Energies 13 01684bb PDF

energies
Article
Establishing Boundary Conditions Considering
Influence Factors of the Room Equipped with a
Ceiling Radiant Cooling Panel
Sang-Hoon Park 1 , Dong-Woo Kim 2 , Goo-Sang Joe 3 , Seong-Ryong Ryu 4, *,
Myoung-Souk Yeo 2 and Kwang-Woo Kim 2
1 Division of Architecture, College of Engineering, Sun Moon University, Chungnam 31460, Korea;
sanghoon@sunmoon.ac.kr
2 Department of Architecture and Architectural Engineering, College of Engineering,
Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Korea; aeekdw@snu.ac.kr (D.-W.K.); msyeo@snu.ac.kr (M.-S.Y.);
snukkw@snu.ac.kr (K.-W.K.)
3 Goo-Sang Joe, Energy Platform Business Unit, Korea Telecom, Seoul 03155, Korea; goosang.joe@kt.com
4 School of Architecture, Kumoh National Institute of Technology, Gyeongbuk 39177, Korea
* Correspondence: archiryu@kumoh.ac.kr; Tel.: +82-54-478-7592

Received: 31 January 2020; Accepted: 26 March 2020; Published: 3 April 2020
Abstract: The objective of this study is to establish boundary conditions to evaluate the cooling
capacity of the Cooling Radiant Ceiling Panel (CRCP) considering the environment of a room
equipped with the CRCP. The current study investigated the boundary conditions and derivation
techniques from previous studies. Based on the results of the analysis, a heat transfer model was
derived for a room fitted with CRCP. In addition, the heat transfer model was used to derive the
factors affecting the cooling capacity of the CRCP and each factor was simulated and verified through
this model. The effects of these factors on the capacity of the CRCP was established by using various
boundary conditions. To verify the validity of the simulation model, the experimental results were
compared with the cooling capacity for a specific case. As a result, it was established that even for
the same panel, there was a variance in the cooling capacity of the CRCP based on the boundary
conditions and that the influence of the surface exposed to the outdoors had more implications.
Consequently, this study presents the influence factors to be considered when designing CRCP.
Keywords: cooling capacity; cooling radiant ceiling panel; boundary condition; heat transfer model
1. Introduction
Cooling Radiant Ceiling Panel (CRCP) is a system that uses cold water to reduce the thermal load
and is installed on the ceiling of buildings [1]. CRCP can be applied not only to homes but also to
spaces with large ceiling areas such as classrooms [2]. In order to eliminate the thermal load efficiently,
it is crucial to estimate the cooling capacity of the CRCP [3]. For accurate evaluation, it is necessary to
evaluate the cooling capacity on the boundary condition when the panels are installed in the actual
building (Figure 1).
Energies 2020, 13, 1684; doi:10.3390/en13071684 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 21
Energies 2020, 13, 1684 2 of 21

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 1. Evaluation of the cooling capacity of the Cooling Radiant Ceiling Panel (CRCP): (a) cooling
of Evaluation
Figure 1.
capacity the CRCP; of(b)the cooling
over capacity of the Cooling
or underestimated cooling Radiant
capacity.Ceiling Panel (CRCP): (a) cooling
Figure 1.of
capacity Evaluation
the CRCP;of(b)
theover
cooling capacity of thecooling
or underestimated Coolingcapacity.
Radiant Ceiling Panel (CRCP): (a) cooling
Incapacity of thebuilding
the actual CRCP; (b)space,
over orthe
underestimated
CRCP usescooling capacity.
radiation and convection heat transfer to cool the
In the actual building space, the CRCP uses radiation and convection heat transfer to cool the air.
air. Therefore, it is necessary to implement the environment in which the panel can radiate and
Therefore,
In theitactual
is necessary
building to space,
implement the environment
the CRCP uses radiation in which the panel heat
and convection can radiate
transferand transfer
to cool the
transfer convective heat as much as in the actual building space.
convective heat as much as in the actual building space.
air. Therefore, it is necessary to implement the environment in which the panel can radiate and
To evaluate the amount of heat transfer in the actual building space, the air and surface
To evaluate
transfer convective the heat
amount of heatastransfer
as much in the actual
in the actual building building
space.space, the air and surface temperature
temperature
should
shouldsame be set at the same temperature as the actual building during theHowever,
evaluation
Tobeevaluate
set at thethe temperature
amount of heat as the actualinbuilding
transfer the actual during the evaluation
building space, the(Figure
air 2).
and surface
(Figure
the 2). However,
techniques used to the techniques used to evaluate the cooling capacity of the panel estimates
heat that athe
temperature should beevaluate
set at the thesame
cooling capacity ofas
temperature thethe
panel
actualestimates
buildingtheduring
amountthe of evaluation
amount
panel
(Figure of2).heat
removes that
from
However, a panel
athe
thermalremoves from
load generated
techniques used to a thermal load
by a cooling
evaluate generated
load simulator
the cooling by a cooling
capacity fitted
of the in load
the simulator
panel test room the
estimates fitted
[4].
inIn
the test room
this case,
amount [4].
the surface
of heat In this case,
temperature
that a panel the
removesand surface
from thea air temperature
temperature
thermal and the
are kept by
load generated air temperature
constant, in order
a cooling are kept constant,
to removefitted
load simulator only
inthe
order
in the to
thermal remove
load [4].
test room only
generated the
In this by thermal
case, a cooling load generated
load temperature
the surface by
simulator. The a cooling
andsame load
the surface simulator.
temperature
air temperature The same surface
is notconstant,
are kept applied
temperature
since theto
in order is not applied
variations
remove due the
only to since
the the load
variations
influencing
thermal factors
generated dueinbyto
theathe influencing
surrounding
cooling factors The
environment
load simulator. in the
are
same surrounding
unknown.
surface
environment
The aim of are
this unknown.
study is to The
clarifyaim of
the this study
relationship is to clarify
between the
the
temperature is not applied since the variations due to the influencing factors in the surrounding relationship
influencing between
factors and the
theinfluencing
surface
factors and theand
temperature,
environment aresurface
unknown. temperature,
to establish The theaimsame and
boundary
of this to establish
study conditions
is to clarifythethe
insame
order boundary
to evaluate
relationship conditions
the cooling
between in order to
capacity
the influencing
evaluate
of
factors the
and cooling
the CRCP. capacity
It issurface
the expected thatofthe
temperature,theactual
CRCP.
and It is
amount
to expected
of cooling
establish thethat theboundary
capacity
same actual
of the amount
CRCP of cooling
could
conditions capacity
beinmeasured
order to
in the
ofevaluateboundary
the CRCP thecould conditions
cooling be capacity
measured whenof in the
thethe CRCP
boundary
CRCP. is installed
conditions
It is expected in the
thatwhenactual building
the CRCP
the actual amount space for
is installed the cooling
of coolingincapacity
the actual
system
building design.
of the CRCP
spacecould for thebe cooling
measured in thedesign.
system boundary conditions when the CRCP is installed in the actual
building space for the cooling system design.
Figure
Figure2.2.Cooling
Cooling capacity evaluationregarding
capacity evaluation regardingboundary
boundary condition.
condition.
Figure 2. Cooling capacity evaluation regarding boundary condition.
2. Preliminary Study
2. 2.
Preliminary
PreliminaryStudy
Study
2.1. Types of CRCP
2.1. Types
2.1. TypesofofCRCP
CRCP
The cooling radiant ceiling panel consists of pipes that circulate cold water to the panel in order to
The
remove Thecooling
cooling
the radiant
thermal loadceiling
radiant ceiling panel
inconsists
panel
generated consists
the room ofand
of pipes
pipes thatcirculate
that
maintaincirculate cold
cold
the room water
water
in toto
thethe
a thermally panel
panel in order
in order
comfortable
tostate.
remove
to remove the thermal
the thermal
In order load
load
to derive generated
thegenerated in the room
room for
boundary condition and maintain
andevaluating
maintain thethe room
theroom in a thermally
in acapacity
cooling thermally comfortable
ofcomfortable
CRCP, it is
state.
state.InInorder
necessary order totoderive
derive
to describe thethe
the boundary
boundary
concept of thecondition
condition
CRCP and forthe
for evaluating
evaluating
cooling thethecooling
cooling
capacity. capacity
In capacity
this of of
study, CRCP,
CRCP,
the isit is
typeit of
necessary
necessary
ceiling to describe
to describe
panel the
is definedthe concept
to concept of the CRCP
CRCP
be evaluated based and
onand the cooling
the coolingby
the distinction capacity.
capacity. In this study,
In this Society
the American study, the the
type of of
type
of Heating,
ceilingpanel
ceiling panelisis
Refrigerating defined
defined
and tobe
to be evaluated
evaluated
Air-Conditioning based
based on
Engineers on the
thedistinction
(ASHRAE) distinction by
bythe
theAmerican
American
and Representatives of Society
Society
European of of
Heating,
Heating,
Heating
Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) and Representatives
Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) and Representatives of European Heating of European Heating
andVentilation
and VentilationAssociations
Associations (REHVA)
(REHVA) [4–6].
[4–6]. In
In both
bothASHRAE
ASHRAEand andREHVA,
REHVA, CRCPs
CRCPs areare
defined
defined as as
Energies 2020, 13, 1684 3 of 21

Energies 2020,
and Ventilation 13, x FOR PEER
Associations REVIEW [4–6]. In both ASHRAE and REHVA, CRCPs are defined
(REHVA) 3 of 21
as
devicesdevices
that radiate heat using
that radiate pipingpiping
heat using suspended at regular
suspended spaces
at regular fromfrom
spaces the ceiling (Table
the ceiling 1). The
(Table CRCP
1). The
devices that radiate heat using piping suspended at regular spaces from the ceiling (Table 1). The
CRCP
consists consists of piping,
ofCRCP
insulation, insulation,
andpiping,
heatand
apiping, a heat sink.
sink.
consists of insulation, and a heat sink.
Table 1. Type
Type of Cooling RadiantCeiling
Ceiling Panel.
Panel.
Table 1.Table 1.of Cooling
Type Radiant
of Cooling Radiant Ceiling Panel.
Research Section Type Conceptual Diagram
ResearchResearch SectionSection
A temperature-controlled Type Type
surface is referred to
Conceptual
Conceptual Diagram
Diagram
A temperature-controlled surface is referred to
as a radiant panel if 50% or more of the design
ASHRAE A temperature-controlled
as a radiant panel if 50% or more
surface of the design
is referred
ASHRAE heat transfer on the temperature-controlled
heat transfer
to assurface
a radiant on the temperature-controlled
takespanel
place if 50%
via or more
thermal of the[7].
radiation
ASHRAE surface takes
design place via on
heat transfer thermal
the radiation [7].
temperature-controlled surface takes place
Radiant heating and cooling systems are panels
via thermal
Radiant heatingradiation [7].
and cooling systems are panels
REHVA with integrated pipes suspended under the
REHVA with integrated pipes suspended under the
ceiling [6].
ceiling [6].
Radiant heating and cooling systems are
REHVA panels with integrated pipes suspended
under the ceiling [6].
The Cooling Radiant Ceiling Panel hangs on the

The Cooling
The ceiling
Cooling Radiant
Radiant Ceiling
Ceiling Panel
Panel hangs on the
hangs
and exchanges thermal radiation by
This study on theceiling
ceilingand
andexchanges
radiantexchanges thermal
heat transfer.
radiation by
thermal
This study
This study radiation radiant heat
by radiant heat transfer.
Since the piping is biased intransfer.
the room side
theSince
Sincedirection,
pipingtheis
piping
biased
radiation
is biased
occurs thea in
in in the room
room side side
target space.
direction, radiation occurs
direction, radiation occurs in a target in a target
space.space.
2.2. Current
2.2. Current Evaluation Method of the Cooling Capacityofofthe
the CRCP
2.2.Evaluation Method
Current Evaluation of the
Method Cooling Capacity
of the Cooling Capacity ofCRCP
the CRCP
In the In the Lawrence
Lawrence
In the Lawrence
Berkeley
Berkeley Berkeley
National
National Laboratory
Laboratory
National
(LBNL)
(LBNL)
Laboratory
study,
study,
(LBNL) the the
study,
amount
amount of heat
of heat
the amount
transferred
oftransferred from
heat transferred
from the CRCP surface to the room wall surface and the room air is referred to as the cooling power
the CRCPfromsurface to thesurface
the CRCP room wall
to thesurface
room wallandsurface
the roomand air
the is referred
room to as thetocooling
air is referred powerpower
as the cooling of the
of the CRCP. In this case, the amount of cooling of the CRCP is the amount of convection and
CRCP. In ofthisthe
case, the In
CRCP. amount of cooling
this case, the amountof theofCRCP
cooling is the amount
of the CRCP of is convection
the amount and radiation heat
of convection and
radiation heat exchange due to the difference in the surface temperature and the air temperature in
exchange radiation
due to heat
the exchange in
difference duethetosurface
the difference in the surface
temperature and temperature
the air and the in
temperature airthe
temperature in
installation
the installation area of the CRCP.
area of thethe installation area of the CRCP.
CRCP.
Table 2 presents the formula used in calculating the cooling capacity of the CRCP based on the
Table Table 2 the
2 presents presents the used
formula formula used in calculating
in calculating the cooling capacity of the based
CRCP based
on theon the
LBNL study and ASHRAE [7,8]. In both studies,thethecooling
coolingcapacity
capacityofisthe CRCP
divided into a convectionLBNL
LBNL study and ASHRAE [7,8]. In both studies, the cooling capacity is divided into a convection
study and ASHRAE
component and[7,8]. In bothcomponent,
a radiation studies, the cooling
which is a capacity
function of is the
divided into a convection
temperature component
of each surface. The
component and a radiation component, which is a function of the temperature of each surface. The
cooling capacity
and a radiation component,of the CRCP
which is acould be obtained
function by combining
of the temperature the surface.
of each convection
Theand radiation
cooling capacity
cooling capacity of the CRCP could be obtained by combining the convection and radiation
components.
of the CRCP could be obtained by combining the convection and radiation components.
components.
Table 2. Concept of cooling capacity of CRCP in the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL)
Table 2. Concept
Table 2. of cooling
Concept capacity
of cooling of CRCP
capacity in theinLawrence
of CRCP Berkeley
the Lawrence National
Berkeley Laboratory
National Laboratory (LBNL)
(LBNL)
study and American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE).
study andstudy
American Society of
and American Heating,
Society Refrigerating
of Heating, and Air-Conditioning
Refrigerating Engineers
and Air-Conditioning Engineers(ASHRAE).
(ASHRAE).
Contents LBNL Study [8] ASHRAE [7]
Contents
Contents LBNL
LBNL Study [8]
Studytemperature-controlled
[8] ASHRAE
ASHRAE [7][7]
Heat exchange among (active) surfaces, room surfaces, and room air
Concept Heat exchange among temperature-controlled (active) surfaces, room surfaces, andair
room air
Heat exchange among Sum temperature-controlled (active) surfaces,
of convective and radiative heat transferroom surfaces, and room
ConceptConcept Sum of convective and radiative heat transfer
Sum of convective and radiative heat . transfer
− . −
= ℎ t − − = 2.42 − |tp −ta |0.31 (tp −t−a )
qc = 2.42 . D .0.08

qc = h c =airℎ tsur f ace
− = 2.42
Equation
Equation
" 4 #
n
e
= σFa Fe Tr 4 − − Tp

Equation
qr = q = J −
P
F Jj
= 100
100 100 100
− = − r p pj
100 100 = − j=1
q: sum of convective and radiant heat transfer : effective temperature of temperature-controlled surface
: sum of convective and radiant heat transfer
: sum of qconvective
c : heat transfer andbyradiant
convection
heat transfer : effective
tp :: effective temperature
temperature of of
temperature-controlled
temperature-controlled surface
surface
: heatq transfer by convection indoor space dry-bulb air temperature
r : heat
: heat transfer
transfer bybyconvection
radiation : indoor space dry-bulb air temperature
: heathtransfer
c : by
convective radiation
coefficient : tequivalent
a : indoor space dry-bulb
diameter of air temperature
panel
: theat transfertemperature
by radiation :Dequivalent
e : equivalent diameterofofpanel
diameter panel
Symbol ℎ : convective
air : room aircoefficient : total radiosity
Jp : total
leavingleaving
radiosity
or reaching panelpanel
surface
Symbol Symbol ℎtsur: fconvective
: surface coefficient
temperature : total radiosity leaving ororreaching
reachingpanel surface
surface
: room aceair temperature : radiationFpjangle : radiation factorangle
between
factorpanel surface
between paneland another
surface and
σ: Stefan–Boltzmann
: room air temperature constant : radiation angle factor between panel surface and another
: surface temperature another
surface surface in room
in room
Fa : configuration factor
: surface temperature surface inanother
room surface in room
: Stefan–Boltzmann constant : radiosity J j : radiosity
from orfrom or to
to another surface in room
Fe : emissivity factor
: Stefan–Boltzmann constant : radiosity
n: numberfrom or to another
of surfaces in room surface in panels
other than room
Tr : mean radiant temperature (MRT) of unconditioned surface
Tp : mean radiant temperature (MRT) of cooled surface
Energies 2020, 13, 1684 4 of 21
Table 3 presents the previous studies focused on evaluating the cooling capacity of CRCP.
According to Kochendorfer’s study, the problem is that the amount of cooling in the same panel may
vary due to irregular surroundings, while the amount of cooling capacity may vary depending on the
non-uniform environment [9]. Notably, previous studies have highlighted that the boundary condition
could be changed by the envelope. The effect of the envelope is that the indoor boundary condition of
the surface exposed to the outside air may be changed based on the thermal load generated by the
envelope space where the CRCP is installed. This means that the amount of cooling of the CRCP can
be changed [10]. In order to solve this problem, it is necessary to establish the non-uniform boundary
condition at the environment of the actual building.
Table 3. Previous studies on irregular surrounding conditions.
Author or Organization Issues

Evaluates the cooling capacity in an environment where there is no heat
exchange with the outside
C. Kochendorfer [9]
The amount of cooling capacity may vary, based on the surface temperature
of the wall
N. Fonseca [3]
Estimates the cooling capacity of the panel based on the external load
N. Fonseca et al. [10]
The cooling capacity of the ceiling radiation panel is estimated using
M. De Carli et al. [11]
unsteady state analysis in consideration of the external load
The cooling capacity of the panel is calculated based on the window to the
Z. Tian et al. [12]
wall ratio considering the influence of the window-installed envelope
Since the material enclosing the CRCP could affect the cooling capacity of
EN14240 [13] the panel, the adiabatic boundary condition is maintained to prevent the
influence of the envelope
NT VVS 078 [14] Same as EN14240
2.3. Concept for Establishing Boundary Condition

The amount of cooling capacity may vary depending on the analysis of the plenum and the room.
The concept for establishing the boundary condition in this study can be summarized through the
analysis of the plenum and the analysis of room. Thus far, it is still unclear how the surface temperature
caused by the boundary conditions affects the convection and radiative heat transfer in the room fitted
with CRCP. In addition, the effect of the boundary condition influencing factors on the cooling capacity
of CRCP has not been clarified. Thus, it is necessary to study the relationship between the cooling
capacity and the influencing factors on the wall, ceiling, and floor surface temperature in the analysis
of the plenum and room.
3. Environment of Room Equipped with CRCP
3.1. Heat Transfer Model of Room Equipped with CRCP

In order to establish the boundary condition for evaluating the cooling capacity of the CRCP, the
influencing factors affecting the boundary conditions must be analyzed. In this study, the heat transfer
process in the plenum and the room is analyzed by establishing the heat transfer model of the test
room where the CRCP is installed based on the heat transfer model of ASHRAE (schematic of heat
balance processes in zone) to figure out the influencing factors [15]. The heat transfer model in the
space with the CRCP based on the ASHRAE model, consists of three parts: a plenum, a ceiling with a
panel, and a room. In the actual building, the heat transfer occurs as shown in Figure 3. In the test
room, convective heat transfer occurs between the room air and the bottom face of the ceiling, while
radiative heat transfer occurs between the zone inside face and the bottom face of the ceiling. Finally,
Figure 4 shows the simplified heat transfer model of the test room equipped with the CRCP.
Energies 2020, 13, 1684 5 of 21

Figure 3. Heat transfer in a space equipped with CRCP.

Figure 4. Simplified
Figure 4. Simplified heat
heat transfer
transfer model
model of
of test
test room
room equipped
equipped with
with CRCP.
CRCP.
3.2. Influencing Factors of Cooling Capacity
3.2. Influencing Factors
Figureof4.Cooling Capacity
Simplified heat transfer model of test room equipped with CRCP.
From the heat transfer model of a test room with CRCP, the influencing factors in the space are
From the heat transfer model of a test room with CRCP, the influencing factors in the space are
identified.
3.2. Depending
Influencing Factorsonof the characteristics
Cooling Capacity of these factors in the heat transfer model, the boundary
identified. Depending on the characteristics of these factors in the heat transfer model, the boundary
condition influencing factors could be categorized into three groups: Group 1 Site and Building,
condition
Frominfluencing factorsmodel
the heat transfer couldofbea test
categorized
room withinto threethe
CRCP, groups: Groupfactors
influencing 1 Site in
andtheBuilding,
space are
Group 2 Wall Composition, and Group 3 Internal Heat Gain. By analyzing the factors belonging to
Group 2 Wall
identified. Composition,
Depending on theand Group 3 Internal
characteristics Heat
of these Gain.inBy
factors theanalyzing the factors
heat transfer model, belonging to
the boundary
each group and removing the redundant factors and simplifying them, the factors in each group can be
each group influencing
condition and removing the redundant
factors factors and simplifying
could be categorized them, the
into three groups: factors
Group 1 in each
Site andgroup can
Building,
set as in Table 4:
be set as2inWall
Group Table 4:
Composition, and Group 3 Internal Heat Gain. By analyzing the factors belonging to
each group and removing the 4.
Table redundant
Group andfactors and simplifying
influencing them,
factors in each the factors in each group can
group.
be set as in Table 4: Table 4. Group and influencing factors in each group.
Groups Influencing Factors
Table 4. Group and influencing Sol-air
factors
Sol-air intemperature
each group.
temperature
Group 1:Group
Site and building
1: Site and building Number of surfaces
Number of surfaces exposed exposed to the outdoors
to the outdoors
Material and
Material composition
and of wall
composition of wall
Sol-air temperature
Group 2:Group
Group
Wall 2:1:Wall
Site composition
and building
composition HeatHeat
transmission coefficient
Number of surfaces exposed to coefficient
transmission the outdoors
Surface heat
Surface absorption rate rate
heat absorption
Material and composition of wall
Component of internal heat gain
Group
Group3:2:Internal heat gain
Wall composition Heat transmission
Component coefficient
of internal heat gain
Group 3: Internal heat gain Amount of internal heat gain
Surface
Amount heatofabsorption
internal rate
heat gain
Component of internal heat gain
Group Group
1 includes the 3:sol-air
Internaltemperature
heat gain and Amount
the number of surfaces
of internal heat gain exposed to outdoor air.
Considering the situation
Group 1 includes of thetemperature
the sol-air test room in andwhich the sunof cannot
the number surfacesbeexposed
accessed, the outside
to outdoor air.
temperature
Groupthe
Considering was a substantial
1 includes
situation the
of the source
sol-air
test room of in
thewhich
temperature sol-air
andtemperature
the the number
sun cannot beand the temperature
ofaccessed,
surfaces exposed
the outsideincreased with
totemperature
outdoor air.
the increase
Considering
was inthe
a substantial the amount
situation
source of theofofheat
theintroduced
sol-air test roominto
temperature thethe
inand
whichroom thethrough the
sun cannot
temperature walls. The
withnumber
be accessed,
increased the ofoutside
the increasefaces
in
exposed
the amount to the
temperature outdoors
of was
heat is a factor
aintroduced
substantial that
source
into the ofcanthe
room influence the
thetemperature
sol-air temperature
through difference
andnumber
walls. The between
the temperature
of faces the outside
increased
exposed with
to the
environment
the increase
outdoors and
in the
is a factorthe testcan
amount
that room.of Group
heat
influence 2 consists
introduced
the of the
into
temperature thematerial and
room through
difference composition
the walls.
between of the
The
the outside wall, the
number of heat
environment faces
transmission
exposed
and the test coefficient,
toroom.
the Group and
outdoors the surface
2isconsists
a factor that
of heat
thecan absorption
influence
material and the rate [15]. of
temperature
composition The material
difference
the wall, the and composition
between
heat the outside
transmission of
the wall can
environment
coefficient, be
andanddetermined
the the by
test room.
surface the structure
Group 2 consists
heat absorption of the wall,
of The
rate [15]. the build
the material of
material and the material,
andcomposition
compositionof and the
ofthe presence
thewall,
wall the
canheat
beof
transmission coefficient, and the surface heat absorption rate [15]. The material and composition of
the wall can be determined by the structure of the wall, the build of the material, and the presence of
Energies 2020, 13, 1684 6 of 21
determined by the structure of the wall, the build of the material, and the presence of either outdoor
or indoor insulation. The surface heat absorption rate is a coefficient associated with radiative heat
transfer, and can be used to determine how the interior surface finishing of the wall affects the boundary
conditions. Group 3 consists of a boundary condition influencing factor associated with the amount
and the components of internal heat gain [15–18].
3.3. Values and Ranges of Influencing Factors

The values and ranges of these factors affect every heat transfer process and are derived as
shown in Table 5 based on previous research and international standard analysis [3,4,7]. The sol-air
temperature of Group 1 is the ambient temperature of the building located at 36 degrees north latitude.
The wall heat transmission coefficient of 2.02 W/m2 K is the minimum design requirement for the wall
heat transfer rate and 0.15 W/m2 K is the insulation standard for passive houses. Table 5 is the reference
for setting the values, ranges, and values of each factor.
Table 5. Value of influencing factors.
Groups Factors Unit Value and Range

30
40
Sol-air temperature (◦ C)
50
60
Group 1
1
Number of surfaces exposed to 2
(-)
the outdoors 3
4
Lightweight
Heavyweight
Material and composition of wall (-)
Outside-insulation
Inside-insulation
2.02
0.66
Group 2
Heat transmission coefficient (W/m2 K) 0.39
0.22
0.15
0.1
Surface heat absorption rate (-) 0.6
0.9
1.0
Component of internal heat gain:
(-) 0.6
Radiant Fraction
Group 3 0.0
59
Amount of internal heat gain (W) 235
411
The Group 2 wall material is assumed to vary, whereas the rate of heat transfer is the same (e.g.,
concrete wall, insulation wall). In addition, the composition of the wall varies from the inside to the
outside based on the construction method. By setting the heat transmission coefficient of all the walls
to 2.02 W/m2 K as in Table 6, only the influence of the boundary condition due to the wall structure,
which is dependent on the material of the wall and the composition of the insulation, can be evaluated.
Energies 2020, 13, 1684 7 of 21
Table 6. Material and composition of wall.

Specifications
Composition
Surface Heat Heat Transmission
Factors (Outside to Thickness Specific Heat Conductivity
Absorption Rate Coefficient
Inside)
(m) (J/kgK) (W/mK) (-) (W/m2 K)
Concrete 100 0.1 836.8 1.311 0.1
Inside insulated wall 2.02
Insulation 13 0.013 265 0.049 0.1
Insulation 13 0.013 265 0.049 0.1
Outside insulated wall 2.02
Concrete 100 0.1 836.8 1.311 0.1
Concrete wall Concrete 450 0.45 836.8 1.311 0.1 2.02
Insulation wall Insulation 17 0.017 265 0.049 0.1 2.02
If the material and composition of the wall are the same, the boundary condition of the wall can
vary as a result of the change in the thermal conductivity based on the wall thickness. Table 7 shows
that the thermal conductivity of the wall utilized for this study varies from 2.02 to 0.15 W/m2 K by
intervals of 0.07.
Table 7. Heat transmission coefficient of wall.

Specifications
Composition
Surface Heat Heat Transmission
Factors (Outside to Thickness Specific Heat Conductivity
Absorption Rate Coefficient
Inside)
(m) (J/kgK) (W/mK) (-) (W/m2 K)
U_2.02 Insulation 316.8 0.3168 265 0.049 0.1 2.02
U_0.66 Insulation 216.8 0.2168 265 0.049 0.1 0.66
U_0.39 Insulation 116.8 0.1168 265 0.049 0.1 0.39
U_0.22 Insulation 66.8 0.0668 265 0.049 0.1 0.22
U_0.15 Insulation 17 0.0168 265 0.049 0.1 0.15
4. Evaluation of Boundary Condition of the CRCP Equipped Room
4.1. Concept of the Boundary Condition Derivation Model

In order to derive the boundary condition based on the influence factor changes, the CRCP
installed space was modeled via simulation. Table 8 shows that the boundary condition derivation
model is implemented in six steps. In step 1, the simulated input variables were derived from the
influencing factor and the range of values or values of each factor. In step 2, the room fitted with
CRCP and the adjacent room were modeled as in Figure 5, such that it is possible to set the desired
influence factors in the space to be analyzed. In step 3, a CRCP and an air conditioning system were
modeled in the main room and the adjacent room to derive the thermal load. Specifically, the air
conditioning system was operated while the CRCP remained off, and the thermal load removed by
the air conditioning system was estimated. The cooling capacity of the CRCP necessary to maintain
the set temperature can be estimated. In steps 4 and 5, the process of finding the correct supply water
temperature to satisfy the set room temperature, was reiterated by simulation using a fixed flow rate.
In step 6, the boundary condition of the test room where the CRCP is installed was finally derived
when the CRCP was in operation.
Table 8. Modeling process to evaluate the boundary condition.
Step Modeling Process

1 Set simulation input variables
2 Configure the main room and the adjacent room to set the desired influencing factors on the space
3 Derive the thermal load to be eliminated to maintain the space to the set-point room temperature
4 Determine the supply water temperature and water flow rate to eliminate the thermal load
5 Calculate and reset the supply water temperature to maintain the set point room temperature
6 Evaluate the boundary condition during the operation of the CRCP
Energies 2020, 13, x1684
FOR PEER REVIEW 88 of
of 21
21
Figure 5. Modeling of room and CRCP.

Figure 5.
Figure Modeling of
5. Modeling of room
room and
and CRCP.
CRCP.
4.2. Simulation
Simulation Model
Model for
for Evaluating
Evaluating Boundary
Boundary Condition
Condition
4.2. Simulation Model for Evaluating Boundary Condition
The
The simulation
simulation model
model for for evaluating
evaluating boundary
boundary conditions
conditions waswas implemented
implemented with with the
the aim
aim of
of
The simulation
obtaining the model
boundary for evaluating
condition when boundary
the CRCP isconditions
in wasunder
operation implemented
the withinfluencing
various the aim of
obtaining the boundary condition when the CRCP is in operation under the various influencing
obtaining
factors. the boundary condition when the CRCP is in operation under the various influencing
factors. EnergyPlus
EnergyPlus V8-1-0
V8-1-0 and
and LabVIEW
LabVIEW were were used
used for
for simulation.
simulation. EnergyPlus
EnergyPlus is is suited
suited forfor radiation
radiation
factors.
and EnergyPlus V8-1-0 and LabVIEW were used for simulation. EnergyPlus is suited for radiation
and convection
convectionheatheattransfer
transferononthe surface,
the surface,since a heat
since a heatbalance-based
balance-basedsolution is possible
solution [19]. The
is possible [19].
and convection
boundary heat transfer
condition based ononthe
thevarying
surface,factors
since acan
heatbebalance-based
used as the solution
output is possible
data. In [19]. The
addition, the
The boundary condition based on the varying factors can be used as the output data. In addition,
boundary
iterative condition
calculation based
processeson the varying
to find thethefactors
supply can be
water used as
mentioned the output
ininstep data. In addition, the
the iterative calculation processes to find supply water mentioned step5 5ofofSection
Section 4.14.1 were
were
iterative
performed calculation
by linking processes
LabVIEW and to find the supply
and EnergyPlus.
EnergyPlus. The water
The size
size of mentioned
of the
the space
space isin step
is 4.0
4.0 m 5 of
m (width) Section 4.1 were
performed by linking LabVIEW (width) ×× 4.04.0m m(depth)
(depth)
×performed by linking
as LabVIEW
shown in and EnergyPlus.
Figure 5. The CRCP The size
and air ofconditioning
the space is 4.0
× 3.0 m (height), as shown in Figure 5. The CRCP and air conditioning system are installed in
3.0 m (height), m (width)
system are × 4.0 m (depth)
installed in each
each
× 3.0 m
zone. In(height), as shown
thisstudy,
study, the in Figure
CRCP was 5. The CRCP
modeled using and air conditioningproduct.
a self-developed system are installed in each
zone. In this the CRCP was modeled using a self-developed product. FigureFigure6 shows 6 shows
the systemthe
zone. Inflow
system thischart
study,of the CRCP
the CRCPinstalled
was modeled
in the using
test a self-developed product. Figure 6 shows the
room.
flow chart of the CRCP installed in the test room.
system flow chart of the CRCP installed in the test room.
Figure 6.
Figure Flow chart
6. Flow chart representing
representing the
the system
system configuration
configuration of
of the
the simulation
simulation model.
model.
Figure 6. Flow chart representing the system configuration of the simulation model.
4.3. Simulation Results
4.3.1. Boundary Conditions on Wall Composition
4.3.1. Boundary Conditions on Wall Composition
4.3.1.
• Boundary
Material Conditions
and on Wall
composition of wallComposition
• Material and composition of wall
• Material and composition of wall
Table 99 shows
Table shows the
the changes
changes in
in surface
surface temperature
temperature that
that were
were obtained
obtained in
in the
the analysis
analysis to
to determine
determine
the effect
Table of
9 the wall
shows thickness
the changes and
in layer
surfacecomposition
temperatureon the
that boundary
were conditions.
obtained in the
the effect of the wall thickness and layer composition on the boundary conditions. analysis to determine
the effect of the wall thickness and layer composition on the boundary conditions.
Table 9. Cases for material and composition of wall.
Group 1 Group 2 Group 3
Group 1
Number of Group 2 Group 3
Surface
Number
Faces of Heat
Sol-Air Material and Surface
Heat Radiant Heat
Cases Faces to
Exposed Thickness Heat
Transmission
Sol-Air
Temp. Material and
Composition Heat
Absorption Radiant
Fraction Heat
Amount
Cases Exposed
Outdoorto Thickness Transmission
Coefficient
Temp. Composition Absorption
Rate Fraction Amount
Outdoor
Air Coefficient
Rate
(℃) Air
(-) (-) (m) (W/m2K) (-) (-) (W)
(℃) (-) (-) (m) (W/m2K) (-) (-) (W)
Energies 2020, 13, 1684 9 of 21

Number of Faces Heat Surface Heat
EnergiesCases
2020, 13, Sol-Air
x FORTemp.
PEER REVIEW Material and Radiant Heat 9 of 21
Exposed to Thickness Transmission Absorption
Composition Fraction Amount
Outdoor Air Coefficient Rate
(◦ C) (-) (-) (m) (W/m2 K) (-) (-) (W)
60 60 Concrete 100 100
Concrete
0.1
0.1
In_Ins 50 50 1 (Outside)
(Outside)
2.02 0.1 0.6 411
In_Ins 1 2.02 0.1 0.6 411
40 40 Insulation 13 13
Insulation
(Inside) 0.013
0.013
30 30 (Inside)
60 60 Insulation 13 13
Insulation
0.013
50
(Outside) 0.013
Out_Ins 50 1 (Outside) 2.02 0.1 0.6 411
Out_Ins 40 1 Concrete 100 2.02 0.1 0.6 411
40 Concrete 100 0.1
30
(Inside) 0.1
30 (Inside)
60
60
Conc_Wall 50 1 Concrete 450 0.45 2.02 0.1 0.6 411
Conc_W 50
40 1 Concrete 450 0.45 2.02 0.1 0.6 411
all 40 30
30 60
Ins_Wall 60 50 1 Insulation 17 0.017 2.02 0.1 0.6 411
50 40
Ins_Wall 1 Insulation 17 0.017 2.02 0.1 0.6 411
40 30
30
The walls with the same heat transmission coefficient transmit the same amount of heat regardless
The walls with the same heat transmission coefficient transmit the same amount of heat
of the wall composition. Therefore, in the steady-state under the same sol-air temperature, the
regardless of the wall composition. Therefore, in the steady-state under the same sol-air temperature,
wall internal surface temperatures having the same heat transmission coefficients have the same
the wall internal surface temperatures having the same heat transmission coefficients have the same
surface temperature.
surface temperature.
However, in the unsteady-state where the sol-air temperature changes in the daytime, the indoor
However, in the unsteady-state where the sol-air temperature changes in the daytime, the indoor
surface temperature of the surface exposed to the outside air also changes due to the heat storage.
surface temperature of the surface exposed to the outside air also changes due to the heat storage.
Figure 7 shows that the surface temperature of the lightweight wall is similar to the profile of the sol-air
Figure 7 shows that the surface temperature of the lightweight wall is similar to the profile of the sol-
temperature, unlike in heavy wall. Since the outside insulated wall is influenced more by the heat
air temperature, unlike in heavy wall. Since the outside insulated wall is influenced more by the heat
storage, the change in the surface temperature of the indoor surface is smaller than that of the inside
storage, the change in the surface temperature of the indoor surface is smaller than that of the inside
insulated wall.
insulated wall.
Figure 7. Surface temperature for the material and composition of wall (Unsteady-state).
Figure 7. Surface temperature for the material and composition of wall (Unsteady-state).
• Heat transmission coefficient of wall

• Heat transmission coefficient of wall
Table 10
Table 10 shows
shows the
the evaluation
evaluation ofof the
the surface
surface temperature
temperature of of the
the wall
wall with
with the
the same
same material
material
properties composed of a single material. The change in the heat transmission coefficient
properties composed of a single material. The change in the heat transmission coefficient was was made by
made
changing
by thethe
changing thickness of the
thickness insulation
of the from
insulation 0.017
from to 0.3168
0.017 mm.
to 0.3168 mm.
Table 10. Cases for heat transmission coefficient of wall.

Surface
Number of Heat
Sol-Air Material and Thic Heat Radiant Heat
Cases Faces Exposed Transmissio
Temp. Composition kness Absorptio Fraction Amount
to Outdoor Air n Coefficient
n Rate
(℃) (-) (-) (m) (W/m2K) (-) (-) (W)
60
50
U_2.02 1 Insulation 17 0.017 2.02 0.1 0.6 411
40
30
Energies 2020, 13, 1684 10 of 21
Table 10. Cases for heat transmission coefficient of wall.

Cases Material and Radiant Heat
Sol-Air Temp. Exposed to Thickness Transmission Absorption
(◦ C) (-) (-) (m) (W/m2 K) (-) (-) (W)
60
U_2.02 50 1 Insulation 17 0.017 2.02 0.1 0.6 411
40
30
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR
60 PEER REVIEW 10 of 21
U_0.66
50 50 0.066
1 Insulation 66.8 0.0668 0.66 0.1 0.6 411
40
50 40 0.066
8
30
40 30
60 60
30 8
U_0.39 50
60 50
Insulation
Insulation 0.116
0.1168 0.39
U_0.39 1 1 116.8 0.39 0.10.1 0.6
0.6 411
411
40
50 40 116.8 8
Insulation 0.116
U_0.39 30 1 0.39 0.1 0.6 411
40 30 116.8 8
60
30 60
Insulation
U_0.22 50
60 50 1 Insulation 0.216
0.2168 0.22 0.1 0.6 411
U_0.22 1 216.8 0.22 0.1 0.6 411
40
50
40 216.8 8
Insulation 0.216
U_0.22 30 30 1 0.22 0.1 0.6 411
40 216.8 8
60 60
30 Insulation
U_0.15 50 50 1 Insulation 0.3168
0.316 0.15 0.1 0.6 411
U_0.15 60 1 316.9
0.15 0.1 0.6 411
40 40 316.9 8
50 Insulation 0.316
U_0.15 30 30 1 0.15 0.1 0.6 411
40 316.9 8
30
Thesurface
The surfacetemperature
temperature of of the
the wall
wall exposed
exposed to to the
the outside
outsideair airisisdecreased
decreasedfrom from31.9
31.9toto
26.1 ℃◦ C
26.1
whenthe
when theheat
The heattransmission
surfacetransmission
temperature coefficient
of the wall
coefficient of exposed
of the wall
the wall to changes from
from2.02
the outside
changes air istoto
2.02 0.15
0.15W/m
decreasedW/m
2 K2 K
from when
31.9the
when sol-air
tothe
26.1 ℃
sol-air
temperature
when the heat
temperature is
is 60 60◦ ℃ (Figure
transmission 8). This
C (Figure coefficient tendency is
of the wall
8). This tendency as a result
is aschanges of
a resultfrom heat transmission
2.02transmission
of heat to 0.15 W/m K coefficient
2 being
when thebeing
coefficient the
sol-airthe
determinantfactor
temperature
determinant factor
is 60 ℃ inin(Figure
thesurface
the surface temperature
8). This tendency of
temperature the
theawall
is as
of in
result
wall steady
inof state
stateconditions.
heat transmission
steady When
coefficient
conditions. When the sol-air
being
the the
sol-air
temperature
determinant is 30
factor◦ ℃ inthe
theambient
surface temperature is
of not
the affected
wall in by the
steady outside
state air, regardless
conditions.
temperature is 30 C the ambient temperature is not affected by the outside air, regardless of the heat When of
thethe heat
sol-air
transmission iscoefficient. Figure 9temperature
shows that for theaffected
transmission 30 ℃ the ambient
temperaturecoefficient. Figure 9 shows is not
that for thewall
wallthat byisis
that notoutside
thenotexposed
exposed air,toregardless
the outside
to ofair,
the outside the with
heat
air, with
exception of
transmission the front
coefficient.wall, the
Figure sol-air
9 temperature
shows that for thehas almost
wall that no
is influence.
not exposed to the outside air, with
exception of the front wall, the sol-air temperature has almost no influence.
exception of the front wall, the sol-air temperature has almost no influence.
Figure 8. Sol-air temperature and surface temperature for the heat transmission coefficient of the wall.
Figure9.9.Heat
Figure Heattransmission
transmission coefficient and surface
coefficient and surface temperature
temperaturefor
foreach
eachwall
wall(Case
(CaseU_2.02,
U_2.02, sol-air
sol-air
temp = 60
temp = 9.
◦ C).
℃). transmission coefficient and surface temperature for each wall (Case U_2.02, sol-air
60 Heat
Figure
temp = 60 ℃).
• Surface heat absorption rate of wall
• Surface
Table 11heat
and absorption rate that
Figure 10 show of wall
the wall with high heat absorption rate on the surface exposed to
the outside airand
Table 11 has Figure
a large 10
surface
showtemperature
that the wallchange according
with high to the change
heat absorption rate of
onthe
thesol-air
surfacetemperature.
exposed to
the outside air has a large surface temperature change according to the change of the sol-air temperature.
Energies 2020, 13, 1684 11 of 21
• Surface heat absorption rate of wall
Table 11 and Figure 10 show that the wall with high heat absorption rate on the surface exposed to
the outside air has a large surface temperature change according to the change of the sol-air temperature.
Table 11. Cases for the surface heat absorption rate of the wall.
Number of Surface
Sol-Air Group
Faces 1 Material and Thickn Group 2Heat Heat Group 3
Radiant Heat
Number of Faces Transmissio
Heat Surface Heat
Cases Temp. Exposed to Composition
Material and ess Absorption Fraction Heat
Radiant Amount
Sol-Air Temp. Exposed to
Composition
Thickness n Coefficient
Transmission Absorption
Fraction Amount
Outdoor Air Air
Outdoor Coefficient Rate
Rate
◦ 2
(℃) ( C) (-) (-)
(-) (-) (m)
(m) (W/m2 K)
(W/m K) (-)
(-) (-)
(-) (W)
(W)
60
60
Abs._0.1 50 1 Insulation 17 0.017 2.02 0.1 0.6 411
50
Abs._0.1 40 1 Insulation 17 0.017 2.02 0.1 0.6 411
40 30
30 60
Abs._0.6 60 50 1 Insulation 17 0.017 2.02 0.6 0.6 411
50 40 Insulation 17
Abs._0.6 1 0.017 2.02 0.6 0.6 411
40 30
30 60
Abs._0.9 60 50 1 Insulation 17 0.017 2.02 0.9 0.6 411
50 40
Abs._0.9 1 Insulation 17 0.017 2.02 0.9 0.6 411
40 30
30
The higher the surface absorption rate of the wall, the more the boundary conditions are affected
The higherair.
by the outside the surface
When the absorption rate of the wall,
sol-air temperature thethan
is less more30the
◦ Cboundary conditions
there is hardly are affected
any influence by
by the outside air. When the sol-air temperature is less than 30 ℃ there is hardly any influence
the outside air, regardless of the surface heat absorption rate of the wall. However, as the ambient by the
outside air, regardless
temperature of the
increases, the surface
influence of heat absorption
the surface rate of therate
heat absorption wall. However,
also increases.as the ambient
temperature increases, the influence of the surface heat absorption rate also increases.
Figure 10. Sol-air temperature and surface temperature for the surface heat absorption rate of the wall.
Figure 10. Sol-air temperature and surface temperature for the surface heat absorption rate of the wall.
4.3.2. Boundary Conditions on Site and Building
4.3.2. Boundary Conditions on Site and Building
• Sol-air temperature
• Sol-air temperature
In the wall with the same thermal conductivity, the inner surface temperature of the exposed
In the wall with the same thermal conductivity, the inner surface temperature of the exposed
surface is higher, since the sol-air temperature is higher (Table 12). As the sol-air temperature rises
surface is higher, since the sol-air temperature is higher (Table 12). As the sol-air temperature rises
from 30 to 60 ◦ C in the wall with 2.02 W/m2 K, the indoor surface temperature of the exposed surface
from 30 to 60 ℃ in the wall◦with 2.02 W/m2K, the indoor surface temperature of the exposed surface
also rises from 25.7 to 31.9 C Conversely, when the heat transmission coefficient of the wall is as low
also rises from 25.7 to 31.9 ℃ Conversely, when the heat transmission coefficient of the wall is as low
as the level of the passive house, the sol-air temperature has little effect on the surface temperature
as the level of the passive house, the sol-air temperature has little effect on the surface temperature
(Figure 11).
(Figure 11).
Table 12. Cases for sol-air temperature.

Number of Material Surface
Heat Radiant
Sol-Air Faces and Thicknes Heat Heat
Cases Transmissio Fractio
Temp. Exposed to Compositio s Absorption Amount
n Coefficient n
Outdoor air n Rate
(℃) (-) (-) (m) (W/m2K) (-) (-) (W)
411
Sol_60 60 1 Insulation 17 0.017 2.02 0.1 0.6 235
59
411
Energies 2020, 13, 1684 12 of 21
Table 12. Cases for sol-air temperature.

(◦ C) (-) (-) (m) (W/m2 K) (-) (-) (W)
411
Sol_60 60 1 Insulation 17 0.017 2.02 0.1 0.6 235
59
411
EnergiesSol_50 50 PEER REVIEW
2020, 13, x FOR 1 Insulation 66.8 0.0668 0.66 0.1 0.6 235 12 of 21
59
411 411
Insulation
Sol_40 40 1 Insulation
116.8
0.1168 0.39 0.1 0.6 235
Sol_40 40 1 0.1168 0.39 0.1 0.6 235
116.8 59
59
411
Sol_30 30 1
Insulation
0.2168 0.22 0.1 0.6 411
Insulation
216.8 235
Sol_30 30 1 0.2168 0.22 0.1 0.6 235
216.8 59
59
Figure 11. Wall heat transmission coefficient and surface temperature for sol-air temperature.
Figure 11. Wall heat transmission coefficient and surface temperature for sol-air temperature.
• Number of surfaces exposed to outdoor air
• Number of surfaces exposed to outdoor air
The larger the number of exposed surfaces to the outside environment under the same sol-air
The larger the number of exposed surfaces to the outside environment under the same sol-air
temperature, the greater the increase in surface temperature. However, the temperature changes of each
temperature, the greater the increase in surface temperature. However, the temperature changes of each
surface are very small (approximately less than 1 ◦ C). The surface temperature increases linearly with
surface are very small (approximately less than 1 ℃). The surface temperature increases linearly with
the ambient temperature, regardless of the number of surfaces exposed to the outside environment.
the ambient temperature, regardless of the number of surfaces exposed to the outside environment.
4.3.3. Boundary Conditions on Internal Heat Gain
4.3.3. Boundary Conditions on Internal Heat Gain
In order to understand the effect of internal heat gain on the boundary condition, the evaluation
In order to understand the effect of internal heat gain on the boundary condition, the evaluation
cases are presented as in Tables 13–15, and the surface temperature and the temperature change trend
cases are presented as in Tables 13–15, and the surface temperature and the temperature change trend
in each case were derived.
in each case were derived.
•• Amount of
Amount of internal
internal heat
heat gain
gain
As the internal
internal heat
heatgain
gainincreases,
increases,there
thereisisa corresponding
a corresponding surface
surface temperature
temperature change
change (Figure
(Figure 12).
12). In particular,
In particular, whenwhen the internal
the internal heatheat
gaingain
is 411 is 411 W, surface
W, the the surface temperature
temperature change
change ◦
is 1.8
is 1.8 ℃the
C as as
the radiation
radiation component
component of internal
of the the internal
heatheat
gaingain changes
changes fromfrom 0 to
0 to 1. 1. However,
However, whenwhen the internal
the internal heat
heat
gain gain
is asissmall
as small asW,
as 59 59 the
W, the surface
surface temperature
temperature change
change duedue
to to
thethe radiation
radiation component
component isis withina
within
amaximum
maximumofof0.5. 0.5.When
Whenthe theradiative
radiativecomponent
component of of the
the internal
internal heat
heat gain
gain is between 0.6 and 0.7, it
shows a constant surface temperature, regardless of the internal heat gain.
Table 13. Cases for amount of internal heat gain.

Number of
Surface
Faces Heat
Sol-Air Material and Heat Radiant Heat
Cases Exposed to Thickness Transmission
Temp. Composition Absorpti Fraction Amount
Outdoor Coefficient
on Rate
Air
(℃) (-) (-) (m) (W/m2K) (-) (-) (W)
0.0
0.2
60 0.4
Energies 2020, 13, 1684 13 of 21
Table 13. Cases for amount of internal heat gain.

(◦ C) (-) (-) (m) (W/m2 K) (-) (-) (W)
0.0
0.2
IHG._59 60 1 Insulation 17 0.017 2.02 0.1 0.4 59
0.6
0.8
1.0
0.0
0.2
EnergiesIHG._0.6 60
2020, 13, x FOR 1
PEER REVIEW Insulation 17 0.017 2.02 0.1 0.4 235
13 of 21
0.6
0.8
0.8
1.0
1.0
0.0
0.0
0.2
IHG._0.9 60 1 Insulation 17 0.017 2.02 0.1 0.2 411
0.4
0.6
0.4
IHG._0.9 60 1 Insulation 17 0.017 2.02 0.1 411
0.80.6
1.00.8
1.0
Figure 12. Radiant fraction and surface temperature for internal heat gain.
Figure 12. Radiant fraction and surface temperature for internal heat gain.
If there is no surface exposed to the outdoor environment, then the surface temperature will differ
If there is no surface exposed to the outdoor environment, then the surface temperature will differ
only by the effect of internal heat gain. In the case that the radiation component of internal heat gain is
only by the effect of internal heat gain. In the case that the radiation component of internal heat gain is
1, the surface temperature tends to increase with increasing internal heat generation. Alternatively,
1, the surface temperature tends to increase with increasing internal heat generation. Alternatively,
when the radiation component of the internal heat is less or equal to 0.6, the amount of internal heat
when the radiation component of the internal heat is less or equal to 0.6, the amount of internal heat
and the surface temperature tend to be inversely proportional to each other. The surface temperature
and the surface temperature tend to be inversely proportional to each other. The surface temperature
difference according to the radiative component of the internal heat was maximum at 3.2 ◦ C which is
difference according to the radiative component of the internal heat was maximum at 3.2 ℃ which is
more than that of the outdoor exposed surface. This is because the amounts of long wave absorption
more than that of the outdoor exposed surface. This is because the amounts of long wave absorption
and re-radiation of the surface due to the internal heat gain is increased.
and re-radiation of the surface due to the internal heat gain is increased.
•• Component of
Component of internal
internal heat
heat gain
gain
The
The surface
surface temperature
temperaturebased
basedon on the
the change
change in in radiation
radiation and
and convection
convection component
component through
through
various
various amounts
amounts of of internal
internal heat
heat gain
gain of
of between
between 59 59 and
and 411
411 WW was
was obtained.
obtained. When
When thethe radiation
radiation
component
componentof ofthe
theinternal
internalheat
heatgeneration
generationwaswas1,1, the
the surface
surface temperature
temperatureincreased
increasedwith
withthethesize
size of
of
the internal heat generation. On the other hand, when the radiation component of the
the internal heat generation. On the other hand, when the radiation component of the internal heat internal heat
generation
generation was
was0,0,the
themagnitude
magnitudewas wasinversely
inverselyproportional
proportional to tothe
thesurface
surfacetemperature
temperature ofofthe
theinternal
internal
heat
heat generation. Figure 13 presents the surface temperature derivation results based on the size
generation. Figure 13 presents the surface temperature derivation results based on the size of
of
internal
internal heat
heat generation.
generation.
Table 14. Cases for component of internal heat gain (exposed to outdoor air).

Number
of Faces Material Surface
Sol- Heat Radiant
Exposed and Thicknes Heat Heat
Cases Air Transmissio Fractio
to Compositio s Absorption Amount
Temp. n Coefficient n
Outdoor n Rate
Air
Energies 2020, 13, 1684 14 of 21
Table 14. Cases for component of internal heat gain (exposed to outdoor air).
(◦ C) (-) (-) (m) (W/m2 K) (-) (-) (W)
411
Rad._0.0 60 1 Insulation 17 0.017 2.02 0.1 0.0 235
59
411
Rad._0.2 60 1 Insulation 17 0.017 2.02 0.1 0.2 235
59
411
Rad._0.4 60 1 Insulation 17 0.017 2.02 0.1 0.4 235
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 59
14 of 21
411
Rad._0.6 60 1 Insulation 17 0.017 2.02 0.1 0.6 235
235
59 59
411 411
Rad._0.8 60 1 Insulation 17 0.017 2.02 0.1 0.8
Rad._0.8 60 1 Insulation 17 0.017 2.02 0.1 0.8 235 235
59
59
411
Rad._1.0 60 1 Insulation 17 0.017 2.02 0.1 1.0
411
235
Rad._1.0 60 1 Insulation 17 0.017 2.02 0.1 1.0 235
59
59
Figure 13. Internal heat gain and surface temperature for radiant fraction (exposed to outdoor air).
Figure 13. Internal heat gain and surface temperature for radiant fraction (exposed to outdoor air).
In this case, since the change in surface temperature due to significant outdoor temperature can
In this case,
be excluded, it is since the to
possible change
more in surface temperature
accurately due to the
determine whether significant outdoor
change in temperature
the surface can
temperature
be excluded, it is possible to more accurately determine whether the change in the
estimated above is as a result of internal heat generation. In the case where there is no surface exposed surface
temperature
to the outside estimated above the
environment, is asamount
a result of
of the
internal heatheating
internal generation. In the as
increases, case whereinthere
shown is no
Figure 14.
surface exposed to the outside environment, the amount of the internal heating
This tendency was least when the radiative component of the internal heat gain was 0.8. increases, as shown
in Figure 14. This tendency was least when the radiative component of the internal heat gain was 0.8.
Table 15. Cases for component of internal heat gain (unexposed to outdoor air).

Number of Material Surface
Sol- Heat
Faces and Thicknes Heat Radiant Heat
Cases air Transmissio
Exposed to Composit s Absorption Fraction Amount
Temp. n Coefficient
Outdoor Air ion Rate
(℃) (-) (-) (m) (W/m2K) (-) (-) (W)
411
Rad._0.0 - 0 Insulation 17 0.017 2.02 0.1 0.0 235
59
411
Rad._0.2 - 0 Insulation 17 0.017 2.02 0.1 0.2 235
59
411
Rad._0.4 - 0 Insulation 17 0.017 2.02 0.1 0.4 235
59
411
Rad._0.6 - 0 Insulation 17 0.017 2.02 0.1 0.6 235
59
411
Rad._0.8 - 0 Insulation 17 0.017 2.02 0.1 0.8 235
Energies 2020, 13, 1684 15 of 21
Table 15. Cases for component of internal heat gain (unexposed to outdoor air).
Sol-air Temp. Exposed to Thickness Transmission Absorption
(◦ C) (-) (-) (m) (W/m2 K) (-) (-) (W)
411
Rad._0.0 - 0 Insulation 17 0.017 2.02 0.1 0.0 235
59
411
Rad._0.2 - 0 Insulation 17 0.017 2.02 0.1 0.2 235
59
411
Rad._0.4 - 0 Insulation 17 0.017 2.02 0.1 0.4 235
59
411
Rad._0.6 - 0 Insulation 17 0.017 2.02 0.1 0.6 235
59
411
Rad._0.8 - 0 Insulation 17 0.017 2.02 0.1 0.8 235
59
411
Rad._1.0 - 0 Insulation 17 0.017 2.02 0.1 1.0 235
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 59 15 of 21
Figure 14. Internal heat gain and surface temperature for radiant fraction (unexposed to outdoor air).
Figure 14. Internal heat gain and surface temperature for radiant fraction (unexposed to outdoor
air). Analysis of Factors
4.4. Impact
WhenAnalysis
4.4. Impact evaluating the cooling capacity, the boundary conditions have different values and ranges
of Factors
for each influencing factor. Therefore, the impact of influencing factors on the boundary condition
shouldWhen evaluating The
be simulated. the cooling
effect ofcapacity, the boundary
the boundary condition conditions
influencinghave different
factors values
on the andsurface
indoor ranges
for each influencing factor. Therefore, the impact of influencing factors on the boundary
temperature is derived when the scale of the factors is equally set. Figure 15 shows that the values of condition
should
influencebefactors
simulated. The effect
belonging of the1–3
to Groups boundary condition
are normalized influencing
from factors
0 to 1. When on the
the value ofindoor surface
each influence
temperature is derived when the scale of the factors is equally set. Figure 15 shows
factor changes from 0 to 1, the change in surface temperature is also normalized from 0 to 1. that the values of
influence factors belonging to Groups 1–3 are normalized from 0 to 1. When the value of each influence
factor changes from 0 to 1, the change in surface temperature is also normalized from 0 to 1.
Figure 15. Scale of influencing factors.
Figure 16 shows that the factors that have the greatest influence on the boundary condition of
When evaluating the cooling capacity, the boundary conditions have different values and ranges
for each influencing factor. Therefore, the impact of influencing factors on the boundary condition
should be simulated. The effect of the boundary condition influencing factors on the indoor surface
temperature is derived when the scale of the factors is equally set. Figure 15 shows that the values of
Energies 2020, 13, 1684 16 of 21
influence factors belonging to Groups 1–3 are normalized from 0 to 1. When the value of each influence
factor changes from 0 to 1, the change in surface temperature is also normalized from 0 to 1.

Figure 16 shows that the factors that have the greatest influence on the boundary condition of the
Figure 16 shows that the factors that have the greatest influence on the boundary condition of
CRCP installed space is the number of the surfaces exposed to the outdoor environment. When the
the CRCP installed space is the number of the surfaces exposed to the outdoor environment. When
number of surfaces exposed to the outside air rises from 0 to 2, there is significant increase in the
the number of surfaces exposed to the outside air rises from 0 to 2, there is significant increase in the
surface temperature. Thus, the factor ‘number of surfaces exposed to the outdoors’ is assigned (1.0) as
surface temperature. Thus, the factor ‘number of surfaces exposed to the outdoors’ is assigned (1.0)
the reference of impact. Subsequently, the influences are significant in the following order: ‘sol-air
as the reference of impact. Subsequently, the influences are significant in the following order: ‘sol-air
temperature’
temperature’(impact
(impact0.91), ‘heattransmission
0.91), ‘heat transmissioncoefficient’
coefficient’ (impact
(impact 0.85),
0.85), ‘surface
‘surface heat heat absorption
absorption rate’
rate’ (impact
(impact 0.63),
0.63), and and ‘component
‘component of internal
of internal heat (impact
heat gain’ gain’ (impact 0.28).the
0.28). Since Since the influence
influence of the
of the surface
surface temperature
temperature on the onfactors
the factors related
related to the
to the site site
andand building
building belonging
belonging to to Group
Group 1 1isishigh,
high,when
when
evaluating
evaluatingthe thecooling
coolingcapacity
capacityofofthe
theCRCP,
CRCP,the thesurface
surface temperature
temperature should
should be be set
set based
based on onthethe
adjacent space and the outside air temperature. The influencing factors, which
adjacent space and the outside air temperature. The influencing factors, which are in Group 2, are are in Group 2, are
less influential compared to Group 1. The internal heat gain factors of Group 3 have
less influential compared to Group 1. The internal heat gain factors of Group 3 have relatively little relatively little
effects onon
effects the
thesurface
surfacetemperature.
temperature.In Inaaroom
roomwith
with more
more than
than one surface exposed
one surface exposedto tothe
theoutside
outsideair, air,
thethe
thermal load caused by the external load is dominant, compared
thermal load caused by the external load is dominant, compared to the to the other factors.
Figure 16. Impact of factors on boundary condition.

Figure 16. Impact of factors on boundary condition.
5. Cooling Capacity According to Boundary Condition
5. Cooling Capacity According to Boundary Condition
5.1. Evaluation of Cooling Capacity According to Boundary Condition
5.1.In
Evaluation
order to of Cooling
verify theCapacity
boundary According
conditionto Boundary Condition of the cooling capacity evaluation
and the influences
derived Infrom
orderthis study,the
to verify the cooling condition
boundary capacity ofandthethepanel was estimated
influences usingcapacity
of the cooling variousevaluation
boundary
conditions.
derived from this study, the cooling capacity of the panel was estimated using various boundaryof
The simulation of the cooling capacity evaluation is based on the boundary condition
the panel modeled
conditions. using the of
The simulation EnergyPlus
the coolingsimulation highlighted
capacity evaluation in Section
is based 4.1.
on the For the calculation
boundary condition ofof
the cooling
the panel capacity,
modeled the evaluation
using case consisted
the EnergyPlus simulationof athighlighted
least three in
different
Sectionboundary conditions
4.1. For the in the
calculation of
simulation model. The cases consist of the top two factors with the most influence. Finally,
the cooling capacity, the evaluation case consisted of at least three different boundary conditions in the cooling
capacity of the panel
the simulation could
model. becases
The calculated
consistatof
each
the boundary condition.
top two factors with Table 16 shows
the most the configuration
influence. Finally, the
ofcooling
the simulation
capacitycase.
of the panel could be calculated at each boundary condition. Table 16 shows the
configuration of the simulation case.
Table 16. Cooling capacity according to site and building.

Number of Heat Surface
Sol- Heat Nominal
Energies 2020, 13, 1684 17 of 21
Table 16. Cooling capacity according to site and building.

Number of
Heat Surface Heat Nominal
Cases Sol-Air Faces Material and Radi-ant Heat
Thick-ness Transmission Absorption Cooling
Temp. Exposed to Composition Frac-tion Amount
Coefficient Rate Capacity
Outdoor Air
(◦ C) (-) (-) (m) (W/m2 K) (-) (-) (W) (W/m2 )
411
Adj._0 60 0 Insulation 17 0.017 2.02 0.1 0.6 76.77
235
59
411
Adj._1 60 1 Insulation 17 0.017 2.02 0.1 0.6 90.12
235
59
411
Adj.2 60 2 Insulation 17 0.017 2.02 0.1 0.6 95.32
235
59
411
Sol_60 60 1 Insulation 17 0.017 2.02 0.1 0.6 90.12
235
59
411
Sol_50 50 1 Insulation 17 0.017 2.02 0.1 0.6 87.60
235
59
411
Sol_40 40 1 Insulation 17 0.017 2.02 0.1 0.6 83.95
235
59
411
Sol_30 30 1 Insulation 17 0.017 2.02 0.1 0.6 79.37
235
59
5.2. Evaluation
Energies 2020, 13, xResults
FOR PEERof Cooling
REVIEW Capacity 17 of 21
When the sol-air temperature increases from 30 to 60 ◦ C the nominal cooling capacity of the
When the sol-air temperature increases from 30 to 60 ℃ the nominal cooling capacity of the panel
2 to between 79.37 and 90.12 W/m2 (Figure 17). This tendency is more
panel increases from 10.75 W/m
increases from 10.75 W/m to between 79.37 and 90.12 W/m2 (Figure 17). This tendency is more
2
pronounced when the sol-air temperature is higher. When the number of exposed surfaces increases
pronounced when the sol-air temperature is higher. When the number of exposed surfaces increases
from 0 to 2, the nominal cooling capacity of the panel increases from 76.77 to 95.32 W/m2 . As a result, the
from 0 to 2, the nominal cooling capacity of the panel increases from 76.77 to 95.32 W/m2. As a result,
nominal cooling capacity of the panel is highly evaluated with the same CRCPs (Figure 18). When the
the nominal cooling capacity of the panel is highly evaluated with the same CRCPs (Figure 18). When
number of exposed surfaces is three or more, the supply water temperature of the CRCP becomes
the number of exposed surfaces is three or more, the supply water temperature of the CRCP becomes
excessively low, and the supply water-return temperature difference becomes larger than the design
excessively low, and the supply water-return temperature difference becomes larger than the design
standard. In this case, it is impossible to eliminate all the thermal loads generated in the room by the
standard. In this case, it is impossible to eliminate all the thermal loads generated in the room by the
panel only, and a secondary system is required.
panel only, and a secondary system is required.
Figure 17. Cooling capacity according to sol-air temperature.

Energies 2020, 13, 1684 18 of 21
Figure 18. Cooling capacity according to adjacent to outdoor air.

Figure 18. Cooling capacity according to adjacent to outdoor air.
5.3. Verification Experiment of Boundary Condition Derivation Model
5.3. Verification Experiment of Boundary Condition Derivation Model
In order to verify the simulation, the boundary condition for cooling capacity analysis was
experimentally
In order toimplemented using thethe
verify the simulation, same method,condition
boundary and the for
results werecapacity
cooling compared with was
analysis the
simulation
experimentally
Energies results (Figure
implemented
2020, 13, x FOR 19) [20–23]. Table 17 shows that the verified boundary conditions
PEER REVIEWusing the same method, and the results were compared with 18 ofthe
in the
21
experiment includes
simulation results the flow
(Figure 19)rate, supply
[20–23]. water
Table temperature,
17 shows that thethe wall surface
verified temperature,
boundary conditionsand
in the
the
internal
experimentheatincludes
gain [24,25].
the flow rate, supply water temperature, the wall surface temperature, and the
internal heat gain [24,25].
(a)
(b)
(c) (d)
(e) (f)
Figure
Figure 19.
19. Experimental
Experimentalevaluation
evaluationof ofthe
thecooling
coolingcapacity
capacityof
ofthe
theCRCP:
CRCP:(a)
(a) Cooling
Cooling Radiant
Radiant Ceiling
Ceiling
Panel;
Panel; (b)
(b) test
test cell
cell wall
wall distribution
distribution system;
system; (c)
(c) CRCP
CRCP joint
joint and
and distribution
system; (d)
(d) ceiling
ceiling and
and
floor
floordistribution
system; (e)
(e) indoor
indoor of
oftest
testcell
cellwith
withwall
walltemperature
temperaturecontrol;
control; (f)
(f)heat
heatsource
sourcefor
forCRCP
CRCP
andwalls.
and walls.
Table 17. Boundary condition for cooling capacity evaluation experiments.
Cases Cooling 1 Cooling 2 Cooling 3

Boundary condition Unit Results
Water flow rate (kg/s) 0.153 0.153 0.153
Inlet water (℃) 11.4 14.0 16.7
Outlet water (℃) 14.9 17.0 19.0
Globe air
Energies 2020, 13, 1684 19 of 21
Table 17. Boundary condition for cooling capacity evaluation experiments.
Cases Cooling 1 Cooling 2 Cooling 3

Boundary condition Unit Results
Water flow rate (kg/s) 0.153 0.153 0.153
Inlet water (◦ C) 11.4 14.0 16.7
Outlet water (◦ C) 14.9 17.0 19.0
Globe air (height 1.1 m) (◦ C) 27.0 26.8 26.5
Front wall surface (◦ C) 32.5 32.6 32.6
Back wall surface (◦ C) 25.4 25.4 25.5
Temperature
Left wall surface (◦ C) 25.4 25.4 25.5
Right wall surface (◦ C) 25.4 25.4 25.5
Floor (◦ C) 25.0 25.9 26.0
Ceiling (◦ C) 24.0 25.5 26.0
Plenum air (◦ C) 24.9 25.0 25.0
Energies 2020, 13, xInternal
FOR PEER REVIEW
heat gain (W) 411 235 5919 of 21
Temp. rise (◦ C)
3.56 2.96 2.34
Temperature
Figure 20 shows that the cooling capacity of the CRCP is 100.1–153.0 W/m2 at a constant flow
Temp. difference ◦
( C) 13.85 11.30 8.66
rate of 0.153 kg/s and a supply water temperature of 11–17 ℃ Table 18 shows that the nominal cooling
Cooling
capacity of CRCP is 93.2 W/m Nominal (W/m2 )
2. As a result of the experiment, 153.02
the 127.23
difference in cooling amount100.13from
capacity
the simulation model is approximately
Total amount 3.08 W/m . In(W)
2 the simulation,
1088the cooling905
capacity of the712CRCP
may vary based on the modeling technique, in addition to the detail of adhesion between various
members
Figureand joints constituting
20 shows the panel
that the cooling [26].
capacity ofThe coolingiscapacity
the CRCP estimated
100.1–153.0 W/m2 atinathe simulation
constant and
flow rate
experiment has an agreement of 96.7%. As a result of the
◦ experiment, the validity
of 0.153 kg/s and a supply water temperature of 11–17 C Table 18 shows that the nominal coolingof the simulation
model was
capacity verified.
of CRCP is 93.2 W/m2 . As a result of the experiment, the difference in cooling amount from
the simulation model is approximately 3.08 W/m2 . In the simulation, the cooling capacity of the CRCP
Table 18. Nominal cooling capacity of CRCP.
may vary based on the modeling technique, in addition to the detail of adhesion between various
members and joints constitutingNominal Cooling
the panel [26]. TheCharacteristic Exponentialin the simulation and
cooling capacity estimated
Panel
Capacity Coefficient k Coefficient n
experiment has an agreement
Name of 96.7%. As a result of the experiment, the validity of the simulation
(W/m2) (-) (-)
model was verified. CRCP 93.20 14.253 0.903
Figure 20. Test result for the cooling capacity of the CRCP.
Figure 20. Test result for the cooling capacity of the CRCP.
Table 18. Nominal cooling capacity of CRCP.
6. Conclusion
Nominal Cooling Capacity Characteristic Coefficient k Exponential Coefficient n
Panel Name
(W/m2 ) (-) (-)
In this study, the boundary condition for the evacuation of cooling capacity of the CRCP according
CRCP 93.20 14.253 0.903
to various boundary condition influencing factors was derived. According to the results of this study,
it can be seen that the cooling capacity of the CRCP varies depending on the boundary conditions. In
particular, when the space in which the CRCP is installed is exposed to a large area of outside air, and
when the outdoor temperature is high, the nominal cooling capacity of the panel could be
overestimated. The reason is that excessive radiation and convective heat transfer between the test room
and the CRCP may occur. Particular attention should be paid to the calculation of the cooling capacity,
especially when installing the ceiling radiant cooling panels adjacent to the walls exposed to the outside
air. In addition, the same results are obtained even when the surface heat absorption rate and thermal
conductivity of the wall are high. The results of this study, in which the cooling capacity of the CRCPs
Energies 2020, 13, 1684 20 of 21
6. Conclusions
In this study, the boundary condition for the evacuation of cooling capacity of the CRCP according
to various boundary condition influencing factors was derived. According to the results of this study,
it can be seen that the cooling capacity of the CRCP varies depending on the boundary conditions.
In particular, when the space in which the CRCP is installed is exposed to a large area of outside
air, and when the outdoor temperature is high, the nominal cooling capacity of the panel could be
overestimated. The reason is that excessive radiation and convective heat transfer between the test
room and the CRCP may occur. Particular attention should be paid to the calculation of the cooling
capacity, especially when installing the ceiling radiant cooling panels adjacent to the walls exposed to
the outside air. In addition, the same results are obtained even when the surface heat absorption rate
and thermal conductivity of the wall are high. The results of this study, in which the cooling capacity
of the CRCPs can be estimated in various boundary conditions, are expected to be a significant design
basis for applying the panels. In the future, the airflow analysis of the space with CRCPs using CFD
will be carried out according to the boundary conditions derived from this study [27].
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, S.-R.R. and M.-S.Y.; Data curation, G.-S.J.; Investigation, S.-H.P.
and S.-R.R.; Methodology, S.-H.P.; Project administration, K.-W.K.; Software, S.-H.P. and D.-W.K.; Supervision,
M.-S.Y. and K.-W.K.; Validation, S.-H.P. and G.-S.J.; Visualization, D.-W.K.; Writing—original draft, S.-H.P.;
Writing—review and editing, S.-R.R. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Korea Institute of Energy Technology Evaluation and Planning (KETEP)
and the Ministry of Trade, Industry and Energy (MOTIE) of the Republic of Korea, grant number 20189220100060.
The APC was funded by 20189220100060.
Acknowledgments: This work was supported by the Korea Institute of Energy Technology Evaluation and
Planning (KETEP) and the Ministry of Trade, Industry and Energy (MOTIE) of the Republic of Korea.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Energies 2020, 13, 1684; doi:10.3390/en13071684 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2020, 13, 1684 2 of 21

Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 21

The Cooling Radiant Ceiling Panel hangs on the

Table 3. Previous studies on irregular surrounding conditions.

Author or Organization Issues

2.3. Concept for Establishing Boundary Condition

3. Environment of Room Equipped with CRCP

3.1. Heat Transfer Model of Room Equipped with CRCP

Energies 2020, 13, 1684 5 of 21

Figure 3. Heat transfer in a space equipped with CRCP.

Figure 3. Heat transfer in a space equipped with CRCP.

3.3. Values and Ranges of Influencing Factors

Table 5. Value of influencing factors.

Groups Factors Unit Value and Range

Table 6. Material and composition of wall.

Table 7. Heat transmission coefficient of wall.

4. Evaluation of Boundary Condition of the CRCP Equipped Room

4.1. Concept of the Boundary Condition Derivation Model

Table 8. Modeling process to evaluate the boundary condition.

Step Modeling Process

Figure 5. Modeling of room and CRCP.

Table 9. Cases for material and composition of wall.

• Heat transmission coefficient of wall

Table 10. Cases for heat transmission coefficient of wall.

Table 10. Cases for heat transmission coefficient of wall.

• Surface heat absorption rate of wall

Table 12. Cases for sol-air temperature.

Group 1 Group 2 Group 3

Table 12. Cases for sol-air temperature.

Table 13. Cases for amount of internal heat gain.

Group 1 Group 2 Group 3

Table 13. Cases for amount of internal heat gain.

Group 1 Group 2 Group 3

Group 1 Group 2 Group 3

Figure 15. Scale of influencing factors.

Figure 15. Scale of influencing factors.

Figure 16. Impact of factors on boundary condition.

Table 16. Cooling capacity according to site and building.

Group 1 Group 2 Group 3

Table 16. Cooling capacity according to site and building.

Figure 17. Cooling capacity according to sol-air temperature.

Figure 18. Cooling capacity according to adjacent to outdoor air.

Table 17. Boundary condition for cooling capacity evaluation experiments.

Cases Cooling 1 Cooling 2 Cooling 3

Table 17. Boundary condition for cooling capacity evaluation experiments.

Cases Cooling 1 Cooling 2 Cooling 3

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