Chap-7 Calibration PDF

General Reading Time Base
Theory of Ultrasonic Testing • Al least 2 echoes required to do linear calibration of time base
Module-7 • Two different thickness blocks are required for TR probe calibration. It For analog display, all
eliminates the v-path error and linear with the thickness range of blocks.
Calibration Step wedges are useful for this and selection of thicknesses in the
measurements are taken from the
leading edge of the trace (i.e.,
region of actual job increases accuracy. where the signal breaks the
• For normal probes, the minimum range that can be calibrated using any
Presented by block is the block thickness (t).
baseline of the ultrasonic screen ).
N.Kuppusamy • For angle probes, the minimum range that can be calibrated using any
block without tilting the probe is the sum of both curvatures (if
applicable, e.g., Type 1 V1 Block) from the index point or index to
curvature (Type 2 V1 Block)
For digital display equipments
• For angle probes, the minimum range that can be calibrated using any either edge or peak measurement
block with tilting the probe is the difference of both curvatures. mode can be selected.
Singapore Chapter
NDT HORIZON
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Calibration Unit Distance per graduation Blocks:

CRT Screen – Horizontal Scale Determination
More examples are given below: Following blocks are most frequently used in UT
• Most of the CRT screens of Ultrasonic Flaw Detector contains 10 main • IIW V1 – Type 1 and Type 2 block
scale graduations (divisions) and each main divisions are further Distance Represented per
subdivided into 5 small divisions. Thus the CRT screen has 50 small Range (mm) Calculation • V2 Block
sub-division
divisions. • IOW Beam resolution block (Resolution Reference Block or RC Block)
25 25/50 0.5 mm
• We have to calculate the distance represented by a small graduation (sub- • ASME Reference (Basic calibration) blocks
division) when calibrating time base to required range. Required range is
125 125/50 2.5 mm • Half moon block (Distance Reference Block or DC Block)
the range you wish to calibrate. 180 180/50 3.6 mm • Distance and Sensitivity Calibration block (DSC Block)
240 240/50 4.8 mm • Step wedge block
Required Range
Distance per division (unit distance) = 300 300/50 6.0 mm • Flat Bottom Holed Blocks (ALCOA - A Series and B Series)
No. of divisions .. and so on.
For example, In a 0-50mm range calibration, 50 Note:- This is applicable to all range calibrations irrespective
each small division represents = =1mm/div. of wave mode.
50
Similarly in a 100mm range calibration, each small division
represents 1mm and each main division represents 10mm
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Normal Probe Calibration More Examples using V2 Block No. of echoes for V1 Block
• First you must know the number of echoes required in order Range (mm) Calculation No. of echoes required
to calibrate the required range. 25 25/12.5 2 Similarly, for 100 mm TR
100
= = 4 echoes
using 25mm side of V1 block
• You have to calculate the number of echoes as given below: 125 125/12.5 10 25
180 180/12.5 14
No. of echoes required inside the Required Range Range (mm) Calculation No. of echoes required
= 240 240/12.5 19
screen to calibrate a desired range
Block Thickness 300 300/12.5 24 25 25/25 1
.. and so on. 125 125/25 5
e.g., for 100 mm TR (Test Range) 100
= 180 180/25 7
using V2 block = 8 echoes 12.5 240 240/25 9
For Normal Probe the multiple echoes occurs at 300 300/25 12
1st Echo = t, .. and so on.
2nd Echo = 2t,
3rd Echo = 3t, etc.
Sound path, S = Sound velocity x transit time/2

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No. of echoes for Angle Beam Calibration No. of echoes for Angle Beam Calibration IIW Type-
Type-2
• For angle probes, the number of echoes required is calculated
based on block curvatures. e.g., When the probe facing 25 mm quadrant of V1 block, • In IIW Type-2 block, the echoes repeats at 100mm interval
• The first echo comes from the radius of curvature faced by the the echoes appear at: due to its single 100mm quadrant. The ultrasound gets
probe. Then the successive echoes appear at the distance covered reflected from the 4mm deep notch.
by the sum of both curvatures (if applicable). Echo Number Distance Calibratable Range (mm)
• Because the radius of the circle segment is exactly 100
e.g., for Type-1 V1 block, the echoes appear at the distance 1 25 One more echo required mm we will regularly receive an echo sequence with
given by the table below: 2 25+125 =150 125 to < 275 distances of 100 mm, 200 mm, 300 mm etc. with which
3 25+2x125=275 275 to < 400 we are able to carry out calibration of the test instrument
When the probe facing 100 mm quadrant, the echoes appear at: the same way as the straight-beam probe.
4 25+3x125=400 400 to < 525
Echo
Distance Calibratable Range (mm) 5 25+4x125=525 525 to < 650
Type-1 No
1 100 One more echo required .. and so on.
2 100+125 =225 125 to < 350
3 100+2x125=350 350 to < 475 Type-1
4 100+3x125=475 475 to < 600 250 mm range
5 100+4x125=600 600 to < 725 Calibration.
.. and so on.
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Screen Range – IIW Block Screen Range – IIW Block Screen Range – DSC Block (Annex X)
Adjust the ultrasonic machine to obtain the proper screen range. With an IIW The position of the 2” and 4” reflections when using a 5” screen range. The Distance and Sensitivity Calibration (DSC) block can be used for
type II block shown, the backwall reflections will be located at 2” and 4”. calibration. With the transducer placed in the position shown, the reflections
In this block, both curvatures are in the same side. We get multiple will take place at 1”, 5”, 9”, etc.
In this block, both curvatures are in the same side. We get multiple echoes at echoes at 50mm interval. (50mm, 100mm, 150mm and so on.)
50mm interval. (50mm, 100mm, 150mm and so on.)
V1 Block
V1 Block
s
diu
Ra
1”
3”
Rad
ius
2”Radius 2”Radius
4” Radius 4” Radius
Position of the signals with a 10” screen range.

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Screen Range – DSC Block Screen Range – DSC Block V2 Block

When the probe faces 25 mm quadrant of V2 block, the
With the transducer placed in the position shown, the reflections will take place at With the transducer placed in the position shown, the reflections will take place echoes appear at the distance given by the table below:
1”, 5”, 9”, etc. at 3”, 7”, 11”, etc.
Echo No Distance Calibratable Range (mm)
1 25 One more echo required
2 25+75 =100 75 to < 175
3 25+2x75=175 175 to < 250
4 25+3x75=250 250 to < 325
R 3” R
1” 5 25+4x75=325 325 to < 400
ius .. and so on.
ad
1 ”R
3”
Rad
ius Position of the signals
with a 5” screen range.
Position of the signals with a 5.0” screen

range.
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V2 Block Half-
Half-moon Block Half-
Half-moon Block
• When the probe facing 50 mm quadrant the echoes appear at For Half Moon block, the echoes appear at the distance given by the
table below: • When the probe is maximized towards 50mm curvature
1 50 One more echo required When the probe is maximized towards 25mm curvature
2 50+75 =125 75 to < 200
Echo No Distance Calibratable Range (mm) 1 50 One more echo required
3 50+2x75=200 200 to < 275
1 25 One more echo required 2 50+100=150 100 to < 250
4 50+3x75=275 275 to < 350
2 25+50=75 50 to < 125 3 50+2x100=250 250 to < 350
5 50+4x75=350 350 to < 425
3 25+2x50=125 125 to < 175 .. and so on.
.. and so on.
4 25+3x50=175 175 to < 225
.. and so on.
Position of the signals

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Determination of echo position Determination of echo position .. Determination of echo position ..

Next step involves the calculation of echo position. It is calculated as • For 180mm intended range, we can calculate the echo positions for For 150mm Test Range (TR) using V2 block,
given below: the normal probe from 25mm thickness of V1 block
Echo No. Calculation Echo Position
Echo position =
Distance of particular echo Echo No. Calculation Echo Position 1 12.5/3 4.16th Division
Unit distance for the intended range 1 25/3.6 6.94th division 2 25/3 8.3th Division
2 50/3.6 13.8th division 3 37.5/3 12.5th Division
Examples: Echo location can be
3 75/3.6 20.8th division calculated in the same
For 100mm intended range, we can calculate the echo positions for 4 50/3 …
the normal probe from 25mm thickness of V1 block 4 100/3.6 27.7th division manner for any
5 62.5/3 …
5 125/3.6 34.7th division thickness of block
6 75/3 25th Division
Echo No. Calculation Echo Position 6 150/3.6 41.6th division
12th 150/3 50th Division
1 25/2 12.5th division 7 175/3.6 48.6th division
2 50/2 25th division
3 75/2 37.5th division Note: In this case, you can take any two echoes and position Note: It is easier to use 6th and 12th echoes in this case.
it to its nearest place, because it is not possible to position it
4 100/2 50th division
exactly at the fractional divisions.
Note: It is convenient to use 2nd and 4th echoes in this case
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Calibration Steps Special cases: Angle Beam Echo Location

• To calibrate TR to the thickness of the block, you have to place the Angle probe Echo locations also can be calculated in the
1. Place the probe on the block 1st backwall echo at 0 and 2nd backwall echo at 50th division. Then
same way.
2. Get required echoes by giving suitable gain and adjusting fine bring back the first backwall echo to 50th division using only delay
range control control. e.g., For 100mm test range using V2 block when probe
3. Place first most convenient echo at its designated • To calibrate partial range calibration e.g., 0.1t to 1.1t through 1t to 2t, facing 25mm quadrant,
(calculated) place by using delay control (e.g. 2nd backwall you can use the delay control and delay the 1st echo (move) towards
echo of V1 block for 100mm TR) left hand side by 1 main division (5 small divisions) for every 0.1t.
After that you can use the 2nd backwall echo in similar manner to Echo No. Calculation Echo Position
4. Place second most convenient echo at its designated delay 2.1t to 3t and you can use 3rd, 4rth …so on to delay more.
(calculated) place by using fine range control (e.g. 4th 1 25/2 12.5th Division
• To calibrate TR probes you have to use 2 blocks of different
backwall echo of V1 block for 100mm TR)
thickness or a step wedge block to calibrate required range. It is 2 100/2 50th Division
5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 until both echoes are positioned at recommended to use two thicknesses closest to your application.
their calculated locations. E.g., to measure 6mm job thickness you may use 5mm and 7mm After calculating echo positions, place the probe on the block,
blocks. Suppose your job is in the range of 3mm to 6 mm, you can maximize the first echo and position all echoes at their respective
use 2mm and 8mm blocks. First use small thickness block and place
positions using fine range control and delay control alternately.
the echo at the calculated location using delay control. Then place
the probe on higher thickness block and place it at the calculated
position using fine range control. Repeat the steps until both echoes
are placed at their exact locations
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Angle Beam 100mm TR Using V1 Block Special Calibrations: Some other hints:
• Set the first reflection from the 100 mm radius at 0 and the second at full • Depth range calibration can be done similarly by multiplying the • When usingV1, position the reflection from the 100 mm radius at about mid screen.
scale by repeated, alternate manipulation of the zero and range controls. Zero quadrant echo distance and Sec θ (Probe angle). Convert the beam Exactly where does not matter, but you will achieve greater accuracy if the middle
on your screen now represents 100 mm, and full scale on your screen path distance from quadrant echoes in to depth and place it at of the screen is used rather than the ends. It is more difficult to see the drop off at
represents 200 mm. Then, using the zero control, move the first reflection to
their calculated positions. Some times it is easier to use depth the right hand side when using the end of the screen.
the right to the full scale position on the screen and you will have the range
set at 0 – 100 mm. range calibration instead of beam path calibration. • Use a straight edge (or ruler) for greater accuracy and probe alignment.
• Position a normal wave probe at ‘E’ at which the distance of 91 mm corresponds • Projection distance (Skip distance) range calibration can be • If using V2, the position facing 50mm is more accurate than 25mm curvature due to
to 50 mm for shear waves. Place the fist echo at 5th division and second echo performed by multiplying the quadrant echo distance and Sin θ the longer distance. You will also be well out of the near zone.
at 1oth division. Position a shear wave probe at ‘D’ and adjust the transmission (Probe angle) .Convert the beam path distance from quadrant
point so that the echo from the 100 mm radius face coincides with the
• If you have a choice, use V1 until you gain more experience.
position of the 100 mm reflection previously obtained with the compression
echoes in to skip distance and place it at their calculated positions.
• Once you have determined the probe index, make a note of its distance from the
wave probe, thereby correcting for the delay which occurs in the probe shoe. • Reduced projection distance calibration can be done by delaying front of the probe. Try to avoid making scratch marks on the probe. The reasons for
• The above procedure described uses the relationship between the relative the probe index distance. This calibration is very useful to assess this are:
acoustic velocities of compression and shear waves in steel, so that 91 mm in whether the indication is coming from interested area or outside. As the probe wears, the angle and index point will change. You will end up with a
compression is equivalent to the time taken for 50 mm in shear. This is a series of index marks over time that may become confusing.
convenient use of the compression probe to set the range for a shear probe. • Modern Equipments are capable of giving digital readout of depth, – Plotting will be much easier to measure to the front of the probe than to a point
It is useful for setting longer ranges for 60° and 70° probes that are poor skip distance and beam path. The part thickness, probe angle,
corner reflectors.
marked on the probe.
probe index can be fed in to the flaw detector. The above
calibrations are not required for those equipments.
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Backwalls Flat-
Flat-bottomed hole reference reflector
Reference Reflectors 1. Backwall – The material backwall is commonly used as a reference reflector
when the test object has a suitable shape to display a backwall. 2. Flat bottomed holes are used to simulate the
Reference Reflectors are used to standardize the flaw surface of a disc reflector FBH
detector. Range calibration and other System Calibration • Flat bottomed holes model some characteristics
Advantages:
checks can be performed using reference blocks. of a disk reflector, and are used in reference
1. Often allow calibration on the actual test object. In this case, blocks for that purpose.
we know that the calibration uses the true surface and • Flat bottomed holes are also used in calibration
Most commonly used reference reflectors include: attenuation characteristics of the test object. blocks for sensitivity calibration.
1. Back wall 2. Used for setting the reference echo when using the DGS
technique. Advantages:
2. Flat Bottom Holes
1. They approximate a disc reflector which is easy to understand.
3. Side Drilled Holes Disadvantages:
2. They are well accepted as industry benchmarks.
4. Buttress Notches 1. Rarely represents a real discontinuity.
5. V- Notches 2. Often requires an arbitrary extra amount of gain
Disadvantages:
6. Artificial flaws (e.g. 100% backwall +20 dB).
1. The flat bottomed hole is a very efficient reflector, and real discontinuities will always
3. Can rarely be used for angled beam inspection. be bigger – often much bigger – than an equally reflecting flat bottomed hole.
4. Can only calibrate sensitivity at one beam path 2. It is not usually practical to make the blocks for use with angle probes.
(1T) – depending on shape of test object. 3. A complete set of the blocks is very expensive and heavy.
4. Flat bottomed holes are particularly favoured in US and European standards. The
1. Backwall Reflects Energy
most complete set of flat bottomed holes are called the Distance Amplitude Block and
2. Effective Reflector size the Area Amplitude Blocks.
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Example ASTM E428 SIDE DRILLED HOLES

An American block is designated as 4340 – 3 – 0200 • Side drilled holes are a very popular reference reflector for weld
AS2083 – 4340 – 2 – 0075
testing
• ‘4340’ describes the material (AISI 4340) 1. What is the equivalent flat bottomed hole diameter?
• Side drilled holes are used in AS2083 Blocks 1 and 2, AWS D1.1,
• ‘2’ specifies the hole diameter in mm (disc equivalent) Answer: 3/64 inches ASME Section-V, and EN 583-2 etc.
• ‘75’ specifies the beam path to the reflector in mm • The ultrasonic beam strikes the hole at right angles to the axis of
2. What is the beam path to the flat bottomed hole? the hole.
Note that blocks of American origin use a different numbering Answer: 2 inches
convention. The hole diameter is specified in sixty fourths of an Advantages:
inch, and the beam path in hundredths of an inch. • A side drilled hole presents the same reflecting surface to a beam
3. A US manufactured Distance Amplitude Block is identified : irrespective of the beam angle, and can be used for comparing the
i.e., 3/64, 5/54, 7/64 & 100, 200, 300 and so on. 4340 - 5 - 0300. What is the meaning of the ‘5’? sensitivity of different probes. The hole simulates an elongated
discontinuity of the type commonly encountered in welds.
a. the flat bottom hole diameter in 1/64"
Check your Progress • Very simple to produce.
A block is designated as AS2083 – 4340 – 3 – 0200 b. the flat bottom hole diameter in mm
c. the hole depth in inches Disadvantages:
1. What is the equivalent flat bottomed hole diameter?
d. the hole depth in cm
SDH
• The reflectivity may be harder
Answer: 3 mm to visualize than flat bottomed
Answer: a - The flat bottom hole diameter in 1/64" holes.
2. What is the beam path to the flat bottomed hole?
• May be difficult to produce in
Answer: 200 mm thin or curved sections.
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Notches Calibration blocks required for a particular Calibration blocks required for a particular
Notches are used in reference blocks to simulate surface calibration type calibration type..
breaking cracking Calibration Block Used
– Most notches are slots cut into a surface at right angles, Calibration Block Used Calibration Required 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
but there are some variations using Vee-notches. Calibration Required 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
IIW V1 IOW 1.5 SDH FBH V2 Resol Step Wedge
IIW V1 IOW 1.5 SDH FBH V2 Resol Step Wedge ‘P’ = preferred block, ‘A’ = alternative block
A square notch ‘P’ = preferred block, ‘A’ = alternative block
*For thickness tests and examining special materials.
*For thickness tests and examining special materials. Angle Probes
Quare notch
V-Notch Zero Compression Probes Dominant frequency P
Test range P P P* Pulse length P P
A Vee-notch
Dominant frequency P Test range P P
Advantages: Disadvantages: Resolution A P Probe index P A
• Simulate surface breaking • Other than in pipe weld testing, notches rarely Pulse length P A A A P Beam angle P A
discontinuities. simulate a real discontinuity. Reference sensitivity A P Reference sensitivity A P
• Easy to produce very • Notches are very susceptible to variations in Beam profile A P Beam profile P
accurately. sensitivity due to the variation of corner
Dead zone A P A Beam alignment P P
• Can be easily cut into thin and reflection efficiency with beam angle. This is
curved surfaces and are widely not a problem if the discontinuity sought is a Resolution P
used in pipeline weld testing. corner of identical type to the reference notch. Dead zone A P A
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Calibration blocks required for a particular Mode Conversion Echoes Weaker Backwall Echoes
calibration type..
When calibrating for longer
Calibration Block Used
Calibration Required
ranges using position F, there will
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
IIW V1 IOW 1.5 SDH FBH V2 Resol Step Wedge be secondary waves displayed due
‘P’ = preferred block, ‘A’ = alternative block
to mode conversion from the
*For thickness tests and examining special materials. faces of the block. These
Equipment Verification secondary waves will occur at
Horizontal linearity P P intervals of approximately 76%
Vertical linearity P P
of the thickness (76% of 25 mm
= 19 mm) following the backwall.
Overall system gain P
C D
If you try to calibrate on a really long range, e.g. 0-1000 mm, you
Calibration block numbers with their corresponding name
B will note that the true backwalls get weaker due to mode
Block 1 V1 or IIW (International Institute of Welding) Block Block 1 (V1) conversion and attenuation, but the mode converted signals get
Block 2 IOW (Institute of Welding) Block G bigger and eventually become stronger than the backwalls. The
A secondary echoes then ultimately die away.
Block 5 V2 or Miniature Block (Kidney Block)
F E
Block 6 Resolution Block (Half-moon step block) H
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Problems in calibrating for long distances with

Dominant Frequency Measurement Dominant Frequency Measurement
slender calibration block
C D • Display the two echoes separated by 6 mm
This display was obtained Compression wave Probe
(the slot and the adjacent flat section). If
while trying to calibrate for B you put the two echoes on the 4 and 8
1000 mm using the 100 mm • To measure the dominant Block 1 (V1) graticule markers, the distance between
dimension on the V1 block. frequency, compare the G
unrectified trace with A
these graticule markers corresponds to a 6
Note how the reflections at 1μs of travel time. mm ‘round trip’ in steel.
F E
H
100 mm and 200 mm are • The acoustic velocity of compression waves
strong enough, and are in steel is 5,900 m/s, which corresponds to
5.9 mm/μs. As the sound has to travel a
followed by characteristic mode conversions, but by 300 mm the • This technique seems a bit strange at first, but is very useful.
It confirms that the correct frequency is being used and the return journey, the distance between the
lateral mode conversions are stronger than the primary echo.
near and far zones are as we assume. This measurement works two echoes corresponds to approximately 12
Later echoes are an unresolved mix of primary and lateral mode
best with an unrectified trace, but a rectified trace can be mm of travel, or 2μs of total travel time.
conversions.
used if an unrectified trace is not available.
1. Echo from 85mm slot
Points to Ponder • Place the probe at position ‘D’ 2. Echo from 91mm section
1. Why does this phenomenon occur? 3. Interval equivalent to 6mmx2 of travel which is
equivalent to 2μs
2. Is there anything you can do about it?
3. What are the implications for accurate calibration?
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Dominant Frequency Measurement Measuring dominant frequency with rectified trace Dominant frequency – Angle Probe
If you do not have an unrectified trace, you may be able to count the
• Therefore, the spacing between the two echoes separated by 6 mm is wavelengths by remembering that the rectified display is only a composite (a) Position the probe at ‘D’ and use the echoes from the slot and
approximately 2μs. of the unrectified display, and you can regard every second half wave as a bottom face to calibrate accurately the portion of the
negative. See Figure below for rectified displays and the corresponding
• Therefore half that distance, between markers 4 and 6, is 1μs.
unrectified waveform.
display in which they occur.
• The number of wavelengths occurring in 1μs is the frequency in MHz.
• In the examples shown in the left figure, there are 2.5 wavelengths in (b) Using an unrectified display, bring any back echo into the
1μs, so the frequency is 2.5 MHz. Note: If there has been significant pulse smoothing, this may not calibrated section of the display so that its leading edge
• In the example shown in right figure, there are 3.75 wavelengths, so the be possible. coincides with an appropriate graticule division.
frequency is approximately 4 MHz.
Amplitude
Amplitude
• This technique works best with an unrectified trace.
1. Positive half wavelength (c) Estimate the dominant frequency for the particular
2. Negative half wavelength
instrument/probe combination by counting the number of
10% 10% cycles occurring in 1 ms.
C D
Short Pulse Length Long Pulse Length
A) 2.5λ B) 3.75λ
7 cycles
B
Block 1 (V1)
10% 10% G
10% 10% A
Amplitude
Amplitude
Amplitude
Amplitude
F E
H
1μs 1μs
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Dominant frequency – Angle Probe Check Your Progress Resolution – Normal Probe
• Why can we calibrate the time base with a compression Block 1
• Even though angle probes use shear waves, the calibration of
probe to measure the frequency of a shear probe? • Distance resolution is the ability to display separate
the time base for measuring dominant frequency is almost
indications of two adjacent reflectors at slightly different
exactly the same as for compression probes. Answer: The calibration is performed in terms of TIME beam paths. This clause gives a very coarse estimate of
• Use a compression probe to calibrate the time base and then not DISTANCE, so it does not matter what mode is used. resolution of zero compression probes. While this may be
change to the angle probe. A backwall will be displayed from satisfactory for low frequency probes, it is not adequate for
the radius by placing the probe at position D. This reflection • Why are there a series of 100 mm back reflections from the higher frequencies.
can be used to measure the number of wavelengths in one 100 mm radius, when you would expect only one? Shouldn't
microsecond to determine the frequency. the returning echo either re-enter the probe or be C D
reflected away and lost?
Answer: The returning beam is reflected back by the B
Block 1 (V1)
milled slits at the zero position.
G
A
• Why is the reflection from the scribe mark so erratic? F E
H
Answer: It is in the near zone of the probe.
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Resolution – Angle Probe Resolution – Block 6 (Half-

(Half-Moon Step) Resolution – Block 6 (Half-
(Half-Moon Step)
• This is a far preferable technique for estimation of resolution
• The resolution shall be checked with the instrument controls and can be used for compression and shear waves. Typical Results for 4mHz Probe
set at normal test settings and the indications from the holes
• Resolution is a very important property for recognizing
brought to mid screen height. Resolution shall be sufficient
discontinuities near a backwall, as well as for discriminating
to identify the peaks of the three holes.
between planar reflectors and ragged crack surfaces. h h
>h/2
<h/2
Although not stated in the standard, the resolution guidelines

in the notes apply more to shear waves than compression 1.5mm step echo not-resolved 2mm step echo resolved
waves.
It is unlikely that you will achieve the resolutions quoted Typical results for a 2mHz Probe
using compression waves due to their longer wavelengths
AWS Resolution Block
h h
>h/2
h/2
4mm step echo resolved 3mm step echo not-resolved

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Pulse length Pulse Length
Pulse length – Angle Probe
• Pulse length is a useful measure of resolution. The figure • The technique is similar to that used for compression probes
shows both a short and long pulse length displayed in both • Estimate the pulse length as the distance between the on V1 Block and can be applied using either a rectified or
rectified and unrectified form. points on the rising and falling flanks of the displayed
unrectified trace. Pulse lengths for shear waves are
pulse which are at 10 percent of the peak amplitude. The
Assessment of Resolution by Measurement of Pulse Length. approximately half those of compression waves of the same
pulse
frequency.
Assess the resolution as follows: • length can be expressed in millimetres of material, or,
Amplitude
Amplitude
Position the probe at ‘D’ and from a knowledge of velocity of propagation, as a time
calibrate the test range using the 6 interval.
mm step (equivalent to a 1 ms transit 10% 10% (b) Unrectified display. The pulse length may be determined
time in steel) to a short time range.
Short Pulse Length Long Pulse Length during the assessment of probe performance from an
(a) Rectified display. Place the probe 7 cycles unrectified display, and should be expressed as the
on a suitable surface of the block to number of cycles in the pulse to the nearest positive
produce a back-echo and adjust the half-cycle of greater than 10 percent of peak amplitude.
delay and amplification to display the 10% 10%
back-echo at an amplitude within the
Amplitude
Amplitude
vertical linearity.
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Reference sensitivity Reference Sensitivity Probe index

• So far we have set up the range and zero of the UFD and probe, which The amplitude of a known size reflector will be adjusted from 50-75% full screen
allows us to measure the location of any discontinuities. We have also height. This dB will be recorded as the reference sensitivity. • V1, V2, DSC or DC block can be used for determining probe
checked the frequency and resolution/pulse length. We will now set the index. The technique is similar – maximize the reflection
sensitivity, which determines the minimum standard reflector size we can from the 100 mm radius on V1 block, or the 50 mm radius on
detect. This is not the sensitivity of the probe/UFD combination to actual Position of the V2 block.
discontinuities, as this will depend on the size, shape and texture of the signals with a 5”
discontinuity, as well as the angle at which it is struck.
screen range.
• The IOW block, ASME Reference block and IIW block (AWS D1.1) and ABS
block are useful for setting reference sensitivity where the reference
reflector is a 1.5 mm (vary from 1mm to 5mm) side drilled hole at various
depths. This is widely used in weld inspections.
• Block 4 is useful by providing flat bottomed holes (FBHs), but by far the
best, and unfortunately most costly and heavy , blocks for compression
probes are the distance amplitude and area amplitude blocks. These
blocks allow a calibration of the probe/UFD combination for the reflection
from various FBHs at various path lengths. The FBH simulates the shape of
an ideal disc reflector.
• By using the FBH blocks, we can set the sensitivity to detect an ideal disc
type reflector of a nominated diameter.
IIW block Rumpus block DSC block
10/8/2005
N.Kuppusamy 60
Determination of beam angle requires an

accurate probe index
Beam profile Beam profile
Later section describes a technique for determining the beam • Determining the beam profile is by far the most useful way
The angle of the transducer will need to be verified. Most standards prescibe it shape at different beam paths. This technique can be extended of determining the true beam angle and probe index.
shall be within plus or minus 2 degrees of the required angle. by using FBHs at greater depths if required. When testing a
special material, it is useful to make these blocks in the test • IOW block is the preferred block for measuring the beam
V1 Block– For general purposes, the engravings on the block are material. profile of angle probes. It is also possible to expand the
mostly adequate. Position F is for steeper probes, 45° - 60°, and dimensions of IOW Block to cover thicker materials. The
position C is for shallower probes in the range 60° - 70°. Dead zone
technique described in the standard is quite extensively
The blocks described in the standard contain a number of reflectors. To
used and provides good results.
V2 Block– The beam angles measured using Block 5 are of lesser determine the extent of the dead zone, establish which is the closest
accuracy than those obtained using Block 1 or 2. Due to the small reflector that the probe/UFD combination can detect free of dead zone Procedure
interference. The 15 mm deep 1.5 mm hole in V1 Block, the 13 mm deep
size of the block, the readability of measurements is quite poor, but 1. Maximize the reflection from a 1.5 mm hole and set to 100%
hole in IOW Block, and the hole in V2 may all be useful. In addition, the
it is a useful check when there is no other block available. 50 mm hole in V1 approaches the surfaces within 5 and 10 mm and FSH.
provides two useful points to check dead zone. 2. Mark the location of the front of the probe on the side of
1 the block.
1 2
2 3. Move the probe forward until the reflection drops to 10%
FSH.
4. Mark the position of the front of the probe on the side of
the block.
Dead zone more Dead zone less
than 5mm than 10mm
10/8/2005
N.Kuppusamy 63
Beam profile Some hints for improving accuracy of beam profile Some hints for improving accuracy of beam profile
5. Move back to the original position and verify that the response is determination determination…
determination…
still 100% FSH. • The longer the beam path of the target hole, the more
• Start with a miniature high frequency 45° probe. It gets harder
6. Move the probe backwards until the reflection drops to 10% FSH. as probes get larger and the frequency gets lower. 70° – 2 MHz reliable the beam plot will be.
7. Mark the position of the front of the probe on the side of the probe is almost impossible to plot accurately • The more sets of points that go to make up a profile, the
block. more accurate the plot. Three sets is an absolute minimum,
• Use a straight edged rule to keep beam alignment constant. and five is the preferred number of points.
8. Repeat steps 1 – 7 as many times as it takes to get a consistent
set of readings. • Use a white contrast paint on the edges of your block for higher • The drilled holes reflect from their surface struck by the
visibility marking. beam, not their centre. Ignoring this automatically builds in an
9. Remove the probe and align the reference line with the error of 0.75 mm (half the hole diameter).
horizontal scanning surface of the block. • Mark your agreed datum point, generally the front of the probe,
on the block. Do not depend on a probe index measurement, no • Pencils, crayons, and marker pens are notoriously inaccurate
10.Align the vertical marker with each of the three points marked when measuring. Nothing beats a scribed line for the final
above in turn, and mark the hole position on the plotting board matter how accurate – the difficulty will be in transferring it to beam profile and scribed crosses to mark the points.
the block. The probe index will be quite obvious when the final
with a scribed cross. Mark the point at which the beam hits the • Use dividers to mark the range in 10 mm arcs. Any more arcs
beam is projected back to the surface.
surface of the hole, not the centre of the hole. will clutter up the profile, and you can only read the screen to
• Mark the required points on the block with a wide pencil mark. ±1 mm accuracy. If you really must, put some ticks at the 5
Getting this right will take you a number of attempts – even with a miniature 45° Use a convention of reading to the edge of the mark- fine marks mm intervals, but you will be pleased how accurately you can
probe, but if you are going to be any sort of an ultrasonic technician, this is one of or arrowheads are not advisable. Pencil will write on wet or oily interpolate from 10 mm distance markers with experience.
the most important things you need to get right. Do not throw this profile away – it is surfaces and is easily rubbed off when finished. Your interpolation accuracy will probably be better than your
an important testing tool. ability to scribe accurately, or read the screen.
10/8/2005
N.Kuppusamy 66
Plotting an angle beam profile Reference Sensitivity & DAC Construction DAC Construction
• These three points represent the beam profile at one depth. Repeat this
• We discussed it earlier, now we draw DAC. Many standards that • Set the response from the closest hole at 100%
process for as many holes as possible, and check for any points not in line.
use angle probes also use blocks with a series of 1.5 mm side • Without changing the gain, record the screen height of
• Join the central and two side lines of holes back to the probe. The point at drilled holes as in IOW Block. Using blocks of this type, Distance
which the central line meets the scanning surface should represent the echoes received from the holes at longer beam path.
probe index. The angle made by the central line relative to the vertical Amplitude Correction (DAC) curves can be constructed. This can be done electronically in newer digital
should be the probe angle. instruments, or by marking directly on the screen or a
• Check these against the probe angles and probe index measured using V1 removable clear overlay.
Block. The angle should be within 1° and the index within 1 mm. If they are Construction of DAC Curve
not within this order of accuracy, do it all again until they are. • This is now the relationship between the echo
amplitude and the beam path for a known reference
• When you have an accurate profile, mark the
reflector – in this case a side drilled hole.
beam paths off in small arcs at 10 mm • DAC Applet
BEAM PROFILE intervals using dividers (not compasses and • This curve can be used for comparing the reflectivity
pencil). Make big 90° arcs at 50, 100, 150 mm
DAC
of reflectors at various beam paths. A typical
etc. for easy reading – you do not want to
clutter it up with lots of numbers!
reference sensitivity is that of a 1.5 mm diameter side
drilled hole.
• Note that this beam profile represented by
the boundary lines represents the 20 dB
profile. It is preferable to use this edge
because the extreme edge is almost
impossible to discern in practice.
10/8/2005
N.Kuppusamy 69
Beam alignment Squint Angle Dead zone

This calibration allows any measurement of misalignment of an • If a probe have more than one peak (energy concentration) it
angle probe. This is important for measuring the longitudinal • Blocks V1, V2 and IOW can be used for estimating dead zone.
C D causes difficulty in defect sizing and evaluation. Maximizing It is up to you to determine which is the closest SDH that can
position of a discontinuity. the signal is erratic. This is secondary maxima point is called
Corner used
be seen uncorrupted by the dead zone.
As reflector Squint angle.
Maximize the echo from a corner
reflector by swiveling the probe in the • It can be checked by placing the probe towards 100mm
position illustrated in the above Fig. Lay Angular deviation quadrant of IIW block
e
dg
a straight-edge against the probe shoe 1. Maximizing the corner echo.

te
90° Probe
igh
and mark its position. 2. Rotate the probe in clockwise and anti clockwise
ra
St
Protractor
directions after maximizing the corner echo.
The angle between the line so drawn and a line at right angles to the edge of the 3. If the echo height drops continuously, then it represents
block is the angular deviation from optimum beam alignment and may be measured the transducer element uniformity.
with a protractor as shown. The angle and the direction of deviation, i.e. left or right, 4. If the echo drops and rise again, it represents the
shall be noted. heterogeneity of the transducer element.
NOTES: 5. The probes with Squint angle can not be used for testing.
1. A magnetized straight edge is preferable.
2. In order to obtain sufficient accuracy, the protractor should
be at least 150 mm diameter.
10/8/2005
N.Kuppusamy 72
Use of the V2 Block (AS 2083 Block 5) Some other hints about setting the range
with angle probes
For ranges of 0-100 mm, V2 Block is much more convenient – it is just as • Where possible, use a straight edge to keep the probe aligned The calibrations so far have been to verify that the probe is
accurate and much less expensive. This block has no reflecting slots at the adequate and the flaw detector controls are correctly set - range,
square to the reflecting radius. Slight deviations can cause
zero and sensitivity. The last three checks are to ensure the
zero point, and relies on the series of reflections that are established between errors. correct function of the UFD and the UFD/probe combination.
the 25 mm and 50 mm reflecting arcs.
• Picking the point of maximum reflection is critical and not
discussed in the standard. The true calibration point occurs
when the reflection is at its maximum. If the probe movement is 1. Horizontal linearity
too slow, the maximum point will be hard to distinguish. Most Horizontal linearity is the ability of the sweep generator to
good technicians move the probe quickly to and fro across the move the electron beam across the screen at constant
zero slot making the maximum point easier to see. velocity. If the time base moves erratically across the screen,
• For practice, start with a miniature 45°, and then move to the trace is not linear and it is not possible to calculate
larger, shallower angle probes when you have mastered 45°. accurately for distance. This means that it will not be possible
to accurately measure the thickness of a test object or the
• When using V2 Block, double check your calibration by facing location of discontinuities detected. The two techniques
the probe in the opposite direction described are relatively straightforward and measure the
deviation from linearity.
10/8/2005
N.Kuppusamy 75
Practice is important
2. Vertical linearity 3. Overall System Gain (OSG) 1. There is nothing like real-life practice to get yourself
• Vertical linearity is the ability of the amplifier to consistently amplify all signals equally familiar with these techniques.
across the range displayed. If the amplifier is not linear, it will not be possible to accurately OSG is also described as the ‘gain in hand’ and represents the
2. You should make every effort to gain experience with
compare the signals received from different reflectors or at different distances. The available useable gain of a probe/UFD combination. Obviously, if
actual equipment to become more proficient.
technique described is self-explanatory. there is limited gain in hand, the combination will not have much
• If you wish to make a quick on site assessment of vertical linearity, the following technique in reserve before the displayed indications are obscured by
is useful: electrical noise. It is a measure of the lack of electrical
1. Ensure suppression is off. distortion and noise in the system.
2. Set an echo from any reflector to a level of 100%FSH.
3. Remove 6 dB of gain. The screen height should fall to 50% (in the range 45 - 55%).
4. Remove an additional 14 dB of gain (total 20 dB). The screen height should fall to
10% (in the range 9 - 11%).
• If you still get a result outside the ranges quoted, do a full vertical linearity assessment in
accordance with Clause 2.2.5
Horizontal and Vertical Linearity block, shown in the picture is used
for evaluating the horizontal and vertical linearity characteristics of
ultrasonic pulse-echo systems. This block contains two 3/64"
diameter side-drilled holes. In accordance with ASTM E317.
Dimensions: 3.00" x 2.00" x 1.00"
10/8/2005
N.Kuppusamy 78
Check your progress Check your progress Check your progress

• Describe the difference between a reference block and a calibration • In the table below, circle suitable comment (yes or no) that applies to • Why can you use the same calibration of the time base when measuring the
block. reference and calibration blocks. frequency of both compression and shear waves?
a. You are actually calibrating in time not distance to measure frequency.
Answer: A calibration block is a general block made from traceable Activity table: indicate whether the characteristics are provided b. Compression and shear waves of the same frequency have the same
standard faces and reflectors, whereas a reference block is a wavelength.
specific block made to simulate a test problem, and generally uses Calibration Reference c. The trace automatically compensates for shear.
reflectors to simulate the test application. Characteristic Block Block d. The horizontal linearity compensates for any errors.
Yes or No Yes or No
Answer: a - You are actually calibrating in time, not distance to
Machined to a fine surface condition 0.8μm Ra yes No
• What is the consequence of poor horizontal linearity? measure frequency.
a. The base line does not lie in a horizontal position. Contains simulated discontinuities No yes
b. The suppression will not be linear. Made out of exactly the same material as the yes • You have just started to calibrate a flaw detector and notice that the vertical
No
c. Beam path measurements will be inaccurate. test object linearity is unsatisfactory. A possible cause might be:
d. The gain control will not give consistent amplification. Machined to an accuracy of ±0.1 mm yes No
a. The probe frequency is too high.
b. The probe diameter is too small.
Heat treated to very fine grain size yes No
c. The gain needs to be calibrated in smaller intervals than 2 dB.
Answer: c - Beam path measurements will be inaccurate d. The previous user was employing suppression.
Answer: d - The gain needs to be calibrated in smaller intervals than 2dB
10/8/2005
N.Kuppusamy 81
Check your progress Frequency of Calibration Frequency of Calibration
• The preferred block for measuring the length of the near zone is: • From the nature of the calibration tasks you have studied, • Check the following items before use or monthly for equipment in
a. Block 1– the V1 Block. constant use:
b. Block 2 – the IOW Block.
it is obvious that some of the calibrations described need
to be undertaken each time the equipment is used, others – Beam profile. This should also be checked if the daily checks show
c. Block 5 – the V2 Block. that the index or probe angle has changed by more than one
d. None of the above. at longer intervals. The actual intervals may be specified degree.
Answer: d - None of the above.
by applicable standard or the laboratory’s own quality – Resolution/Pulse length can deteriorate if the probe is damaged.
system. – Dead zone can deteriorate if the probe is damaged.
• Calibrate a shear wave probe in the range 0-200 mm. Note that there are echoes
at 100 mm and 200 mm. Are there any secondary echoes of the type obtained
with a compression probe? Explain the reasons for your findings.
• Check the following items before use, or daily, for
equipment in constant use, as they can change quickly: • Check the following items before use, or annually for equipment in
Answer: No secondary echoes – Shear waves do not give mode constant use:
conversions in this situation. – Probe index
– Dominant frequency of each probe.
– Probe angle – Horizontal linearity.
• Using a 45° probe, get the signal from a corner and set to 100%FSH. Rub couplant – Beam alignment – Vertical linearity. Do a quick check each time you use the
around both faces of the corner where the beam is reflecting. The screen height
of the reflection should drop significantly. What is going on here? – Overall system gain. equipment by setting any echo to 100% FSH and subtracting 20 dB
of gain – the echo height should be in the range 9-11% FSH.
Answer: When couplant is rubbed at the surface, the interface goes
from steel/air to steel/couplant, and some energy is lost due to the
transmission of a compression mode into the couplant.
10/8/2005
N.Kuppusamy 84
Some Points on Damping Point to Ponder

On a number of occasions, we have described a process of applying couplant to a
reflecting surface to assess the nature of the reflection. This process is called • Try tickling just one side of the corner, and compare it to
damping or tickling, and is a commonly used technique to assist in the result when you tickle both sides of the corner at the • Earlier we discussed the construction of angle probes for shear
interpretation. Regrettably, the use of tickling is often misinterpreted. There are same time. You should get greater echo reduction when you wave inspection. In the first part of this chapter we discussed
three basic rules that will solve most problems. tickle both sides of the corner, why? how to calibrate a test system.
Rule 1
• We will now use a calibrated system to make a crack
Compression waves striking a surface at square incidence will show a drop of measurement. In this case we will return to a discussion of
about 10% due to compression waves being transmitted into the couplant. diffracted waves to make the measurement.
Rule 2 • The last significant echo (LSE) technique is also referred to as

Shear waves striking a surface at square incidence will show no effect, as the maximum amplitude technique. This is an echo-dynamic
liquids will not support shear waves. technique.
Rule 3 • An alternative name is the Echo Tip Diffraction Technique.
Echoes resulting from compression or shear waves striking surfaces at an
angle will generally show a drop in echo height, as some compression mode will • The principles of the LSE technique are also applied in Time of
be generated in the liquid (it is no longer an air/metal boundary). Flight Diffraction (ToFD).
10/8/2005
N.Kuppusamy 87
• Echo dynamic techniques require high levels of calibration, operator Large crack struck at 45°
understanding and equipment performance The conditions for optimum detection are not always the best 1. Top edge of crack strikes at 68mm
• Echo-dynamic techniques are ultrasonic measurement and evaluation conditions for optimum evaluation 2. Center of beam strikes crack at 75mm
techniques in which the moving (dynamic) characteristics of the displayed 3. Bottom edge of beam strikes crack at 83mm
echo are used. For an echo-dynamic technique to work effectively, the – The conditions described above are all important
following conditions are required: features, and you will notice that the conditions for Consider a 45° beam striking a vertical crack.
1. The probe/UFD combination needs to have a high resolution accurate measurement are different to those for reliable Bearing in mind the performance requirements
capability of better than 1 mm. Thus high frequencies and short pulse detection. Reliable detection is aided by square specified earlier:
lengths are preferred.
incidence to a smooth reflector with a low frequency 1. If the probe/UFD combination has good
2. The discontinuity dimension measured (generally height) needs to be probe. resolution, it will receive a large number of
no less than half the beam width. Narrow beams are preferred. different reflections from the various facets
3. The discontinuity should be struck at an angle greater than 20°. If – Meaningful measurement and evaluation requires (steps) of the crack.
the discontinuity is struck square, the reflections will be stronger, understanding of the beam profile. 2. If the crack height is greater than the beam width, there will be a
but the technique will not be as effective.
symmetrical range of echoes from 68 mm to 83 mm displayed on the screen
4. Measurement and interpretation will be easier if the surface of the corresponding to the range of beam paths striking the crack. As the beam
discontinuity is not smooth. It is more easily understood for ragged has highest pressure at its centre line, the maximum screen height at 75
cracks than smooth lack of fusion. mm corresponds to the centre line of the beam. The weaker echoes from
the edges of the beam correspond to the edges at 68 mm and 83 mm.
10/8/2005
N.Kuppusamy 90
Striking the top
crack tip at 45°
4. If the crack was to be inclined at 45° and struck at square incidence, all • What is happening here is that the tip of the crack is emitting a diffracted
• When the beam passes over the extremities of the
reflections would be at the same beam path and the reflection would look beam, with the tip acting as a very small reflector. This is the last
crack, the reflected echo changes shape
significant echo from the top of the crack. Moving the probe further
like a single narrow peak. It would of course be a stronger reflector and • If the probe is now moved forward, the centre line forward will see the screen height fall further, and as the edge of the
easier to see – this is the continuing paradox of ultrasonics – the of the beam will strike the crack tip. beam passes over it, drop to 10% and then disappear.
techniques that are good at detection are not necessarily as good for
• Moving the probe back towards the bottom of the crack will result in a
interpretation and measurement. similar asymmetrical peak as the centerline of the beam intersects the
1. Centerline of beam strikes crack at 55mm bottom of the crack at 90 mm. This time, the sharp rising flank will be on
5. If the crack was replaced by a smooth surface and struck at 45°, the 2. Bottom of beam strikes tip of crack at 62mm the right hand side, as the bottom half of the beam misses the crack. This
sound would probably all be reflected away and not returned to the is the last significant echo from the bottom of the crack.
probe.
The features of this display include:
• The crack is now only intersecting the bottom half of the beam. If the Striking the bottom crack tip at 45°
resolution is good enough, the crack facets will still be displayed.
• The echo is no longer symmetrical, and has a sharp rising flank at the left- 1. Edge of beam strikes crack at 85mm
hand side, 55 mm, and a decaying pattern to the edge of the beam at 62 mm. 2. Centre of beam strikes crack tip at 90mm
This is the clue that the centre of the beam is over the upper crack tip
• If the crack had a smooth surface, only the centerline peak would be
displayed and the rest of the energy would be reflected away.
10/8/2005
N.Kuppusamy 93
Application of LSE technique to an artificial Smooth reflectors respond differently to ragged reflectors
reflector
Using this approach, it is possible to plot the extremities of the crack using the last significant echoes Try the following experiment with a
produced by the crack tips. If the crack is sufficiently ragged, and has may facets, these facets will each Smooth reflectors respond differently to ragged reflectors miniature 45° probe and V1 block:
become individual reflectors. As they come to a maximum, it can be assumed that the centre line of the
beam is striking the facet. By plotting each individual maximum point, you can plot the shape of the crack. • The technique described works very well for plotting the 1. Calibrate the range to 0 - 200 mm for shear with the 45°
probe.
shape and extremities of ragged crack like reflectors.
Striking the top Striking the bottom
Large crack struck at 45°
crack tip at 45°
There may be situations where the reflector is very smooth 2. Place the probe as shown to detect the corner of the 15 mm slot as shown in the diagram
crack tip at 45° above. It should show at a beam path of around 141 mm. If your probe angle is not exactly 45,
and does not have facets to reflect the sound. If such you will get a slightly different answer. If your probe angle is 45 and you do not get a beam path
reflectors are very smooth, it may only be possible to plot in the range 138 - 144 mm, you have a calibration problem.
the tips. 3. Adjust the gain to display this corner at 100%FSH. Confirm by placing your beam profile on the
side of the block. The centerline of the beam should be striking the corner at 141 mm.
4. Add 20 dB and look at the corner echo again. You should see a weaker echo about 10 mm in
front of the corner echo.
5. Move the probe forward until this weaker echo is at its maximum. This is the diffracted echo
from the tip of the slot. Confirm this by placing you beam profile on the block again. The centre
line of the beam should be striking the tip of the slot at about 120 mm.
1. At this position the probe is striking the corner at 45° and the corner
1. Top edge of crack strikes at 68mm 1. Centerline of beam strikes 1. Edge of beam strikes 6. Congratulations! You have just plotted the depth of the slot by the LSE technique. Note that due
acts as a perfect reflector.
2. Center of beam strikes crack at 75mm crack at 55mm crack at 85mm to the smooth machined surface of the slot, you were not able to plot any intermediate echoes
3. Bottom edge of beam strikes crack at 83mm 2. Bottom of beam strikes tip 2. Centre of beam strikes 2. At this position the probe is striking the slot tip which acts as the from surface roughness, but you have plotted the two extremities.
of crack at 62mm crack tip at 90mm source of a tip diffraction echo
10/8/2005
N.Kuppusamy 96
Practice Direct calculation of crack depth

• At the zero point for angle probes on V1 Block there are two fine slots 30 If using a 45° probe to test a crack as shown,
This technique is the best way of plotting the depth of mm × 4 mm. Using the LSE technique, measure the 4 mm depth of one of measure the beam path length from the corner
surface breaking cracks. Just remember: these slots using a 45°, 60°, and 70° probe. (position 2), and the crack tip (position 1). If you
subtract the beam path length at position 1 from
• Which one gives the most accurate answer? Why is it more accurate than the beam path at position 2, it corresponds to
• You need very good resolution, 1 mm or better. the others? distance ‘a’.
• You need very accurate calibration Answer: The 45° probe. It is the best corner reflector, and easier to • Crack height (b) = a × sin 45 = a × 0.707
1. Crack tip position
calibrate accurately
• The beam must be narrow. • In the case of the slot in Block 1, the difference in beam 2. Corner position
path was 141 − 120 = 21
• Real cracks will probably give echoes between the tips due to the reflection • Therefore, the crack height is 21 × 0.707 = 14.8 mm
from surface roughness. You will be able to plot the crack facets as you scan • You can speed up the crack depth measurement with some simple maths. • True size = 15 mm
along the crack surface. So far the crack depth measurements have all been achieved using a beam
• Depending on the resolution of the equipment and the skill of the technician, this
profile overlaid on the sample or a scale drawing. The following short cut technique should be accurate to ±1 mm.
• It works best if you test at an angle of 45°. may be used if you are doing a number of repeat measurements.
• The LSE Technique has its limitations Taking the mathematical short cut involves some assumptions
• The LSE technique is limited by the pulse characteristics. It will generally only • Make sure of the resolution of the probe/UFD combination.
measure planar reflectors, and will only be able to measure them if they are • Ensure the probe angle is 45° (±1°).
more than half the beam width high. The equipment needs to have a high • The technique assumes that the crack is propagating at right angles to the surface.
resolution to identify the peaks and must be accurately calibrated. • Do some plots with the beam profile to verify that the calculation is correct.
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N.Kuppusamy 99
Plate Roll Rolling echo from an opposite surface Check your progress
Ultrasonic traces are rich sources of information crying out for intelligent All the individual echoes are caused by small irregularities in the plate
interpretation. One such useful sources of information is plate roll (‘rolling surface, and each will come to a maximum when the centre of the beam
• Angle probes for general weld testing produce the
echo’ or ‘half skip hash’). strikes them. following:
A rolling echo can be very useful when using a 45° probe Far from being a problem, this rolling echo is a very useful feature: a. shear waves in the range 0°-35°
b. shear and compression waves in the range 35°-70°
• it is a useful indicator that the sound is being
We have discussed a vertical crack being struck by a 45° probe. The c. shear waves in the range 35°-70°
transmitted into the test object, and the
situation would be the same if the crack had been horizontal, except that all
coupling is working d. compression waves in the range 35°-60°
echoes would peak (reach maximum amplitude) at the same beam path - if
you doubt this, draw it out and convince yourself. When examining parallel- • the technician knows exactly where the beam
sided materials such as steel plate, the surface opposite the scanning is striking the far wall Answer: c - Shear and compression waves in the range 35°-70°
surface will act as an infinitely large discontinuity. If the surface is
• any surface breaking corner reflectors will
machined to a fine finish, it is unlikely that you will get any significant
emerge out of the rolling echo and will be
reflections from it. If the plate is in the ‘as rolled’ condition with a surface
immediately recognizable
roughness around 3.2μmRa , however, the surface roughness may start to
give rise to a ‘rolling echo’ when using a 45° probe. • the points of reflection can be confirmed
immediately by rubbing couplant on the surface
and altering the roll pattern.
1. Leading edge of beam strikes surface at 62mm
2. Center of beam strikes surface at 56mm
3. Trailing edge of beam strikes surface at 50mm
10/8/2005
N.Kuppusamy 102
Check your progress Check your progress Your Task

• The last significant echo is caused by: • The 50 mm steel plate has a 20 mm stiffener
• The most useful block for plotting the beam profile of an angle
welded to it.
probe is the: a. secondary echoes off the test object
b. diffraction from the tip of the discontinuity • It is required to detect and measure the height
a. IOW Block of any cracks propagating from the fillet weld
b. IIW (V1) Block Answer: a - IOW Block c. reflection from the smooth surface of the discontinuity toes. Note that the underside is inaccessible.
c. miniature (V2) Block d. frequency modulation
d. thickness step wedge Answer: b - diffraction from thet ip of the discontinuity Write a procedure for the job that describes:
1. How you would find and plot the fillet welds (as these are the
• Rolling echoes using a 45° probe when testing plate are possible crack locations).
• The last significant echo (LSE) technique is used to: caused by: 2. How you would measure the thickness accurately (as the thickness on
a. mode conversions from the plate surface the drawing may not be correct).
a. plot beam profile
b. measure horizontal linearity b. secondary echoes from the plate surface 3. Specify a technique that will detect the cracks from the top side of
c. reflections from surface roughness on the opposite the plate.
c. measure the size of very small discontinuities
surface • Describe the scanning angles, directions and surfaces you will use.
d. plot the size of large discontinuities
d. excess PRF Remember that these welds may have undercut at the toes – the cracks
generally start at areas of undercut. You do not want to interpret an
Answer: d - Plot the size of large discontinuities. undercut area as a crack! Make sure you specify the frequency, angle,
Answer: c - Reflections from surface roughness on
mode and diameter of the probes you want to use.
the opposite surface
10/8/2005
N.Kuppusamy 105

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Chap-7 Calibration PDF

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General Reading Time Base

Calibration Unit Distance per graduation Blocks:

Sound path, S = Sound velocity x transit time/2

Position of the signals with a 10” screen range.

Position of the signals with a 10” screen range.

Screen Range – DSC Block Screen Range – DSC Block V2 Block

Position of the signals with a 10” screen range.

Position of the signals with a 5.0” screen

Position of the signals

Determination of echo position Determination of echo position .. Determination of echo position ..

Calibration Steps Special cases: Angle Beam Echo Location

Example ASTM E428 SIDE DRILLED HOLES

Problems in calibrating for long distances with

Resolution – Angle Probe Resolution – Block 6 (Half-

Although not stated in the standard, the resolution guidelines

4mm step echo resolved 3mm step echo not-resolved

Short Pulse Length Long Pulse Length

Reference sensitivity Reference Sensitivity Probe index

IIW block Rumpus block DSC block

Determination of beam angle requires an

Beam alignment Squint Angle Dead zone

a straight-edge against the probe shoe 1. Maximizing the corner echo.

Check your progress Check your progress Check your progress

Answer: d - The gain needs to be calibrated in smaller intervals than 2dB

Some Points on Damping Point to Ponder

Rule 2 • The last significant echo (LSE) technique is also referred to as

Practice Direct calculation of crack depth

Check your progress Check your progress Your Task

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