SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE

DELHI TECHNICAL CAMPUS, GREATER NOIDA

AFFILIATED TO - GURU GOBIND SINGH INDRAPRASTHA UNIVERSITY, DELHI

ADAPTATION OF VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE IN

CONTEMPORARY PRACTICES OF HILLY TERRAIN

SUBMITTEDBY:

STUTI SHARMA

05518001617

SUBMITTED TO:
AR.SWATI PUNYAL

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF

BACHELOR OF ARCHITECTURE

BATCH: 2017-22

DATE : 00/00/00

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 CERTIFICATE OF ACCEPTIBILITY

COMPLETION OF RESEARCH WORK

Registered with – Ar. Swati Punyal

Degree followed - Bachelor of Architecture

This is to certify that Mr. / Ms. Enrollment no.- 05518001617 is a registered student of the
Institute has completed his/her B. Arch Research Paper in accordance with the requirements as
laid down by the department& as per GGIPU syllabus.

The work is acceptable for examination.

Title of Research Paper – Adaptation of Vernacular Architecture in Contemporary practices of

Hilly Terrain

Signature of Internal Guide Signature of Research Paper Coordinator Signature of HOD

(Ar. Swati Punyal) (Ar. Charu Jain) (Ar. Tanya Gupta)
Designation - HOD, School of Architecture
Delhi Technical Campus(GGSIPU)
Greater NOIDA

Seal of
Date .
Dept.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The Research Paper presented here would not have been possible but for the guidance&
support of Ar. TanyaGupta, HOD, School of Architecture for extending her support & valuable
guidance whenever wherever required.

Guide & mentor for her/his relentless pursuit of high academic standards, the can-do attitude &
imbibing professional ethics have helped this project meet high academic standards &
professional working.

My parents who have taught me to strive for perfection in everything I do.

Any other person

And also my friends & colleagues who were always around to help me.

Appreciation & gratitude is owed to them.

STUTI SHARMA
Student

2017-22
Batch

Date _____________.

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Table of Contents
1. Introduction ................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
1.2 Need of the study ................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
1.3 Aim ......................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
1.4 Objectives .............................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
1.5 Scope ..................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
1.6 Limitations .............................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
1.7 Hypothesis ............................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
1.8 Methodology ........................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
2. Literature study ......................................................................................................... 10
2.1 Vernacular Architecture ....................................................................................... 10
2.1.1 Benefits of vernacular architecture ................................................................. 11
2.1.2 Factors influencing vernacular architecture .................................................... 12
2.2 Hilly regions of India ............................................................................................. 13
2.3 Vernacular architecture of hilly regions of North India ......................................... 15
2.3.1 Himachal Pradesh ......................................................................................... 15
2.3.2 Jammu and Kashmir ..................................................................................... 19
2.3.3 Leh Ladakh.................................................................................................... 37
2.3.4 Uttarakhand ................................................................................................... 28
2.4 Construction Techniques ..................................................................................... 38
2.4.1 Kath-kuni style : .............................................................................................. 38
2.4.2 Mud Houses : ................................................................................................. 38
2.4.3 Thathara ......................................................................................................... 39
2.4.4 Dhajji Wall ...................................................................................................... 40
2.4.5 Taq Construction ............................................................................................ 41
2.5 Formulation of Building Regulations .................................................................... 42
2.5.1 Ground Coverage : ......................................................................................... 46
2.5.2 Material Regulation : ...................................................................................... 46
2.5.4 Site development regulations ......................................................................... 47
2.5.5 Slope stabilization and protection : ................................................................. 48

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 2.5.6 Aesthetic and facade design regulations : ...................................................... 48
2.6 Green building materials for hilly regions ............................................................. 49
2.6.1 Introduction..................................................................................................... 49
2.6.2 Need for sustainable construction ................................................................. 49
2.6.3 Green building materials for hilly regions ...................................................... 49

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List of Figures

Figure 1 - Bhonga Hut, Kutch ........................................................................................ 10

Figure 2 - Benefits of Vernacular Architecture ............................................................... 12
Figure 3 - Map of India showing hilly regions ................................................................ 13
Figure 4 - Climatic classifications of Himachal Pradesh ................................................ 15
Figure 5 - Features of a traditional house in Himachal Pradesh .................................... 16
Figure 6 - Deodar wood used as a building material ..................................................... 18
Figure 7 - Mud used for construction ............................................................................. 19
Figure 8 - Traditional house constructed using stone .................................................... 19
Figure 9 - Kath-kuni style of architecture ....................................................................... 38
Figure 10 - A house constructed in Kathkuni Style, Chitkul Sangla Valley .................... 38
Figure 11 - An under construction mud house in Spiti Valley ........................................ 39
Figure 12 -A mud shelter near Parashar Lake, Mandi ................................................... 39
Figure 13 - Thathara style house near Bharmani mata temple, Chamba ...................... 40
Figure 14 - Dhajji wall pattern ........................................................................................ 41
Figure 15 - Typical wooden bracing of Taq style ........................................................... 42
Figure 16- Front facade of a house built in Taq style .................................................... 42
Figure 17 - Steel Framework ......................................................................................... 50

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1. Introduction
Vernacular is often described as an encapsulation of magnificence and celestial
flawlessness. Vernacular architecture is an architectural style that is designed based on
local needs, availability of construction materials and reflecting local traditions. A
vernacular building is the one which is for daily use for ordinary, local people and built
by local craftsmen. But why has it become so ironic as to see a depression in such
buildings and a rise in the contemporary modern counterparts. Though modern
architecture has taken its throne in today‘s world, nevertheless vernacular architecture
is always referred and looked up to for academic literature, guidance and for
environmental practices. But in this contemporary world, the local architecture is being
ignored. This ignorance is causing damage and harm to nature. To avoid this harm, the
architects are combining regionalism and cultural building traditions which is resulting in
energy efficient, cost efficient and climate responsive buildings.

Figure 1: Different forms of vernacular architecture in India

This particular research work will enlighten the relation between man and nature
through rituals and believes through the case studies done on traditional housing
systems. The viability and the sustainability of vernacular buildings have always been
an important asset to man. We can see a change in exploring history of architecture in
time, as much importance is emphasized on vernacular architecture with environmental
that can be beneficial to the modern day science. The immediate connection to human
needs and convenience of economy, conviction and social qualities yields a
phenomenological feeling of spot that is along these lines significant incentive to the
investigation of past conventions however as a commitment to new strategies, solutions
and achievements for the future built environment. In this time of rapid technological
advancement and urbanization, there is still much to be learned from the traditional
knowledge of vernacular construction.

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1.2 Need of the study
The need of vernacular architecture is to provide a space which is climatically
responsive and aesthetically pleasing. Vernacular materials provide more financially
feasible, eco-friendly and technically sound design. Due to these possibilities, these
materials and design have gained the attention in the green building movement, by the
use of locally accessible resources that address local conditions in a cost-effective way.
Using vernacular architecture also provides contextual approach to design process.
These are the principles which are more often ignored by prevailing architects. Hence
vernacular architecture is being promoted for the contemporary modern design.

1.3 Aim
To comprehend the importance and relevance of vernacular architecture and its
adaptation in hilly areas.

1.4 Objectives
 To study salient features of vernacular practices evolved in hilly areas like the
use of local materials, environmentally friendly design, etc.
 To highlight the advantages of using local materials and techniques as a factor of
local socio-economic development.
 To analyse the effect of vernacular architecture in a sustainable approach.
 To propose vernacular strategies which provide sufficient protection against
harsh climatic conditions and natural calamities.

1.5 Scope
 Attaining cost-effectiveness using locally available materials.
 Understanding the culture of hilly areas and how it is reflected in architecture.
 Creating a space that has minimal harmful impact on nature.
 Reduce the construction waste.
 Highlight materiality and design innovation.
 A contextual approach to design process.

1.6 Limitations
The study area is limited towards exploring the vernacular architecture of hilly regions of
India, analysing the benefit and need of its adaptation towards contemporary world and
to look at the work of architects with the help of case studies.

1.7 Hypothesis
Vernacular architecture shall be adapted in contemporary world to make energy-
efficient, cost-effective and climate responsive buildings in hilly areas
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1.8 Methodology

Selection of topic

Understanding the area of research

Formulating Aim and Objectives

Defining Scope and Limitations

Literature study Case studies

Data collection
 Books related to vernacular  Naggar Castle, Himachal Pradesh
architecture.  ShivAdya Resort & Spa , Manali
 Research papers on vernacular  Dorje House, Ladakh
practices in hilly areas.  Khyah Village, Hamirpur
 Articles

Survey – questionnaire

Inferences Analysis Inferences

Conclusion

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2. Literature study

2.1 Vernacular Architecture

Figure 1 - Bhonga Hut, Kutch

Honest, straightforward, indigenous, customary structures made of local materials and

following all around attempted structures and types. The term "Vernacular architecture"
by and large alludes to the casual building of structures through traditional building
techniques without utilizing the administrations of an architect. It is the most inescapable
type of building. Vernacular architecture is portrayed by its dependence on needs,
development materials and customs explicit to its specific region. It is a kind of
architecture which is indigenous to a particular time and place and not reproduced from
somewhere else.

Generally, vernacular architecture has consolidated the aptitudes and mastery of

neighborhood developers rather than officially prepared architects. Vernacular
architecture began when humankind had to utilize the regular assets around him, and
give himself shelter and comfort which is receptive to the atmosphere, a shield from the
components. It is an unadulterated response to a distinctive individual's or society's
structure needs, and has permitted man, even before the planner, to develop cover as
indicated by his situation.

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Vernacular architecture sticks to fundamental green building standards of energy
efficiency and using materials and assets in nearness to the site. These structures profit
by the local information on how structures can be viably planned just as how to take
advantage of neighborhood materials and assets. In the event that anything is to be
taken from vernacular architecture, it gives an essential association among people and
nature. It restores us in our specific aspect of the world and powers us to think as far as
unadulterated endurance – design before the designer.

The development of vernacular architecture centers on the functions that the building
type is required to perform. The design at that point for the most part develops after
some time, getting more refined and customized to the settings wherein it exists,
including:

 The availability of resources, skilled workforce, and so on.

 Local technology.
 Climate: The measure of daylight, mugginess, downpour, wind, temperature
profiles,etc.
 Local culture: The lifestyle of the occupiers extraordinarily impacts the structure.
This can incorporate the size of families, the manner in which the structure is
utilized, social conditions, nearby traditions, strict qualities, etc.
 Environment: Whether it is located near water, woodland, desert or mountainous
terrain, and so on.
 Economic conditions.
 Historical influences.

2.1.1 Benefits of vernacular architecture

 Capitalizing on local knowledge and traditions.
 Taking advantage of local materials and resources, meaning that they are
relatively energy efficient and sustainable.
 Providing a vital connection between humans and the environment in which they
live.
 They can be designed specifically with the local climatic conditions in mind, and
often perform well.

(Edwards, 2011)

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 Figure 2 - Benefits of Vernacular Architecture

2.1.2 Factors influencing vernacular architecture

 Climate: The structure of the building must support all the impacts brought about
by the environmental change, precipitation and twists subsequently the structure
geography of the specific zone is novel.

 Culture: The social foundation additionally helps in outlining the vernacular of a particular
territory. The convictions and ceremonies practice by the individuals, the nearby food and
living style likewise assumes a fundamental job.

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  Materials:. Material utilized will rely on the state of being of that region. Vernacular
is maintainable and doesn't debilitate nearby assets. Just those assets are utilized
which are found in plenitude and are non-comprehensive.

2.2 Hilly regions of India

Figure 3 - Map of India showing hilly regions

Most of the hill stations in India are
located in Jammu and Kashmir, Manipur, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, West

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Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland and Meghalaya in the Himalayas and
in Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Goa, Tamilnadu, and Kerala in Western
ghats.[1] Some are located in Eastern ghat Tamilnadu, Andhra
Pradesh, Odisha and West Bengal.

1) HIMACHAL PRADESH - Kullu Valley, Manali, Rohtang Pass, Chamba, Kangra,

Khajjiar, Kinnaur, Mandi, Chail, Dalhousie, Dharamshala , Kasauli, Shimla, Una,
Lahaul valley, Hamirpur, Bilaspur, Solan, Kinnaur, Sirmaur

2) JAMMU & KASHMIR - Amarnath, Srinagar, Gulmarg, Pahelgam, Rajori,

P a t n i t o p , D a h & H a n u , Aru, Kishtwar, Sonmarg

3) LEH LADAKH

4) UTTARAKHAND – Abbott Mount, Almora, Auli, Bhimtal, Bhowali, Binsar, Chakrata,

Chamba, Champawat , Chaukori, Chopta, Dhanaulti, Dharchula, Didihat, Dwarahat,
Gwaldam, Harsil, Jeolikot, Kanatal, Kausani, Khirsu, Lansdowne, Lohaghat,
Mukteshwar, Munsiyari, Mussoorie, Nainital, Naukuchiatal , Pangot, Pauri, Garhwal,
Pithoragarh, Ramgarh, Ranikhet, Sattal, Tehri, Garhwal, Ukhimath, Uttarkashi

5) SIKKIM – Gangtok, Ravanglaa at tha base of Maenam Hill, Pelling, Rinchenpong,

Tendong Hill

6) NAGALAND - Kohima

7) MANIPUR - Imphal

8) RAJASTHAN – Mount Abu

9) GUJARAT - Saputara

7) MAHARASHTRA – Mahabaleshwar, Panchgani, Khandala

8) ANDHRA PRADESH – Horsey Hills

9) TAMIL NADU - Ooty, Kodaikanal

10) KERALA – Ponmudi, Peermadam Munnar, Dailkuman, Wayanad

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2.3 Vernacular architecture of hilly regions of Northern India
2.3.1 Himachal Pradesh

1) Climate :

There is a huge variation in the climatic condition due to variation in altitude. The
climate varies from:

Hot and sub-humid tropical (350- 900m) in the southern low tracts
Warm and temperate (900-1800m)
Cool and temperate (1900-2400m)
Cool glacial and alpine (2400- 4800m) in the northern and eastern high elevated
mountain ranges.
The annual average rainfall is 1469mm.

Figure 4 - Climatic classifications of Himachal Pradesh

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Climatic Influence –

Due to the cold climate, the southern slopes are preferred. The orientation of the
houses is to maximize the penetration of the sun rays.
The path of the sun, controls the height of building, as the sun is needed for each
dwelling unit.
The structure is a two storey building with an Attic.
Low Height of the rooms (2.1 – 2.4 m) which results in low surface to volume ratio
reducing heat loss from surfaces.
Small window size and low ceiling height to prevent heat loss and keep the interiors
warmer.
Terrace in all around the building should have proper slope for efficient drainage, in

heavy rain fall and snow fall areas.

Slope for
efficient
drainage

Small
windows

Low ceiling
height

Figure 5 - Features of a traditional house in Himachal Pradesh

2) Culture :

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  Forest and Farming – 64% of land area is covered with forests in Himachal
Pradesh. Because of the existence of these forests, the most predominant
material of construction is wood. Primary rooted in a difficult landscape , the
lifestyle and economy revolves around farming.

 Artisanal activities – Relative isolation, combined with harsh climate , and being
cut off in the hills, appear to have encouraged artisanal activities such as wood
carving, weaving, embroidery, brass work, etc. with a very refined aesthetic
sense.

 Land of Gods - It is no wonder that every hamlet and village in the mountains –
no matter how small it may be , worships one or more devtas. This is perhaps the
reason why temples occupy site that are experientially highly charged.

 Socio–cultural landscape – Nearly 90% of the population of Himachal Pradesh is

spread thinly in small villages. The rural population has traditionally depended
upon agriculture and animal husbandry as prime economic activities. The
patterns of built forms and settlements also reflect centrality of these activities.

Cultural influence –

• The major occupation – agriculture. Thus the house consist of many stores
built for storage of grains.
• Service Area forms a separate unit away from the living quarters. Generally,
cow-shed and kitchen forms a separate unit.
• The Indian calendar months of Baisakh, Poh, Magh and Phalgun are regarded
as auspicious for the start of construction.
• Ideally, the main aspect of the house should face east and the rising sun.
• As a general rule the houses do not have a boundary wall.

3) Building Materials :

 Deodar Wood
• Easily available, one of the strongest Indian conifers.
• Imparts stability to tall structures.

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 • This wood is insect and termite resistant and even when untreated, can
withstand long periods of weather corrosion.
• Used in making posts, beams, window and door frames, shutters, roofs
etc.
• Soft wood, easy to work in absence of high tech tools.
• Its properties were understood early and its texture and scent have been
prized for ages.

Figure 6 - Deodar wood used as a building material

 Mud
• Easy availability.
• Good insulation.
• Good binding properties.
• Either mud is filled into the wooden
forms and rammed into the place slowly
building up the wall or sun dried mud blocks
are used in the construction of the wall.

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 Figure 7 - Mud used for construction

 Stone
• Hard Stone: Obtained from local quarries and used in building foundation and
walls.
• Slate Tiles: Metamorphic rock. Used in roofs of buildings. Has high quartz
content, frost resistant, absorbs heat and provides moisture barrier. Low
maintenance, Invulnerable to rot and insects.

Figure 8 - Traditional house constructed using stone

CLASSIFICATION OF CLIMATIC ZONES AND THEIR TRADITIONAL

CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES

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The character and forms are different from one climatic and geographic zone to
other which can be identified in three separate zones, i.e., upto 4000 ft. (1200 m
approx.), upto 9000 ft. (2700 m approx.) and above 9000 ft. (2700 m approx.) So
the state of Himachal can be broadly classified into three zones depending upon
their elevations (Fig.1).

Fig. 1 Map of Himachal Pradesh showing classification of

zones(Source:www.indianetzone.com/3/himachal_pradesh.htm)

FOOT HILLS OR THE LOWER - HIMALAYAN REGION

In the first climatic zone i.e., up to height of 4,000 ft. (1200 m approx.), where climatic
conditions are mild throughout the year, i.e., pleasant summers, mild winters and
medium rain falls. Flora of this region is similar to that of Tarai belt. The special
characteristics of this zone are absence of snow fall.
The orientation of the buildings in this zone is mostly East and South. The slope of the
land is from 0 to 30æ approximately. Materials available for construction are stone
slabs for flooring and roofing, stone and earth for walls and wooden plank supports on
wooden joists for intermediate floors. A typical innovative technique for construction of
earthen walls is use of a bottomless wooden box 0.60X0.90 m, with a height of 0.23 m
in which earth is filled and rammed thus creating 0.23 m layer of rammed earth at every
stage for the construction of a wall which is 0.60 m thick. The another innovative
techniques is the use of locally available slate stone which are used for sloping roof and
are placed on heavy wooden supports with overlapping of 0.0254 - 0.0308 m. These
slates are not fixed to wooden supports but remain in place by weight only or
sometimes they nailed to the wooden joists/rafters. The slope of roof is confined to
maximum 22.5 degree.
ln areas of heavy rainfall such as Dharamshala and Palampur steeply-sloping roofs
and deep verandahs are necessary, the former to drain off the rains quickly and the
later to allow open-air living during rainy season and for protection of the walls. Before
the British influence, the buildings constructed in these areas bore the influence of
Rajasthan and Mughal architecture which existed throughout northern India at that
time. However, with the coming of the British the jack-arch was introduced and

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Dharamshala-type roofing was evolved for areas of heavy rainfall using plain or
galvanized iron sheets for roofing. tables and figures you insert in your document are
only to help you gauge the size of your paper, for the convenience of the referees, and
to make it easy for you to distribute preprints.
1) Traditional Construction Techniques - Mud Construction
Mud construction is prevalent in Himachal in two types, rammed earth
conduction and sun dried mud brick construction. Sun dried mud bricks are
used in the Kangra region where good quality of mud is available from the river
beds. The walls are made of sun dried bricks about 0.60 –0.90 mt. thick
plastered with mud phuska. These walls are susceptible to erosion due to rain
thus the buildings are raised over stone or plastered to avoid erosion. The floors
are made of wood plastered with mud enabling insulation (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2 Views of Mud construction (a) Rammed Earth Construction (b) Staircase detail
in Mud House (c) Modern House made up by traditional construction techniques (d)
Interior details of mud brick house.

2) Traditional Construction Techniques - Dry Stone Construction

Dry stone construction is common in Kangra region where slate is in
abundance (Fig.3). However this type of construction is also common in
Kinnaur district where good quality stone can be quarried. Different sized
stones are placed over each other and compacted without the mortar.
Through stones are used at regular intervals. A stronger bond is achieved by
interlocking the stone rather than adding smaller stones in gaps. Interior
surface may be mud plastered. The stone masonry structural walls take main
lateral and gravity load. The walls uniformly distribute the load in both

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 orthogonal directions.

Fig. 3 Views of Dry Stone Construction at Dharamshala - Kangra (Vill. Thathri-

Khaniyara)

MOUNTAINS OF MEDIUM HEIGHT/ MID HILLS OR THE MIDDLE - HIMALAYAN

REGION
In the second climatic zone up to 9000 ft. (2700 mt. approx.), the hills are steeper.
Northern slopes of the mountains are thickly forested, while habitation is confined to
Southern slopes. The climate throughout the year is mild to chilly in comparison to
planes, i.e., cool in summer and rainy season with heavy rain fall. During winter there is
always snow fall and temperature goes down below zero. The flora in the region
consists of temperate zone species; Pine in lower altitudes and Deodar, Chilgosa and
Betula in higher altitudes. The design of buildings in this zone is influenced by the
elements of snow fall, chilly winter and heavy rain fall. The building materials available
in inaccessible areas are stone and wood. ln this zone, most better-class houses and
even poor ones are built with stone and wood, without mortar.
The typical Himalayan house of this region consists of two or more stories (Fig. 4), with
cattles in the ground floor, grains in the middle floor and dwelling in upper floor
surrounded by a deep over hanging verandah which is used for various purposes such
as living and storage of fuel wood and fodder. The typical feature of vernacular
architecture in this zone is the projection of upper floor [1]. The walls construction is
done with stone and wood without mortar.

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 Fig. 4 Cattles on the Ground floor and dwelling on First Floor also the Fenestration
on south facing at Kullu

In this traditional Himalayan method of construction the wooden beams extend

tothe whole length of the wall, one beam on the outside and another on the inside,
the space in between filled up with stone. The wall at right angles has its beams
laid on the two just mentioned and the alternate placing of these beams continue in
this way. From this it will be understood that the construction is capable of holding
itself together without the stones which are filled in to form a solid wall. On top of
this mingling of wood and stone stands the real dwelling, which is entirely of wood.
Supported by beams, it over hangs the more solid structure beneath. A row of small
pieces of wood, named 'Jhallar' are hung from the upper cornice. The bells at the
corner also hang loose and are moved by the wind. This type of construction is mainly
found in the higher ranges of Kinnaur and Kullu districts of Himachal. The most common
type of kath - kunnni wall is made by laying apart two square sectioned wooden wall
beams (Fig. 5 b, d) longitudinally parallel to each other to define the width of the wall. In
order to ensure the proper bond between the two these are dove-tailed or lap jointed by the
cross-joists, suitably placed along the length of the wall.

Fig. 5 Views of Kath- Kunni Construction

The walls are constructed of alternate layers of wood and stone (Fig. 5 a, c). The
wood battens 0.10-0.15 m thick extend beyond the wall length and interlock with the
wood on perpendicular wall. The wooden planks are interlocked by lap joint. Floors
are made of wood not more than 2.10-2.40 m high for better insulation. The upper
floors project out of the stone wall with wooden balconies creating a sun space for

23
sitting. Thus maximizes the heat gain. This type of construction is earthquake
resistant as the wooden battens form a framework which is well bonded and gives
ductility to the otherwise rigid stone wall [5], [2].

1) Traditional Construction Techniques - Dhajji Wall Construction

Dhajji-Dewari is derived from Persian meaning "patch quilt wall." Due to its
resemblance in the appearance to quilt patchwork of Persian weavers it is called
as ―Dhajji‖ [4]. Such construction is common in the Kashmir valley and the hills of
Shimla. It mainly consists of a braced timber frame where the spaces between
the bracings and the frames are filled up with stone and brick masonry laid in
mud mortar (Fig.6c). The large timber members rest along the load bearing
masonry walls with the floor beams and the runners for the cross walls lapping
over them. The wood serves to tie the walls of the structure together with the
floors. The components of Dhajji wall are the Foundation, Plinth Beams (Dasa),
Frame Structure, Joints, Roof Truss, Walls and Bracings, Windows and Doors,
Infillsand Plaster (Fig.6b). It is lighter in weight allowing for its use on walls that are
cantilevered over the street. The surface is plastered with a coat of mud and lime at
some places. This type of construction is economical and structurally stable. The fame
of wood distributes the lateral loads in case of an earthquake. A typical ―Dhajji House‖
(Fig. 6 a) is composed of small panels, stone masonry and timber of thickness 0.45-
0.60 m which has a time lag of 8-9 hours which keeps the house warm in winter and
cool in summer for maximum part of the year [5].

Fig. 6 Views of Dhajji-Dewari Construction

2’) Traditional Construction Techniques - Wooden Construction

Wooden construction is very common in hilly areas for easy availability of
construction wood and its thermal properties provide relief from the cool winters.
In Himachal this construction is common in most of the areas except cold and dry
areas of Lahaul-Spiti, in combination with other techniques at times. Houses are

24
 built 2-3 storeys high (Fig 7 a) where the vertical wooden posts are meant to
carry the load. Horizontal members are placed at different levels with an in-fill of
wooden battens [5]. The upper flowers are cantilevered thus providing living
space all around. In some cases, the ground floor is built in stone masonry with
the upper floor of wood (Fig. 7b).

Fig. 7 Views of wooden houses (a) Two storied wooden house (b) Wooden cantilevered
upper floor with ground floor of stone masonry.

HIGH MOUNTAINS OR THE HIGHER – HIMALAYAN REGION

In the third climatic zone which starts from 9000 ft. (2700 m approx.) and extends to
higher reaches of literal snow, last human habitation is at an altitude of about 15000
ft. (4500 m approx.). The climatic conditions keep on changing with the altitude, i.e.,
from 9000 ft. to 11000 ft. (2700-3300 m approx.) there is rain falls as well as snow fall,
but after 11000 ft. (3300 m approx.) there is only snow fall.
Habitants of this area who had never experienced rains in their living memory are now
witnessing rain fall which is a new phenomena in the area. This is due to emission of
hydro- carbons from fossil fuel driven vehicles layer of atmosphere, altering the
temperature.
Flora in this region consists of Bitula Chilgosa and at higher altitude Willows which
also give way to alpine pastures after 14000 ft. (4200 m approx.) Due to climatic
conditions the development of vernacular architecture is based on construction
techniques which are entirely different than any other region. The rocks keep on
disintegrating due to vast temperature difference between day and night. The snow
falls is also in powder form, due to winter temperature of minus zero reaching upto
minus 32 degree in mid winter. The mode of construction used is rammed earth block
for walls beaten earth for flooring and flat roof consisting earth layer over 6-7 layers of
Bitula barks which are placed over wooden planks supported by wooden joists (Fig.
8a-b).
There is 0.10 m layer of sand in between two layers of Bitula barks. To conserve
energy the height of rooms are confined to
25
2.10m and openings are very small. A technique of supporting 2 thick earthen wall
over 0.075 m frame by using small size battens kept at right angle to each other in
alternate layers is same thing peculiar to this region. In the high altitude cold desert
areas of Spiti, flat roof consisting earth covering ever willow branches resting in
wooden joists is an innovative method of constructing flat roof (Fig. 8 a-b). This
technique has been evolved due to absence of any other material available for
roofing.

Fig. 8 Views showing building typology (a) Mud houses at Tabo, Kinnaur,

(b) Dwelling at Spiti Valley

1) Traditional Construction Techniques - Mud Construction

Mud construction is prevalent in this region of Himachal Pradesh. The popular

form of construction is rammed earth conduction. Rammed earth construction is
common in the areas where construction materials like stone and wood is not
available like the cold desert of Lahaul-Spiti, Kinnaur etc.. Thick walls upto 0.60
m wide are built with by pouring wet mud mortar and ramming it to make it
compact before pouring another layer (Fig.9 a-d). Monolithic walls thus
constructed keep the interiors cold in the chilling winters but earthquake
resistance of this construction varies with the form of and the building the type of
loading on the walls. Thick flat mud roofs are used for insulation in Lahaul while
in places with rainfall slate roofs are adopted. The roof is built over wooden
frame resting on the mud walls. flat roofs are formed of wooden beams with
birch—bark (bhojpatral, which is perfectly waterproof, laid in one or two layers
over wooden planks and covered with beaten earth; this is smoothed into a flat
roof on which fruits and grains are laid out to dry.

26
Fig. 9 Views of Mud construction (a) Rammed Earth Construction (b) View of Kie
Monastry (c) dwelling at Spiti valley (d) Construction details of the rammed earth mud
houses.

1) Traditional Construction Techniques - Dry Stone Construction

Dry stone construction is common in Kangra region where slate is in abundance.
However this type of construction is also common in Kinnaur (Fig.10) district
where good quality stone can be quarried. Different sized stones are placed over
each other and compacted without the mortar. Through stones are used at
regular intervals. A stronger bond is achieved by interlocking the stone rather
than adding smaller stones in gaps. Interior surface may be mud plastered. The
stone masonry structural walls take main lateral and gravity load. The walls
uniformly distribute the load in both orthogonal directions.

27
 Fig. 10 Use of dry stone masonry at Nako, Kinnaur

(Sharma S. S., 2013)

2.3.4 Uttarakhand

Uttarakhand lies in the northern part of India and extends from the Tons- Yamuna
river in the west to Kali river in the east. The west boundary of the state is bound with
Himachal Pradesh and formed by Supin, Tons and Yamuna. The southern extend lies
in the plains of western Uttar Pradesh while to the North is the region of Tibet.
Uttarakhand is frequently visited by tourist, pilgrims, hermits, writers, naturalists and
environmentalists as it is a treasure of natural beauty, diverse flora and fauna and a
home to sacred temples and monasteries. There are many ancient temples and
buildings in the region which were constructed over a period of time under the
influence of the local culture, topography, materials available, geo-climatic conditions,
and seismic activity. The Garhwal and the Kumaon regions have different local
languages, culture and traditions. The building styles have also evolved independently
in both the regions due to such differences.

1.1 Kumaon Region

This region comprises of the districts of Chamoli, Dehradun, Haridwar, Pauri Garhwal,
Rudraprayag, Tehri Garhwal and Uttarkashi. The characteristic features of the
traditional architecture found in this region are dictated by the immense availability of
stone and timber in the areas. The walls are typically made of stone while timber is
used for the structural purposes and the slates are used for roofing. The floors are
made of wooden planks or mud, for insulation and occasionally stone slabs are also
used..

The buildings are placed along the contours in the stepped terraces with large
openings in front of the building and the waste drains in the rear part. The orientation
of the houses are kept towards the east, south and west directions to get the benefit

28
of the maximum direct sunlight. To receive sunlight at the rear part of the buildings
also, the height and the spaces between them are graded.

The most unique feature of the Kumaon building typology is the interior space
organization and design. It is same irrespective of the economic class of the owner or
the status in the society. The difference is only in the decoration of the entrance
(Kholi) and slight variation in the sizes of the rooms and wood carvings. The sloping
roof of slate and the intricate wooden carvings on the doors and windows give
coherence and unity to the elements of the building. There is usually no change in the
design of the houses even when two units are placed together.

The design of the typical traditional house i.e. the 'Kholi' has the entry from the centre
of the house dividing the house into two parts. Over time, both the parts have evolved
into two separate units on either side of the stairs. The ground floor is called 'Goth'
and is meant for cattle, fodder and storage. This helps to give warmth to the upper
floors where the people reside. The living areas on the first floor have a sitting area in
the front (Chakh) and a multi-purpose middle room (Majhala) with a central wooden
non-structural pillar. The kitchen is in the attic or top floor which is approached by a
wooden ladder and is ventilated through the holes in the roof slates. For storage, the
space below the stair landings are used as stores (Kotharis) and loft above the chakh.
To conserve the natural warmth in winters the height of the floors especially of Goth,
kitchen and lofts are kept very low. Openings are kept very small for the similar
reasons. Fig. 1: Typical house from Kumaon region

These compact traditional buildings are visually harmonious with their surroundings
but they lack in the basic sense of the interior- exterior spaces relationships. This is
apparently because of the cellular compactness of the utility spaces. The spaces
even have inadequate light and ventilation.

1.2 Garhwal Region

This region comprises of the district of Almora, Bageshwar, Champawat, Nainital,

Pithoragarh, and Udham Singh Nagar. The houses in this region are placed after

29
careful site selection usually enroute to the pilgrim centers, near sources of water and
in the areas which provide protection from the cold winds in winter. The traditional
houses are built along the contours of the hills and are generally of two or three
floors, having a rectangular plan.

Fig. 2: Typical house from Garhwal region

The living and cooking areas have low height and are provided above the cattle
space, fuel and fodder space to provide warmth in winters. Approach to the living
areas on the first floor is through the staircase on the side of the house. The balcony
mostly 75cm in width in front of the house forms an integral part of the building.
Construction materials like stone, wood and slate are used extensively as they are
locally available and easy to handle using manual tools, equipments and manual
labour. A wooden structural frame is made and locally available stone is infilled for
making the walls. The beams and columns made of timber are intricately carved to
improve the aesthetics. Floors and ceiling of the building are also made from the
wooden planks. The sloping roofs are made with slates and are supported over
wooden trusses.

The 'Kothar' or the grain storage structure symbolizes the affluence of the family and
is located near the house. These are wooden structures placed 1.0m above the
ground level with a small gap all-around the rectangular structure to keep it isolated so
that the grains do not get damaged easily.

At some strategic locations, 7-8 storied tall wooden structures were made with timer
frames called 'Sumers'. These structures dominate the skyline and served as
emergency shelters, watch towers, place of village diety and as a landmark for the
town. Such structures are more than 200 years old and have sustained the seismic
activities of the region. Sumers have a modular form and were made flexible enough
to bear the tremors of an earthquake, with the floor to floor height extending from 1.5
to 1.8 m. In Garhwal region, the overall settlement and the built-forms incorporate
multi-utilization of the stepped slopes cut through the hills, and is governed by the
close relationship between the man and nature.

CONSTRUCTION TYPOLOGIES IN UTTARAKHAND

The vernacular architecture of Uttarakhand differs all throughout the state based on
the geo-climatic conditions and the local materials used for construction. The major
factors which guide the construction typologies in the state are the a) climate, b)
materials available for construction and their techniques used, c) spending capacity of
the people or affordability, d) features used against flood/ snow/ earthquake
resistance, e) living habits, f) ease of maintenance and environment friendly g) use of
aesthetical and architectural features. The construction typologies can be divided into
three physiological zones of foothills, low level hilly regions, and mountainous regions.

30
1.1 Foothills

The basic factors which guide the local architecture of this zone are: a) availability of
good quality top soil, b) warm temperatures and moderate
level of precipitation c) agricultural residue, d) easy availability of non- local materials.
When a house is made within a short period of time usually for extension, the low
cost technology of using the agricultural waste is used for construction. A lot of
agricultural waste is available in the low lying plains, which is used for making walls
with mud. The left over from the harvest of wheat, corn, barley etc are used for this
purpose. The roof covering material is also the thatch from harvests of sugarcane or
some dried wild grass, while timber is used as the structural frame for the roof
supported by the walls.

Table 1. Building construction systems in the Foothills

Syste Syste Syste System 4

m1 m2 m3
Walling Vegetal Mud Mud Brick
Thatch Mud Reinf. Brick or RC
Roofin Thatch , CGI, on slab, CGI
g AC wood

The better level of construction technology used in this region for making houses is
through the use of hand-made sun dried bricks called 'Cob'. The cob walls are load
bearing and are made with bricks similar in size to that of the burnt bricks. The roof is
made of thatch which is costlier for a poor family as it requires frequent maintenance.
Another type of roofing system that is used is with mud layering over timber deck
supported by mud walls. Houses with such type of construction are decades old as
the timber is very costly now.

Recently in the past few decades, kiln brunt bricks are used in place of un-burnt mud
bricks, laid in mud mortar as well as cement mortar. The flat roofs made with mud

31
and timber is replaced with GI sheets, which are sometimes preferred for their
durability but were otherwise disliked for the uncomfortable interior environment
under extreme climates. With the passage of time these roofs with GI sheets have
been further replaced by RCC flat slab roofs especially around the plain areas of
Roorkee and Haridwar.
System 1 System 2 System 3 System 4

Random Random Random Brick

Walling Rubble Rubble Rubble Masonry

1.3 Low-level hilly regions

The basic factors which guide the local architecture of this zone are: a) easy access
to building quality stone b) limited availability of good quality top soil, c) varying
availability of timber and of water, d) moderate precipitation with no snow in winters.
The Coursed Random Rubble (RR) masonry is used commonly for load bearing
walls. The walls are usually built without mud plaster due to limited availability of the
soil suitable as mortar and plaster.

The flat roof can be seen in this region usually along the western boundary of the
state around Himachal Pradesh, as there is relatively less precipitation. In other areas
of the state, where pathal is easily available Pitched Pathal roofs (stone on timber) are
used. This option is preferred over flat roof in the areas eastwards from the Himachal
Pradesh border of Uttarakhand, due to marginal increase in the precipitation.

Table 2. Building construction systems in low- level hilly regions

32
 Mud on CGI, RC
Roofing wood Pathal RC slab slab

In the past few decades, due to the increasing prices of timber and easy availability of
modern building materials like cement, CGI sheets and steel, RCC roofs over stone
walls are preferred. People with more resources prefer load bearing walls with bricks
and cement mortar and RCC slab roofs.

1.4 Mountainous regions

The basic factors which guide the local architecture of this zone are: a) easy access to
building quality stone b) limited availability of good quality top soil, c) varying
availability of timber and of water, d) extreme cold and snow in winter, e) increased
seismic activity. Coursed/ Uncoursed Random Rubble masonry is most commonly
used with or without mud mortar due to varying availability of water. Though, mud or
cement plastering on the walls can be seen. Mostly two-way or four-way Pitched
Pathal roof is constructed with a timber under-structure. The roof covering used is
either slate/ tile/ pathal in varying thicknesses from 10 mm to 50 mm.

Table 3: Building construction systems in Mountainous regions

System 1 System 2

Walling Random Rubble Brick Masonry

Roofing Stone tile - Slate or Reinforced

Pathal, CGI, RC Concrete

In the past few years, due to the increasing cost of timber, CGI sheets are used for
roofing as they are easy to install and are durable, but they are climatically disliked
especially in cold winters. Flat RCC roof are also constructed in some places as it
gives more flat work space in the hilly terrain.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROTOTYPE

CSIR- CBRI has designed and constructed a prototype affordable housing unit,
designed for the hilly areas and the plains of the Uttarakhand state of India. The
design has evolved as a result of in-depth research on the available case studies for
vernacular houses and low cost construction technologies. The identification and
33
analysis of the appropriate technological options for affordable and disaster resistant,
durable rural houses, suitable for the region was carried out to build the prototype.

1.5 Design

The protype house is a two storey building with a plinth area of 24 sqm at plinth level
and 30 sqm as the total area covered area. The design is for a family of 5 members
based on the living habits, safety, comfort, space, function, energy efficiency and
socio- economic requirements of the people of Uttarakhand. The entrance is provided
from the middle of the house, segregating the living and the utility spaces. There are
two multi-purpose living rooms on each floor. A large storage-cum-study or sleeping
space for two is provided in the attic at the first floor approachable through a flight of
stairs within the house. Since the flat slab RCC roof is preferred in the region, the
design is also constrained by the type of roofing system. The spaces are well lit and
ventilated through the appropriate positioning of the openings; this not only reduces
the cost of operation by minimising the use of artificial light and fans in the day time
but also provides a healthy environment.

1.6 Construction

The house is constructed using innovative new technologies and materials developed
by CSIR-CBRI, which aim to provide durable and cost efficient options. The region
specific requirements of the available materials and resources are considered for the
construction of the proposed house. The construction system is divided into
foundation, walling and roofing.

1.6.1 Foundation

The foundation is laid by stone masonry blocks with corner reinforcements. This
technology is developed by CSIR-CBRI, and is used where building quality stone and
aggregate is easily available at cheaper rates. The irregular shaped stones are laid in
steel moulds, over these stones; concrete is poured and compacted by using plate
vibrators. Mass production of the stone/concrete blocks is possible in parallel stacks.
After setting of the concrete a good exterior texture of the blocks is achieved.

1.6.2 Walling Type

There are various systems that can be used for walling as a cost effective, easily
available and durable solution. The alternatives that can be used for the walling
system are a) Stone Concrete Blocks, b) Solid Concrete Blocks, c) Burnt Clay Bricks
in English & Rat

34
– trap Bond and d) Improved Random Rubble masonry. The solid concrete blocks are
made with machines for mass production. A number of machines are available for
making these blocks. It is a very popular walling technology and the blocks are now
being produced by various Building Centers and private entrepreneurs. The solid
concrete blocks are made with concrete using graded aggregate of sizes varying from

10mm to 40mm by manual process or by using an egg laying type machine. The
machine is used for higher productivity, strength and finish. It can cast six blocks of
30x20x15 cm size in single operation with an output of 120 - 150blocks/hr.

1.6.3 Roofing Type

Various options for roofing are available for the house. The following partially precast
systems have been adopted in the proto type: a) Precast Brick Panel & RC Joists, b)
Precast RC Planks & Joists and c) CGI Sheets. The precast brick panel & RC joist
system is ideal for providing durable and economical roofing / flooring in the low cost
houses where bricks are available locally otherwise RC Plank and Joist system can be
adopted. This consists of partially precast RCC joists (13cmx10cm), supporting the
prefabricated brick panels of size 53cmx120cm, having 6mm dia. ms bars
(2Nos.) in each panel and is covered with 35mm thick cement concrete. By these
systems the use of shuttering is eliminated. . The 6mm diameter bars on each panel
both-ways are provided over the panels before laying cement-concrete. This system
offers saving of 25-30 percent against 115 mm thick RCC roof slab.

The Precast RC Planks & Joists system is used where the components are produced
on casting platform at construction site. The size of precast RC plank is 30cm wide,
6cm thick, up to 150 cm long; precast RC joists 15 cm x 15cm and up to 3.6 m long.
As soon as the walls reach the floor/roof level, the precast components are placed,
and partly filled with concrete to form the floor\ roof. This results in 20% saving in
overall cost, 25% in cement and 10% in steel as compared to conventional R.C. slab
floor/roof.

Alternatively, the CGI sheets can also be opted for the roofing system. Though this is
a cheaper option and is also durable but is not climatically acceptable by many
people. In extreme cold or hot conditions an insulating layer of thermocole sheets or
thatch panels can be provided under the CGI sheets.

1.6.4 Additional Features

Additional features such as the integrated solar cooker, Earthquake resistant

construction, Solar water heater & LED lights have been provided in the house. This
shall not only ensure the comfort and security of the residents but also reduce the
costs of operation. There is only one time installation cost. These also help improve
the living environment of the people and provide sustainability through the use of

35
 renewable sources of energy.

Fig. 3: Construction of the prototype in Rural Park at CBRI, Roorkee.

(S. K. Negi, 2017)

36
2.3.2 Jammu and Kashmir

1) Climate :

 The climate of the state differs from region to region on account of great
variations in altitude.
 In the outer hilly region of the Jammu province, climate has three main seasons :
i) hot weather from April to June, ii) a rainy season from July to September iii)
cold weather from October to March.
 In summers, the outer plains and the outer hills receive rainfall from monsoon
winds while in winters, winds from Mediterranean cause snowfall and rainfall in
the valley of Kashmir.
 Winters are cold and of long duration and with increasing altitude..
 Kashmir Province – rise in the temperature upto and end of May. In October it
becomes cold and by January cold becomes intense with the snowfall.
 The distinctive features of Kashmir‘s climate is the absence of monsoon rain,
because the monsoons cannot cross the mountains enclosing Kashmir on the
South.
 Highest temperature – 37 Degree Celsius
 Lowest – 14 Degree Celsius

2.3.3 Leh Ladakh

1) Climate :

 The weather of Ladakh remains chilly and cold for most time of the year.
 Ladakh's climate is a little extreme - the summers can get a little harsh with
direct sunlight falling at such a high altitude.
 Winters can be really cold, with temperatures dropping below freezing point.

2) Culture :

 Famous for it‖s rich cultural heritage and honesty.

 Known as land of monks and monasteries.
 People of all the communities live here in peace, free from any prejudice.

37
2.4 Construction Techniques

2.4.1 Kath-kuni style :

 The regions, comprising the Kullu valley, Satluj valley and the Ravi valley
 .An indigenous style of construction, in which the walls are made with alternate
courses of dry stone masonry and timber without any cementing mortar.

Figure 9 - Kath-kuni style of architecture

Materials and it‘s significance

 Wood - the forests of the deodar wood and other mixed

forests were easily available
 Wood is used to impart stability to tall structures. Figure 10 - A house constructed
 Stone – remains in use but its usage is restricted to the in Kathkuni Style, Chitkul Sangla
plinth to give strength. Valley
 Absence of vertical members is a unique feature.
 Seismic resistant / vulnerable features: Alternate courses of timber
 Durability / maintenance : Certain buildings have survived the effects of
weather and earthquakes for ages and still stand today.

2.4.2 Mud Houses :

38
  Ravi valley, the walls of the traditional houses are built mostly with the dried
masonry, without using any alternate layers of timber.
 These walls are plastered with mud both from inside and the outside.
 Mud - Easy availability, Good insulation and the Good binding properties.

Wall system: Load bearing

Construction materials: roughly dressed stones, sun baked mud bricks and clay

Construction methodology:

Technique- 1 Rammed earth technique.

Technique- 2 Sun dried adobe blocks of size 15x22x30 cm known as ‗peu‘.

 The rough surfaces of the wall are made smooth with finishing coat of mud
plaster (a special variety of mud clay known as Markula).This clay has water
resistant quality.

Seismic resistant/vulnerable features: In case of taller buildings, the base of the

walls is given thicker than the top

Figure 11 - An under construction mud house in Spiti

Valley
Figure 12 -A mud shelter near Parashar Lake, Mandi

2.4.3 Thathara

 Construction materials: Timber and Stone.

39
  Foundation: Max. 30cm in the ground. Large and heavy stone slabs are well
packed together in the foundation. The process is repeated until the fill reaches a
few cm above surrounding ground level.
 Construction style:
 Grid is made with wooden pillars known as Thatharas .
 The gap between Thatharas is filled either with stones, dhajji wall or wooden
planks.
 In case of wooden planks the whole arrangement is known as ‗Farque style‘.
Durability/ maintenance: Certain buildings have survived the effects of weather and
earthquakes for ages and still stand today.

Figure 13 - Thathara style house near Bharmani mata temple, Chamba

2.4.4 Dhajji Wall

Wall system: framed construction

Construction materials: Timber and Stone
Seismic resistant/vulnerable features: Cross bracings of timber
Durability/ maintenance: Certain buildings have survived the effects of weather
and earthquakes for ages and still stand today.

40
 Figure 14 - Dhajji wall pattern

A Dhajji wall is strong because:

•The small panels distribute the earthquake energy evenly.

•The friction between all the small elements and their in-fills breaks down the energy.
•There may be a lot of small cracks which are not dangerous.
•But large destructive cracks become very rare.

2.4.5 Taq Construction

Wall system: framed construction

Construction materials: Timber and Stone
Seismic resistant/vulnerable features: System of diagonal bracings
Durability/ maintenance: Certain buildings have survived the effects of weather
and earthquakes for ages and still stand today.
 Taaq type, consisting of brick masonry interlaced with heavy timber bands
supported on large masonry piers made of baked bricks.
 The timber frames in the Dhajji walls are generally well laid out with a system of
diagonal bracings that provide a distinct path to the ground for the stresses
caused by lateral seismic forces.

41
  In addition, the walls are lightweight and hence have less mass and less lateral
seismic loads. Thus this type of wall is able to withstand ground settlement and
major earthquakes without suffering much damage.
 The Taaq type of construction has a large number of windows (―Taaq‖ means
window), one in each gap between the piers. The roofs are two- and four-sided
pitched.

Figure 15 - Typical wooden bracing

of Taq style Figure 16- Front facade of a house built in Taq style

(Sharma N. )
Sl
Features Details Images
No.
1 Dhajji wall  Dhajji walling system is commonly
(Chapter 2- seen in old houses of Kashmir.
Rural  It consists of a timber frame, placed in
architecture of a diagonal manner, with infill of either
Kashmir,n.d.), baked brick in cement mortar or
(Jain and Singh, unbaked brick in mud mortar. Dhajji wall with brick infill
2007).  This wall is lightweight and can
withstand major earthquakes, causing
minimal damage.

2 Taq wall  The taq construction system comprises

42
 (Chapter 2- of thick brick masonry piers
Taq house in
Rural supporting wooden floor.
Kashmir
architecture of  The gap created between the piers
Kashmir,n.d.) consists of a window or brick masonry.
 This building technique is also
resistant to earthquakes.
3 Trombe walls  Trombe wall is a wall made out of
(ICAEN, 2004) concrete, masonry or adobe, with vents
or openings placed at the top and
bottom, lying in winter sun side of the
building.
 Also, consists of a glass panel fixed
towards the outer surface of the wall,
leaving an air gap in the middle.
 The exterior surface of the wall is
painted black to absorb maximum
solar heat.
 The air in the gap gets heated up and Process by which air heats up
enters the living spaces through the through convection in a trombe
vents by the principle of convection. wall
 At night, the heat stored during the
day keeps the inside warm.
 This passive solar building technique
is found in most parts of Ladakh.
4 Kath-kuni  This construction technique exists in
construction Himachal Pradesh.
(Shah, n.d.),  It’s a 2 to 3 storey house where the
(Jain and Singh, ground floor is for the cattle so that;
2007). this brings warmth to the above floors.
The above floors consists the living,
storage and kitchen spaces.
 The wall consists of an alternate course
of dry stone masonry and wood
Sl
Features Details Images
No.

43
 without any cement mortar. Two
wooden beams are placed with a fine
gap in between, which is in filled with
stones. This traps some amount of air
which provides good insulation.
 The heavy wall keeps the house cool in
summer and warm in winter.
 Semi-open cantilevered wooden
balconies are constructed on the top Kath-kuni wall house and
floors, to capture as much as warmth construction
from outside.
 This construction technique responds
well with earthquakes, requires low
maintenance and materials can be
reused

5 Koti banal  Koti banal houses are found in

house Uttarakand and southern part of
(Rautela, Joshi, Himachal Pradesh.
Singh, Lang,  This house rests on a stone plinth in
n.d.) rectangular plan and can go up to 4 to
5 storeys.
 Wooden balconies are projected out
from the top floors to capture warmth
from outside.
 This type of building technique is
resistant to earthquakes. Koti banal house
 Wooden logs, stones and slates are
used. Small openings are provided to
prevent cold air from entering inside.

6 Site planning  Southern slopes are chosen for

(Kumar and constructing houses, as this gives more
Ashwani, 2014), solar exposure, keeps the inside warm
(Jain and Singh, and protects it from cold winds. This
2007), (Singh, results in minimal consumption of
Kumar, energy.
Settlement layout in the Upper
Mahapatra, and  The buildings are spread out in open
Himalayan region
Atreya, 2011). spaces to gain maximum solar
radiation and prevent shadow
formation.

44
8 Planning  Compact planning system is adopted
(Kumar and in most buildings.
Ashwani, 2014),  Floor to ceiling height is comparatively
(Jain and Singh, lesser, maintained around 8 to 9ft, to
2007), (Singh, keep the interiors warm.
Kumar,  Small openings are provided which
Mahapatra, and brings daylight, allows ventilation and
No openings are providede
Atreya, 2011). responds well in seismiczone.
 Sloped roofs are mostly adopted in regions ground floor so that the cold air
susceptible to rainfall and snow for proper drainage. doesn’t enter
 The air between the roof and the attic space behaves
as a good thermal
insulator.

Sl
Features Details Images
No.

9 MATERIALS
a Rammed earth  Earth mixture of sand, gravel and clay
(ICAEN, 2004) is compacted to create a solid wall
known as rammed earth wall.
 Sustainable and natural building
method.
 Resistant to earthquakes.
 It has good thermal properties and is
resistant to fire. Rammed earth construction seen
 It is more suitable for extreme n Leh
conditions as it can stabilize the indoor
temperature. Hence, there is no need
of conventional method of cooling or
heating, thus saves energy.

b Wood (Rautela,  Deodar wood is widely used in cold

Joshi, Singh, climate region as it is locally available
Lang, n.d.), there.
(Shah, n.d.),  Used in the construction of beams,
(Chapter 2- roofs, truss posts, frame, doors and
Rural windows.
architecture of  Gives stability to the structure as it is

45
 Kashmir, n.d.), strong and durable. Wooden house in Himachal region
(Jain and Singh,  Resistant to termites and insects.
2007).  Wood is commonly used in cold
climate, so that it keeps the building
warm.
 It is resistant to moisture and is a poor
conductor of heat.

c Stone (Shah.  Stone is used in the plinth and also

d.t.), (Chapter 2- seen in the Dhajji wall construction.
Rural  Dry stone masonry responds well in
architecture of seismic zone.
Kashmir),  Slate stones are laid over the wooden
(ICAEN, 2004). rafters on the roof. It protects the
structure from strong winds. Slate stone used for roofing

(TERI, 2014)

2.5 Formulation of Building Regulations

2.5.1 Ground Coverage :

 Vernacular/traditional buildings have compact planning, small footprints
and low built to open ratio, especially in lower Himalayan regions and lot of space
is kept open around buildings which can be used for different activities and/or for
growing vegetation.
 This helps in minimising the impact of development on surrounding environment.
 In contrast to these vernacular practices, contemporary buildings in hilly areas
are designed with high foot prints and ground coverage and have high built to
open ratio.
 This pattern of development results in less space around buildings which is often
inadequate for growing vegetation and/or its use for different activities.

2.5.2 Material Regulation :

 Locally available, easily workable, and natural building materials which are
mostly renewable in nature (like timber, thatch, mud and bamboo), have good
climatic response, health and environment friendly.

46
  Though cutting of trees for obtaining timber will result in loss of precious
vegetation, it needs to be suitably augmented by plantation of new tress in hilly
areas.
 In contrast to this, contemporary materials are manufactured from raw materials,
which are available on particular locations and are transported to different parts
of the country after manufacturing.
 These materials have high embodied energy and cause lot of pollution during
manufacturing and transportation, mostly inappropriate to the context of hill
settlements.
 Adoption of locally available building materials with new construction
technologies will result in better climatic responsiveness, lower consumption of
energy and reduction in environmental degradation.

2.5.3 Earthquake resistant construction and safety regulations :

 Safety against natural hazards is the most serious concern for planning and
design of buildings in hill regions.
 Many vernacular practices like dhajji wall, kath-kuni, koti-banal, taaq and wooden
buildings have good response during previous earthquakes (Rautela and Joshi,
2008).
 Presently adopted construction practices in hilly areas do not have good
earthquake response and may result in serious damage and loss of precious
human life and resources during occurrences of earthquake.
 Materials like timber and thatch used in traditional buildings which are vulnerable
to fire and termite attack can be replaced with more durable and fire resistant
materials like steel or aluminium.
 Same is Vernacular practices: as for formulating building regulations hilly areas
witnessed in Pehalgam hotel, Srinagar, which is constructed in dhajji wall style
with modern materials like bricks and steel The adoption of such earthquake
resistant practices with durable and fire resistant materials can be made
mandatory through building regulations.

2.5.4 Site development regulations

 In traditional hill settlements the cutting and filling method of site development is
often adopted and the debris produced after cutting of hills is used to fill parts
within site and/or used for construction of different building components like walIs
and floors.
 Buildings are generally constructed on flat and hard strata obtained after cutting
of slopes and filled portions of site are mostly kept open and used for different
routine activities.
 Utilisation of debris produced after cutting of slopes within site can be made
mandatory through building regulations, which in turn help in reducing

47
 environmental degradation caused by illegal dumping of debris produced after
cutting of slopes into valley or low lying areas near water sources.

2.5.5 Slope stabilization and protection :

 Natural materials like stone, bamboo, tree branches obtained from pruning of
trees, thatch, pine leaves etc. are used for slope stabilisation and protection in
traditional hill settlements.
 These materials merge well with surroundings and these protected portions do
not appear different from surrounding areas.
 Whereas, in contemporary practices, improvement of aesthetics/visual quality of
reinforced concrete retaining walls used for slope protection is a critical issue,
which affects the aesthetic value of hill settlements.
 Use of natural materials like stone or bamboo with other contemporary materials
and techniques of slope protection will result in better aesthetic quality of
retaining surfaces.
 Use of natural materials as finishing surface for retaining structures which are
exposed and visible can be made mandatory through building regulations to
improve the aesthetic quality of retaining structures.

2.5.6 Aesthetic and facade design regulations :

 Has its own peculiar built form, pattern, materials, colour and decorative
elements which impart aesthetic quality to buildings and create interesting,
unique and easily distinguishable facades.
 Varieties of sloping roofs used in vernacular styles help in integration of
vernacular buildings into mountainous surroundings along with fulfilling functional
needs
 All buildings in a traditional hill settlement have building facades with similar
elements, features and decorative treatment.
 Modern buildings constructed with contemporary materials have dull,
uninteresting and unattractive facades which appear as visual blight in
magnificent hill settings (Pushplata and Kumar., 2009).
 The adoption of traditional built forms, patterns and facade elements for
improving aesthetic quality of new buildings in hilly areas is utmost necessary in
the present scenario of development. Building regulations need to be formulated
or modified to mandate the use of traditional forms, pattern, and decorative
elements into modern buildings.

(Ashwani Kumar, 2014)

48
2.6 Green building materials for hilly regions

2.6.1 Introduction
 Time and money are important elements for builders and developers. For the
purpose of fast and sustainable buildings such as residential buildings, resorts,
cottages, farm houses, industrial buildings, resorts, power projects tremendous
demand of ecological friendly or green buildings which need to be kept in strict
schedules, smart time and environment, building material to save. The pace of
Indian construction industry is fast new technologies are in the old place and
buildings like brickwork and mortar have been kept.
 Construction in mountain areas is more difficult the plains. Due to difficult terrain,
it is difficult to execute the construction work of contractors from various types of
rock and soil level.

2.6.2 Need for sustainable construction

 Current trends indicate that global consumption patterns are volatile . There is a
dire need to overcome the concerns about bio-diversity loss, natural resources
and climate change. One thing is certain that it will combine changes in
technological progress and important lifestyle to restore balance.
 Innovation is now playing a major role in traditional construction practices which
has given rise to new technology sustainable solutions.

2.6.3 Green building materials for hilly regions

 The design describe here is imaginative, quick, light-weight and includes
sustainable building construction. No concrete mixers, no cement, sand, bricks,
aggregates, form will not work, to make the shutter at the construction are given
below :

 Steel Construction
 Steel buildings should be preferred for quality, cost efficiency and
construction in mountainous areas. The light weight steel buildings are
easily embedded in the fact that they computer-based designed and
computer-controlled manufactured.

49
  This is cost effective alternative to conventional brick-mortar and its
preferred position over customary structure as far as quality, cost,
supportability and speed.
 Electrical and plumbing ideas are essentially included within the framework
of cladding. Reduced wastage, low logistical costs and less time of
construction can offer cost savings of 15% or more, than conventional
building. There are many advantages over traditional brick and wood
formatting of steel making

 Wood-Boards
 Sustainable boards are fire resistant, weather resistant, termite safe, sound
protected, dimensionally steady, smooth surface, wood usefulness, synthetically
steady.

Figure 17 - Steel Framework

 They can be utilized for fixed furnishings and closets, bogus roofs, cover,
kitchens, deck, segments and work stations.

 Sandwich Panels
 These panels have all the advantage of masonry wall, but there are pure dry
fixing system that provides the position of a clean and safe working site due to

50
 its light weight, strength, durability, water and termite proof, thermal insulation
and ire resistance facilities.
 The efficiency of the False ceilings, Wall paneling, Mezzanine flooring, Structural
glazing back lining and Wall partitions products is truly possible.

 Aerated concrete panels

 These are made of a blend of fine debris, along with lime, gypsum and concrete,
restricting operators, water and aluminum powder go about as froth specialist.
 They can be utilized in skyscraper claddings to eliminate block like workmanship
troubles, for example, block development, putting and treatment.

 Gypsum plasterboard
 Gypsum plasterboards and uncommon board are the last covering answer for the
present structures, giving elevated levels of execution in the event of fire rating,
acoustic and warm protection, and dampness protection from make current
interior conditions that offer solace and wellbeing for living arrangement.
 They give better tasteful motivational arrangements than dividers, roofs, lift
shafts, flights of stairs and halls in structures as differing as private, schools,
emergency clinics, workplaces, films and inns.Typically, there is 100% water
conservation during the construction process compared to any masonry process.

(Khan; Khan, 2019)

51
3. CASE STUDY

3.1 Bhimakali Temple Complex at Sarahan

Bhimakali temple is the best example of tower style Tem- ple situated/ constructed
with wood and stone in Hima- layas. The temple complex at Sarahan is set against the
incredibly beautiful backdrop of high ranges and forested slopes. Bheemakali Temple
complex was constructed by the Bushahr dynasty, who ruled from Sarahan before
inde- pendence. The new palaces of the royal family are situated adjacent to the
temple. The temple is approximately 800 years old, is dedicated to this great female
power that was called Bhimakali and is one of the representatives of 51 Shakti Peeths
[2]. The temple has influence of Hindu and Chinese architectural style. It has slanted
slate roofs, gold- en towers, pagoda/(s) and carved silver doors.

Site Planning

Fig : schematic site plan of Bhimakali temple complex, Sarahan.

The sacred temple complex measures approximately one acre. Site chosen for the
temple is sloping and has a to- tal slope gradient of about 9 meters. Whole of the
temple complex is constructed as a series of courtyard encircled/ enclosed by
buildings. This complex is design as a com- bination of 4 courtyard constructed at
different levels (fig

52
1 &2). The highest/ topmost courtyard has two temples, temples of goddess Durga and
Kali which are famous or known for their unique architectural style. Second court- yard
has Raghunath temple and other buildings. King‘s palace is situated in the third
courtyard. Fourth and low- ermost courtyard which is constructed subsequently have
Nar Singh temple (which is constructed with stone having Shikhara on top with wooden
sloping roof) canteen and guest house for the pilgrims. Supporting buildings and
residential accommodation for support staff was provided on the periphery of the
temple. These different levelled courtyards are accessed by highly decorated and
richly carved gates having series of steps in front.

Fig : Panoramic view of the complex

Building Design
Main temples are designed as the amalgamation of In- dian and Chinese
architectural style, with Buddhist and Hindu influences and bronze statues of both
religions in the shrines (fig 3,4). Buildings are rectangular in the plan having thick
walls constructed in kath-kunni style. A narrow stone staircase is provided to access
the upper floors. At the fourth floor level, floor is protruded out of the lower floor on
wooden brackets/ cantilevers. At this level the outer walls are made up of cidar/
deodar wood which has nice and intricate carving. To reach the uppermost level (fifth
floor) which houses the state of goddess Bhimakali a wooden staircase is
provided. The uppermost/fifth floor is further project more over the floor below.
Slanting roof constructed with timber and covered with locally available slates is
provided.

53
The second temple has only one projected floor at upper level. This temple is devoted
to goddess Durga. Lower floors of the temple have walls constructed with wood and
stone whereas, upper floor has intricate woodwork on the exterior facade.

Raghunath temple built on a high platform in the second courtyard is a

combination of linear building and vertical projected mass (fig 5). The chamber
where idol is placed projected over a slanting slate roof of remaining build- ing.
This projection of cuboid over slanting roof presents a magnificent composition.
This composition is further en- hanced by pagoda roof on the top of cuboids.

Fig View of main temple in the complex

The Nar Singh temple present in the complex is an exam- ple of Shikhara style temple.
This style is modified by pro- viding sloping roof around the temple for parikarma.
King‘s palace in the complex is a linear building which has access from third courtyard
(fig 6). Projected balconies on upper floors are provided to have panoramic view of the
valley. These balconies are supported on wooden beams pro- truded out of the stone
or kath-kunni walls. Highly carved arches are used in the balconies as an integrating
element in order to exhibits an architectural masterpiece.

Building Form
54
Temple complex has a variety of building forms. The two main temples constructed in
uppermost courtyard are the finest example of tower style temples and
combination of Indo- Chinese architecture. The building form is rather simple but
elegant. It is a combination of slanting pagoda roof over a cubical base. This cubical
base has five storeys. Upper storey of the temple is projecting over the lower stories.
The verticality of lower stories is broken by series of coursed of wood and stones. On
the upper stories richly carved windows/ openings are provided in woodwork ex-
presses the skill and accuracy of the craftsmen of the re- gion wooden sculptures are
used on brackets to support projected upper floors.

Fig Raghunath Temple in the Bhimakali Complex

Method of Construction

The walls of the buildings presented in the complex are constructed in kath-kunni
style (fig 7). It is an indigenous style of construction which is evolved in western
Himala- yas. In ‗Kath-kuni‘ or ‗Kath-kundi‘ style a mesh of interlock- ing horizontal
cedar (locally deodar) sleepers/ logs is creat- ed. In this mesh dressed or raw stone
are packed without any mortar. Absence of vertical members for wall construc- tion is
a characteristic of this style. With inherent elasticity, the design has an enormous
seismic response. There have been instances, when tremors have dislodged the
stones from the frame, and later, have been hammered back into the intact mesh of
wood houses.

55
 Fig : Part of wall constructed in Kath-kunni Style

The upper floors of the temples which are projected over the lower floors have
exterior walls made of carved wood. Sloping pagoda shaped roofs are covered with
locally available slates. These slates are fixed on deodar wood trusses. Roofs in this
complex have a distinct character and forms a very interesting skyline.

Materials Used

Whole of the complex is constructed with the use of mainly indigenous/ locally
available materials. Locally avail- able sand stone and deodar/cidar wood are the two
main building materials which are used in the complex for wall construction. Natural
slates are quarried from nearby slate mines and used as main roofing material over the
wooden roof trusses.

Carvings/ Details

Whole of the temple complex have rich carvings in wood work and silver work
Door frame is thick in size and have detailed carvings in wood or in silver. Shutters
are thicker in size and majorly idols of different gods and goddesses are carved
on them. Staircase balusters, balco- ny railing, brackets to support upper floors,
wall panelling are made of wood and having very interesting floral and decorative
patterns carving. Bronze kalsha is provided on the roof top of every temple. The

56
most interesting deco- rative feature in the main temples is wooden wind chime
which moves to and fro / oscillates while wind flows.

Fig 10: carved wooden arched doorway Fig 11: carved wooden railing in balcony

Conclusion

Bhimakali temple at Sarahan is the magnificent example of hill architecture in

India. It shows the expertise of craftsmen in terms of building design, material
handling, construction techniques and aesthetics. This temple even today acts as an
inspiration for architects/ designers to design new buildings (especially mid-rise) in hill
towns. Many buildings designed and constructed in Shimla have borrowed their
concepts, form & features from this magnificent temple.

57
58
3.2 Residence, Mussoorie

59
60
61
3.3 Bijola Residence, Dunda, Uttarkashi

62
63
3.4 Babu Dorje House, Leh

Approach: - The main approach is uphill from the west stupa gate via southern
end of the Chutazzranthali Street.
Date / Age: - Early 1900’s, estimated at 1929. Type: - Residential,
unprotected and private owner.
Historical Significance: - The house was built for Babu Dorje and his family. Mr.
Dorje was the engineer behind the construction of the airport of Leh in 1948.

Fig. 8: Front Elevation of Dorje House showing Vernacular Architecture of Ladakh

Physical/Architectural Description:

The building is a well-planned structure built by Mr. Dorji himself. The plan is staggered
and is implemented on ground and two upper levels. The rooms on the left were
originally shops. The walls are made of sundried mud bricks. All the structural supports
area wooden members. The roof and terrace are plastered with mud. The ground floor
was used chiefly for storage and shops while the upper levels were habitable spaces.

Decorative Features:

The red wood façade originally covered shops counters. Ornamental columns and
beams adorned this part of the house. The lintels locally called ―Tsingzak‖ are present
throughout the structure, especially noticeable on the windows series on the southern
façade.

64
 Fig. 9: Section of Dorje House having Three Floors

Conditional Description:

 The original red wooden façade is retained through the support structure which
has been deteriorated. Multiple columns and beams are broken and shutters are
missing. Bricks are damaged on the northern corner and western wall. The roof
slab has sagged.
 Some of the ground floor rooms are occupied by workers. The northern portion is
uninhabited and is dumped with unwanted objects and moreover the wooden
members in the structure are damaged and cannot be reused.
 A central staircase leads to the first floor where almost all the rooms are
occupied. Several columns and girders are damaged and the walls are cracked
at many places due to weathering and settling.
 The wooden staircase leading to the second floor has also deformed. Structural
supports are damaged and major cracks were identified in the stairwell walls
also.
 The second floor housed four rooms that are occupied. The exterior walls lack
plaster in many areas and several window panels are damaged or missing.
 Due to dry weather conditions, no vegetation was identified in the foundation.
However, some roof seepage were also the part of structure.
 Lack of maintenance can be seen through the building.

CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES

Pertaining to the construction techniques, it is very vital and beneficial to study the
vernacular architectural tradition of Ladakh as these present an exact picture of how
local folks have been able to counter the inclemency of weather through architecture.
In Ladakh region, most of the houses are built at two levels. The ground level is
reserved for animals, wood and fodder storage for winters whereas the upper level has
the habitable spaces. In most houses, there is a single large room with an oven in the
corner which is used for cooling as well as heating the interior spaces. The houses are
made entirely of mud, sometimes reinforced with horizontally placed timber members.

65
The walls are either made of sun dried bricks or rammed earth. Initially, the walls are
mud plaster while flooring is either in mud or wood. The ceiling height is low to provide
the required insulation in all the areas. Every possible care is taken to trap the heat
and maintain the temperature inside for a conductive living. Thus, the houses in
Ladakh are essentially utilitarian. The description of some of the materials used in the
region are:-

Mud Brick

Mud bricks are composite chiefly of clay, silt and sand. Due to high sand contents, the
surface water absorption of the brick reduces. Presence of clay and silt helps to bind
the brick.

Fig. 2: Mud Bricks cast on site

Foundations
Earth easily absorbs water which lowers its load bearing capacity. Thus lime is used
as a binding material in foundation to provide its strength.

66
Walls
Walls are built upon foundations raising above the ground level. The top of the
foundation should not be wider than the bottom of the wall to avoid any structural
damage in case of earthquakes. Walls are generally thick at the bottom and taper
gradually as they rise.

Roof Details
As Ladakh sustains in cold and dry climatic conditions, the ceiling is mainly built in mud
and wood due to their insulating properties and easy availability.

Mud Plaster
Mud plaster is applied wet 15-25 mm thick. Most mud plasters have to be repaired
annually when used externally but adhere well to earth walls.

Insulation in Ceiling, Outer walls and Floors

During the day time, the natural heat collected is retained by the insulation. The wood
waste produced during the construction is filled in the ceiling to stop the heat loss
through the roof.

Fig. 4: Wall Plastered with mud for Insulation

67
The outer walls are insulated by a jacket wall outside the main structural wall. The six
inch gap between the two walls is filled with low cost insulation: saw dust, wood
shavings or sometimes paper and plastic garbage like bottles and bags. Sometimes we
have also used cow dung as an insulating plaster. Mixed with the right amount of earth
and clay, it makes a strong and thermally effective plaster.

Fig. 5: Wood waste filled in Ceiling for Insulation Sometimes the top layer of the floor is
slates from nearby mountains. This reduces the use of cement, and the slates also
become a thermal mass or heat bank as they are now cut off thermally from the cold
ground. This kind of floor absorbs the excess heat during the day and releases it
during the night. Otherwise floors can be an area of big heat loss.

A. Thermal mass in Walls and Floors

We build our buildings three feet (1 m) or more below ground on the north side. The
building benefits from the stability of earth‘s temperature at that depth, which is
relatively warm in winter and cool in summer. It also helps us get the building material
— earth — right on site. The earth we dig out ultimately becomes the walls of the
building.

68
 Fig. 6: Flooring Design on Rammed Earth

The walls are built of rammed earth, a most eco- friendly method as the building
material comes right from the site and is not transported hundreds of miles, and when
construction is finished, there is no debris to be thrown away: no addition, no
subtraction. Earth buildings are the warmest in winter and coolest in summer, and also
moderate the humidity of the building.
The technique of rammed earth consists of casting huge bricks in place, in a frame
made of planks. Sand and clay are mixed in the right amounts to get a very strong
constitution. It is then packed in the frames and rammed with pounders.
The thick earth walls are not just structural (to take load) but also have an essential
function as the heat bank (thermal mass). They absorb the excess solar heat during
the day and release it to the room at night. The same properties also keep rammed
earth buildings cool in summer. Rammed earth is an ancient technique used in
monasteries, castles and forts around Ladakh. These structures have survived,
unprotected and exposed to the elements, for hundreds of years.

69
 Fig. 7: Ground floor plan of Dorje House

CONCLUSION

The buildings in Ladakh that recollect the aesthetics, historical and cultural values and
proper architecture are declared as ―Heritage Buildings‖. In Ladakh city, there are in-
numeral heritage buildings which are not known to public and are deteriorating day by
day as it is shown in the case study. All these buildings are required to be conserved
and retained keeping their architectural values and a strong history behind.

(Ar. Abhimanyu Sharma, 2016)

70
3.5 Hotel Dalhousie, Himachal Pradesh

Broadly, Himachal e xperiences three seasons: summer, winter, and rainy season.
Summer lasts from mid-April t ill the end of June and most parts become very hot
with the average temperature ranging from 28 to 32 °C (82 to 90 °F). Winter lasts
from late November till mid March. Snowfall is common in alpine tracts. Dalhousie
is a hill station in Chamba district, in the northern state of Himachal Pradesh,
India. It is situated on 5 hills and has an elevation of 1,970 metres above sea level.
It is surrounded by snow-capped peaks. Dalhousie is situated between 6,000 and
9,000 feet (2,700 m) above sea level. The best time to visit Dalhousie is in the
summer, and the peak tourist season is from May to September. Scottish and
Victorian architecture are prevalent in the bungalows and churches in the town.
Dalhousie is a beautiful tourist spot and therefore plays an important role in the
economy of the state. The major industry is tourism there are just over 600 hotels,
which provide temporary jobs to about 5,000 to 8,000 individuals every year. Hotel
Dalhousie is one of the old hotels in the city, situated 2km from the main bus stop
and on the main centre of the city Gandhi chawk near the main city market mall
road. The hotel is built considering the traditions and vernacular architecture of
Himachal Pradesh. The hotel has the step settlement and has a compact admin
area. The hotel has its own food and cafe facilities and has the rooms in rows.
Beautiful wooden flooring used in the rooms. Dormers provided. The roofs have all
modern facilities with the traditional look.

71
Approach to the building structure:

Buildings in hilly regions are the major challenge for architects. Buildings such
as houses, small shops, temples, etc, can be easily constructed as compared to
large scale buildings such as hotels acquiring the population of tourists.
Therefore building and the construction has to be structurally strong enough to
resist the topography and frequent seismic tremors and also bare the load of the
building and as well as the building should be aesthetically attractive for tourists.
According to the topography and requirement of the building, design and
planning plays a major role. Hotel Dalhousie is very smartly designed
considering the design parameters. Some of the design approaches to be taken
care of our settlement patterns, materials used in various spaces, open
interactive spaces, sloping roofs, interior designs (rooms), retaining wall, etc.

Structural approach for Hotel Dalhousie

 Settlement pattern : For the thermal comfort to the occupants, function

of shelter is provided for reducing the heat loss from the building,
therefore, for solar heat gain, the building is oriented to equator towards
the south and to reduce heat, settlement have compact layout. Narrow
pathways provided. Opening towards south-east and south-west.

 Shape of the building (massing): Constructed with the functional

requirements of user and locally available materials suitable for the
building. Linear arrangement of rooms, connected with ba lcony. Wet
areas kept separate from liv ing areas. Balcony oriented towards south.
Height of the rooms kept lower. Maximum windows were south facing.

72
  Materials: Materials used in the building were stone, slate, wood;
plaster work. Stone was used for the construction of walls. Slate for the
roof and dormers. Wood was used in the flooring, room separations,
doors and window framing

 Open spaces: Open spaces in the form of balconies were provided as

the interactive spaces in the hotel. The space facing towards the south
because of the climate. Wooden railings provided all around the balcony
or the open space.

 Roofs: Roofs are the major part of the building Beautiful sloping roofs.
Slate pieces for strength. To protect the building from heavy rains and
snowfall slates were projected out.

 Dormer:
Dormer as a component was used above the windows as a shading device.
Dormer functions to resist the direct sunlight inside the rooms, protects from the

73
rains and snowfalls. It plays an important role in the construction of buildings in
rainy and snowy regions.

Construction Techniques
As Himachal Pradesh has different climatology and topography, therefore, the
construction in such areas, according to their climatic and geographic conditions,
are different from general construction techniques used in other states. For the
human comfort, buildings were designed using locally available materials and
construction technology according to the climate and topography of the land. In
the upper hills of Himachal Pradesh a vernacular building technique of
construction called Kath-Khuni is practiced which provides buildings an effective
mechanis m to resist the seismic tremors which occurs frequently. Kath-Khuni is
the construction technique which makes the buildings on hills strong and can
easily be constructed by the local people. Construction techniques in hilly areas
have to be used with a great care as there are many chances of natural hazards.
Kath- khuni was in knowledge of the local people from many years ago and was

74
practiced locally from years. The technique is best suited for the topography and
climate of the region. From small houses to the hotels the construction technique
of the buildings in Himachal Pradesh is same i.e., kath-khuni. The wet regions of
Himachal Pradesh are rich in the natural resources of forest and water. Natural

hazards are the main and serious problem of the region such as cloudbursts,
flash floods, landslides, and earthquakes. As the region has rich traditional ways
and also have the impact of climate and complicated topography the local
people and the architecture of the region follows a vernacular traditions and
techniques. The architecture in Himachal Pradesh is based on some locally
available materials such as timber, soil, stone, and slate. But as the urbanization
is rapidly increasing, high density of construction work is done with RCC frames
and burnt brick masonry, and as a result there is a huge loss of old traditions and
traditional construction practices. But still much construction work is practiced
according to the vernacular techniques. Kath-Khuni architecture has the
characteristics to be seismically sound, aesthetically pleasing, and sustainable. If
we talk about the materials which were observed or studied and are used in this
technique are:

 Wood (deodar): Wood is the most common material used in the

construction work of Himachal Pradesh. Wood as a material is used for the
flooring, wall separation, doors, windows, etc. Wood is the locally available
material from the trees of deodar which are abundantly grows on the hills
of Himachal. The tree deodar has the quality to resist in heavy rain for
about 1000 years, and is 50metres high and has diameter of 3metres,
therefore, the wood is the majorly used material in construction practice.

 Stone: Stone is one of the most important locally available materials for
the construction as the granite stones are widely found in Himachal
which are used for various purposes such as for the fin ished work on e
xterna l facades of the buildings, and loose filler material used between
wooden wall frameworks. Stone is used for the bonds between the
blocks because of its ability to absorb heat. It is widely used for the
construction of Kath-Khuni architecture as it resists the impact of
earthquake and landslide tremors.

 Slate: Roofs plays a major role in the buildings of Himachal Pradesh to

resist from continuous heavy rains and snowfalls. Slate is the material
which is cut into thin sheets from the heavy metamorphic rocks. A slate
is cut into triangular and rectangular shaped units and protects the
building from heavy rains and snowfalls.

75
Construction technique for roofs:
Slates are the major vernacular locally available material which is used for the
construction of roofs in Himachal regions. As slates are the small units of a
defined shape and are systematically arranged.

 The units are typically and simply placed in rows on the roofs by overlap
between them for the proper bond.
 Another alternative is to drive the nails to the wooden frame underneath
to fasten them.
 Because of the dead weight of the slate it keep in the place
itself. Slate is the sunlight reflective material, is frost resistant, heat
absorbent and moisture barrier as it is containing high quartz content.

Different materials have their different roles in the construction such as-

 Stones are used for the plinth work.

 Wood and stones for walls.
 Wooden projecting balconies on upper levels.
 Over hanging slate roof fixed to the wooden frame.

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Khan, A. (2019). CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES IN HILLY AREA (HIMACHAL

PRADESH).

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Traditional and Vernacular buildings are Ecological Sensitive, Climate Responsive
Designs- Study of Himachal Pradesh By Sandeep Sharma and Puneet Sharma

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