Forest biodiversity and its conservation in India

Author(s): J.S. SINGH and S.P.S. KUSHWAHA

Source: The International Forestry Review, Vol. 10, No. 2, Special Issue: The Indian Forest
Sector - Current Trends and Future Challenges (2008), pp. 292-304
Published by: Commonwealth Forestry Association
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292 International Forestry Review Vol. 10(2), 2008

Forest biodiversity and its conservation in India

J.S. SINGH1 and S.P.S. KUSHWAHA2

1 Botany Department, Bañaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India

2 Forestry and Ecology Division, Indian Institute of Remote Sensing, Dehradun 248001, India

Email: singh.js1@gmail.com and spskushwaha@gmail.com

SUMMARY

With its varied climate and terrain, and characterised by at least 10 distinct bio-geographical regions, India supports a huge v
types and harbours three global terrestrial biodiversity hot spots. Most of the terrestrial biodiversity now resides in the
terrestrial habitats have lost their natural state. An impressive protected area network, comprising 509 wildlife sanctuaries, 9
(including 14 biosphere reserves), and several sacred groves maintained by indigenous communities, is in place. However,
forest policy and a strong regulatory regime, forest degradation and biodiversity loss continue because of the increasing requ
burgeoning human population, land use change and spread of invasive alien species. The extent and loss of biodiversity must b
monitored and people attracted to participate in biodiversity conservation rehabilitation on a massive scale.

Keywords: biodiversity, conservation, forest, hotspots, protected area network

Biodiversité forestière et sa conservation en Inde

J.S. SINGH ET S.P.S. KUSHWAHA

Avec son climat et son terrain variés, et caractérisée par au moins dix régions à biodiversité distinctes, l'Inde soutient une énor
types de forêts et est porteuse de trois points chauds de biodiversité terrestre globale. Le plus gros de la biodiversité terrestre
dans les forêts, puisque d'autres habitats terrestres ont perdu leur état naturel. Un réseau de zones protégées impressionna
comprenant 509 sanctuaires de faune, 96 parcs nationaux ( y compris 14 réserves biosphère) ainsi que des bosquets sacrés m
communautés indigènes. La dégradation forestière et la perte de la diversité continuent néanmoins, du fait des demandes c
population humaine en plein essor, de l'utilisation de la terre et des espèces étrangères envahissantes, et ce, malgré une poli
bénéfique et un régime de régulation solide. L'étendue de la biodiversité ainsi que sa perte doivent être surveillées continuell
nécessaire que les individus soient attirés en nombre massif à la participation dans la conservation de la biodiversité et sa ré

La biodiversidad forestal y su conservación en la India

J.S. SINGH Y S.P.S. KUSHWAHA

Con su clima y sus terrenos variados y sus 10 distintas regiones biogeográficas, la India sostiene gran variedad de tipos de bosq
zonas de biodiversidad terrestre de importancia mundial. La mayor parte de la biodiversidad terrestre actual existe en los bosques, por
demás habitats terrestres ya no se encuentran en su estado natural. Existe una red admirable de áreas protegidas, compuesta por 509 r
para fauna silvestre, 96 parques nacionales (incluyendo 14 reservas de la biosfera), y varias arboledas sagradas mantenidas por p
comunidades indígenas. Sin embargo, a pesar de una política forestal favorable y un régimen regulatorio contundente, la degradación
y la pérdida de biodiversidad continúan por causa de las demandas cada vez mayores de la población humana en aumento, los camb
uso de la tierra y la proliferación de especies ajenas invasoras. Hace falta monitorear constantemente el nivel de biodiversidad y su
y promover la participación masiva de la población en la rehabilitación y conservación de la biodiversidad.

INTRODUCTION 2002), and may be considered a unique and irreplaceable

natural resource (Weaver 1994) which is being rapidly lost
Diversity means the variability among living organisms
(Myers 1983). The loss of biodiversity actually constrains
and counteracts
from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and economic development (Kim and Weaver
other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes1994). The of
need to conserve biodiversity rose to the forefront
with
which they are part; this includes diversity within the formulation of the United Nations Convention on
species,
between species and of ecosystems (CBD 1992). The Biological Diversity (UNCBD) during the United Nations
net biological diversity at any point of time anywhere is Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) at
a function of the rates of evolution and extinction (Singh Rio de Janeiro in June 1992. The purpose of the Convention

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 Forest biodiversity and its conservation 293

is to conserve biological diversity, promote sustainable use FOREST AND BIODIVERSITY

of its components, and encourage suitable sharing of the

benefits arising from the utilisation of genetic resources. India, with a geographical area of 329 million hectares (h
The CBD obliges signatory nations (India was one of the is located north of the equator between 08°04'-37°06'N an
68°07'-97°25'E. It is bounded by the Indian Ocean in t
first signatories) to undertake an inventory of their biological
diversity to provide basic information about its distribution south, Arabian Sea in the west, Bay of Bengal in the e
and abundance. and the Himalayas in the north. India is endowed wit
In its 2.4 percent global area, India has 8 percent of great variety of terrain and climate. The majority of Ind
the world's total biodiversity, with around 47 000 species is tropical to subtropical, which means that the temperatu
of plants and fungi and 89 000 animal species (Khoshoowhich is the most important factor, is conducive for grow
1995, 1996, MoEF 1999). The majority of the terrestrial and development of vegetation. The rainfall, which is ran
biodiversity resides in forests, as many other terrestrial second in importance, also varies tremendously from pla
habitats have lost their natural status; therefore, conservation
to place. India receives rains from the monsoons originat
of forests is synonymous with conservation of biodiversity. in the Arabian Sea as well as the Bay of Bengal. The range
topography, temperature and rainfall are responsible for
India's national forest policy of 1988 rightly focused, inter
alia on "conserving the natural heritage of the country development of a great variety of macro and micro clima
by preserving the remaining natural forests with the vastand the resultant rich biological diversity on the Ind
variety of flora and fauna, which represent the remarkablesubcontinent. The country has been divided into a numb
biological diversity and genetic resources of the country".of bio-geographic zones based on biota and environmenta
The national environment policy of 2006 recognises that realms (Rodgers and Panwar 1988) ( Figure 1). India
"[forests] provide habitat for wildlife and the ecological nearly all the representative global ecological zones
conditions for maintenance and natural evolution of geneticsouth Asia. These are: (i) tropical rainforest; (ii) trop
diversity of flora and fauna" and stresses that "forests of highmoist deciduous forest; (iii) tropical dry forest; (iv) trop
shrubland; (v) tropical desert; (vi) tropical mountain' (
indigenous genetic diversity should be treated as entities
subtropical mountain; and (viii) temperate mountain (FA
with Incomparable Value"; it further aims to "strengthen the
protection of areas of high endemism of genetic resources2001). Among them, the largest area is covered by th
("biodiversity hot spots"), while providing alternativeecological zones, namely, tropical shrubland, tropical
livelihoods and access to resources to local communities forest and tropical moist deciduous forest.
who may be affected thereby."
In this article, an overview is presented of the forest
FIGURE 1 Biogeographic zones in India ( Rodgers and Pan
biodiversity scenario of India with emphasis on what 1988)
is
being done and what more needs to be done with regard to
its conservation.

WHY BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY MATTERS

Biodiversity is the basis for ecosystem services, which

constitute the life support system for humans. MEA
(2005) recognises four categories of ecosystem services:
(i) provisioning services - goods such as food, fresh water,
wood, medicines, and fibre, etc.; (ii) regulating services
- disease control, climate regulation, water purification,
flood regulation, erosion control, etc.; (iii) cultural services
- education, recreation, etc.; and (iv) supporting services
nutrient cycling, soil formation, primary productivity, etc.
There are two broad types of biodiversity values: market
values and ecological or quality-of-life values (Mendelsohn
2001). Market values reflect how biodiversity serves as an
input to economic activities such as agriculture, construction
and medicine. Quality-of-life values reflect ways in which
biodiversity makes our lives richer simply by increasing our
appreciation of life itself, besides contributing to ecosystem
services. Although many aspects of biodiversity are not used
by the economy and so provide no market value, if these
species and populations become extinct, then nations would
suffer a great loss.

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294 J. S. Singh and S. P. S. Kushwaha
The country supports an immense variety of forests.
Champion and Seth (1968) have classified Indian forests
into five groups based on physiognomy and climate. They
are further categorized into 16 type groups ( Figure 2) and
221 forest types, each with its own biodiversity complement.
The 65.6 percent of the Indian forests are tropical moist to
dry deciduous, 8 percent tropical wet evergreen, 4 percent
are tropical semi-evergreen, 9.5 percent are sub-tropical,
7 percent are temperate and 5.8 percent are miscellaneous
types (Lai 1989).
FIGURE 2 Forest types of India ( Champion and Seth 1968)
According to one estimate, India has 16 500 species of
flowering plants, 390 species of mammals, 2 546 species of
fishes, 68 000 species of insects, 17 000 species of fungi and
bacteria, 6 500 species of algae, 2 850 species of bryophytes,
1 100 species of pteridophytes, 68 000 species of insects, 5
000 species of moluscs, 8 000 species of invertebrates, 200
species of amphibians and 1 200 species of birds. Of the
reported 16 500 plant species, about 33 percent are endemic
to India. The exact number is not even known, yet at least
10 percent of India's recorded wild flora and possibly more
of its wild fauna are on the list of threatened species; many
are at the verge of extinction, largely because India has lost
at least half of its forests. There must be hundreds, perhaps
thousands of species, which have disappeared unstudied and
unrecorded simply because of our ignorance. According
to Nayar (1977), the wet evergreen forests of India which
occupy 51 249 km2 (only 1.5 percent of India's land surface)
hold about 7 000 species of flowering plants which is a little
less than 50 percent of the Indian angiospermic flora.
The rich diversity of tropical forests can be further
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appreciated by the fact that the 90 km2 area of Silent Valley in
Western Ghats holds 966 flowering plant species belonging
to 559 genera and 134 families (Manilai 1988). An analysis
of the endemic flora of India, for example, reveals that
Himalaya including Northeast India (around 4 000 endemics),
Western Ghats (2 000 endemics) and Andaman and Nicobar
Islands (250 endemics) are the three bio-geographic zones
with maximum hyper-diversity areas (NBSAP unpublished).
A small pocket of local endemism also occurs in the Eastern
Ghats (MacKinnon and MacKinnon 1986).
The floristic diversity of wild relatives of crop plants and
related genetic resources is also of a very high order and
these are again scattered in various hot spots in different
bio-geographic zones. According to Arora et al. (1983), of
the 320 such species, about 75 are endemic mainly to: (a)
Mysore Plateau- Wynad-Nilgiris, (b) Simlipal and Jeypore
hills, (c) Himalaya, and (d) Northeast India. Major hot
spot zones of genetic diversity in wild types fall under the
Malabar region (142 species), Northeast India (132 species),
western Himalayan region (113 species), Deccan Peninsula
(96 species), eastern Himalaya (5 1 species) and northwestern
plains with 49 species. This genetic base is under great stress
because of deforestation, adoption of modern crop varieties
and a short-sighted development paradigm.
Hotspots
Out of the 34 global terrestrial biodiversity hotspots, India
has three, namely, Himalaya, Indo-Burma and the Western
Ghats-Sri Lanka ( Table 1). The Indo-Burma hotspot is the
largest (2.37 million km2) among the three, while Western
Ghats-Sri Lanka is the smallest (area 0.19 million km2)
(www.biodiversityhotspots.org). The hotspots are highly
species-rich areas with a high rate of endemism. Hotspots
support a unique biodiversity, and contain outstanding
examples of the evolutionary process of speciation, but
are severely threatened. The Himalaya hotspot singularly
includes all of the world's mountain peaks higher than 8 000
m, as well as several of the world's deepest river gorges. The
Indo-Burma hotspot, richest in biodiversity, includes most
of the northeastern India except Arunachal Pradesh and parts
of Assam. The Western Ghats-Sri Lanka hotspot, which
stretches from Gujarat to Kanyakumari in India and 400
km farther up in Sri Lanka, has some of the last remaining
rain forests and associated high biodiversity. Despite higher
human population density, the Western Ghats-Sri Lanka
hotspot possesses highest concentration of endemics.
Biodiversity depletion
The depletion of biodiversity is an alarming problem all over
the world. The rate of extinction has been enhanced by human
intervention-related habitat loss and climate change. Several
factors are responsible for forest degradation and related
biodiversity depletion in the country. Because of industrial
revolution and the increase in human population from 390
million in 1950 to 1 billion in 2001 and in domestic animals
from 350 to 520 million in the same period, the gap between
demand for and supply of fuelwood, timber, fodder and
non-wood forest products has rapidly increased, resulting
 Forest biodiversity and its conservation 295

TABLE 1 Some characteristics of the Indian biodiversity hotspots

S. No. Categories Himalaya Indo-Burma ^

1. Hotspot original extent (km2) 741 706 2 373 057 189 61 1
2. Hotspot vegetation remaining (km2) 1 85 427 118 653 43 611
3. Endemic plant species 3 160 7 000 3 049
4. Endemic threatened birds 8 18 10
5. Endemic threatened mammals 4 25 14

6. Endemic threatened amphibians 4 35 87

7. Extinct species* 0 1 20
8. Human population density (people/km2) 123 134 261
_9.

10. Area protected (km2) in categories 1^1** 77 739 132 283 21 259

♦Recorded extinction since 1500; ** categories 1-4 afford a higher level of protection
(Source: www.biodiversityhotspots.org)

into over-harvesting and degradation. The(Sagar

peretcapita
al. 2003)forest
and understorey (Sagar et al. 2007)
area now is only 0.064 ha against the world average
vegetation of and
declined 0.64
the percentage of locally declining
ha. As much as 78 percent of the forest land
species is subjected
population increased (Sagar and Singh 2004), with
to heavy, unregulated grazing, and a nearly increasing human perturbation.
10 million ha Out of 65 tree species
area is subject to shifting cultivation. In addition,
recorded from vast
a 15 areas
ha forest area, 34 species exhibited local
are still being diverted for developmental reductions
and infrastructure
in population size.
Biodiversity is also
projects. These factors not only result in biodiversity lossbeing depleted because of legal and
but also in forest fragmentation which, inillegal trade in
addition toeconomically
species and medicinally important
loss, disrupts gene flow among populations of international
species. The a species, trade in biodiversity is diverse,
resulting into genetic impoverishment. ranging from live plants and animals to a vast array of food
In Western Ghats, low-elevation evergreen forests
products, exotic leather goods, wooden musical instruments,
dominated by Dipterocarps constitute thetimber,mosttourist
threatened
curios and medicines. Levels of exploitation
habitat. Its continuum along the Western Ghats
of some has are
plant species been
high and the trade in them, together
fragmented (Pascal 1982, Ramesh et al. with1997) because
other factors, such as habitat loss, is capable of heavily
of selective logging in the past, an increase in permanent
depleting their populations and even bringing some species
close to extinction.
settlements, and rubber plantations. Consequently, several
typical low-elevation species like Buchanania barberi ,
Cynometra beddomeU Dialium travancoricum,
Forest cover Carcinia
imbertiiy Hopea jacobi , Inga cynometroides
We suggest , that
Syzygium
the quantity and quality of forest cover reflect
chavaran have almost become extinct. Several
the extent species like as they not only represent the state
of biodiversity,
Litsea travancorica, Dipterocarpus bourdillonii have become
of environmental conditions but also the magnitude of the
rare, and some species like Buchanania lanceolata have taken
operating biodiversity-depleting factors. The national forest
refuge in the sacred groves (NBSAP unpublished). Forest
policy of independent India formulated in 1952 provided
timber plantations of tree species such asfor
eucalyptus, teak cover of 33 percent of the total land
a minimum forest
and rosewood, conifers (Pinus, Cupressus area,
, Araucaria
and the 1988 , etc)
national forest policy for 66 percent (two-
and others, such as rubber, acacia, alder, thirds)
silveroak, etc.area
of the land are in the hills and mountains to be under
forest cover.Biological
becoming major threats to natural forest diversity. Against this target, based on remote sensing,
invasion by exotic weeds such as Lantana,FSI
Mikania, Mimosa
(2005) reports 20.64 percent forest cover for the year
and Eupatorium in the natural forest areas is Of
2003. conspicuously
this, 1.56 percent is reported to be very dense, 10.32
threatening the native biodiversity. percent moderately dense and 8.67 percent open-canopied.
Ninety percent of the vegetation cover inTheIndo-Burma,
first-ever forest cover mapping in India by NRSA
77 percent in Western Ghats-Sri Lanka and
(1983) 75 percent
considered two forest density classes, namely, open/
in Himalaya has been lost mainly because of human degraded forest (canopy cover 10-30 percent) and closed
encroachment. In the dry tropical forest, which currently forest (canopy cover >30 percent), while the scheme of
constitutes 38.2 percent of the forest cover of India, conditions classification of the Forest Survey of India (FSI) (FSI 2001)
are no better. For example, in a study from Vindhyan dry mapped 10-40 percent canopy forests as open forest and
tropical forests, the Shannon-Wiener diversity and its >40 percent canopy forests as dense forest. Figures 3a and
components (species richness and evenness) of overstorey 3b show the forest cover in India during the 1972-1975 and

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296 J. S. Singh and S. P. S. Kushwaha

1980-1982 periods. One can easily make out the high forest FIGURE 4 Forest cover in India during 1972 and 2003
fragmentation in the country by simply looking at these
maps. Figure 4 gives details of forest cover in India between
1972 and 2003. Although the forest cover seems to have
stabilised over the last few years, the extent of good forest
cover is low and shows a perceptible decline.

FIGURE 3a Forest cover in India during 1972-1975 (1RS A

1983)

Until recently, the forests were mapped into just two

classes: dense forests and open forests, which did not allow
assessment of degradation of dense forest until it reached the
threshold canopy density of 40 percent. The last survey (FSI
2005) included one more category (i.e., medium dense forest)
and it is hoped that subsequent surveys will help assess the
degradation reasonably well. Some areas, such as Sonitpur
district in Assam, lost nearly 5 000 ha forest area annually
between 1994 and 2002 (Srivastava et al. 2002, Kushwaha
and Hazarika 2005) primarily because of insurgency. About
53 percent of the forest area in the country is affected by forest
fires (FSI 1999). The forest fires are grossly under-reported
in the country. The long-term impact of deforestation or fire
FIGURE 3b Forest cover in India during 1980-1982 (1RS A on species survival, mortality or biodiversity is therefore
1983) poorly understood.

BIODIVERSITY MEASUREMENT AND MONITORING

Plot scale measurements

Biodiversity, at a plot scale, has been assessed in the past
using different measures, namely, species richness, the
Simpson index and the Shannon- Wiener index (Singh 2002).
Species richness is the simplest of all measures of species
diversity. All one needs to do is count the number of species
in a plot or a community. The Simpson and Shannon- Wiener
indices are measures that account for both richness and
allocation of individuals among species (i.e., equitability).
To calculate these indices, data on both number of species
and number of individuals of each species are needed. These
help to understand the biodiversity profile across the sites.

Geospatial approach
Large area coverage of satellite imagery adds a new dimension
to biodiversity assessment (Fuller et al. 1998, Kushwaha et
al. 2000, Nagendra and Gadgil 1999). Vegetation-type maps
generated from satellite imagery could be prime inputs for a
two-stage biodiversity inventory at landscape level (Roy and

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 Forest biodiversity and its conservation 297

Tomar 2000, IIRS 2002, Behera et al. 2006).
The forestry and ecology division of the Indian Institute
of Remote Sensing, Dehradun, developed a methodology
for rapid assessment of biodiversity encompassing large
natural vegetation areas in India using a three-pronged
approach ( Figure 5). The technique makes effective use
of satellite imagery to generate homogeneous vegetation
strata and landscape analysis. The landscape parameters,
namely, fragmentation, patchiness (Romme 1982), porosity
(Forman and Godron 1986), interspersion (Lyon 1983),
juxtaposition (Lyon 1983) and proximity of the vegetation
patch to biotic disturbance features, such as roads, railway
and settlements (called biotic disturbance), are then used
to derive the disturbance index. This is followed by field
assessment by the Shannon- Wiener index of diversity in
different vegetation strata and evaluation of the vegetation
community for its uniqueness (defined by number of
endemic and rare species), determination of biodiversity
value (which includes medicine, timber, food, fodder, oil,
dye, fuel, charcoal, tannin, and others [total 10], each rated
between 1 to 10) following Belai and Springuel (1996).
The approach takes into account the terrain complexity
(variance calculated from the digital terrain model), which
final output, the biological richness (BR) is calculated as
a function of disturbance index (DI), terrain complexity
(TC), biodiversity value (BV), species richness (SR) and
ecosystem uniqueness (EU). The non-spatial field data are
converted to spatial data in the geographic information
system (GIS) domain, assigning values ranging from 1 to
10. The resultant output is scaled to four classes: very high
richness, high richness, medium richness and low richness,
depicting plant richness across the district, state or region.
Sampling of biodiversity saves considerable time and cost
otherwise needed for such an inventory using ground-based
methods alone. A Windows-based software module of the
ARC/INFO, BioCAP (beta version called SPLAM) was
compiled to facilitate the landscape analysis (IIRS 2002).
This methodology, developed in 1998, was validated
extensively for biological richness assessment in Northeast
India (262 179 km2), western Himalaya (339 575 km2),
Western Ghats (260 962 km2) and Andaman and Nicobar
Islands (8 249 km2) between 1999 and 2001. It provides
an enormous quantity of spatial (maps) and non-spatial
(tabular) data. During phases 1 and 2 of this project, more
than 10 000 plots were sampled and a detailed species
database was created.

plays an important role in biodiversity development. The A biodiversity Web site, www.bisindia.org was created

FIGURE 5 Paradigm of biodiversity characterisation at landscape levels (IIRS 2002)

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298 J. S. Singh and S. P. S. Kushwaha
at the end of phase 1 . The Web site contains large number
of state maps (on 1:1m scale for the general public and at
original mapping scale for scientists), tabular data and other
biodiversity-related information including species database.
The phase 2 project work encompassing central India and
West Bengal (664 982 km2) and the Eastern Ghats and east
coast (538 742 km2) has also been completed (URS 2007a
and b) since then and the outputs have been uploaded in the
Web site. The phase 3 project work (2007-2009) in remaining
areas of India is in progress. Wall-to-wall benchmark spatial
data are aimed at by the end of phase 3.
Temporal assessment
Monitoring of biodiversity refers to biodiversity assessment
at the temporal scale, and can be envisaged in three ways:
i) by repeated surveys of permanent plots established in
different forest types, ecozones and protected areas; ii)
by repeated surveys of indicator species; and iii) by using
geospatial techniques over large areas. Repeated census of
some species (e.g., lion, tiger and elephant) are already being
done, although accuracy is limited and methods require
refinement. Monitoring of keystone plant species such as
oaks in temperate forests of Himalaya and Dipterocarps in
tropical wet forests, should also attract attention. Monitoring
of exotic weeds such as Prosopis juliflora, Cytisus scoparius,
Mikania scandens, Mimosa invisa and Lantana cantara can
also reflect the changes in native biodiversity. However,
before selecting the suite of species to be monitored to gain
insight into the temporal variation in biodiversity, their
occurrence and population size need be correlated with the
biodiversity level.
It would be ideal if biodiversity monitoring could be
tied into the biennial national forest cover mapping by the
Forest Survey of India and if each alternate report of FSI on
forest cover could include monitoring results. To accomplish
the task, the FSI may have to involve organisations like the
Botanical Survey of India, the Zoological Survey of India,
universities located in forest areas, the National Bureau of
Plant Genetic Resources and other bodies with a similar
mandate. In addition, the FSI reports should include the
of forest types following regional ecosystem boundaries,
Participatory assessment (people's biodiversity
registers)
An innovative approach for inventorying biodiversity and its
uses is the grass-roots institution, the People's Biodiversity or what are now called "wet" and "dry coastal ecosystem
Register (PBR). The Foundation for Revitalisation of Local
Health Traditions, Bangalore, in collaboration with the
Centre for Ecological Sciences (CES) of the Indian Institute
of Science, Bangalore, has been involved in formulating
this innovative programme, which seeks to document the
knowledge of occurrence of species, propagation practices,
sustainable harvests and conservation, as well as economic
uses of biodiversity resources that reside with India's
local communities. Among other objectives, the PBR is
expected to: i) document, monitor and provide information
for sustainable management of biodiversity resources; ii)
promote biodiversity-friendly development; iii) establish
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claims of individuals and local communities over knowledge
of uses of biodiversity resources; (iv) perpetuate and promote
the development of the practical ecological knowledge of
local communities and of the traditional "slow" sciences of
Ayurveda and Unani medicine in tune with the objectives of
the CBD (www.ces.iisc.ernet.in). Such a system is especially
needed to protect the interests of the indigenous people of
India - people who have played a vital role in conserving the
country's biodiversity.
BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION
Conservation prioritisation
The location of and threats to biodiversity are distribu
unevenly. Moreover, there is always a limitation of fun
and time. Hence, prioritisation is essential to minimise
biodiversity loss and the cost of conservation. To address
need, biodiversity conservation organisations have prop
nine templates of global priorities over the past dec
(Brooks et al. 2006). Conceptually, they all fit within
framework of "irreplaceability" relative to "vulnerabili
which is central to conservation planning theory. Howe
it is through the conservation of actual sites that biodive
will ultimately be preserved or lost; thus, drawing the le
of global conservation prioritisation down to the region
and local scales is now the primary concern for conserva
planning. Meher-Homji (1997) has enumerated the follow
criteria for biodiversity conservation prioritisatio
representativeness of bio-geographic regions, a criterion
by Rodgers and Panwar (1988); ii) legal status, threats to
pressures on protected areas; iii) species richness (flora
fauna); iv) biodiversity richness: areas rich not only in
number of species but also in the number of individual
richness in endemics (plants and animals), threatened an
or rare species; vi) richness in medicinal plants and spec
of economic value (particularly wild relatives of cultiva
species); vii) key or apex (faunai) species at the summit
the food-chain (e.g., tiger); viii) forest physiognomy: h
state
density of trees; ix) compactness of the area as against hi
fragmented areas, though fragments have to play an impor
role in serving as stepping stones for species that woul
migrating in the wake of climate change; x) uniqueness
naturalness; xii) areas relatively free from the requirem
of tribais and villagers; xiii) sacred groves; xiv) mangro
(i.e., coastal sands and sand dunes) also deserve atten
among the wetlands and marine ecosystems.
In India many, if not all, of the above criteria have be
used in designating protected areas.
Government-designated protected areas
The 1952 national forest policy paved the way for setti
up of national parks and sanctuaries for preservatio
wildlife in India. The Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 of
recognises the vital contribution of the protected areas (
towards conservation of natural resources and preserva
of biological diversity. Project Tiger (covering 28 t
 Forest biodiversity and its conservation 299

reserves, 37,761 km2 area of protected areas, launched in reserve has a national park or a wildlife sanctuary as its core
1973, and Project Elephant (covering 25 elephant reserves, area.

61,200 km2 of PAs and some outside), launched in 1992, are
other important measures taken for biodiversity conservation.
Apart from the PAs mandated under the Wildlife (Protection)
Act, 1972, certain areas have also been declared as biosphere
reserves in order to conserve in situ all forms of life, along
with their support system in their totality, and further allow
them to serve as a referral system for monitoring and
evaluating changes in natural ecosystems. Each biosphere
The PA network includes 96 national parks a
wildlife sanctuaries (including 14 biosphere res
covering 4.78 percent of the geographical area o
This is an open-ended process, and in future more
expected to come into being. Table 2 includes a list of
parks and wildlife sanctuaries located in different
India. However, a majority of PAs are too small
and some are even fragmented. This could lead to

TABLE 2 Protected areas in India

5.No. State/Union Territory National parks Wildlife sanctuaries Area (km2)

_L

2. Arunachal; Pradesh 2 11 9 897.19

_3.

Jk

_5.

6. . Goa

_7.

8. Haryana 2 10 303.92
9. Himachal Pradesh 2 33 7 601.00
10. Jammu & Kashmir 4 15 14 242.50

11. Jharkhand

12. Karnataka

13. Kerala

14. Madhya Pradesh 9 25 10 814.76

15. Maharashtra 6 35 15 426.29

16. Manipur

17. Meghalaya

18. Mizoram

19. Nagaland

20. Orissa

21. Punjab

22. Rajasthan

23. Sikkim

24. Tamil Nadu

25. Tripura 1 4 603.64

26. Uttarakhand 6 6 7 138,76

27. Uttar Pradesh

28. West Bengal

29. Andaman & Nicobar 9 96 1 546.30

30. Chandigarh 0 2 26.13

31. Darman&Diu 0 1 2.18

32. Dadar & Nagar Haveli 0 1 92.16

33. Delhi

34. Lakshadweep 0 1 0.01

Total 96 510 156 668.09

(Source: www.wii.gov.in)

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300 J. S. Singh and S. P. S. Kushwaha

isolation of small populations; therefore the size needs to condition at its peak or near peak. The major threats to the
be optimised and fragments removed. Further, the protected existing sacred groves in India include erosion of cultural
areas are under tremendous pressure, primarily because of values among the native populations, degradation of forests
burgeoning human population followed by use, over-use due to canopy opening, livestock grazing and subsequent
and sometimes abuse of such areas leading to destruction invasion by exotic weeds, encroachment for agriculture,
of the biological resources. A large number of people reside and natural calamities. Strategies for the conservation of
within PAs. Evidently, there is a need to rationalise the sacred groves could include i) complete inventory of sacred
boundaries of PAs by excluding dense human settlements groves and landscapes in all bio-geographic zones and
on their periphery. There is also a danger of PAs becoming enlisting of the biological, ecological and socio-cultural
islands surrounded by a degraded and impoverished values associated with each; ii) mass education and revival
landscape; absence of corridors linking PAs at least within of dwindling cultural values among the local populations;
the same biogeographical region and lack of mechanism for iii) evolving site-specific conservation and restoration plans
transboundary biodiversity conservation, that is, linking PAs in consultation with the local people for implementation
across country borders, are also of concern. by the people; and iv) providing economic incentives to
The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, was amended the communities who are protecting and managing the
with effect from 1 April 2003. Under the amendment two sacred groves and ecosystems for posterity. Recognition of
new categories of PA, namely, conservation reserves and conservation and community reserves under an amended
community reserves were incorporated to facilitate coverage wildlife (protection) act should facilitate conservation of
of all bio-geographic zones and forest types; the involvement sacred groves by making these eligible for government
of the people in the establishment and management of funding and technical support.
such protected areas was also recognised. The National
Environment Policy, 2006, also envisages identifying and Ex situ conservation
giving legal status to environmentally sensitive zones in the In ex situ conservation, samples of a species, subspecies, or
country through environmental entities with "incomparable variety are taken and conserved either as living collections
values" requiring special conservation efforts. Such entities of plants in gene banks, botanical gardens and arboreta or as
would be regulated through the Environment (Protection) samples of seed, ovules, tubers, tissue expiants, pollen, or
Act, 1986. The community and conservation reserves DNA maintained under artificial conditions. Conservation of
together with environmentally sensitive zones are expected cultivated plants and their wild relatives is mandated to the
to take care of biodiversity-rich areas outside of the PA National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), which
system. has established India's first national gene bank. The National
Facility for Plant Tissue Culture Repository (NFPTCR) is
Sacred groves and community reserves undertaking cryo-preservation of seeds, pollen, embryos, as
Many Indian societies have deep reverence for nature well as in vitro culture of plants of economic and scientific
and natural objects, which are not only protected but also value (Chandel 1996). A large number of botanical gardens
worshipped. As part of the local tradition of nature worship, and arboreta are engaged in conserving indigenous plants.
several communities set aside certain forest patches for their Evolving effective ex situ conservation strategies for bio-
ancestral spirits and deities. These patches are termed as resources of potential scientific and economic values is also
sacred groves (Ramakrishnan 1998). Malhotra (1998) has within the mandate of the National Bioresource Development
estimated that India may have up to 5 000 small and large Board (NBDB) established by the Government of India in
sacred groves, while the total number of sacred groves in 1999.
India may even be as high as 100 000 covering 1-2 percent
of the country's geographical area. Malhotra et al. (1997)
have reported 322 such groves in the Semiliguda block of INFORMATION GAPS AND GREY AREAS FOR
Koraput district in Orissa. Similarly, 953 groves are reported FURTHER WORK
in Maharashtra by Deshmukh et al. (1998). The area around
Mount Khangchendzonga in West Sikkim, popularly known One of the characteristic features of biodiversity is that it
as demojong among the local inhabitants, is most sacred for is not uniformly distributed on the land surface. Evidently,
buddhists of the region. Sacred groves in Meghalaya, Kerala, different forest types harbour variable extents of biodiversity.
Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Uttarakhand and Himachal However, whatever biodiversity measurements are available
Pradesh, among other states, harbour rich floral and faunai have been made in an ad hoc manner in studies disjointed in
biodiversity (Pushpangadan et al. 1998). The control andtime and space, and reported in scattered research papers.
maintenance of sacred groves varies from place to place.As a result, no biodiversity inventory is available for
For example, Orans in Rajasthan are managed by the Gramdifferent forest types of India, and there is no quantitative
Panchayats ; sacred groves of Meghalaya are protected by
information on the threat status because of a lack of temporal
the communities; clan-based management appears to be monitoring.
a
widespread practice among santhals, munda , kharia and Lack of valuation of biodiversity is yet another area of
other tribes of central, eastern, and Northeast India. concern. From medicine to timber, biodiversity provides
raw materials for many economic processes. Although these
Sacred groves usually represent vegetation in its natural

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 Forest biodiversity and its conservation 301

inputs are not always traded in markets, they nonetheless 6b specifically mandates the integration of biodiversity
fuel market activities (Mendelsohn 2001). By valuing the conservation and sustainable use into various sectors. India's
resulting market activities, one can deduce the value that NBSAP has been prepared under this mandate. From the very
each input has contributed. Although some case studies on beginning, it took the integration of biodiversity concerns
forest (biodiversity) valuation and resource accounting are into various sectors as one of its main process goals. The
available (National Forest Commission 2006), there is a need broad purpose of the NBSAP process was to produce an
to integrate this valuation with other sectors of economy implementable action plan that would help conserve India's
at the national scale. Moreover, as we have no economic vast biodiversity, orient utilisation of biological resources
quantification of the magnitude of ecosystem services into sustainable directions, and ensure that decisions
provided by biodiversity, the following questions need to regarding access to such resources and the benefits accruing
be answered: i) how do changes in ecosystem structure and from them, are taken democratically and equitably. This
functioning affect delivery of ecosystem services? ii) what is a project of the Ministry of Environment and Forests
are the rates of renewal and resilience? iii) how is the delivery (MoEF) of the Government of India funded by the Global
of ecosystem services distributed across social groups? and Environment Facility through United Nations Development
iv) how do people respond to changes in ecosystem service Programme (UNDP). A unique aspect of the project has been
provision? that the technical execution was done through a technical
Research is also needed to develop sustainable harvest and policy core group (TPCG), which was coordinated by
regimes and techniques of value addition for non-timber an NGO, Kalpavriksh. The administrative coordination was
forest produce. carried out by the Biotech Consortium India Ltd.
Biodiversity does not recognise state or country
boundaries. Protected areas cannot exist in isolation as Forest policies and regulatory acts
islands. Biodiversity conservation has to take a holistic Theview
Government of India has, from time to time, framed
that includes both reserve and non-reserve areas and considers national policies and acts for the governance and management
the needs and interests of the people who rely on these areas of forests. The national forest policy of 1952 was revised
for their livelihoods; it also needs to takes into account the in 1988 to give a new direction to forest management in
entire landscape, physical and human (Sharma et al. 2007). the country; for the first time environmental stability was
This implies using a landscape approach to conservation, with considered the prime object of forest policy and direct
coordinated planning for a whole landscape rather than for a economic benefits were subordinated to this principal aim.
limited area defined in terms of political or other boundaries. The policy further emphasised the need for biodiversity
Thus, transboundary biodiversity conservation landscapes conservation. One of the most important instruments in forest
are expected to incorporate the ecosystem approach while management in India has been the working plans, prepared
facilitating integration and networking of regional protected at territorial division level, which prescribe the management
areas. Transboundary biodiversity, therefore, requires and silvicultural practices for different forest types in the
bilateral or multilateral arrangements and programmes that division and are expected to be in tune with the prevailing
are amenable to all parties. This requires a considerable forest policy. These working plans are expected to be revised
amount of scientific, social and policy research. every 10 years. The Ministry of Environment and Forests
There is little doubt that global climate change is going issued a uniform working plan code for all the states in 2004.
to influence the forest and biodiversity resources in a big It would be desirable to include a chapter in each working
way. Studies are needed to assess the impact of such change plan which gives a comprehensive account of the state of
and provide for contingent plans, particularly with respect to forest biodiversity and identifies the areas (compartments) in
PA network and coastal forests. the division specifically requiring conservation measures as
Concerted research is needed to identify a series ofwell as prescribing such measures. Inputs from experts may
indicators that are representative across the full spectrumbe required for this purpose.
of biodiversity, and easy to interpret by decision makers. Presently, the three acts which are the most important
Monitoring of such indicators should enable us to measure legal instruments for forest protection and conservation are:
the success of various conservation programmes. Inputsthe Indian Forest Act, 1927, the Wildlife (Protection) Act,
from remote sensing, global positioning systems and various1972 (amended in 2003) and the Forest (Conservation) Act,
other technologies may be important in this respect. 1980 (amended in 1988). The first recognised the protected,
reserved and village forests, and provided enabling
provisions to make rules and regulations. State-level acts,
POLICIES AND GOVERNANCE ISSUES rules and regulations to provide for local flexibility, under this
umbrella act, are also in place. The Forest (Conservation) Act
National biodiversity strategy and action plans restricts the dereservation of forests or use of forest land for
(NBSAPs) non-forest purposes. The Wildlife (Protection) Act provides
Article 6 of the CBD requires parties to prepare national for the protection of wild fauna and flora, for setting up of
biodiversity strategy and action plans (NBSAPs). PAs, and has categorised wildlife species in six schedules
These NBSAPs are to serve as the main instruments for
with variable degree of punishment for possessing and/or
implementation of the CBD at a national level. Article
transporting them. India as a member nation of Convention

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302 J. S. Singh and S.P.S. Kushwaha

on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) Ministry of Environment and Forests issued policy guidelines
regulates the trade in endangered species and cooperates for the involvement of village communities and voluntary
with other members. agencies in the regeneration of degraded forest lands on
More recently in 2002, the Indian parliament enacted 1 June 1990 under the JFM (joint forest management)
the Biological Diversity Act to promote conservation, programme. All 28 state governments and the Andaman and
sustainable use and equitable sharing of benefits on India's Nicobar Islands had adopted JFM by July 2005. Currently,
biodiversity resources. It provides for the establishment of around 21.43 million ha forest lands are being managed
a national biodiversity authority (already set up in 2004), under JFM. JFM can be used as an instrument not only for
state biodiversity boards, and biodiversity management biodiversity conservation but also for its enhancement.
committees (BMCs) at the level of Panchayats (village Local communities often have incredible knowledge on
committees) and municipalities. The BMCs are required the location and extent of species, including species niches.
also to establish and maintain people's biodiversity registers. These communities also possess remarkable traditional
The Act will operate side by side with a whole range of knowledge on uses and management of such species,
other acts, including, in particular, those pertaining to forest, which gives them a sense of belonging and partnership and
wild life, Panchayati Raj (village governance) institutions, hence, their perpetual interest in conservation programmes.
plant varieties and farmers' rights, and patents. There are a However, the participation of communities at the scale now
number of potential conflicts in the working of these various required will succeed only if policies are developed to enable
acts that need to be resolved carefully to make the Biological them to appropriate a greater share of the benefits arising
Diversity Act 2002 effective (Gadgil 2003). from conservation.

The Indian parliament has recently enacted The Scheduled

Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition Education and capacity building
of Forest Rights) Act, 2006, which may have a profound Lack of public awareness of biodiversity and its importance
effect on forest and its biodiversity. The Act is justified on a can be a significant impediment to successful long-term
moral basis to undo the historic injustice to the tribal people conservation. Conservation education is relevant to all
that has rendered them encroachers on their ancestral lands sections and sectors of the society, particularly those living
in the eyes of the law; it aims to recognise the customary in and around forests. Such education and awareness
rights of hunters, gatherers, shifting cultivators and others programmes should be scalable to the level needed, from
who have recorded or unrecorded rights to forest lands. It specific communities living near areas of high biodiversity
further stipulates that there must be rehabilitation of landless value to nationwide campaigns to produce greater support
families in situ by leasing out forest areas for agro-forestry for conservation. Locally appropriate curricula, which
operations as a means of livelihood. The Act speaks of can involve local people in long-term monitoring of local
minimisation of forest fragmentation; but the fact is that, as biodiversity and be conducive to a two-way learning process,
most of forests are already fragmented, the Act may promote should be promoted. According to the Biological Diversity
it. The Act makes an attempt to define "sustainable use" but Act, the central government is responsible for training
there is an absence of guidelines on harvesting/use based on and public education to increase respect for biodiversity.
ecological principles. However, the task cannot be accomplished without the
It is clear that there are several central and state- involvement of other sectors such as the university system
and NGOs.
level regulatory mechanisms, yet forest degradation
and biodiversity loss has not stopped. It is also clearCapacity
that building is required to ensure that traditional
biodiversity conservation cannot happen withoutknowledge
active holders have an equitable say in decision-making
people's participation, education and capacity building,
processes. Communities must be given the scientific, legal
and possibly linguistic support to accurately assess how
which together can produce social fencing for protection
of biodiversity. This is particularly important in their
view traditional
of knowledge is to be used, the implications
the implementation of The Scheduled Tribes and ofOther
such use, and the most suitable means to protect their
traditional knowledge (Singh 2005). Education must be
Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights)
Act, 2006. provided to tribais and other forest dwellers regarding the
use of biodiversity, its sustainable harvest, value addition
Community participation and marketing so that their economic well-being can be
The indigenous, mobile, and local communities have improved.
played
a critical role in conserving a variety of natural environments
and species for millennia, for various economic, cultural,
CONCLUSIONS
spiritual and aesthetic purposes. The Bishnoi community in
Rajasthan, Apatanis in Arunachal Pradesh and many others
in India protect and conserve trees and wildlife. TheFor a forest and species-rich country like India, assessm
Chipko
Movement in Uttarakhand which began in the 1980sand is yet
conservation of biodiversity is of paramount importan
There is a need to set up a coordinated programme
another fine example of people's concern for biodiversity
conservation. systematic biodiversity measurement and monitorin
Recognising the importance of people's participation, the at least in major forest types or ecoregions. At the sa

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 Forest biodiversity and its conservation 303

time as enlarging the PA network, optimising its size and FSI 2005. State of forest report 2003. Forest Survey of India,
rationalising its boundaries, there is a need to develop Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of
conservation programmes at the landscape level so that India, Dehradun, India.
the PAs do not suffer from island syndrome; focus should FULLER, R.M., GROOM, G.B., MULISH, S., PULLET,
also include strategies for biodiversity conservation outside P., POMEROY, D, KATENDE, A., BAILEY, R. and
PAs. It is desirable to keep the regulatory regime in place, OGUTU-OHWAYO, R. 1998. The integration of field
but concerted efforts need be made to attract people's survey and remote sensing for biodiversity assessment: a
participation in a big way. Education should be provided case study in the tropical forests and wetlands of Sango
and capacity should be built such that people may derive Bay, Uganda. Biological Conservation 86: 379-391.
intangible as well as economic benefits from conservation GADGIL, M. 2003. India's biological diversity act 2002:
efforts to improve their livelihoods. an act for the new millennium. Journal of Biosciences
28(2): 145-147.
URS 2002. Biodiversity characterisation at landscape level
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