas turbine typically use 2 pole generators & rotate at a

speed of 3600RPM and are provided with reduction gear to
connect to the generator.

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 Generator Frequency
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 Rotor Design of H2 cooled Generators
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All H2/water cooled generators use direct conductor

cooling of the rotor winding of heat removal. Smaller 2
pole and all 4-pole generator use the radial flow
design.
At the end of the rotor body, H2 enters then windings
through full length sub-slots and is discharged along
the length of the rotor body through redial slots,
machined or punched, in the copper conductors.
The H2 passes from the conductors through the
creepage blocks and wedges to the air gap, where the
H2 is directed through the stator core to the H2
coolers.
Fahad Khalil
 Diagonal Cooling Method
27

As generator ratings and consequently rotor body length

increase even further, the gap pick-up diagonal flow
cooling method is employed.
In this scheme, cold H2 is scooped up in the gas gap and
driven diagonally through the rotor copper to directly
remove the heat. At the bottom of the slot, the gas is turned
and passes diagonally outward to the gas gap in a discharge
stator core section. The stator core ventilation is
coordinated with the rotor cooling gas flow, thus creating
an in and out flow of H2 through the stator core, through
the rotor and returning to the H2 cooler through the core.
This cooling method results in a design which maintains
the same average copper temperature, independent of
rotor length.

Fahad Khalil
 Diagonal Cooling Method
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 H2 Gas coolers
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Four (4) H2 gas coolers for a generator are located in a

vertical position in the associated generator frame, two
(2) at end of the associated frame and on both sides of
the axial centerline.
The H2 coolers are built and installed in the frame so
that any one (1) of the coolers may be taken out of
service for cleaning while the unit generator is still
carrying load. This is accomplished by removing the
water piping and cooler headers from the ends,
without breaking the gasketed seal that maintains H2
pressure within the associated generator.

Fahad Khalil
 Fabrication of Generator End Shields
30

The generator end shields are heavily reinforced

fabrications, designed to support the weight of the rotor
and to contain the H2 gas at maximum pressure without
excessive distortion.
The generator rotor bearings, the H2 shaft seals and oil
passages supplying oil to these parts are contained and/or
supported by the outer and shields. The end shields are
split on the horizontal centerline, facilitating their removal.
The joints between the shields halves and the joints
between the shield and the stator frame are fitted and
provided with grooves for the insertion of a sealing
compound, to seal the H2 gas in the generator casing.

Fahad Khalil
 Shaft Seal Attached To Each Outer End Shield
31

A shaft seal attached to each outer end shield, adjacent

to the bearing inboard, prevents the escape of H2 gas
from the generator along the rotor shaft penetration
points.
This arrangement permits the inspection of the
generator bearings without removing gas from the
machine. The Bearing ring and the shaft seal housing
at the collector end of the machine are insulated from
the generator frame to prevent the flow of shaft
currents.

Fahad Khalil
 Inner End Shields
32

The inner end shields are located between the ends of

the armature windings and the outer end shields, to
separate the gas discharge from the fans from the gas
entering the fans. The inlet vanes and nozzle rings are
attached to the inner end shields. This together with
nozzle ring segments attached to the outer end shields
provide optimum:
a) gas entrance and
b) discharge conditions for the fans

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 H2 Cooling of Generator Lead
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 Main Leads from Generator
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 H2 Pressure & Purity
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H2 pressure in the generator must be maintained above

atmospheric pressure at all times to keep seal oil from
being drawn into the generator.

H2 purity range indicator is 50% to 100%.

The H2 purity in the generator should always be

maintained above the explosive limit of 75%.
The low H2 purity alarm actuates when the purity
decreases to 90% purity.

Normal purity is > 98%.

Fahad Khalil
 High & Low Gas Pressure Alarms
36

Machine gas pressure high/low alarms are provided.

When a low pressure alarm actuates, H2 should be

added to the machine.

The high pressure alarm actuates upon overfilling of

the machine.

Fahad Khalil
 Gas Analyzer Flow Meter
37

The flow meter for the gas analyzer has a range of zero
(0) to 30 cub ft/hr.

Normal operating range for the gas analyzer is

between one (1) and 1.5 cub ft/hr.

Fahad Khalil
 38

Generator Seal Oil System

Fahad Khalil
 Standard Generator Seal Oil
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Since the unit’s rotor shaft ends of the H2 cooled

generators for each unit must be brought out of the gas
tight enclosure, means must be provided to prevent
the escape of H2 gas from along the shaft.

The purpose of the generator seal oil system is to

provide the means to prevent the escape of hydrogen
from the generator enclosed.

Seal oil is lube oil, the flow of seal oil along the shaft
inside the seal also provides lubrication.

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 Generator Seal Oil System
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 Vacuum Tank
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During normal operation, oil from the lube oil system

enters the vacuum tank through spray nozzles. The
inlet spray nozzles are directed upward and separate
some of the gases from the oil as it enters the tank.

Most of the gas remaining in the oil is separated by

recirculation through a seconds set of spray nozzles
directed downward.

Fahad Khalil
 Seal Oil Pump
42

The main seal oil pump, pumps oil from the vacuum
tank to the shaft seals. Excess oil over the seal
requirements is returned to the vacuum tank by the
recirculating spray nozzles.

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 Seal Oil Vacuum Pump
43

The seal oil vacuum pump maintains an absolute

pressure of about 0.5 inches of mercury in the vacuum
tank.

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 Emergency Seal Oil Pump
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The emergency seal oil pump is driven by DC motor to

ensure maximum availability. The emergency pump is
started by operation of pressure switch located in the
main seal oil pump line. This pressure switch is
adjusted to close on falling main seal oil pump
pressure.
The vacuum tank becomes inoperative when the
emergency pump is in operation.

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 Seal Housing
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 Drain Pipes
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 Seal Oil Cooler
47

Seal oil passes through the shell of the H2 side seal oil
cooler, while bearing cooling water passes through the
tubes. The cooler has inlet and outlet isolation valves
and a bypass valve.

An in-line filter removes debris from the oil.

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 Normal Operation
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 Separator Tank
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 Regulating Valve
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 Vacuum Treatment
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 Generator Side Seal Oil and H2 Content
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 Secondary Seal Oil Supply
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 Operation of Emergency Seal Oil Pump
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 Generator Seal Oil System Simplified Flow Diagram
55

Fahad Khalil
 Benefits of Onsite Hydrogen Generation
56

1. Reduced inventory (some inventory still req’d for

regas)
2. Lower pressure
3. Limited delivery rate
4. Less operator interaction
5. Facilitates continuous scavenge

Fahad Khalil
 Replacement Instrumentation is not enough
57

New instrumentation should enable the plant to improve plant

operation:
 Improved purity control
 Reduced dewpoint
 Tighter pressure control

Replacing old purity, pressure and dewpoint instruments with new

versions without additional functionality doesn’t make the plant run
better.

New instrumentation should enable the plant to modify procedures to

improve plant operation:
1. •Improved purity control
2. •Reduced dewpoint
3. •Tighter pressure control

Fahad Khalil
 Lowest possible dewpoint is critical
58

The dewpoint of the hydrogen in the generator casing can

affect the lifetime of the generator windings.
Wet hydrogen will reduce winding life due to corrosion.
Wet hydrogen can be catastrophic in the case of 18/5 rings,
susceptible to stress crack corrosion. You must keep
dewpoint within manufacturer specs.
Either a dryer in the recycle loop, or an optimized scavenge
system can control hydrogen dewpoint. This chart
illustrates the performance of a Stable Flow hydrogen
control system driving dewpoint to manufacturer
compliant levels without a dryer. Note the pressure
stability – the benefit of optimized constant scavenge.

Fahad Khalil
 Effects of Cooling Gas Quality
59

The quality of the hydrogen cooling gas has an impact on the

overall operation of an electric power generator in three
principal ways.
1. Hydrogen purity directly affects the operating efficiency of
the generator.
2. Hydrogen's moisture content affects the longevity of the
generator's internal components.
3. The stability of the hydrogen gas pressure within the
generator affects the maximum generating capacity of the
electric power generator.

The density of the hydrogen gas within the generator casing has
a physical affect on the windage loss of the generator and the
thermal conductivity of the gas and its ability to remove heat.

Fahad Khalil
 Advantages of Thermal Conductivity
60

The high thermal conductivity of hydrogen has proven to

be a key advantage in its use as a cooling fluid in electric
power generators. It permits a reduction of nearly 20% in the
amount of active material required in the construction of a
generator of given output and for a given temperature rise of
the windings. The density of hydrogen is also an advantage
over that of air. Since hydrogen’s density is approximately one
fourteenth (1/14) the density of air at a given temperature and
pressure, the use of hydrogen reduces the windage friction
losses within a generator to a small fraction of the losses
encountered when the generator is cooled by air.

Fahad Khalil
 Proper Operation of H2 cooling System
61

A properly implemented continuous replenishment system will

maintain a consistent:
1. high level of purity,
2. low gas dew point, and
3. constant pressure within the generator
Critical to the proper implementation of such a system is the
supply of a continuous stable flow of high purity hydrogen from
a trusted source.

Hydrogen has a thermal conductivity of nearly seven times that

of air, and its ability to transfer heat through forced convection
is about 50% better than air.

Fahad Khalil
 Advantages of High Thermal Conductivity of H2
62

The high thermal conductivity of hydrogen has proven to

be a key advantage in its use as a cooling fluid in electric
power generators. It permits a reduction of nearly 20% in the
amount of active material required in the construction of a
generator of given output and for a given temperature rise of
the windings.
The density of hydrogen is also an advantage over that of air.
Since hydrogen’s density is approximately one fourteenth (1/14)
the density of air at a given temperature and pressure, the use of
hydrogen reduces the windage friction losses within a generator
to a small fraction of the losses encountered when the generator
is cooled by air.

Fahad Khalil
 THE EFFECT OF HYDROGEN ON GENERATOR
OPERATION AND PERFORMANC
63

The quality of hydrogen coolant gas has an impact on the

overall operation of an electric power generator in three
principal ways.
1. ! Hydrogen purity directly affects the operating
efficiency of the generator.
2. ! Hydrogen dew point within a generator affects the
condition and longevity of the generator's internal
windings.
3. ! The stability of the hydrogen gas pressure
within the generator affects the maximum generating
capacity of the electric power generator.

Fahad Khalil
 CO2 Purging
64

The purity of hydrogen within a generator casing is

important for several reasons. First and foremost is
safety.
An explosive atmosphere exists when the hydrogen
over air concentration in a generator falls below 74%.
The primary function of purity monitoring systems has
been to avoid this disastrous condition. Most plants
will initiate a shutdown and automatic CO2 purge of
the generator if the concentration falls below 85%.

Fahad Khalil
 Dew Point Disadvantages
65

When the impurity in hydrogen gas coolant is moisture, overall

efficiency of the generator is compromised through increased
windage friction loss. In addition to increasing windage loss,
water vapor contamination inside a generator has been shown
to reduce the life of its components, and high humidity can
induce stress corrosion cracking on its retaining rings and cause
stator winding shorts.
It is recommended that the hydrogen dew point be maintained
below +32"F in most generators, but will vary depending on the
generator's original equipment manufacturer (OEM), the size of
the generator, and the hydrogen gas pressure.
Studies have shown that generators that operate with high
hydrogen gas dew points are much more susceptible to
insulation degradation in windings that inevitably lead to
disastrous shorts and major unplanned repair actions.

Fahad Khalil
 H2 Pressure Effects on Generator
66

At increased pressures, hydrogen becomes denser, improving its

capacity to absorb and remove heat. As a result, additional load
may be carried with no increase in the temperature rise of the
windings. An increase in kilovoltampere output of about 1 %
may be obtained for every 1-psi increase in hydrogen pressure
up to 15 psig, while for pressure between 15 and 30 psig, an
increase in output of about ½ percent per psi of an increase in
pressure may be obtained.
Increasing hydrogen pressure also permits operation at normal
load with the temperature of the water supplied to the gas cooler
in excess of normal. An increase in cooling temperature of
approximately 1"F may be obtained for every 1-psi increase in
hydrogen pressure up to 15 psig, while for pressure between 15
and 30 psig, an increase in cooling water temperature of 0.5"F
per psi of an increase in pressure may be obtained.

Fahad Khalil
 H2 Pressure Effects on Generator
67

The improvement in the thermal capability of the

generator is proportional to the square root of the
absolute pressure increase.

Therefore, a pressure increase of 1 psi would improve

the generator output by 0.6% towards the OEM rated
generator capacity. The increased capacity is due to
better heat removal from the copper windings

Fahad Khalil
 Batch feed hydrogen supply methods
68

There is also the potential of pressure reducing regulator

failures causing catastrophic generator casing or seal failures
due to high pressure hydrogen supply systems as well.

To reduce the risk of a catastrophic leak in a plant, batch feed

hydrogen supply methods are often employed to maintain the
generator pressure manually. This manual batch feed system is
also used to track seal wear by tracking the hydrogen leak rate.
The hydrogen seal leak rate can be determined if the
1. Pressure drop in the generator,
2. temperature, and
3. duration between fills is known

Fahad Khalil
 Disadvantages of Batch feed hydrogen supply methods
69

A batch feed method causes wide fluctuations in

cooling gas purity and pressure. These fluctuations
have a huge effect on plant operations and ultimately
hit the plant’s bottom line.
The development of a continuous hydrogen supply
system that maintains generator cooling gas pressure
and purity at optimum levels while assuring plant
infrastructure and personnel are safe from the hazards
of a major hydrogen leak has begun to change the way
plants view their hydrogen demands.

Fahad Khalil
 Vent Flow System
70

As the purity in the generator decreases the vent flow

is increased until it reaches the desired purity set
point. In most cases, just a small continuous “bleed” of
the generators cooling gas can make a dramatic change
in overall purity and dew point.

Fahad Khalil
 Disadvantages of Vent Flow System
71

This method has certain disadvantages when

implemented using delivered gas cylinders and tube
trailers. The operating cost of such a system can be
substantial if the price of delivered hydrogen is even a
few dollars per 100 cubic feet.
Also, the safety concerns associated with
implementing a continuous feed gas supply method
with bulk storage are certainly relevant with this
method. Onsite hydrogen generation systems should
be the primary hydrogen supply choice when
implementing this method

Fahad Khalil
 Delivered hydrogen versus onsite hydrogen
generation
72

Delivered hydrogen is relatively expensive when compared to

onsite generation.
Delivered gas prices fluctuate with the volatility associated with
the supply, transportation, and increased security concerns over
bulk hydrogen.
Onsite generation, especially when employed at a power plant,
offers the plant operator a fixed cost of hydrogen supply.
An electrolysis-based onsite hydrogen generator requires a
small amount of de-mineralized water and electricity to operate.
An on-site hydrogen electrolyzer sized for an average power
plant requires less than 20 gallons of water a day and 17kWh of
electricity per 100 cubic feet of hydrogen produced

Fahad Khalil
 Delivered hydrogen versus onsite hydrogen
generation (Cont.)
73

Frequent cylinder changes can introduce particulate impurities

and introduce air gases if not purged. Purity varies from
cylinder to cylinder depending upon the source of the gas and
what the cylinder was used for in the past.

In contrast, onsite hydrogen generation systems monitor the

hydrogen product purity continuously to insure the gas that is
being introduced to the generator is of the desired quality. The
ability to trend and provide alarms is also available.
In addition to quality variances, delivered hydrogen presents
siting, storage and occupational safety challenges. High-
pressure cylinders require personnel to monitor supply, manage
delivery schedules to prevent unnecessary downtime, monitor
the cylinders’ condition and gas purity, and store cylinders in
accordance with a facility’s safety protocols.

Fahad Khalil
 Delivered hydrogen versus onsite hydrogen
generation (Cont.)
74

The maximum flow rate from an onsite generator will

never exceed its maximum capacity, which is very
important when performing “worst case” safety
analysis.
An onsite hydrogen generator has the inherent ability
to meter the flow rate of hydrogen used. This flow
metering function can be used to alarm operators of a
sudden demand for hydrogen in the case of a
catastrophic component failure, while tracking seal
wear over time to aid in preventative maintenance
actions.

Fahad Khalil
 Hydrogen replenishment
75

Power plant operators can reduce the destructive presence of water

vapor and air within their hydrogen-cooled generators with a constant
flow of dry hydrogen gas. Continuous hydrogen replenishment is a
technique that offers a way to keep generators free of:
1. moisture,
2. oxygen, and
3. other contaminants that can prematurely degrade equipment,
maintain hydrogen pressure at a level that supports an increased load,
and supply hydrogen on demand at the rate it is required by the
electric generator.
All of these benefits are in addition to providing seal leakage makeup
gas at a fraction of the cost of delivered gas.

By using an onsite hydrogen generator combined with a continuous

hydrogen replenishment technique, plants can minimize hydrogen
inventory, while guaranteeing consistent purity, dryness and pressure.

Fahad Khalil
 PEM technology for onsite hydrogen generation
76

The most widely used onsite hydrogen generation

technology at power plants in the U.S. is PEM
electrolysis.
Onsite hydrogen generators that use Proton Exchange
Membrane (PEM) technology offer a cost-effective
approach to ensure hydrogen purity and low dew
point. PEM electrolysis allows 99.999+% pure
hydrogen gas at a dew point of -90ºF to be produced
on demand at process pressure without mechanical
compression and without caustic electrolytes.

Fahad Khalil
 PEM electrolysis
77

PEM electrolysis works within a hydrogen generators’ cell

stack, which is composed of individual membrane
assemblies stacked into an embodiment that brings water
in to produce hydrogen gas. As illustrated in Figure 2, de-
ionized water flows into the positive side of the cell where it
is dissociated by electrolysis into protons, electrons and
oxygen. The oxygen is carried away by the water flow. The
positively charged protons are attracted to the negative
side of the cell. These protons use the sulfonic acid ion
groups embedded within the membrane as the path to
travel through the solid material. Meanwhile, the electrons
flow through the power supply to the negative electrode
where they link up with the emerging protons to form
molecules of pure hydrogen gas.

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 PEM electrolysis
78

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 PEM Technique Inherent Advantage
79

A PEM electrolyzer has the inherent ability to allow for

precise metering of gas as it is being produced.

This inherent ability allows the electrolyzer to become

a gas supply that precisely matches the process
demand, much like a bulk supply, but with a few
distinct differences.

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 PEM Technique Disadvantages
80

1. First, the electrolyzer has the ability to deliver an

unlimited supply of hydrogen as long as water and
electricity is supplied. A bulk supply will eventually
empty and need to be replaced.
2. Second, the electrolyzer has the ability to limit the
instantaneous flow rate of hydrogen gas due to its
capacity limit. A bulk supply will deliver as much
gas as can flow through the process infrastructure.
3. Third, the electrolyzer has a very low volume of
stored hydrogen at any one time and only produces
gas as it is demanded.

Fahad Khalil