The z-Transform z-Transform1

p Introduction
p z-Transform
p Properties of the Region of Convergence for the z-
Transform
p Inverse z-Transform
p z-Transform Properties
p Unilateral z-Transform
p Solving the Difference Equations
p Zero-Input Response
p Transfer Function representation
p Summary
1. Introduction z-Transform2

p Role in Discrete-Time Systems

l z-Transform is the discrete-time counterpart of the Laplace transform.
p Response of Discrete-Time Systems
l If a system is lumped, it can be described as a difference equation
2y[k] + 3y[k-1] + y[k-2] = u[k] + u[k-1] - u[k-2] for k = 0, 1, 2
l The response of the system is excited by an input u[k] and some initial
conditions.
l The difference equations are basically algebraic equations, their solutions
can be obtained by direct substitution.
l The solution however is not in closed form and is difficult to develop
general properties of the system.
l A number of design techniques have been developed in the z-Transform
domain.
1. The z-Transform z-Transform3

p Positive and Negative Time Sequence

l A discrete-time signal f[k] = f[kT], where k is an integer ranging (-∗<t<∗), is
called a positive-time sequence if f[k]=0 for k < 0; it is called a negative-
time sequence if f[k] = 0 for k > 0.
l We mainly consider the positive-time sequences.
p z-Transform Pair Difference
Differencewith
withthe
the
l The z-transform is defined
∞
as Fourier
FourierTransform
Transform
X ( z ) ≡ Z [ x [ n ]] ≡ ∑
= −∞
n
x [ n ]z −n

‹where z is a complex variable, called the z-transform variable.

p Example
l x[n] = { 1, 2, 5, 7, 0, 1}; x[n] = (1/2)n u{n}
0. The z-Transform (c.1) z-Transform4

p Example
l f[k] = bk for all positive integer k and b is a real or complex number.
∞ ∞ ∞
F (z) = ∑
n = 0
f [ n ]z − n
= ∑
n = 0
n
b z − n
= ∑
n = 0
(bz −1
)n

l If b z − 1 < 1 , then the infinity power series converges and

1 z b
F (z) = =
1 − b z −1 z − b
l The region is called the region of convergence.
b < z
p Unit Step Sequence
l The unit sequence is defined as 1 fo r n = 0 ,1, 2 ,
q[n ] = 
 0 fo r n < 0
l The z-Transform is ∞
1
p Exponential Sequence Q (z) = ∑
n = 0
z − n
=
1 − z −1

l f[k] = e akT ∞
1
F (z) = ∑
n= 0
e anT z − n
=
1 − e aT
1. The z-Transform (c.2) z-Transform5

p Region of Convergence
l For any given sequence, the set of values of z for which the z-
transform converges is called the region of convergence.
p Viewpoints
l The representation of the complex variable z
jω
z = re
l Consider the z-transform ROC includes the unit circle
∞
==> Fourier Transform converges
X (re jω
) = ∑
n = −∞
x [n ]( re jω
)− n

l Convergent Condition
∞ Convergence of the z-Transform
∑
n = −∞
x [ n ]r − n
< ∞ ==> The z-transform and its derivatives
must be continuous function of z.
1. The z-Transform (c.3) z-Transform6

p Rational Function
P(z)
X (z) =
Q(z)

p Ex.
x [n ] = a nu[n ] x [ n ] = − a n u [− n − 1]
2. Properties of the Region of Convergence
for the z-Transform z-Transform7

p Properties
l The ROC is a ring or disk in the z-plane centered at the origin, i.e., 0 ≤ r R < z < r L ≤ ∞
l The Fourier transform of x[n] converges absolutely if and only if the ROC of the z-
transform of x[n] includes the unit circle.
l The ROC cannot contain any poles.
l If x[n] is a finite-duration sequence, i.e. a sequence that is zero except in a finite
interval − ∞ < N 1 ≤ n ≤ N 2 ≤ ∞ , then the ROC is the entire z-plane except possibly
z=0 or z= ∞ .
l If x[n] is a right-sided sequence, i.e. a sequence that is zero for n<N1< ∞ , the ROC
extends outward from the outermost finite pole in X(z) to z= ∞ .
l If x[n] is a left-sided sequence, i.e., a sequence that is zero for n>N2>- ∞ , the ROC
extends inward from the innermost (smallest magnitude) nonzero pole in X(z) to
(and possibly including) z=0.
l A two-sided sequence is an inifinite-duration sequence that is neither right-sided
nor left-sided. If x[n] is a two-sided sequence, the ROC will consist of a ring in the z-
plane, bounded on the interior and exterior by a pole, and, consistent with property
3, not containing any poles.
l The ROC must be a connected region.
2. Properties of the Region of Convergence
for the z-Transform z-Transform8

p Example
Unit circle

l ROC is a Ring

l ROC is the interior of a circle

l ROC is the outerior of a circle

No
Nocommon
commonROC
ROCcase
case??
3. The Inverse z-Transform z-Transform9

p Methods
l Direct Division − 2 z 4 + 5z 3 + z 2 − 6 z + 3
F (z) =
l Partial Fraction Expansion z2 − z − 2
p Direct Division
l F(z) = -2z2 +3z +3z-2 + 3z-3 + 9z-4
−2z 2 + 3z + 3z −2 + 3z −3 + 9z −4
f[k] = {-2, 3, 0, 0, 3, 3, 9, ...}
z 2 − z − 2 −2z 4 + 5z 3 + z 2 − 6z + 3
−2z 4 + 2z 3 + 4z 2
p Ex. 3/(z2 - z -2)
3z 3 − 3z 2 − 6z + 3
3z 3 − 3z 2 − 6z
+3
3. The Inverse z-Transform (c.1) z-Transform10

p Partial Fraction Expansion and Table Lookup

M M

∏ (1 − c k z
=1
−1
)
b ∏ (1 − c k z −1
)
=1
X (z ) = k
N
X (z ) = 0 k
N
a0
∏ (1 − d k z
=1
−1
) ∏ (1 − d k z −1
)
k k =1

l If M<N and the poles are all first order

b0 N Ak
X (z ) = ∑ −1
Ak = ( 1 − d k z −1 ) X ( z ) z =d k
a 0 k =1 ( 1 − d k z )
l If M>= N and the poles are all first order, the complete partial fraction
expression can be
M −N N
Ak Ak = ( 1 − d k z −1 ) X ( z ) z =d k
X ( z ) = ∑ B r z +∑
−r
−1
r =0 k =1 ( 1 − d k z )
l If X(z) has multiple-order poles and M>=N
M −N N
Ak s
Cm
X ( z ) = ∑ Br z + ∑
−r
−1
+ ∑
r =0 k =1 , k ≠ i ( 1 − d k z ) m =1 ( 1 − d i z −1 ) m
1  d s −m −1 
Cm = s −m  s −m
[( 1 − d i w ) s
X (w )]
( s − m )!(− d i ) dw w =d i −1
3. The Inverse z-Transform (c.2) z-Transform11

p Examples
1 + 2z −1 + z − 2 1 + 2z −1 + z − 2 A1 A2
X (z ) = = = B0 + + −1
3 1 1 1 1− z
1 − z −1 + z − 2 ( 1 − z − 1 )( 1 − z − 1 ) 1− z −1

2 2 2 2

l ROC: z > 1

1
l ROC: z <
2

1
l ROC: < z < 1
2
4. The Unilateral z-Transform z-Transform12

p Definition ∞
X ( z ) ≡ Z [ x [ n ]] ≡ ∑
n=0
x [ n ]z −n

p Time Delay
x[n ] X (z )
k
x[n − k ] z −k
X ( z )+ ∑
n=1
x [− n ] z −k +n

 k −1

x[n + k ] z i
X ( z )− ∑ x [ n ]z −n

 n=0 
5. Solving the Difference Equations z-Transform13

p Goals
l Solving LTIL differential equations using Laplace transform.
p Example
2y[k] + 3y[k-1] + y[k-2] = u[k] + u[k-1] - u[k-2]
where u(t) = q(t), y(-1) = -1 and y(-2) = 1.

p Exercise
Find the response of
y[k+1] - 2y[k] = u[k] and y[k+1] - 2y[k] = u[k+1] y[-1]=1 and u[k] = 1, for k
=0, 1, 2, ...
6. Zero-Input Response-- Characteristic
Polynomial z-Transform14

p Consider the zero-input response

− 3 y [ − 1 ]− y [ − 2 ]− y [ − 1 ] z − 1 ( − 3 y [ − 1 ]− y [ − 2 ]) z 2 − y [ − 1 ] z
Y zi ( z ) = −1 −2
=
2 + 3z + z 2z 2 + 3z + 1

l The denominator of Yzi, is called the characteristic polynomial.

l The roots of Yzi, is called the modes of the system.
p Why the name, "mode" ?
l The zero-input response of the system excited by any initial
conditions can always be expressed as The
Theform
formofofthe
thezero-input
zero-input
(− 3y [− 1]− y [− 2 ]) z − y [− 1] z
2
k1z k 2 z response excited by any
Yzi ( z ) = = + response excited by any
2z + 3z + 1
2
z + 0 . 5 z + 1 initial
initialconditions
conditionsisis
l The zero-input response is for t>=0 completely
completelydetermined
determinedby by
y ( k ) = k ( − 0 .5 ) k + k ( − 1 ) k the
themodes
modesof ofthe
thesystem
system
zi 1 2

l The zero-input response is always a linear combination of the two

time functions (-0.5)k and (-1)k.
6. Zero-State Response-- Transfer Function z-Transform15

p Consider The Transfer

2y[k] + 3y[k-1] + y[k-2] = u[k] + u[k-1] - u[k-2]
l If all initial conditions are zero, we have
Functions
The ratio of the z transforms
1 + z −1 − z −2 z2 + z − 1
Y (z) = U (z) = U (z) of the output and input with
2 + 3z −1 + z −2 2 z 2 + 3z + 1 all initial conditions zero or
p Ways to Find Transfer Functions H (z) =
Y (z)
The transfer function is the z transform U (z) in itia l c o n d itio n s = 0
of the impulse response.
The function can be obtained from the
zero-state response excited by any The transfer function of the
input, in particular, step or sinusoidal above example is (z2 + z -
functions. 1)/(2z2 + 3z +1)
The function can be obtained from the
difference equation description.
l y[k]-y[k-1]+2y[k-2]-3y[k-3] = u[k]
6.1 Poles and Zeros of Proper Transfer
Functions z-Transform16

p For a proper rational functions

N (z)
H (z) =
D (z)
l where N(z) and D(z) are polynomials with real coefficients. If N(z) and
D(z) have no common factors, then the roots of D(z) and N(z) are
respectively the poles and zeros of the system.
uexamples Y ( z ) = = 3( z + 4 )
U (z)
p Definition 2 ( z + 0 .5 ) ( z + 1 )
l A finite real or complex number λ is a pole of H(z) if the absolute value
of H(λ ) = ∗. It is a zero of H(z) if H(λ ) = 0.
p Examples
l Find the zero-state response of a system with transfer function, H(z) =
(z2+z-1)/(2z2 + 3z +1) excited by unit step function.
6.1 Poles and Zeros of Proper Transfer Functions
(c.1) z-Transform17

p Consider the following systems H 3(z) =

5 .5 1 ( z − 0 . 9 )
z 3 − 0 . 7 z 2 − 0 .5 5 z + 0 .8 0 1
0.551
H1 ( z ) =
( z + 0.9)( z − 0.8 + j0.5)( z − 0.8 − j0.5) − 5 .5 1 ( z − 1.1 )
H 4 (z) =
0.551 z3 − 0 . 7 z 2 − 0 .5 5 z + 0 .8 0 1
= 3
z − 0.7z 2 − 0.55z + 0.801 5 .5 1 ( z 2 − 1. 9 z + 1 )
H 5 (z) =
z3 − 0 . 7 z 2 − 0 .5 5 z + 0 .8 0 1
z −1
H2 ( z ) =
z 3 − 0.7z 2 − 0.55z + 0.801

Positions of
zeros and poles
6.2 Time Responses of Modes and Poles z-Transform18

p Remarks
l The zero-input response is essentially dictated by the modes; the
zero-state response is essentially dictated by the poles.
p Three parts in z-plane
l The unit circle
l The region outside the unit circle.
l The region inside the unit circle.
p Observations
l The poles σ +- jω or re+-jθ
l The response rkcos kθ or rk sinkθ
l θ determines the frequency of the oscillation.
l The highest frequency is determined by (-π /T, π /T].
6.2 Time Responses of Modes and Poles(c.1) z-Transform19

Summary
u The time response of a pole (mode), simple or repeated, approaches zero as
k -->∗ if and only if the pole (mode) lies inside the unit circle or its
magnitude is smaller than 1.
u The time response of a pole (mode) approaches a nonzero constant as k -->∗
if and only if the pole is simple and located at the z=1.
p Examples
l y[k+3] - 1.6 y[k+2] - 0.76y[k+1] - 0.08 y[k] = u [k+2] - 4u[k].
yzi [k], H(z), yzs[k] as k -> *
7. Transfer-Function Representation-- Complete
Characterization z-Transform20

p System Description
for LTIL systems ?
l Convolution u[ k ] y[ k ]
U(z) Y(z)
h(k)
h(k)
k
H(z)
l Difference equation = ∑ h[ k − i ]u[i ] H(z)
l Transfer function.
i=0 = H(z)U(z)

p System Connection
HH1(z)
l The transfer function of u y u 1(z) y
HH1(z) HH2(z) +
connection can be 1(z) 2(z)

easily derived from HH2(z)

2(z)
algebraic manipulation
of transfer functions. u ++ HH1(z) y u+ y
1(z) + HH1(z)
1(z)
- +
HH2(z) HH2(z)
2(z) 2(z)
7. Transfer-Function Representation-- Complete
Characterization (c.1) z-Transform21

p Questions
l Transfer functions represent the input-output relation when initial conditions are
set to zeros.
l What is the representation of the transfer function for a system
p Consider the difference equations
l D(z) Y(z) = N(z) U (z)
( z − 1)( z − 2) 1
Ex. D(z) = (z+0.5)(z-1)(z-2); N(z)= z2 - 3z +2 H ( z) = =
( z + 0.5)( z − 1)( z − 2) z + 0.5
yzs[k] = k1(-0.5)k + (terms due to the poles of U(z))
p Missing Poles
l If N(z) and D(z) have common factors, R(z), then the roots of R(z) are modes but not
poles of the system and
{the set of the poles} {the set of the modes}
l The root of R(z) are called the missing poles.
p Completed Characterization
l A system is completed characterized by its transfer function if N(z) and D(z) are
coprime.