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CHAPTER - I
ULTRASONICS
INTRODUCTION
Ultrasonic Inspection is one of the NDT methods to find out the condition
of elastic materials (metals and few non - metals) by means of injecting
mechanical vibrations into the materials. This method is capable of detecting
surface, subsurface and internal discontinuities on materials. Ultrasonic waves
are the sound waves having the frequency of above 20,000 C/S which is
inaudible to the human ears. Ultrasonic waves are sent through materials by
means of transducers and if there is any discontinuity in the path of its
propagation, the material would change or modify the waves that can be viewed
in the form of indication, through testing system. The theory of ultrasonic
propagation is exactly the same as that of audible sound. It obeys the principle of
optics. The ultrasonic method is used on processed materials, finished
components and for in-service inspection on parts and assemblies. Ultrasonic
waves can penetrate through several meters in to the material. The waves can be
propagated through liquids, solids and gases.
FIRST AND BEST UT INSPECTOR :

Bats can find moths
Bats use echoes to find good tasting moths, while flying around at night. The bat
sends a sharp click or chirping sound and then hears and processes any echoes
off other objects in the area. Bats have large ears that are very sensitive to
sounds in certain wavelengths.
Their brains are also able to process the sound of the echo coming off a flying
moth to determine how far away it is, which direction and how fast it is flying, and
the size of the moth. It continues to send out sound and receive echoes until it
zeroes in on the moth and has a good meal.
WHY USE ULTRASONICS FOR NONDESTRUCTIVE MATERIAL

TESTING?
At the beginning of the fifties the technician only knew radiography (x-ray or
radioactive isotopes) as a method for detection of internal flaws in addition to the
methods for nondestructive testing of material surfaces, e.g. the dye penetrant
and magnetic particle method. After the Second World War the ultrasonic
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method, as described by Sokolov in 1935 and applied by Firestone in 1940, was
further developed so that very soon instruments were available for ultrasonic
testing of materials.
The ultrasonic principle is based on the fact that solid materials are good
conductors of sound waves. Whereby the waves are not only reflected at the
interfaces but also by internal flaws (material separations, inclusions etc.). The
interaction effect of sound waves with the material is stronger the smaller the
wave length, this means the higher the frequency of the wave.
λ = cf
c = Sound velocity [km/s]

f = Frequency [MHz]
λ = Wave length [mm]
This means that ultrasonic waves must be used in a frequency range between
about 0.5 MHz and 25 MHz and that the resulting wave length is in mm. With
lower frequencies, the interaction effect of the waves with internal flaws would be
so small that detection becomes questionable. Both test methods, radiography
and ultrasonic testing, are the most frequently used methods of testing different
test pieces for internal flaws, partly covering the application range and partly
extending it.
This means that today many volume tests are possible with the more economical
and non-risk ultrasonic test method, on the other hand special test problems are
solved, the same as before, using radiography. In cases where the highest safety
requirements are demanded (e.g. nuclear power plants, aerospace industry) both
methods are used.
PRINCIPLE OF WAVE PROPAGATION

Sound is a form of energy which is produced by means of mechanical
vibrations. It needs a medium for propagation. The displacement of particles from
its mean position is called vibration. All vibrating bodies follow simple harmonic
motion. The maximum displacement of the vibrating body is called amplitude of
oscillation.
When a drum head is struck, vibrations are transferred to the air

surrounding it. The air carries the energy which can be heard by us. This is within
the audible range (i.e.) the frequency of the sound is below 20,000 c/s. When the
frequency is above 20,000 c/s, we can not detect the frequency of energy by ear.
This is in inaudible range and hence it is transformed electronically and observed
visually by visual display on CRT screen.
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ACOUSTIC SPECTRUM OR SOUND SPECTRUM
Vibration is said to have the following properties, period, frequency wave

length and velocity.
Period `t':
It is the time taken by the vibrating body to complete one cycle. It is

measured in seconds.
Frequency `f':
It is number of cycles or oscillations made per second. It is the reciprocal
of `t' (i.e.) f = 1/t
If a source makes 20 oscillations per second, then the source is said to be

vibrating at a frequency of 20 cycles per second (or) the frequency of the source
is 20 Hertz. Hertz is the International term for frequency.
If the vibrating source is having a frequency of 4 MHZ, it is understood that

the source is producing 4 x 106 oscillations in one second.
Wave Length `λ'

The shape of the wave is sinusoidal. λ is equal to the distance from
crest to crest or trough to trough of a wave (or) we can say the distance between
two neighboring points having the same phase. The unit of wave length is
`Meter'.
Velocity `v'
This can be defined as the distance a wave will propagate through a
medium in a given time.
The velocity of propagation at a particular temperature is dependant upon

the elasticity and density of the medium. At normal temperature, the medium is
supposed to have a particular density with particular elastic properties. Hence
velocity remains constant for a particular material and varies between materials
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to materials.
Its unit is meter / second

dis tan ce
Velocity =
time
Wave length
Velocity = 1 / frequency
v=λXf
Speed of sound in any gas
The speed of sound in any gas is a function of temperature, the molecular

structure of the gas and its molecular mass. The molecular mass is the atomic
weight of the molecule divided by 1000.
Speed in various gases
The speed of sound for various gases at 0° C:
Speed
Gas
(meters/second)
Air 331
Carbon Dioxide 259
Oxygen 316
Helium 965
Hydrogen 1290
Speed and Temperature
When the air temperature is 24° C (75° F), the speed of sound is 346 meters per
second (m/s) or 775 miles per hour (mph). The relationship between the speed of
sound and the air temperature is approximated from the equation:
v = 331.4 + 0.6Tc m/s
where Tc is the Celsius temperature.
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Sound Amplified Over Water
If you are sitting in a boat, a sound coming from the shore will sound louder than
the same sound heard by a person on land. Sound seems to be amplified when it
travels over water. The reason is that the water cools the air above its surface,
which then slows down the sound waves near the surface. This causes a
refraction or bending of the sound wave, such that more sound reaches the boat
passenger.
Wave modes
On the basis of the mode of particle displacement, ultrasonic waves are
classified in to four types of waves.
1. Longitudinal waves
2. Transverse waves
3. Surface waves
4. Lamb waves
Longitudinal waves
Longitudinal waves are the waves in which the particle motion is in the
same direction of wave propagation.
The other names of the wave are compressional, plane, dilatational

(straight beam) and pressure waves.
Longitudinal velocity is given by
E (1   )
VL =
 (1   )(1  2  )
Where E = Young's modulus of elasticity
μ = Poisson's ratio
ρ = Material density
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Properties of Longitudinal waves
1. This wave is the most easily generated and detected.
2. It travels through all media (i.e.) solids, liquids & gases.
3. Longitudinal waves have the highest velocity compared to other type of
waves.
4. Almost all of the sound energy used in ultrasonic inspection originates as
longitudinal waves and may be converted in to other mode for special test
applications.
5. As longitudinal waves propagate, compression and rarefaction occur
alternatively: Heat is produced during compression and Heat is dissipated
at the time of rarefaction.
6. Defect depth is a straight calculation.
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DIRECTION OF WAVE TRAVEL
Schematic representation of longitudinal ultrasonic waves

Production of Longitudinal Waves
Longitudinal waves are generated in a probe to which a piezo-electric
element or crystal is fitted with. On excitation of the crystal, ultrasonic longitudinal
waves are produced.
Applications
Longitudinal waves are used for detecting the discontinuities that are
parallel to the material surface, like lamination, delamination, crack etc in plates
Transverse waves
Transverse waves are the waves in which the particle motion is
perpendicular to the direction of the propagation. The other names of these
waves are shear wave or torsional (angle beam) waves.
Transverse velocity is given by
E G
VT = =
 2  (1   ) 
Where G is the shear modulus

E is young's modulus of elasticity
μ is Poisson’s ratio and
ρ is the material density
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Properties of Transverse waves
1. Transverse waves can not be supported by the elastic collision of
adjacent molecular or atomic particles and hence the velocity of
transverse waves is usually approximately half of the longitudinal waves.
2. Transverse waves do not propagate through liquids and gases because
the attraction between the atoms or molecules is small, due to its large
mean - path (the distance between the atoms or molecules). In other
words, the liquids and gases do not possess modulus of elasticity (forces
of attraction between the molecules are so small). Hence, these waves
are rapidly attenuated.
3. As the velocity of transverse waves is less, the wave length for a given
frequency is also less. Hence, smaller the wave length, larger the
detectability of finer discontinuities, compared to longitudinal waves for
the same frequency.
Note:
Transmission of transverse waves through a material can be illustrated by
the movement of rope or string as it is shaken. Each particle in the rope
moves only up and down but the waves move along the rope from the
excitation point.
Production of transverse waves

The shear waves are produced within the material by means of refraction
at the interface between the Perspex and material under inspection.
Applications
Shear wave probes are used mainly to find out the defects in weldments
and also cracks in components.
Surface waves
Here the particle vibration generally follows an elliptical orbit. This wave
was first explained by Lord Rayleigh. The other name for the surface waves is
Rayleigh waves.
Surface wave velocity = 0.9 x VT

Where VT = Velocity of transverse waves.
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Properties of surface waves
1. These waves travel along the flat or curved surface of relatively thick solid
specimens but get reflected when it meets a sharp edge like a crack or a
notch.
2. It won’t exist in solid immersed in liquid, but exist only in thin film.
3. The surface waves suffer very less attenuation compared to longitudinal
or transverse waves.
4. The maximum depth of penetration is one wave length beneath the
surface of the material. At this depth, the wave energy is about 4% of
wave energy at the surface.
5. For the prorogation of surface waves, the materials should be free from
oil, grease and loose scales. Even the finger damped in oil can easily
absorb the energy and prevent its prorogation.
Production of Surface Waves

1. By means of `y' cut quartz crystal with liquid contact.
2. Conversion of longitudinal wave via plastic wedge.
Applications
Surface cracks, the thickness of plating or hardened surface can be
detected with surface wave probes.
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Plate Waves
Particle vibration in plate waves is very complex, throughout the thickness
of the material. The other names of the plate waves are Lamb or guided waves.
Though plate waves exist in many complex modes of particle movement, these
can be divided in to 2 basic types, the symmetrical or dilatational and the other is
asymmetrical or bending waves.
In symmetrical plate waves, there is longitudinal particle displacement

along the neutral axis of the plate and an elliptical particle displacement on each
surface.
In asymmetrical plate waves, there is transverse particle displacement

along the neutral axis of the plate and elliptical particle displacement on each
surface.
Properties of plate waves

1. Plate waves are produced in thin sheets (whose thickness is equal to or
less than 3 wave lengths) when sending beam by angle probe at
particular angle.
2. Lamb waves have a velocity of propagation dependant upon the
operating frequency, sample thickness and elastic module. They are
dispersive (i.e.) velocity changes with frequency.
Production of Plate Waves

This is produced by means of shear waves reflected at a particular angle
and the vibrations that occur within the material cause it to flex (i.e.) the wave
totally saturates the thickness of the material.
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Applications
These waves are used for testing of thin plates, for lamination and for
debonding in cladded materials.
Table - Sound Velocity, Density, Acoustic Impedance

VLon VTRA DENSITY
Material ACO.IMP
M/Sec M/Sec gm/cm3
Aluminium 6320 3130 2.7 17.0
Aluminium Oxide 9000 5500 3.6 32.4
Bismuth 2180 1100 9.8 21.4
Brass 4430 2120 8.1 35.9
Cadmium 2780 1500 8.6 23.9
Cast Iron 2200 3500 6.9 24.2
Concrete 4600 - 2.0 9.2
Copper 4700 2260 8.9 41.8
Glass 4260 2560 3.6 15.3
Glycerin 1920 - 1.3 2.5
Gold 3240 1200 19.3 62.5
Grey casting 4600 2650 7.2 33.1
Hard Metal 6800 4000 11.0 74.8
Lead 2160 700 11.4 24.6
Magnesium 5770 3050 1.7 9.8
Motor oil 1740 - 0.87 1.5
Nickel 5630 2960 8.8 49.5
Perspex 2730 1430 1.18 3.2
Platinum 3960 1670 21.4 84.7
Polyamide (nylon) 2620 1080 1.1 2.8
Polyethylene 2340 925 0.94 2.2
Polystyrol 2380 1150 1.06 2.523
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC

2395 1060 1.4 3.353
Hard)
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Table - Sound Velocity, Density, Acoustic Impedance
VLon VTRA DENSITY
Material ACO.IMP
M/Sec M/Sec gm/cm3
Porcelain 5600 3500 2.4 13.4
Quartz 5760 - 2.65 15.2
Quartz Glass 5570 3515 2.6 14.5
Silver 3600 1590 10.5 37.8
Steel (low Alloy) 5940 3250 7.85 46.6
Steel (Calibration block)
Catin block 5920 3250 7.85 46.5
Tin 3320 1670 7.3 24.2
Titanium 6230 3180 4.54 28.3
Tungsten 5460 2680 19.1 104.3
Uranium 3200 - 18.7 59.8
Water 20c 1480 - 1.0 1.48
Zinc 4170 2410 7.1 29.6
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CHAPTER - I
ULTRASONICS - QUESTIONNAIRE
1. Ultrasonic inspection is one of the NDT methods to find out the

condition of
a. Metals
b. Non-metals
c. Ferro magnetic materials
d. Elastic materials – Metals and few non metals
2. Ultrasonic method is useful to detect

a. Surface defects
b. Sub surface defects
c. Both (a) and (b)
d. internal defects
e. Surface, Sub surface and internal defects
3. Ultrasonic waves are the sound waves having the frequency of

a. Sonic range
b. Sub sonic range
c. below 20,000 c/s
d. Above 20000 c/s.
4. The theory of ultrasonic prorogation is

a. Same as the sound waves
b. Contrary to the sound waves
c. Electric wave theory
d. Equal to planks constant
e. Same as that of sound waves and obeying law of optics.
5. Ultrasonic waves which are allowed to send through materials are

a. Magnetic fields
b. Electric pulses
c. Electro magnetic field
d. Mechanical vibrations.
6. Complete back and forth movement of particles within the medium

are called.
a. Momentum
b. Particle oscillation
c. displacement
d. Vibration
7. If any discontinuity in the path of ultrasonic wave prorogation.

a. Reflection takes place
b. Refraction occurs
c. No change noted
d. Change with respect to the incident waves occur which is
processed through testing systems to attain visible image on the CRT
screen.
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8. Ultrasonic waves pass through
a. Solids
b. Liquids
c. Gases
d. a, b & c
e. Solids, liquids, gases except vacuum.
9. The displacement of particles from its mean position is called

a. Mean free path
b. Cycle
c. Wave length
d. Vibration
10. Steel is considered to be

a. Non-elastic
b. elastic
c. Plastic
d. None of the above
11. The period of vibrating body is

a. time taken to complete one cycle
b. time taken to complete half cycle
c. Either (a) or (b)
d. None of the above.
12. Frequency of a vibrating body is said to be

a. Number of wave length made in a second
b. Number of oscillations made in 10 seconds
c. Number half wave length in a second
d. Number of oscillations or cycles made in one second
13. The wave length of Ultrasonic wave is defined as

a. No. of oscillations made per second
b. It is the distance multiplied by velocity and frequency.
c. It is the distance between the neighboring points having the same
phase.
d. It is equal to the distance from crest to crest or trough to trough.
e. Both (c) and (d)
14. Velocity of ultrasonic wave is

a. It is a value multiplied by wave length and frequency
b. It is a value multiplied by frequency and distance
c. It is a value multiplied by distance and time.
15. If wave length is increased, the frequency will

a. Increase
b. decrease
c. Remains the same
e. All the above.
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16. The velocity of sound in steel is 2,40,000 inches / sec. How long will
it take for the sound to travel through 2" of specimen.
a. 4 Micro seconds
b. 8.3 μ seconds
c. Milli seconds
d. 8 Milli seconds
17. If the distance traveled by the longitudinal wave in steel is 200mm,

how much travel time will it take?
a. 30 μ seconds
b. 50 μ secs
c. 33 μ secs
d. 37 μ seconds
18. Calculate the frequency for a wave length of 1.5 mm at a velocity of

6.1 km/sec.
a. 3 MHZ
b. 4 MHZ
c. 5 MHZ
d. 0.4 MHZ
19. Calculate the wave length in water (velocity is ¼th of steel) of a

sound wave at a frequency of 5MHZ. Velocity of sound in water is
1500m/s.
a. 0.6 mm
b. 0.5 mm
c. 1.25 mm
d. 0.3 m
e. None of the above
20. An ultrasonic longitudinal wave travels in aluminum with a velocity

of 6,35,000 cm/ sec and has a frequency of 3MHZ, the wave length of
the ultrasonic wave is
a. 3.0 mm
b. 2.5 mm
c. 2.12 mm
d. 4.24 mm
21. Calculate the wave length of Ultrasonic energy at 2MHZ frequency in
Lead, Velocity in lead is 2.1 x 105 cm/ sec
a. 0.21mm
b. 0.105 cm
c. 2.1cms
d. 1.05 cms
22. A Longitudinal wave having a frequency of 3MHZ takes 4μ secs to

travel certain distance in steel. How much time does it take for shear
wave having frequency of 6MHZ to travel the same distance?
a. 4μ secs
b. 2 μ secs
c. 7.5 μ secs
d. 1μ sec.
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23. Longitudinal waves are the ones in which the particle motion is
a. Perpendicular to the direction of propagation
b. In the same direction of propagation
c. Elliptical in the direction of prorogation
d. Is dispersive.
24. The ultrasonic waves which is having the highest velocity compared
to all other wave modes is
a. Shear wave
b. surface wave
c. Longitudinal wave
d. plate waves
25. The wave which travels through solids, liquids and gases is
a. Longitudinal wave
b. Surface wave
c. Shear wave
d. Plate waves
26. The wave in which the compressions and rarefactions take places at
the time of its prorogation.
a. Transverse wave
b. Longitudinal waves
c. Surface waves
d. both (a) and (b)
27. It is the sound wave from which almost all other sound waves
originate is
a. Compressional wave
b. Shear wave
c. Surface wave
d. both (a) & (b)
28. Transverse waves are the waves in which the particles motion is
a. In the direction of wave prorogation
b. In perpendicular direction of wave prorogation
c. both (a) & (b)
d. In elliptical direction to the wave propagation
29. The velocity of transverse wave is approximately

a. Twice the velocity of longitudinal wave in steel and
Aluminium
b. Same as longitudinal wave in both steel and Aluminum
c. Half of the velocity of longitudinal wave in steel and
Aluminium
30. The only sound wave which can travel through liquid is
a. Transverse wave
b. Shear wave
c. Surface wave
d. Longitudinal wave
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31. The transverse waves do not propagate through liquids and gases
because
a. Liquids and gases don't posses modules of elasticity
b. The alteration between actions or modules is small
32. The velocity of Transverse waves is small compared to longitudinal

waves. The defect detectability of longitudinal waves in a material
for a particular frequency is
a. same as the shear wave
b. Small compared to transverse waves
c. Both (a) & (b)
33. Which of the following wave mode follows elliptical orbit?

a. Rayleigh waves
b. Lamb waves
c. shear waves
d. Transverse waves
34. Which of the following waves can be quickly damped out in solid
immersed in liquid, but exists only in thin film
a. Surface waves
b. Compressional wave
c. Lamb waves
35. Which of the following mode of vibration is quickly damped out

when testing by immersion method?
a. Longitudinal
b. surface
c. both (a) & (b)
d. Transverse waves
36. Generally One of the following wave modes undergoes less

attenuation compared to other modes
a. Longitudinal wave mode
b. Transverse wave mode
c. Surface wave mode
d. Shear wave mode
37. The maximum depth of penetration beneath the surface of a material

for surface waves is
a. 2 wave length
b. 1.5 wave length
c. 3 wave length
d. 1 wave length
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38. In the following wave mode even a finger damped in oil could
absorb sound energy and prevent the wave propagation.
a. Transverse wave
b. Shear wave
c. both (a) & (b)
d. Surface wave
39. In which wave mode, the velocity is not fixed for a given material?
a. Transverse waves
b. Lamb waves
c. surface waves
d. Longitudinal waves
40. The velocity in which the plate waves travel in a plate depends upon.
a. the thickness of the plate
b. the material type
c. the frequency of sound wave
d. all of the above
41. Of the following wave modes, which one has multiples or varying
wave velocities
a. Longitudinal waves
b. Transverse waves
c. Lamb waves
d. Surface waves
42. Lamb waves are used to inspect

a. Bar stock
b. forging
c. Thick plates
d. Thin sheets
43. Lamb waves are used to inspect

a. Lack of fusion in the centre of a thin weldment
b. Laminar type of defects near the surface of a thin material
c. Internal defects in thick section
44. Acoustic energy propagates in different modes. Which of the

following represent a mode?
a. Longitudinal
b. Transverse
c. Surface
d. All a, b & c
45. Ultrasonic waves that travel around a gradual curve with little or no
reflection from the curve is called
a. Longitudinal
b. Transverse
c. Surface
d. Lamb
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46. Symmetrical and asymmetrical waves are the basic types in the
following wave mode
a. Surface wave
b. Longitudinal wave made
c. Lamb
d. Shear wave
47. In general which of the following mode of vibration has greatest

penetration power in a coarse grained material if the frequency of
the wave is same?
a. Transverse
b. Longitudinal
c. Shear
d. Lamb
48. Velocity of propagation at a particular temperature is dependent

upon
a. the wave length and viscosity in the medium
b. viscosity and density of the medium
c. Elasticity and density of the medium
49. In general, shear waves are more sensitive to small discontinuities

compared to longitudinal waves in a given material and given
frequency the reasons is
a. The wave length of shear waves is longer than longitudinal
waves
b. The wave length of shear wave is shorter compared in
longitudinal waves.
c. The direction of particle motion is favorable in the case of shear
wave.
d. both (a) & (c)
50. In the following media, which one has got the lowest velocity for the
sound wave propagation?
a. Water
b. Steel
c. Aluminum
d. Air
51. Which of the following wave mode has the nearest velocity of
transverse wave?
a. Longitudinal waves
b. Lamb waves
c. Surface waves
d. Plate waves
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52. The energy level of surface wave is reduced to 1/25 th of its original
energy at the depth of
a. ½"
b. 1"
c. 2 wave lengths
d. 1 wave length
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CHAPTER - I
ULTRASONICS - QUESTIONNAIRE
ANSWERS
Q.NO. ANS Q.NO. ANS

1 D 28 B
2 E 29 C
3 D 30 D
4 E 31 C
5 D 32 B
6 D 33 A
7 D 34 A
8 E 35 B
9 D 36 A
10 B 37 D
11 A 38 D
12 D 39 B
13 E 40 A
14 A 41 C
15 B 42 D
16 B 43 B
17 C 44 D
18 B 45 C
19 E 46 C
20 C 47 B
21 B 48 C
22 C 49 B
23 B 50 D
24 C 51 C
25 A 52 D
26 B
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CHAPTER - II
BEHAVIOUR OF ULTRASONIC WAVES
High frequency sound waves obey the laws of optics. Hence the waves
would undergo,
(1) Reflection (2) Refraction (3) Interference (4) Diffraction & (5)
Focusing.
REFLECTION
Reflection of ultrasonic waves occurs when they encounter or fall at the
boundary of two dissimilar materials.
If the incident waves are perpendicular to the material interface, the

reflected waves are redirected back towards the source from which they were
sent.
The amount of reflection depends upon the difference in acoustic

properties of two materials and angle of incidence. This method by which
discontinuities in the material noted is called `Reflection-Technique'.
ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE
It is defined as the resistance offered by a material to the passage of
sound waves.
The specific acoustic impedance is the product of the wave velocity and
the density of the material thro' which it is passing.
Z=ρxv
Where Z = Acoustic impedance
ρ = the density of the material
v = velocity in the particular medium
Air has very low impedance where as water; steel and aluminum have
higher acoustic impedance.
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IMPEDANCE RATIO
Impedance ratio between two materials is the acoustical impedance of
one material divided by the acoustical impedance of the other material. When
ultrasonic beam is passing through material one to material two, the impedance
ratio is the impedance of the second material divided by the impedance of the
first material.
As the ratio increases, more of the original energy is reflected. As air has
small impedance, the impedance ratio between air and liquid or solid materials is
very high. Hence, most of the ultrasonic waves would be reflected at any
interface between air and other materials.
Impedance ratio is referred to as `impedance mismatch'. If the impedance

ratio, for instance, is 5/1, the impedance mismatch would be 5 to 1. For eg The
impedance ratio for a liquid-to-metal interface is about 20 to 1, approximately
80% reflection; the impedance ratio for air to metal is about 100,000 to 1(i.e.)
virtually 100% reflection. This result in only a small percentage of the ultrasonic
energy is transmitted in to the material. For maximum transmission, a 1 to 1
impedance ratio would be desirable.
ENERGY REFLECTION COEFFICIENT

The degree to which a perpendicular wave is reflected from the interface
is given by the energy reflection coefficient. The ratio of the reflected acoustic
energy to that which is incident upon the interface is given by
( Z 2  Z1 ) 2
R =
( Z 2  Z1 ) 2
Where, R is the coefficient of energy reflection for normal incidence.
Z1 is the acoustic impedance for the first material.
Z2 is the acoustic impedance for the second material.
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Reflection
REFRACTION
When a sound wave encounters an interface of two dissimilar materials, at
an angle other than perpendicular, (or) say at oblique incidence, reflections occur
at an angle equal to the incident angle which is measured from the normal or
perpendicular axis. If the sound energy is transmitted beyond the interface, the
transmitted wave may be divided into two types of wave modes.
1. Refracted longitudinal waves.

2. Refracted mode converted transverse waves.
In any case, the waves generated in the steel will be refracted in

accordance with Snell's Law, whether they are longitudinal or transverse waves.
The above phenomena may affect the entire beam or only a portion of
beam and the sum total of changes that occur at the interface depend upon the
angle of incidence and the velocity of ultrasonic waves.
Snell's Law
The general law that explains wave behavior at an interface is known as

Snell's Law. Although originally derived for light waves and ultrasonic waves, it is
applied to much other type of waves.
According to Snell's Law, the ratio of sine of the angle of incidence to the
sine of the angle of reflection or refraction equals the ratio of the corresponding
wave velocities.
Sin i V1
=
Sin r V2
Where i = angle of incidence

r = angle of reflection or refraction
V1 = velocity of sound in 1st medium
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V2 = velocity of sound in 2nd medium
CRITICAL ANGLES
When the angle of incidence is small, between two dissimilar media
(having different velocities), the sound waves undergo refraction and mode
conversion at its boundary, in addition to reflection, as a result of which refracted
longitudinal and refracted mode converted transverse ways are produced in the
second medium.
First Critical Angle

If the angle of incidence is increased to a certain value, correspondingly,
the angle of refracted longitudinal wave is increased When it is equal to 90  to
the plane of boundary (in accordance with Snell's Law) the longitudinal waves
disappears from the second medium and hence only transverse wave exists in
the second medium.
For e.g. when the incident angle in the Perspex becomes 27.6, the
refracted longitudinal wave in steel reaches 90 and total reflection takes place.
At this angle, only transverse wave exists in steel, (i.e.) in the 2nd medium. And if
we calculate the angle of the refracted transverse wave in the steel, at this first
critical angle, we get the refracted transverse angle at 33. So we use angle
beam of 35 as minimum.
Second Critical Angle

Second critical angle for the interface of two media with dissimilar
velocities is the incident angle at which the refracted, mode converted transverse
wave angle becomes 90, (i.e.) equals to the plane of boundary as in the case of
first critical angle. But in this case surface wave is produced at the boundary.
This phenomenon occurs when the wave velocity in the second medium is
greater than the first medium.
The second critical angle is reached when the incident angle becomes
57.2. In Perspex at this angle, transverse wave is converted into surface waves.
Since surface waves occur at a refracted angle of 90, the upper limit for
transverse wave probes is 80.
DIFFRACTION
When the ultrasonic beam impinges on the flat interface, which is large in
comparison to the incident beam's dimensions, the beam is reflected or refracted
plane wave.
But, if the beam encounters a point reflector, which is small in comparison
25
to its wave length, the reflected wave is reradiated as spherical wave front.
Thus, when a plane wave encounters the edges of reflective interface, say
for instance, near the tip of the fatigue crack, specular reflections occur along the
"flat" surface of the crack and cylindrical wavelets are launched from the edges.
Since the waves are coherent, (i.e.) the same frequency (wave length) and in
phase, their redirection into the path of subsequent advancing plane waves
results in incident and reflected (scattered) waves interfering (i.e.) forming
regions of reinforcement (constructive interference) and cancellation (Destructive
interference).
This "interfering" behavior is characteristic of continuous waves (or pulses

from "ringing" ultrasonic transducers) and when applied to edges and apertures
serving as sources of sound beams is known as "Wave Diffraction". It is the
fundamental basis for concepts such as transducer beam spread (directivity),
near field, wave length-limited flaw detection sensitivity and assists in the sizing
of discontinuities using dual transducer (crack-tip diffraction) techniques.
DIFFRACTION TECHNIQUE
Diffraction technique is useful for establishing the extremities of cracks
which primarily propagate through the thickness of plates, pipes and vessels. The
concept is to take advantage of the signal generated from the tips of the
discontinuity as it diffracts or bends the ultrasonic beam passing over or under it.
This signal locates the end point of the crack and defines its through wall
dimension.
26
The diffracted signals can be generated by either the shear or longitudinal
wave modes. The use of longitudinal waves complicates the interpretation as
both longitudinal waves and shear waves would be present in the test specimen.
This approach is bi-modal testing.
NEAR FIELD
The face of an ultrasonic transducer crystal usually doesn't vibrate
uniformly under the influence of an impressed electrical voltage. But the crystal
face vibrates in a complex manner which can be described as a mosaic of tiny,
individual crystals, each vibrating in the same direction but slightly out of phase
with its neighbors.
Each element in the mosaic acts like a point - (Huygens) source, and
radiates a spherical wave outward from the plane of the crystal face. Near the
face of the crystal, the composite sound beam propagates chiefly as a plane
wave, though the spherical waves emanating from the periphery of the crystal
face produce short-range ultrasonic beams referred to as side lobes. Because of
the interference effects, as these spherical waves encounter one another in the
region near the crystal phase a spatial pattern of acoustic - pressure maximums
and minimums is set up in the composite beams. The region in which these
maximums and minimum occur is known as the Near Field (Fresnel field) of the
sound beam.
Along the central axis of the composite sound beam, the series of acoustic
-pressure maximums and minimums become broader and more widely spaced as
the distance from the crystal face, `d' increases. Where `d' becomes equal to N
(with N denoting the length of the near field), the acoustic pressure reaches a
final maximum and decreases approximately exponentially with increasing
distance.
The length of the Near field is determined by the size of the radiating
crystal and the wave length of the ultrasonic wave.
For a circular radiating crystal, of dia. D, the length of the near field is
N = (D - λ2)/4λ.
2
When the wave length is small with respect to crystal dia. the near field
length can be approximated by N = D2/4 λ.
D2
N =
4λ
27
The effects of Near Field
1. In the Near Field, the intensity is not uniform and hence maxima / minima
are noted; hence exact size of the defects cannot be noted.
2. Discontinuity size estimation is possible at a distance of 0.7N or greater

where N is the Near Field length.
3. The intensity of sound is maximum at the end of the near field as the
sound converges just like the lens in optics (i.e.) the energy gets
concentrated in the limited area.
FAR-FIELD
It is the region that extends from the end of the near field. Fraunhofer
diffraction causes the beam to spread at the end of the near field and continues
until the ultrasound is attenuated. This area exhibits a relatively constant drop in
ultrasound intensities over its entire length due to the attenuation characteristics
of the material being inspected. This permits a predictable amplitude response
from a discontinuity as a function discontinuity depth and a reflective surface.
Up to the end of the near field from the transducer, the sound converges
and divergence takes place from the start of the far field. The sound intensity not
only decreases with the distance but also across the beam. The sound intensity is
maximum in the centre of the beam and diminishes toward the outer edges. A
discontinuity will produce maximum amplitude indication when positioned in the
axis of the beam.
The testing sensitivity continuously decreases with the distance from the
probe. Flaws of same magnitude would receive different intensities with the
increase in the path length. This result in smaller amplitude for the echoes
located at further distances. Nevertheless, the size of the defect can be estimated
to nearest approximation.
The intensity of sound received by two different discontinuities of same

magnitude located at a distance `d' apart can be calculated with the relationship
given below:
I2 / I1 = e- αd
Where I2 < I1 and α = attenuation coefficient
28
29
BEAM-SPREAD ANGLE
This differs from one transducer to another. For a particular transducer
of dia and frequency, the beam spread angle or half angle of beam
divergence (Half cone angle) is given by
Sin θ/2 = 1.22 λ/D
where θ/2 = Half angle of beam divergence

D = Diameter of the Transducer
λ = being the wave length
(or)
Sin θ/2 = 1.22 x v/fD as λ = v/f
1. Central axis of the beam - 100% intensity

2. Profile of 50% intensity 6dB drop - Sin θ = 0.7 x λ/D
3. Profile of 32% intensity - 10dB drop - Sin θ3 = 0.88 x λ/D
4. Profile of 10% intensity - 20dB drop - Sin θ4 = 1.08 x λ/D
5. Profile of Null intensity - - Sin θ5 = 1.22 x λ/D
Attenuation
Sound waves decrease in intensity as they travel away from their source
due to
1. Scattering
2. Absorption
3. Geometrical spreading
4. Dispersion, Diffraction etc.
Of the above, the main factors contributing loss of energy are Scattering
and absorption.
Scattering:
Scattering of an ultrasonic wave occurs because most materials are not

truly homogeneous. Crystal discontinuities like grain boundaries, twin boundaries
and minute non - metallic inclusions tend to deflect small amounts of ultrasonic
energy out of the main ultrasonic beam. Also especially in mixed microstructure
or anisotropic materials, mode conversion at crystalline boundaries tend to occur
because of slight differences in acoustic velocity and acoustic impedance across
the boundaries.
30
Scattering is highly dependent on the relation of crystallite size (mainly
grain size) to ultrasonic wave length. When the grain size is less than 0.01 times
the wave length, scatter is negligible. Scattering effects vary approximately with
the third power of grain size, and when the grain size is 0.1 times the wave length
or larger, excessive scattering may make it impossible to do valid ultrasonic
inspection.
31
In some instances, determination of the degree of scattering can be used
as a basis for acceptance or rejection of part. Some cast irons can be inspected
for the size and distribution of graphite flakes. Similarly, the size and distribution
of microscopic voids in some powder metallurgy parts. (Or) of strengtheners in
some fiber reinforced or dispersion - strengthened materials can be evaluated by
measuring scattering on ultrasonic beam.
Larger the grain size, greater is the scatter. Forged and rolled materials
generally give less scatter than castings or forgings. Heat treatment may reduce
grain size and therefore reduce scatter, making testing easier. Lower the
frequency, lower the scattering and thereby higher the penetration into the
material under inspection. But, sensitivity and resolution is decreased if the
frequency is lowered. Scattering is the major source of attenuation.
Absorption
Sound waves in some materials are absorbed by the process of
mechanical hysterisis, internal friction or other energy loss mechanisms. These
processes occur in non elastic materials such as plastics, rubber, lead and non-
rigid coupling materials. Absorption of ultrasonic energy occurs mainly by
conversion of mechanical energy in to heat.
As the mechanical wave attempts to propagate through such materials,

part of its energy is given up in the form of heat and it is not recoverable.
Absorption is usually the reason that testing of soft and pliable materials is limited
to relatively thin sections.
Attenuation is measured in terms of the energy loss ratio per unit length.
(e.g.) decibels per inch or decibel per meter. Values range from less than 10dB/m
for some Aluminum to 100dB/m or more for some castings, plastics and
concrete.
Attenuation values for common materials
(Frequency of 2.25 MHZ, longitudinal wave mode)
Nature of Material Attenuation dB/m Principal cause

Normalized steel 70 Scatter
Aluminum 6061 - T6511 90 Scatter
Stainless steel 3 xx 110 Scatter/ Redirection
Plastic (Clear acrylic) 380 Absorption
Attenuation is highly dependent upon operating frequency and thus any
32
stated values must be used with caution.
Absorption can be thought of as a breaking action on the motion of

oscillating particles. This breaking action is more pronounced when oscillations
are more rapid - that is at high frequencies for most materials, absorption losses
increase directly with increasing frequency.
Because many factors affect the signals returned in pulse - echo testing,
direct measurement of material attenuation can be quite difficult. Detected signals
depend heavily upon operating frequency, boundary conditions and wave form
geometry (plane or other), as well as the precise nature of the materials being
evaluated. Materials are highly variable due to their thermal history, balance of
alloying or other integral constituents (aggregate, filers, matrix uniformity, water /
void content, to name a few), as well as mechanical processing (forging, rolling,
extruding, and the preferential directional nature of these processes).
33
CHAPTER - II
QUESTIONNAIRE
1. High frequency sound wave behave like

a. Heat
b. Electricity
c. Light
d. Heat & Light
2. Reflection occurs in dissimilar materials at their

a. Above boundary
b. Close to boundary
c. Interface
d. Beneath interface
e. both b & c
3. When incident beam falls upon the interface of two dissimilar

materials perpendicularly
a. refraction takes place
b. Diffraction occurs
c. Sound wave reradiated towards the source on reflection
d. Both b & c.
4. The magnitude of reflection at the boundary is dependant upon

a. Angle of reflection
b. Acoustic properties of two materials
c. Angle of incidence
d. both b & c
5. Specific acoustic impedance is said to be

a. resistance to the passage of sound waves by a material
b. density or velocity of a material
c. the product of velocity and density of material
d. both a & c
6. Compared to steel or Aluminum, air has

a. high acoustic impedance
b. Same impedance
c. low impedance
d. not applicable
7. Acoustic impedance ratio for two materials is defined as

a. The product of impedances of two materials
b. The difference of impedance between the two materials
c. It is the ratio of the impedance of the second material divided by
the first material
d. It is the ratio of the impedance of the first material divided by the
second material
34
8. Most of the ultrasonic waves are reflected back at the interface of
air and other materials because
a. The impedance ratio between air and other material is 1
b. The impedance ratio for these two materials is slightly less than 1
c. The impedance ratio of these two materials is very high
d. The impedance ratio between these materials is very low
9. If we find 1 to 1 impedance ratio between any two materials

a. More reflection would take place
b. Diffraction would take place
c. Both a & b
d. Optimum transmission would occur
10. At the interface of two dissimilar materials, when incident beam

falls at an oblique angle
a. Reflection alone occurs
b. Refraction occurs
c. mode conversion
d. a & b
e. a & b & c
11. The general law that explains wave behaviour at the interface is
called
a. Einstein's theory
b. Huygens’s principle
c. Newton's Law
d. Snell's Law
12. First critical angle is the angle of incidence at the interface of the
dissimilar materials when
a. The refracted transverse wave angle becomes 90
b. When the surface wave is produced at the plane of boundary
c. When the refracted angle is 45
d. The refracted longitudinal wave angle becomes 90º leaving behind
only transverse waves
13. Second critical angle is the angle of incidence at the interface of

the dissimilar materials when
a. Mode converted longitudinal wave angle becomes 90
b. Refracted, mode converted transverse wave angle becomes 90
resulting of which surface wave is generated at the plane of
boundary
c. Mode converted longitudinal wave is eliminated from the second
medium
d. (b) and (c)
35
14. We select probes above 33 angle in the case of steel for practical
purposes because
a. The beam angle is small below 33
b. 3 refracted waves exist in the 2nd medium
c. Above 33 angle, only transverse wave exists in the 2nd medium
as the longitudinal component is eliminated
d. both a & c
15. Surface wave is generated at the boundary of Perspex and steel,

at
a. First critical angle
b. The incidence angle of 40
c. Second critical angle
d. Both a & b
16. We select angle probe for steel below 90 of refraction because
a. We would have only one longitudinal component in 1st medium
b. We would have only one longitudinal wave in the 2nd medium
c. both a & b
d. We require the refracted transverse component in the 2nd medium
and avoiding surface wave generation at the 90 angle
17. The refraction phenomenon occurs when

a. the wave velocity in the first medium is greater
b. the wave velocity in the second medium is higher
c. It is nothing to do with velocity in the material
d. either a or b
18. Diffraction is a phenomenon that occurs when

a. the sound waves encounters at the centre of a discontinuity
b. the sound waves encounter at the centre of lamination and slag
inclusion
c. the sound beam impinges on the edges of the point reflector
d. the sound wave encounters on the edges of flaw like fatigue crack
etc.
19. Bending of sound waves at the tip or edge of a discontinuity is

a. reflection
b. refraction
c. Interference
d. diffraction
e. c & d
20. The technique of using both longitudinal & transverse waves to

detect diffraction
a. Dimodal testing
b. Mono modal testing
c. bimodal testing
d. a or c
36
21. The zone where interference and fluctuations of maxima &
minima intensities occur is
a. Near filed
b. Fresnel Zone
c. Four field
d. (a) or (b)
22. The zone where the defect size can not be estimated exactly due
to interference of wave fronts is
a. Far field
b. Fresnel zone
c. Near Field
d. (b) or (c)
23. At the end of the near zone, the sound intensity is said to be
a. Less
b. More
c. Same as in the far zone
d. same as in with the length of near field
24. Discontinuity estimation is possible at a distance

a. Less than 0.7 NF
b. Less than 0.6 NF
c. greater than 0.7 NF
d. at 0.7 N or greater
25. The zone beyond the near field is called

a. Fresnel zone
b. Extension zone
c. Safe zone
d. Fraunhofer zone
26. Beyond the near field, due to Fraunhofer diffraction

a. beam divergence occurs
b. Beam convergence occurs
c. Refraction occurs
27. In the far zone, beam spread or beam divergence takes place and
constant fall in intensity is noted over its entire length. This is
due to
a. friction
b. refraction
c. Interference phenomenon
d. Attenuation characteristics.
28. The sound intensity in far zone decreases with the

a. Distance of its travel
b. length of refracted wave length
c. Distance of travel and also across the beam
d. both (b) and (c)
37
29. In the far zone, the intensity of sound is
a. Minimum in the centre of beam and maximum toward the outer
edges
b. same in either way
c. Maximum at the centre of the beam and minimum toward the outer
edges
d. Minimum at the centre and minimum toward the edges too.
30. As frequency increases, near field

a. Increases
b. Decreases
c. Same
31. As the diameter of the transducer and frequency of the

transducer are increased for a particular material, the near field
a. Decreases
b. Increases
c. No change
d. Either (a) or (b)
32. When frequency and dia of a crystal is decreased, the beam

spread would be
a. decreased
b. increased
c. No change
d. either (a) or (b)
33. When the dia of a transducer is increased for a particular

frequency in the same material, the beam spread would be
a. increased
b. decreased
c. No change
34. The acoustic impedance of a material is used to

a. determine the angle of refraction at an interface
b. Determine the attenuation within the material
c. determine the relative amounts of sound energy coupled through
and reflected at an interface
d. determine the beam spread within the material
35. At an interface between two different material, an impedance

difference results in
a. reflection of the entire incident energy at the interface
b. absorption of sound
c. Division of sound energy in to a transmitted wave and a reflected
wave
38
36. In passing from one medium to another, the energy transmitted
through the interface
a. decreases as the impedance ratio decreases
b. increases as the impedance ratio decreases
c. is equal to the impedance ratio
d. increases as the impedance ratio increases
37. Knowledge of the velocity of sound in a given material is

necessary in determining
a. the specific acoustic impedance of the material
b. the angle of refraction in the material
c. The depth of an indication in the material
d. all of the above
38. In finding out reflecting wave, when incident wave meets interface
having two dissimilar Z and the Z of the first medium is higher
than the second medium, the phase of reflection.
a. remains same
b. need not be considered
c. reverses
d. there is no reflecting wave
39. The acoustic impedance for Brass - v = 4.43 x 105 cm / sec ρ =

8.42 gm/ cm3 is
a. 37 x 106 gm/cm2 sec
b. 1.9 x 105 gm/cm2 sec
c. 9.4 x 105 gm/cm2 sec
d. 3.7 x 106 gm/cm2 sec
40. Calculate the Acoustic impedance of water

v= 1500 m/sec ρ = 1.0 gm / cm3
2
a. 1500 kg/m sec
b. 1500 gm / cm2 sec
c. 150000 gm / cm2 sec
d. 1.5 gm / cm2 sec
41. If the angle beam probe is used on the material whose velocity is
higher than steel, the angle of refraction in that material will be
(consider shear wave velocity)
a. Lower
b. Same
c. Higher
d. None
42. First critical angle for Perspex and steel interface would be
a. 10
b. 20
c. 57.5
d. 27.5
39
43. A 4 MHz shear wave probe having 60 angle in steel is used for
testing Copper plate, the angle and the frequency of this probe in
copper will be
a. 60 - 4MHz
b. 60 - 2.78 MHz
c. 37 - 2.78 MHz
d. 37 - 4MHz
44. In which field does the amplitude of an indication for a given

discontinuity diminish exponentially as the distance increases?
a. Near zone
b. far zone
c. Dead Zone
d. Fresnel zone
45. What is the near field of 4 MHz, 10mm Dia probe in lead whose
velocity is 2000 m/s
a. 5 mm
b. 50 mm
c. both
d. both (b) & (c)
46. What would be the near field in water for probe 4MHZ/10 mm dia?
a. 6.4 mm
b. 16 mm
c. 32 mm
d. 64 mm
47. Which of the following has the longest near zone?

a. 1 MHZ/10mm θ
b. 2.25 MHZ/10mm θ
c. 1 MHZ/20mm θ
d. 2.0MHZ/20mm θ
48. In immersion testing, the near field effects of a probe could be

eliminated by
a. Increasing transducer frequency
b. Use of large diameter transducers
c. Using appropriate water path
d. Use of a focused transducer
49. Beam divergence is a function of the diameter of the crystal and

the wave length of the beam transmitted through a medium and it
a. Increases if the frequency or crystal diameter is increased
b. Decreases if the frequency or crystal diameter is decreased
c. Increases if the frequency is increased and crystal diameter is
decreased
d. Decreases if the frequency is decreased and the crystal diameter is
decreased
e. None
40
50. Which of the following transducers produces the least beam
spread in the far field?
a. 1.0 MHZ 3/8" θ
b. 5.0 MHZ 1"θ
c. 2.25 MHZ 1" θ
d. 5.0 MHZ 3/8"θ
51. Which of the factors influence the beam spread of a probe?

a. frequency
b. crystal size
c. velocity of sound in part
d. all of the above
52. Beam spread of 20 mm dia, 8 MHZ probe in certain material is 3;

therefore beam spread of 20mm dia, 4 MHz probe in the same
material will be
a. 3
b. 6
c. 9
d. 12
53. Higher the frequency of the transducer, the

a. greater the beam spread and depth of penetration
b. less the beam spread and greater the sensitivity and resolution
c. less attenuation taking place
d. less sensitivity and greater penetration
54. Scattering of the rays of the ultrasonic beam due to reflection

from a highly irregular surface is called
a. angulation
b. dispersion
c. refraction
d. Rarefaction
55. Beam spread of 20mm dia normal probe in steel is 5, therefore
the beam spread of 10mm dia normal probe of the same
frequency in steel will be
a. 5
b. 2.5
c. 7.5
d. 10
56. When the beam spread of the ultrasonic beam is small, the
intensity across the beam is said to be
a. relatively constant
b. Increased in intensity
c. decreased in intensity
d. both increased and decreased
41
57. When performing an ultrasonic examination in the near field,
which of the following would occur?
a. An acceptable sized discontinuity could produce a rejectable signal
on the CRT.
b. A rejectable sized discontinuity could produce an acceptable signal
on the CRT
c. The signal from a discontinuity could be completely missed
d. All of the above
58. The length of the near field for a 2.5 cm dia, 5 MHZ transducer
placed in oil (v=1.4 x 105 cm/sec) is approximately?
a. 0.028 cm
b. 6.25 cm
c. 55.8 cm
d. 22.3 cm
59. A search unit that contains three or more individual transducer

elements is known as
a. Dual transducer
b. Probe
c. Mosaic transducer
60. What is the beam spread half-angle for the probe of 1.25 cm dia
and 2.25 MHZ, in water (v=1.5 km/sec)
a. 2.5
b. 4.5
c. 3.75
d. 37.5
61. Sound waves decrease in intensity as they travel away from the
source, due to mainly.
a. Absorption
b. Scattering
c. Near field
d. Far field
e. both a & b
62. Scattering of an ultrasonic wave occurs due to

a. Homogeneous condition
b. Non - homogeneous condition of materials like grain boundaries
and minute non - metallic inclusions
c. Diffraction
d. Refraction
63. Scattering is highly dependent upon the relation of

a. Crystallite to wave velocity
b. Crystallite to time
c. Crystallite to wave length
d. Crystallite to frequency.
42
64. Ultrasonic inspection becomes difficult at what grain size
compared to wave length?
a. 2 times the wave length
b. 1 time the wave length
c. 0.5 times the wave length
d. 0.1 time or larger the wave length
65. As the grain size increases, scattering due to the grain size
a. Decreases
b. remains same
c. increases
66. Forged and rolled materials generally give.

a. More scatter than castings or forgings
b. less scatter than castings or forgings
c. Same scatter in both cases
67. Frequency is directly related to amount of scattering. Higher the

frequency,
a. Lower the scattering and lower the penetration
b. higher the scattering and lower the penetration
c. Higher the scattering and lower the penetration
d. both a and b
68. Lower the frequency of ultrasonic inspection

a. Lower the sensitivity and resolution
b. higher the sensitivity and resolution
c. either a or b
69. Absorption takes place in

a. Steel
b. Aluminum
c. Non - elastic materials like plastic, rubber and lead.
d. Both a & b
70. Absorption of ultrasonic energy occurs mainly

a. by conversion of mechanical energy to electrical energy
b. by conversion of electrical energy to mechanical energy
c. by conversion of heat energy in to mechanical energy
d. by conversion of mechanical energy in to heat energy
43
CHAPTER - II
QUESTIONNAIRE - ANSWERS
Q.NO. ANS Q.NO ANS Q.NO. ANS

1 C 28 C 55 D
2 C 29 C 56 A
3 C 30 A 57 D
4 B 31 B 58 C
5 C 32 B 59 D
6 C 33 B 60 C
7 C 34 C 61 E
8 C 35 C 62 B
9 D 36 A 63 D
10 C 37 D 64 D
11 B 38 C 65 C
12 D 39 D 66 B
13 D 40 C 67 B
14 C 41 C 68 A
15 C 42 D 69 C
16 D 43 D 70 D
17 D 44 B
18 D 45 B
19 D 46 D
20 C 47 D
21 D 48 C
22 D 49 E
23 B 50 B
24 D 51 D
25 D 52 B
26 A 53 B
27 D 54 B
44
CHAPTER III
EQUIPMENT
A-Scan Equipment
The A-scan system displays a data presentation of the returned signal
amplitude from the specimen under test as illustrated in the fig. It is basically a
plot of amplitude verses time, in which a horizontal base line on an oscilloscope
screen indicates elapsed time (from left to right) and the vertical deflection shows
signal amplitude (pips or blips).
Flaw location or depth is determined by comparing the horizontal position

of a flaw indication on the oscilloscope screen with the positions of two major
indications that represent the front and back surfaces of the test piece.
An estimated flaw size can be determined by comparing the height of a

discontinuity pip with that of a pip from a discontinuity of known size and shape.
A typical A-scan set up that illustrates the essential elements in a basic

system for pulse echo inspection is shown in the fig.
The power supply for the equipment is made which may run on 110 volt
alternating current or on batteries.
45
There are five basic elements :
1. The clock or Timer or synchronizer or pulse generator.

2. Pulsar or transmitter or sender or rate generator
3. The sweep generator
4. The receiver or Amplifier
5. The Display unit
Clock
It provides a constant rate of pulses to be used and acts as a coordinator
for all other functions. This triggers both pulsar and sweep generator.
Pulsar
It controls frequency amplitude and pulse repetition rate of the voltage
pulses that excite the transducer.
Sweep Circuit: This is to control

(a) Time delay between search unit excitation and start of oscilloscope
trace and (b) rate at which oscilloscope trace travels horizontally across the
screen.
Receiver
The receiver in the instrument senses the relatively low voltage created
when the piezoelectric element in the transducer converts relieved mechanical
energy to electrical energy. The receiver will amplify, filter and rectify the electrical
pulses and pass them to the display unit.
Cathode Ray Tube: (CRT)

Cathode ray tube is a device which is similar to a picture tube in a
television set. The CRT consists of a base connector for attaching it to the
circuitry of the instrument, an electron gun that generates a stream of electrons; a
tube for focusing and accelerating the election stream; vertical and horizontal
deflection plates that deflect the election stream, producing a vertical and
horizontal display; and a phosphorous coated viewing screen that would
illuminate on bombardment by the election stream. Two types of phosphorous
may be used; a long persistence and momentary type. The long persistence
creates a fading effect to the indications displayed on the viewing screen. The
momentary phosphorous will allow indications to disappear as soon as the
electrons are no longer bombarding it.
46
Equipment Controls
Each control on ultrasonic equipment is some way connected to one of
these circuits and provides a specific function. The clock timer function is varied
by the pulse repetition rate control.
Pulse repetition rate

Changing the pulse repetition rate will affect the amount of time between
transmitted pulses. A sufficient amount of time between pulses is necessary to
allow the ultrasound to travel through specimen under inspection. Spurious
indications may be encountered if the pulse repetition rate is too high for a given
material type and thickness. Repetition rate controls can be found in several
different forms; fixed, variable means of switches or variable by means of the
material range control.
Pulse Energy
The transmitter may be affected by several controls. Some instruments
have a pulse energy control that changes the voltage applied to the piezo electric
element. The voltage may range from 200 volts up to and in excess of 1200 volts;
depending upon instruments capabilities. Higher the voltage excitation pulses will
result in deeper material penetration.
Damping (Pulse Length)

A very common control found on instruments is the damping or pulse
length control. This control will change the duration of the pulse applied to the
piezo electric element. Increasing damping will decrease the ringing effect of the
transducer, thus increasing near surface resolution and at the same time,
decreasing depth of material penetration.
Gain Control
The receiver circuit is affected by several important controls. In order to
make relative discontinuity size comparisons, the instrument must be capable of
providing a calibrated adjustment for indication amplitude. This is accomplished
by the use of a calibrated gain control. The gain control is divided into stepped dB
increments, usually in the form a fine and coarse control, the coarse control being
adjustable in 20 dB increments and the fine control adjustable in 2 dB
increments. Most instruments will also have an uncalibrated gain control for
precise screen height adjustment of indications produced by reference
reflections. Some instruments use a series of attenuator switches to provide the
same functions. The gain control does not increase or decrease the ultrasonic
intensity in the part being examined. The gain control only affects the
amplifications of the receiver output. The decibel is used as a relative unit of
measure for sound intensity in ultrasonic testing.
47
The sound intensity in a part being examined is controlled by the
transmitter unit.
Reject Control
A reject control is provided in the receiver circuit to suppress low
amplitude indications that may appear on the CRT, from such things as reflected
ultrasound, created by coarse-grained material. Caution is advised when using
this control because it can affect the vertical linearity of the instrument. Some
instruments do have linear reject controls, but their use may be restricted by
examination procedures. A tuning or frequency control may also be found in the
receiver circuitry of the instrument. This control will tune the receiver amplifier to
the resonant frequency of the transducer, increasing available gain, decreasing
noise and increasing over all sensitivity. Any tuning or frequency control, no
matter where it is located in the instruments circuitry, does not change the
frequency of the transducer. It will only electronically match the transducer to the
instrument. The only means of changing transducer frequency is to change to a
transducer that has a different thickness piezoelectric element.
Band Width
Every transducer emits a range of frequencies. For instance, a 4 MHz
frequency probe will emit a band of ultrasound over a range of frequencies
centering around 4 MHz. An instrument capable of receiving and tuning to a
specific frequency is considered to be a narrow band instrument. Ultrasonic
instruments classified as being broad band are capable of receiving a wide range
of frequencies. Instruments band width is selected, for the most part, by the type
of material to be tested and the sensitivity required.
Distance Amplitude Correction (DAC)

A Distance Amplitude Correction (DAC) control is also offered on
some instruments. This control would electronically compensate for attenuation
over a given material thickness. This electronic compensation is used to produce
equal amplitude indications from equal reflections at different depths. Any form of
distance amplitude correction (DAC) control is part of the receiver circuit. After
amplification and before filtration and reflection, the signals are still in a radio
frequency (RF) form display of an RF signal on a CRT leads to difficulty in
interpretation because both the negative and positive voltage components would
be presented. For easy interpretation, the RF signal is rectified in the video
amplifier circuit before it is displayed in CRT screen.
48
Display Controls
This includes focus, intensity, and vertical and horizontal sweep
movement.
Delay Control
Two essential controls to the calibration of the sweep are the delay
and range controls. The delay control will move the display uniformly across the
viewing screen. This helps positioning of indications from calibration reflectors to
desired positions on the sweep.
Range Control
The range control provides the necessary expansion and compression of
the sweep. This function is necessary for compensation and calibration to a
specific material velocity and thickness. Both the range and delay controls are
part of the sweep generator circuit.
Gate Control
Some instruments have the provision of gating controls. These controls
are used to monitor a specific portion of the sweep. If an indication appears in the
gated area and its amplitude is above (positive gating) or below (negative gating)
the set level, a visible, audible or a recording type device would respond. Gating
is used to draw attention to, or record, discontinuity conditions within the material
being inspected in the negative mode, a gate may be used to monitor a back
surface indication. The loss of couplant in this case would cause gate response.
METHOD OF TESTING AND INSTRUMENT TECHNOLOGY
The ultrasonic flaw detector
Before we concern ourselves with further test tasks and their solutions, we
must firstly acquire more detailed knowledge about the most frequently applied
ultrasonic technique, including test instruments and probes. Based on what has
already been stated concerning the location of discontinuities, we must transmit
short sound pulses into the test object in order to measure the sound pulse's time
of flight from the probe to the reflector and back. This is only possible when there
is a clearly defined start time and target time. As long as the test object's sound
velocity is known it is then possible to determine, using simple calculation, the
distance of the reflector and thus its exact position in the test object, Fig. 12.
49
Fig. 12 The priciple of time of flight Fig. 13 Block diagram: Pulse Echo
measurement Method
Sound reflections in the audio range are called echoes (think of the
yodeler in the mountains). Therefore why should we not use this short
appropriate term for the reflection of an ultrasonic pulse? Thus the name of the
method came into being which is applied in most areas of application for material
testing with ultrasonics: the Pulse Echo Method, Fig. 13.
The time measurement starts with the electrical transmission pulse, the
initial pulse. This is an extremely short electrical discharge which triggers a
sound pulse at the probe crystal. This pulse travels through the material and is
reflected by a discontinuity or the opposing wall and returns back to the probe.
The received oscillations are converted into an electrical pulse which stops the
time measurement. The distance to the reflector can now be instantly determined
by the following formula:
s = ct / 2
s = sound path [mm]

c = sound velocity [km/s]
t = time of flight [μs]
If the time of flight is graphically displayed then we are not far from the universal
Ultrasonic Flaw Detector, Fig. 14.
In order to evaluate the visual signals (echoes) on the screen there is a grid on
the inside of the CRT. The exchangeable attachment scale, which has a
horizontal scale with 10 graduations is called the display scale, Fig. 15.
50
Fig. 14 Ultrasonic Testing in Fig. 15 The Display scale
practice
Using this scale, the ultrasonic operator is able to measure echoes on the
display. How is this done? As already stated, the electrical transmission pulse
triggers the sound pulse at the probe crystal. At the same time this voltage pulse
is feed to the input of the amplifier so that the high voltage causes a vertical
deflection of the display sweep, this is called the initial pulse, Fig. 16a.
With this initial pulse, the sweep starts in the lower left corner of the
display synchronous to the start of the sound pulse in the test object and moves
along the base line at a constant speed to the right,
Fig. 16a Initial pulse = Start Fig. 16b after 10 μs
51
Fig. 17a Beam spot at the 4th scale Fig. 17b Beam spot at the 8th scale
graduation graduation
Fig. 16b. The speed of the pulse is dependent on the material of the test
object (sound velocity = material constant). The sweep speed of the instrument's
display can be varied within wide limits.
Thus the speed of the display sweep can be exactly matched to the sound
velocity. In our example the electron beam reaches scale division 4 while the
pulse is at the opposing side of the test object, Fig. 17 a, then it will of course
need the same time to return, i.e. the beam spot will be at the 8 th scale
graduation, Fig. 17 b.
The part of the sound pulse, which is transmitted through the couplant and
into the probe, generates a small electrical reception signal at the crystal which,
via the amplifier, causes vertical deflection of the beam spot, this is the backwall
echo Fig. 18. The deflection takes place quickly because the sound pulse is
short, therefore can only trigger a short voltage pulse at the probe crystal. The
electron beam returns quickly back to the base line and continues to the right,
whilst the largest part of the sound pulse is reflected at the coupling surface and
travels through the test object a second time.
52
Fig. 18 Backwall echo at the 8th scale graduation
The display indications can now be allocated into two measurement values:
1. Horizontal position. left flank of the echo at the 8th scale graduation
2. Vertical amplitude: 70% screen height
At the moment this does not tell us very much, however, later we will see that
nearly all usable results which we obtain from ultrasonic testing are based on
these two readings. Let us take a look more closely at the current result: The high
initial pulse starts at the left in front of the scale zero point. The rising flank
corresponds to the time at which the electrical signal is on the crystal and starts
the sound pulse. However, before it is fed to the surface of the test object it must
travel through the protection layer of the probe (probe delay). Although it
is relatively thin, a short period of time is required.
The initial pulse is exactly shifted to the left by this
period of time, Fig. 19a.
Fig. 19a Straight-beam probe: Fig. 19b Angle-beam probe: initial
53
initial pulse delay pulse delay
With angle-beam probes the sound pulse in the probe must travel through
a much longer delay path made of perspex before it is transmitted into the test
object. Depending on the type of probe, the initial pulse delay can be so large
that it no longer appears on the display, Fig. 19 b.
We already explained the echo at the 8th scale graduation before: It is the
pulse reflected at the opposite wall of the test object, the backwall echo. Now it is
not too difficult to guess how the display changes when there is another reflector
within the sound beam, e.g. a material separation: between the initial pulse and
the backwall echo another echo will appear, caused by partial reflection of the
sound wave on a discontinuity, Fig. 20.
Fig. 20 Test object with discontinuity, display with flaw echo
Such an echo is called an intermediate echo. It is easy to foresee the position

changes of the intermediate echo on the display if the reflector is at different
depths. Fig. 21 a+b: the position of the intermediate echo on the display in
relation to the position of the backwall echo behaves the same as the distance of
the discontinuity related to the total thickness of the test object. We already know
a method of determining the distance of an internal flaw; the ultrasonic tester
speaks of location of the discontinuity.
54
Fig. 21a Discontinuity in front of the Fig. 21b Discontinuity near the
backwall surface
4.2 Near resolution
So, what can we do when a small discontinuity is just below the surface of the
test object, i.e. directly in front of the probe? Can this discontinuity still be
detected? The answer is no, because the intermediate echo is now within the
initial pulse, it is therefore covered by it. Probably there are also no further
indications that there is a near-to-surface discontinuity here, Fig. 22.
Fig. 22 A non-detectable near-to-surface discontinuity
Or do we perhaps have a clue which will lead us to the unseen intermediate

echo (a near-to-surface discontinuity)? The answer is yes, when the
discontinuity is large enough and shadows a noticeable part of the sound
beam so that the backwall echo becomes smaller, Fig. 23. If the near-to-
surface discontinuity is also smooth and parallel to the surface, then there is
55
an echo sequence which is more or less well formed because the pulses are
reflected many times between the surface and the discontinuity, Fig. 24.
Fig. 23 Shadowing of the backwall Fig. 24 Echo sequence of a near-to-

echo by a larger near-to-surface surface discontinuity
reflector
Here, the amplitudes of the echoes become smaller as the distance

increases. The denser the flat echoes advance to the surface, the more the
echoes of the echo sequence disappear into the initial pulse, this causes the
echoes to become even more dense. So there is a limit to detection.
From everything, we see that the initial pulse is not welcome on the display,
however it is a technical necessity: it limits the detectability of near-to-surface
discontinuities. Reflectors in the dead zone, the non-testable area
immediately beneath the surface, can no longer be detected, Fig. 25. The
dead zone is dependent on the test setup, this means from the probe and the
test instrument. However, it can be minimized by suitable selection of the
testing device.
56
Fig. 25 Dead zone: display, test object
CHAPTER - III
EQUIPMENT - QUESTIONNAIRE
1. A-Scan equipment displays a data presentation which is related to

a. Plan view of the area under inspection.
b. Cross sectional view
c. Elapsed time & elapsed time, from left to right and signal amplitude.
2. In the equipment, the component which is acting as coordinator for

pulsar and sweep generator?
a. Display unit
b. Damping
c. Receiver unit
d. clock or timer
e. c & d
3. The control which is taking care of frequency amplitude and the

pulse repetition rate is
a. Pulse length
b. Amplifier
c. Pulsar
d. Receiver
4. In an ultrasound equipment, the no. of pulses produced by an

instrument in a given period of time is called
a. Pulse length of the instrument
b. Pulse recovery time
c. Frequency
d. Pulse repetition rate
5. In ultrasonic testing, the time duration of the transmitted pulse is

referred to as
a. the pulse amplitude
b. pulse length or width
c. the pulse shape
6. An ultrasonic testing instrument that displays pulses representing

the magnitude of reflected ultrasound as a function of time or depth
of metal is said to contain
a. continuous display
b. `A' scan presentation
c. `B' scan presentation
d. `C' scan presentation
57
7. Which of the following, controls the voltage supplied to the vertical
deflection plates of the CRT in ultrasonic instrument with A scan
display?
a. Sweep generator
b. Transmitter
c. Amplifier
d. Clock
8. The pulse repetition rate for thicker materials and thinner

materials?
a. Same
b. lower
c. higher
d. higher for thinner and lower for thicker material
9. The echoes should always be read from

a. Trailing part touching base line
b. Height of the peak
c. Foot of the leading echo
10. In case you have calibrated your instrument 0 to 75mm, which

control to be used for calibration for 150 to 225mm?
a. Gain
b. Sweep range
c. Sweep length
d. Sweep delay
11. In a basic pulse echo instrument, the component that produces a

visible signal on the CRT which are used to measured distance is
a. Sweep circuit
b. Marker Circuit
c. Receiver
d. Clock
12. In a basic pulse echo instrument, the component that produces the
voltage that activates the search unit is called
a. Amplifier
b. Receiver
c. Pulsar
d. Timer
13. The component that coordinates the action and tuning of other
components is called
a. Display unit
b. Receiver
c. Synchronizer or clock
d. Marker
58
14. The control that produces a time base line is
a. Pulsar
b. Receiver
c. Clock
d. Sweep Circuit
15. In the basic pulse - echo instrument, the synchronizer, or clock will
determine
a. Pulse length
b. Receiver circuit
c. Marker
d. Pulse repetition rate.
16. Which of the following controls the voltage supplied to the vertical
deflection plates on the CRT in A-Scan?
a. Sweep generator
b. Pulsar
c. Amplifier circuit
d. Timer
17. The maximum scanning speed possible is primarily determined by

a. The frequency of pulse
b. Pulse length
c. Persistency of the screen
d. Pulse repetition rate of the UT equipment.
18. In UT equipment, `suppression or rejection' has following effect

a. Reduction of noise level leaving other signals present
b. Increasing the gain level
c. Reduction of noise level and small signals
d. Improving the resolution.
19. When you calibrate your equipment from 0 to 50mm, which control
you are expected to use to calibrate the range from 100 to 150 mm?
a. Gain
b. Sweep delay
c. Sweep length
d. Both b & c
20. An ultrasonic instrument is said to be a narrow band instrument

which is
a. Able to receive and time to a specific frequency
b. Able to receive a band of frequency
c. Sending narrow beam only
d. Emitting short pulse length.
59
21. An ultrasonic instrument is said to be a broad band instrument
which is
a. Receiving a specific frequency
b. Having broad pulse length
c. Vibrating less
d. Capable of receiving wide range frequencies.
22. After amplification and before filtration, the signals are in the form
of
a. Negative and positive voltage components
b. Only negative voltage components
c. RF form
d. Either a or c
23. The essential controls for the calibration of the Sweep are
a. Marker circuit
b. Transmitter circuit
c. Delay
d. Range
e. Both c & d
24. Both the delay and range controls are

a. In pulsar unit
b. Rejection control
c. Part of sweep generator
d. None
25. In the basic ultrasonic equipment, a control which is used to

monitor a specific portion of the sweep is
a. Receiver circuit
b. Sweep circuit
c. Marker circuit
d. Gating control.
60
CHAPTER - III
EQUIPMENT – QUESTIONNAIRE
ANSWERS
Q.NO. ANS Q.NO ANS

1 C 14 D
2 D 15 D
3 C 16 C
4 D 17 D
5 B 18 C
6 B 19 B
7 C 20 A
8 D 21 D
9 A 22 C
10 D 23 E
11 B 24 C
12 C 25 D
13 C
61
CHAPTER - IV
DETECTION OF DISCONTINUITIES
The essential "tool" for the ultrasonic operator is the
probe, Figs. 1a + 1b.
Fig. 1a Straight-beam probe Fig. 1b Angle-beam probe (section)

(section)
The piezoelectric element, excited by an extremely short electrical discharge,

transmits an ultrasonic pulse. The same element on the other hand generates
an electrical signal when it receives an ultrasonic signal thus causing it to
oscillate. The probe is coupled to the surface of the test object with a liquid or
coupling paste so that the sound waves from the probe are able to be
transmitted into the test object.
The operator then scans the test object, i.e. he moves

the probe evenly to and fro across the surface. In doing
this, he observes an instrument display for any signals
caused by reflections from internal discontinuities, Fig.
2.
62
Fig. 2a Plane flaw – straight- Fig. 2b Plane flaw – angle-beam
beam probe probe
Every probe has a certain directivity, i.e. the ultrasonic waves only cover a
certain section of the test object. The area effective for the ultrasonic test is
called the "sound beam" which is characteristic for the applied probe and
material in which sound waves propagate.
A sound beam can be roughly divided into a convergent (focusing) area, the
nearfield, and a divergent (spreading) part, the far field, Fig. 3.
The length N of the near-field (near-field length) and the divergence angle
is dependent on the diameter of the element, its frequency and the sound
velocity of the material to be tested. The center beam is termed the acoustic
axis. The shape of the sound beam plays an important part in the selection of
a probe for solving a test problem. It is often sufficient to draw the acoustic
axis in order to show what the solution to a test task looks like. A volumetric
discontinuity (hollow space, foreign material) reflects the sound waves in
different directions, Figs. 4a + 4b.
Fig. 3 Sound field
63
Fig. 4a Volumetric discontinuity – Fig. 4b Volumetric discontinuity – angle-
straight-beam probe beam probe
The portion of sound wave which comes back to the probe after being
reflected by the discontinuity is mainly dependent on the direction of the
sound wave; i.e. it does not matter whether scanning is made with a straight-
beam probe or an angle-beam probe or whether it is carried out from different
surfaces on the test object, Fig. 5.
If the received portion of the reflected sound wave from
the probe is sufficient then the detection of the
existing volumetric discontinuity is not critical, this
means that the operator is able to detect it by scanning
from different directions. A plane (twodimensional)
discontinuity (e.g. material separation, crack) reflects
the ultrasonic waves mostly in a certain direction, Fig.
6.
64
Fig. 5 Volumetric flaw – detection form Fig. 6 Reflection on angled plane
different directions discontinuity
Fig. 7 Apparent deformation of the sound beam on a side wall
If the reflected portion of the sound wave is not received by the probe then it
is unlikely that the discontinuity will be detected. The possibilities of detection
only increase when the plane discontinuity is hit vertically by the sound beam.
This applies to discontinuities which are isolated within the test object.
With plane discontinuities which are open to the surface of the test object, e.g.
a crack running vertically from the surface into the test object, a vertical scan
of the crack does not always produce the required success. In this case wave
overlapping occurs (interferences) due to sound wave reflection on the side
wall of the test object which seems as if the sound wave bends away from the
corresponding side wall, Fig. 7.
65
In such cases, the probability of crack detection is very good if the angle
reflection effect is used, Fig. 8a. At the 90° edge, between the crack and the
surface of the test object, the sound waves are reflected back within
themselves due to a double reflection, Fig. 8b.
Use of the angle reflection effect is often even possible
when a plane discontinuity, which is vertical to the
surface, does not extend to the surface and under the
condition that the sound wave reflections at the
discontinuity and the surface are received by the probe,
Fig. 9.
Fig. 8a Crack detection with 45° Fig. 8b Angle reflection effect

scanning
Fig. 9 Plane, vertical reflector near the surface
Often in thick-walled test objects, in which there are vertical discontinuities,

this condition cannot be fulfilled so that the reflected sound waves from the
discontinuity and the surface of the test object do not return to the probe. In
this case, a second probe is used for receiving the reflected portions of sound
thus enabling detection of the discontinuity.
With this type of testing, the Tandem Technique, one probe is used as a
transmitter, and the other probe is used as the receiver. Both probes are
moved over the surface of the test object and are spaced apart at a fixed
distance. Scanning is made for vertically positioned discontinuities at different
66
depths of the test object, depending on the probe spacing, Figs. 10a, 10b and
10c.
Although, with angle scanning in thin test objects, there is a possibility that
plane discontinuities cannot be vertically hit, Fig. 11 a, the detection sensitivity
is much better, especially by suitable selection of the scanning angle and the
test frequency so that the user favors the single probe test as opposed to
the more complicated tandem method. This is normally the
case when testing welds up to a thickness of about 30 mm.
Fig. 10a Angle reflection effect Fig. 10b Tandem testing: center
zone
Fig. 10c Tamden testing: lower zone
Fig. 11a 70° scanning: unfavourable Fig. 11b 45° scanning: favourable
angle angle
67
Fig. 11c 70° scanning with 2 MHz; detection by large divergence of the sound
beam
Of course the possibility of detecting discontinuities which are not vertically hit
is reduced. However, this deficiency is often compensated by an additional
test with another angle of incidence, Fig. 11 b, or by using a probe with a
lower frequency, Fig. 11 c. A typical procedure can be found in the
corresponding specifications (test instructions) for weld testing.
68
CHAPTER - V
EQUIPMENT - TRANSDUCERS
Transducers
Production and detection of ultrasonic waves for inspection are

accomplished with the aid of transducer element acting thro' a couplant. The
transducer element is contained within a device known as search unit or probe.
The active element in a search unit is piezo electric crystal. When a pressure is
applied to a crystal, electric charge is developed. When an electrical field is
applied, the crystal mechanically deforms (i.e.) changes shape, piezo electric
crystals exhibit various deformation modes; thickness expansion is the principal
mode used in transducer for ultrasonic Inspection.
The three most common types of piezo electric materials used for
ultrasonic test units are Quartz, Lithium Sulphate and Polarized Ceramics,
such as Barium Titanate, Lead Zirconate Titanate and Lead Metaniobate.
Quartz
Natural or artificially grown transducers are quartz crystals. Quartz crystals
are prepared for use in constructing transducers by cutting them in one of two
planes x or y-cut. The x-cut crystals will provide a longitudinal mode and the y-cut
will provide a transverse mode. However, due to the poor conversion of efficiency
of one form of energy to another, the quartz crystals are seldom used and
replaced by the poly-crystalline ceramic materials.
Lithium Sulphate
Lithium sulphate is another type of material used in the construction of
transducer elements. These are crystals grown from solution. It is a natural piezo
electric material, as is quartz. It is highly soluble in water and slightly prone to
aging. It is the best receiver
Polarized Ceramics
Another type of material recently in use for transducer construction is the
electrostrictive material. A form of eletrostrictive material is a ferro-electric
element. (Mechanical deformation when external electrical voltage is applied).
Most ultrasonic transducer elements in use today are made from ferro
electric materials because of their high efficiency in converting electrical energy to
ultrasonic energy. These materials are commonly referred to as polarized
ceramics because their mechanical properties resemble that of a ceramic
material.
69
In their natural state, ferro electrics do not exhibit piezo electric effect. This
is accomplished by heating the ferro electric material to its curie temperature and
applying an electric field. The electric field is maintained across the element while
the temperature is lowered. Now, the treated ferro electric element has piezo
electric capability.
Curie temperature
It is the temperature at which the piezo electric element looses its
property.
In addition to quartz, Lithium Sulphate and Ceramic materials, transducers

prepared from other piezo-electric materials, usually synthetic crystals, have
been used. The most common of these are Rochelle salt, ammonium di-hydrogen
phosphate.
Table: (Transducer Materials)

Material Advantages Disadvantages
1. Quartz 1. High resistance to wear 1. Least efficient generator
of acoustic energy
2. x-cut used at elevated 2. Suffered from mode
temperature conversion
3. Insoluble in water. 3. Requires high voltage to
drive at low frequency.
4. Resists aging
2. Lithium Sulphate 1. Most efficient receiver 1. Low mechanical
strength
2. Low electric Impedance 2. Soluble in water
3. Operates well on low 3. Crystal decomposes at
voltage 160C
4. No aging
5. Good resolution, easily
damped
3. Polarized Ceramics
a. Lead Zirconate titanate 1. Mechanically rugged 1. It has high piezo electric
2. Good tolerance to response in the radial
moderately elevated mode. (It is sometimes a
temperature demerit)
3. It does not lose
polarization with age
b. Barium Titanate 1. Mechanically rugged 1. The efficiency changes
2. High radial mode with temperature
response 2. It tends to depolarize
with age
3. Lead Metaniobate 1. Low Mechanical 1. Its dielectric constant
damping that results in a
2. Good tolerance to transducer element with
temperature a high electrical
capacitance
70
The efficacy of a transducer is described by 3 terms
1. Sensitivity: The ability to detect small discontinuities.

2. Resolution: The ability to separate the sound reflections from two
discontinues close together in depth or time.
3. Efficiency: The capacity of energy conversion.
Construction of ultrasonic transducer

The transducer or probe or search unit of ultrasonic flaw detector is said to
be the heart of the system. In many cases, this determines the efficiency of the
apparatus.
The transducer contains the piezo-electric crystal, the thickness of which

varies with frequency. Mechanical damping is achieved by loading the transducer
with a heavy damping slug made of tungsten powder mixed into an epoxy resin.
The crystal, the damping media and the electrical contacts is mounted in a
suitable housing which serves to protect these relatively fragile components.
The basic considerations in a design of a search unit are:

1. Solution of a piezo electric element
2. Electrode type and configuration
3. Backing materials and its characteristics
4. Frontal member if required
There are two types of Transducers which are generally used in ultrasonic
testing.
(a) Normal beam transducer (b) Angle beam transducer
Normal probe (Single crystal)

A Normal beam transducer is one which generates longitudinal waves and
transmits them into a specimen in a direction normal to the plane of the surface to
which the transducer is applied. The piezo electric element or crystal is used as
both transmitter and receiver. The piezo electric plate is coated with metals like
silver, aluminum and gold. These are deposited primarily for applying electric
potential and also for physical protection. The leads are connected by soldering
or through springs which do not damage the plating. When the straight beam unit
is faced with a wear plate, an electrode on the front face of the crystal provides
for an internal ground.
If the probe has to be used for direct contact, the crystal can be protected
from wear and tear by the use of suitable protective covers, except in the quartz
crystal.
71
Normal beam transducers can also incorporate detachable Perspex delay
blocks. The lucite serves to increase near surface resolution. The dead zone of
the sound beam will be in the lucite instead of in the material, that is being
examined. These blocks also can be made from temperature - resistant
materials, which make them ideal for testing materials at elevated temperatures.
The block must be coupled to the transducer by the use of a suitable couplant.
High temperature resistant couplants are also available of the inspection of hot
materials.
The probe
Probes whose beams are normal to the surface are called straight-beam
probes, Figs. 1a and 26.
Fig. 26 Straight beam probe
Most standard straight-beam probes transmit and receive longitudinal waves

(pressure waves). The oscillations of such a wave can be described by
compression and decompression of the atoms propagating through the
material (gas, liquid and solid), Fig 27. There is a large selection of straight-
beam probes in various sizes and range from frequencies of approximately
0.5 MHz to 25 MHz. Distances of over 10†m can be obtained thus enabling
large test objects to be tested.
Dual element Transducers (Dual probe)

In this, the dual element transducers are kept separate; two single
transducers mounted in the same housing for pitch and - catch method. In the
dual element search unit, one transducer is acting as transmitter and the other
acts as a receiver. They may be mounted side by side for straight beam testing;
but mounted stacked or tandem for angle beam testing. In all cases, the crystals
are separated by a sound barrier to block cross talk.
72
The TR probe
If you want to obtain a similarly good near resolution with straight-beam

scanning you should use a TR probe, Fig. 35.
Fig. 35 TR probe: section
This technique uses two crystal elements which are acoustically and
electrically separated from each other in the same housing. In addition to this,
both elements are stuck to a relatively long delay path (made of perspex) and
are slightly inclined towards each other. Connection of the TR probe on the
instrument is made in the TR or dual mode, i.e. one element is connected to
the transmitter and the other with the input of the receiver amplifier. The initial
pulse is positioned far left of the display due to the long delay path, Fig. 36.
The dual - transducers are used to increase near surface resolution.
The receiving element has the ability to continuously receive, even when
73
the transmitter is being pulsed. Dual element transducers are constructed in such
a way that they are intended to be used for a specific thickness range of material.
Using them on other material thicknesses will limit their performance.
For thin objects - High roof angle used
For thick objects - Low roof angle used
Angle beam Transducer

An angle beam testing, the longitudinal wave is converted to a transverse
wave by means of an angle Perspex wedge, between the crystal and the wedge.
Various wedge materials have been used, the most successful being
methacrylate resin. Angle beam transducers can be constructed in two ways. The
perspex wedge can be an integral part of the transducer, or can be detachable.
All perspex wedges are geometrically constructed to provide two functions.
Probes whose beams enter at an angle are called angle-beam probes

because they transmit and receive the sound waves at an angle to the surface
of the test object, Figs. 1b and 28.
Fig. 28 Angel-beam probes

1. Most standard angle-beam probes transmit and receive, due to
technical reasons
2. The wedge is cut an angle to provide specifically oriented transverse
waves in the part being examined.
53. They are shaped in such a way that the reflected ultrasound at the
perspex to the material interface will be attenuated in the perspex itself,
preventing noise on the CRT sweep. Commonly, wedges also have
sections cut on their outer surface to aid in attenuating ultrasound from
internal reflectors.
74
Immersion testing transducers (Focused probes)
To achieve near surface resolution, Immersion test is used and the search
units are without wear plates and must be water proofed. Suitably ground
acoustical lenses are attached to the immersion probes for focusing the sound
beam.
(i.e.) In addition to wedges, other frontal members are added to the

transducer for various reasons. On contact transducers, wear plates are often
added to protect the fragile crystal from wear, breakage or the harmful effects of
foreign substances and to protect the front electrode.
Frontal units are shaped to direct the ultrasound perpendicular to the

surface at all points on curved surfaces and radii are known as contour -
correction lenses. These lenses sharpen the front surface indication by equalizing
the sound-path distance between the transducer and the test surface.
Advantages of Focused Transducer

The advantages of the attached lens are to increase sensitivity, resolution
and to reduce metal noise and effects due to surface roughness.
Cylindrically focused transducers concentrate the ultrasound into a long,

narrow, blunt - pointed beam of increased intensity which is capable of detecting
very small discontinues in a relatively small area.
Spherically focused transducers focus the sound beam to a point within a

test article. Focusing the sound beam moves its point of maximum intensity
towards the transducer, but shortens its useable range.
Delay-tip units
The primary application of a delay - tip (stand-off) contact - type search
unit is in thickness measurement, although it may be used for other purposes,
such as for locating flaws in test pieces that have no parallel surfaces.
The delay shoe allows the indication from the front surface of the test
piece to be delayed by the transmission time through the delay shoe. This
separates the front-surface signal from the large excitation pulse, thus eliminating
much of the dead zone encountered in contact inspection with a search unit that
doesn't have a delay shoe. Reducing the extent of the dead zone allows the
piezo electric crystal to respond to front and back reflections that occur close
together in time. This provides improved accuracy in the thickness measurement
of thin plate and sheet.
75
76
Paint Brush Transducer
Inspection of large areas with small single-element transducers is a long
and tedious process. To over come this and to increase the rate of inspection, the
paint brush transducer was developed. It is so named because it has a wide
beam pattern that when scanned, covers a relatively wide swath in the manner of
a paint brush.
Paint brush transducers are usually constructed of a mosaic or series of

matched crystal elements. The primary requirement of a paint brush transducer is
that the intensity of beam pattern not vary greatly over the entirely length of the
transducer. At last, paint brush transducers are designed to be survey devices,
their primary function is to reduce inspection time while still giving full coverage.
Standard search units are usually employed to pinpoint the location and size of a
flaw that has been detected by a paint brush transducer.
Transducer's size
In most cases, normal transducers with a dia ranging between 2mm and
80mm app. are used. Standard probe diameters are 5mm to 25mm. In special
cases square or rectangular transducers are used. Here the transducer is
attached to a plane parallel protective face.
The most common application of the probes when testing on steel

requires a resonant frequency of transducers ranging from 2MHZ to 6MHZ. For
different applications, probes with smaller frequencies up to 500 KHz and with
higher frequencies upto approximately 25 MHZ are made
77
The frequency we use is thickness dependant, Thinner the crystal, more
vibrations and higher the frequency.
Velocity of crystal material

Thickness ‘=
2 x frequency
Velocity
= Wave length
frequency
 λ
Thickness ‘t’ = 2
Frequency consideration
As far as the frequency of a transducer is concerned, it plays a very
important role with regard to sensitivity, resolution and penetration. Again
sensitivity is related to wave length, higher the frequency, shorter the wave
length; shorter the wave length, higher the sensitivity.
As thickness is also related to frequency while using higher frequency

probe, for (e.g.) if we use 15MHz probe, the thickness of the crystal is about
0.2mm which is fragile or delicate to handle for contract testing.
If such crystal were used in the contact testing technique, the near field
length needs to be calculated and accordingly a "delay line" or "stand off"
requires to be placed at the end of the contact probe to compensate near field.
So, in this case, sound beam is limited to far zone only.
In the case of immersion testing, by using appropriate water path, near

field is eliminated.
Also, higher the frequency of the transducer, narrower or less the beam
spread and greater the sensitivity and resolution; but attenuation is also greatest
and the penetration is poor.
Lower the frequency of the transducer, deeper the penetration less

attenuation, greater the beam spread, lower the sensitivity and resolution.
For any given frequency, the larger transducer, the narrower the sound
beam and the greater the sensitivity.
Function of Transducers
Transducers which are having piezo-electric elements, is sending short
burst of sound energy which is called pulse. Control of pulse length is called
`Damping'.
Three types of pulses are there, we come across mainly.
78
(1) Long pulse (Low Damped)
A long pulse is said to vibrate for a definite period of time. In this case, the
pulse is not immediately damped. As reverberates for a considerable time, the
energy content in the pulse increases that enables the transducer's efficiency. In
long pulse, high sensitivity is achieved but the resolution is reduced.
Medium pulse (Medium damped), short pulse (Highly damped)

According to the job requirements, probes are made as low damped,
medium damped and highly damped.
When sensitivity is not a matter but only the resolution is a matter of

concern, highly damped probes are used. In thickness gauges, highly damped
probes (short pulses) are used to distinguish very small changes in thickness of a
specimen.
The short pulses or highly damped probes have separate domain pockets
and hence resolution improves. These are useful for thickness measurements
and corrosion pitting measurements. But these pulses are not useful for flaw
detection purpose. DAC can not be drawn because of its extreme oscillation of
frequencies from its central frequency. (i.e.) If it is 5MHZ probes, it would make
oscillation from 5 to 1MHZ and 5 to 8 MHZ frequencies and hence definite
frequency can not be fixed in this case within its short time and hence near field
cannot be fixed or determined as the frequency is not consistent. Without near
field calculation, DAC can not be drawn.
79
So, low damped and medium damped pulses are useful for flaw detection
purpose.
Spectrum of frequencies
The design of the transducer is for a specific or particular frequency, with
respect to its fundamental resonant frequency. But, due to inertia of the crystal,
on excitation, it produces a number of frequencies (spectrum of frequencies). The
intensity is minimum to maximum. If the peak intensity achieved is say 100%, the
frequency band corresponding to 70% of the intensity scale is taken. The control
frequency is 100% as shown in the figure.
Quality factor
Quality factor, Q for a transducer is
f0
Q = ______
f2 - f1
Note: As quality factor increases, the sensitivity of the probe also increases but
the resolution decreases.
80
CHAPTER - V
EQUIPMENT - TRANSDUCERS
QUESTIONNAIRE
1. The property of certain materials to transform electrical energy to
mechanical energy and vice versa is called
a. Reflection
b. Refraction
c. Mode conversion
d. Piezo electric effect
2. For ultrasonic inspection, the principal mode used in transducer is

called
a. Thickness shear
b. Thickness Expansion
c. Face shear
d. Transverse Expansion
3. The fundamental frequency of a piezo electric crystal is primarily a

function of
a. Length of pulse
b. Its wave length
c. The thickness of the crystal
d. Width of the crystal.
4. The crystal thickness and transducer frequency are related, the thinner
the crystal
a. Lower the frequency
b. Higher the frequency
c. No effect
d. Both a & b
5. The crystal cut in x-plane would produce

a. Longitudinal wave
b. Transverse wave
c. Lamb or plate waves
d. Surface waves
6. Of the followings, the most efficient sound transmitter is

a. Quartz
b. Lithium sulphate
c. Barium titanate
d. Silver oxide
e. Lead metaniobate
7. Of the following piezo electric materials, the best receiver is

a. Quartz
b. Barium titanate
c. Lithium Sulphate Hydrate
d. None
81
8. The piezo electric material that is soluble in water
a. Barium titanate
b. Lead Zirconate Titanate
c. Quartz
d. Lithium Sulphate
9. The crystal which can be used at elevated temperature is

a. Lithium sulphate
b. Polarized ceramics
c. Quartz x-cut
d. Both a & b
10. The Curie point or critical temperature is defined as

a. The temperature at which the vibration of crystal suddenly falls to
50%.
b. The temperature at which the vibration of crystal suddenly falls to 0%
c. The temperature at which the crystal loses its piezo electric
properties
d. a & b
11. The efficiency of a transducer is described as

a. Sensitivity
b. Resolution, efficiency
c. Sensitivity, resolution & energy conversion
d. a & b & c
12. When using two separate search units, one a transmitter and another
as receiver, the most efficiency combination is
a. Quartz transmitter Lithium Sulphate as receiver
b. Lithium Sulphate transmitter, Quartz as receiver
c. Barium Titanate as transmitter and Lithium Sulphate as receiver
d. Lithium Sulphate as transmitter and Barium Titanate as receiver.
13. The testing technique in which the crystal or transducer is parallel to

the test surface and ultrasonic waves enter the material being tested in
a direction perpendicular to the test surface is
a. Angle beam
b. Normal beam
c. straight beam
d. b or c
e. surface beam
14. The advantages of using dual probe is

a. Dead zone is eliminated
b. The best of transmitters and receivers could be used as option
c. We can use any range of frequency
d. both a & b
82
15. A cross talk in dual probe is called due to the reason that
a. Energy traveling through coupling medium
b. Energy traveling through acoustic separation layer of high gain
c. Cross talk would never occur on using TR probe
d. Both (a) & (b)
16. The angulation given to the perspex block in TR probe is called

a. Angle of reflection
b. Angle of refraction
c. mode conversion
d. Roof angle
17. High roof angles are used for

a. Thick objects
b. Thin objects
c. Both (a) and (b)
d. Neither (a) and (b)
18. Low roof angles are used for

a. Thin objects
b. Thick objects
c. both (a) and (b)
d. Neither (a) or (b)
19. In angle beam testing, the longitudinal wave is converted to transverse

wave by means of
a. Silver lining arrangement
b. Damping material
c. Wedge
d. Angle perspex wedge
e. none of the above
20. The functions of perspex wedge are

a. Wedge is cut an angle to provide transverse wave at particular angle
in specimen.
b. to attenuate reflected ultrasound wave in the interface
c. to produce longitudinal wave is the specimen.
d. both (a) & (b)
e. Neither (a) or (b)
21. By using immersion testing,

a. Gross defects are noted
b. Sensitivity is reduced
c. Near surface resolution is achieved
22. The reason for attaching lenses to the transducer in immersion testing
is
a. to enhance sensitivity
b. to reduce resolution
c. to enhance resolution
d. both a & c,
83
e. both a & b
23. Line of focus is achieved in
a. Spherical lens
b. cylindrical lens
c. Round lens
d. point lens
24. With the aid of cylindrical lens, we will be able to achieve

a. Line focus
b. Point focus
c. both a & b
d. None
25. By using delay tip units, we are able to eliminate.

a. Resolving power
b. Sensitivity
c. both a & b
d. Dead zone
26. When using focused transducers non-symmetry in a propagation

sound beam may be caused by
a. Backing materials vibrations
b. Porosity in lenses
c. Lens centering or misalignment
d. All of the above.
27. Which of the following test system has the best near resolution of the
same frequencies?
a. Straight beam probe with rubber membrane
b. Straight beam probe with perspex delay
c. Straight beam probe without protecting membrane
d. Straight beam probe with low pulse strength
28. The efficiency to resolve two discontinuities at different depths would

be improved by
a. Decreasing the frequency
b. Shortening the pulse duration
c. Increasing the amplitude
d. None
29. The resolving power for frequency 4 MHZ compared to 2 MHZ is

a. Same
b. Worse
c. Better
d. None
30. Mechanical and electrical stability, insolubility in liquids and resistance

to aging are three advantages of search units transducers made of.
a. Quartz
b. Lithium - Sulphate
c. Barium Titanate
d. both b & c
84
31. One way to improve near surface resolution is
a. Decrease the test frequency
b. Use thicker couplant
c. Use thinner couplant
d. Use double or dual probe.
32. By using matching probes to the UT instruments would

a. Increase the brightness
b. Increase the noise
c. Increase the near (or) far field of the probe.
d. Increase the gain and improve signal presentation.
33. Depth resolution is dependant upon

a. Transducer dia
b. Ultrasonic frequency
c. angle of incidence
d. Angle of reflection
34. Why the pitch-catch method is generally considered superior to the

conventional method for the near surface discontinuities?
a. It presents smaller front surface signal on the CRT.
b. The beam path is entirely different
c. Less attenuation
d. None
35. Which of the following is not an advantage of contact ultrasonic

probes adopted with lucite shoes?
a. eliminates most of the crystal wear
b. Permits adaptation to curved surfaces
c. increases sensitivity.
d. both (a) & (b)
36. As the radius of curvature of a curved lens is increased the focal

length of the lens will.
a. decrease
b. Increase
c. No change
d. It depends upon frequency.
37. To increase to rate of inspection on large areas, normally we use

a. single probe
b. dual probe
c. angle probe
d. Paint brush transducer
38. When we come across a discontinuity after scanning a part with paint
brush transducer, the next step is
a. To give repair
b. To rescan the area with the same probe
c. To rescan with a smaller crystal probe
d. Call the inspection for confirmation.
85
39. Short burst of sound energy is called
a. Long pulse
b. Short pulse
c. Pulse
d. wave length energy
40. Damping is known as

a. extra attachment to the probe
b. electrical connection to the crystal
c. perspex wedge
d. control of pulse length
41. A pulse which is said to vibrate for a long time is called.

a. Vibration pulse
b. Short pulse
c. Long pulse
d. damping pulse
42. By using long pulses, we come to know that

a. Poor sensitivity better resolution
b. better sensitivity, poor resolution
c. Damping is high
d. a & c
43. When sensitivity is not a matter but only the resolution is our concern,
then we prefer
a. Low damped long pulses
b. highly damped short pulses
c. Medium pulses
d. a & c
44. Highly damped, small pulses are ideal for

a. Flaw detection
b. thickness /corrosion measurements
c. drawing DAC
d. a & c
e. None.
45. In highly damped short pulses, due to extreme oscillation of

frequencies from its central frequency, the near field
a. easy to determine
b. cannot be found
c. Near field doesn't exist
d. all of the above.
86
CHAPTER - V
EQUIPMENT – TRANSDUCERS
QUESTIONNAIRE ANSWERS
Q.NO. ANS Q.NO. ANS

1 D 28 B
2 B 29 C
3 C 30 A
4 B 31 D
5 A 32 D
6 C 33 B
7 C 34 A
8 C 35 A
9 C 36 B
10 C 37 D
11 C 38 C
12 C 39 B
13 D 40 D
14 D 41 C
15 D 42 B
16 D 43 B
17 B 44 B
18 B 45 B
19 D
20 D
21 C
22 D
23 B
24 A
25 D
26 D
27 A
87
CHAPTER VI
BLOCKS & DISCONTINUEITY DETECTION
Standard Reference Blocks
Many of the standards and specifications for ultrasonic inspection require
the use of standard reference blocks, which may be prepared from various alloys,
may contain holes, slots or notches of several sizes and shapes. The
characteristics of ultrasonic beam in a test piece are affected by the following
variables and these should be considered when selecting standard reference
blocks.
1. Nature of the test piece

2. Alloy type
3. Grain size
4. Effects of thermal or mechanical processing
5. Distance amplitude effects
6. Flaw size
7. Direction of the ultrasonic beam
Three types of standard reference blocks are used in general for

calibration or reference.
1. Area amplitude blocks

2. Distance amplitude blocks
3. IIW Blocks (International Institute of Welding)
These blocks must be prepared from material with the same or similar
alloy content, heat treatment and amount of hot or cold working as the material to
be inspected, to ensure equal sonic velocity, attenuation and acoustic impedance
in both the reference standard and the test piece. If the blocks of identical
material not available, the difference between material in the test piece and the
material used in the standard reference blocks must be determined
experimentally.
Area Amplitude Blocks [Alcoa Series A]

Area Amplitude blocks, consist of 8 blocks 3¾ long 1 15/16" square. Each
block has a 3/4" deep flat - bottom hole drilled in the center of the Bottom surface.
The hole diameters vary from 1/64" to 8/64" (other blocks intended for same
purpose of establishing the correlation of signal amplitude with the area of the
reflector, may contain a number of holes in the same block, usually a plate). The
blocks are numbered to correspond with the diameter of the holes. That is the
No.1 block has the 1/64" diameter hole, the No.2 block has the 2/64" diameter
hole and so on through the No.8 block, which has the 8/64" diameter hole (i.e.)
1/64", 2/64", 3/64", 4/64", 5/64", 6/64", 7/64" and 8/64".
88
Metal distance is the distance from the top surface of the block to the flat
bottom hole. The metal distance is the same for all the blocks in an Area
Amplitude set (i.e.) 3". But the size of the flat bottom hole is different.
Area amplitude blocks are used to establish the Area / Amplitude response
curve and the sensitivity of the UT system. Similar area amplitude blocks are from
2" diameter stock.
89
Distance Amplitude blocks or Alcoa `B' series or Hit Blocks
It consists of 19, 2" diameter blocks. They are of 1/16", 1/8", 1/4", 3/8",
1/2", 5/8", 3/4", 7/8", 1", 1¼" 1¾" 2¼", 2¾", 3¼" 3¾", 4¼", 4¾ ", 5¼", 5¾". All the
blocks have a 3/4" inch deep flat bottom hole drilled in the center of the bottom
surface. The hole diameter is same in all the blocks of a set. Sets are available
with the hole diameter of 3/64", 5/64 or 8/64". The blocks vary in length to provide
metal distances of 1/16" to 5¾" in half inch increments as given above.
Distance-amplitude blocks are used to establish the distance / amplitude

response characteristics of the UT system in the test material; the measured
response includes the effects of attenuation due to beam spread and scattering
and/or absorption.
The Basic set of ASTM reference blocks
It is a combination of area and distance amplitude blocks. The ASTM

basic set of reference blocks consists of ten 2-inch diameter blocks. Again, each
block has a 3/4 inch deep hole drilled in the center of the bottom surface. One
block has a 3/64-inch diameter hole and a metal distance of 3 inches from test
surface to flat bottom pole.
Seven blocks have 5/64 inch diameter holes and metal distances of 1/8
inch, 1/4 inch, 1/2 inch, 3/4 inch. 1½ inches, 3 inches and 6 inches. The
remaining two blocks have 8/64 inch diameter holes and metal distances of 3
inches and 6 inches. In this basic set, 3 inch metal distance blocks, with the 3/64
inch, 5/64 inch and 8/64, inch diameter holes, provide the area amplitude
relationship and the seven blocks with the 5/64 inch holes at varying metal
distances provide the distance amplitude relationship.
The main advantage of the basic set of ASTM reference blocks is that they
provide area amplitude and distance amplitude reference in one small set. The
full set of ASTM reference blocks consists of 46 blocks.
90
91
Calibration Blocks
There is another type of blocks, also referred to as test blocks or reference

blocks, which are more correctly designated as standard calibration blocks.
Specially designed calibration blocks are used in contact testing to check

the operation of ultrasonic instruments and transducers and to make certain
adjustments to the instruments to best suit the testing conditions.
The fig. shows the IIW (international institute of welding) block. IIW
calibration block provides known distances and angular relationships for adjusting
or calibrating the CRT screen presentation to represent the thickness of the test
specimen. To verify the angle of angle beam transducers, to verify the bean exit
92
point of angle beam transducers, to adjust the instrument for maximum
resolution, and to determine relative sensitivity of the instrument and transducer.
The miniature angle beam block V2 shows below is similar to the IIW
calibration block, but is limited to instrument angle calibration, transducer beam
exit point and refracted angle verification. It is intended for use when away from
the testing laboratory.
93
The ASTM reference plate is another type of standard reference block and
can be used for both straight beam and angle beam inspection. This block has
limited usefulness.
94
The thickness of the plate leads many false reflections when
(a) The block is used for straight beam calibration or reference purposes.
(b) When the block is used for angle beam inspection, there is little
correlation between the hole depth and echo amplitude.
Calibration of the instrument
The location of a discontinuity can be instantly determined using its echo if the
instrument is correctly calibrated. Calibration means, linear display, from the
zero point on the scale, of a certain distance range of the object to be tested.
The zero point on the scale corresponds to the surface of the test object and
the 10th scale graduation the maximum distance, e.g. 100 mm steel, 10 mm
aluminum, 25 mm brass etc. When specifying the calibration range the
naming of the material is also important because the displayed distance of the
echo, sound path s, is always deduced from the time of flight t of the pulse
and the sound velocity c according to the equation:
s = (c x t) / 2
s = sound path [mm]

c = sound velocity [km/s]
t = transit time [μs]
This relationship is not unimportant for the ultrasonic operator but it is not
required for the sequence of calibration. The rule simply says:
Use a work piece of the same material as the test object whose dimensions
are known.
By coupling the probe onto an object of known thickness t an echo sequence

appears on the display, Fig. 39. The associated sound paths correspond
logically to the paths being travelled in the test object, for example with a
straight-beam probe it is the multiple of the test object's thickness t, therefore:
1st Echo = t,
2nd Echo = 2t,
3rd Echo = 3t, etc.
We must now adjust 2 of these echoes on the corresponding scale graduation

to the required calibration range.
95
Fig. 39 USK 7: Backwall echo sequence with a straight-beam probe
The instrument is then calibrated, i.e. by reading off the scale position T the
sound path s (distance) of the associated reflector can be determined
(location of reflectors, wall thickness measurement).
Calibration with a straightbeam probe
The reference piece used for calibration is called the Calibration Block, or
Standard Calibration Block, if the block used is standardized. The Standard
Calibration Block 1, also simply referred to as V1 block (according to BS
2704 - A2), has a thickness of exactly 25 mm and is made of low-alloyed fine
grained steel so that it can be used for nearly all types of calibration when
similar steels are to be tested.
Example 1: Calibration range 100 mm steel (longitudinal waves)
The 10 scale graduations on the horizontal display scale are to have a range
of 0 to 100†mm steel, Fig. 40. One scale graduation therefore corresponds to
10 mm in the test object. We say: the scale factor k (display scale) is 10 mm
per scale graduation.
Fig. 40 Calibration range: 0-100 mm
We couple the straight-beam probe to the V1 block (laying flatwise), Fig. 39.
The backwall echo sequence now comes from the 25 mm steel path. The
allocation of sound paths si to the corresponding scale positions Ti is carried
out using the calibration table:
96
Fig. 41 USK 7: Calibration in the 100 mm range
The corresponding scale position Ti is calculated by using the formula:
T i = si / k
si = sound path of umpteenth echoes

Ti = scale position of the umpteenth echo
k = scale factor
The exact adjustment of echoes from the calibration block, as in Fig. 41, is
made with analog ultrasonic flaw detectors using the controls pulse shift (or
delay) as well as coarse and fine ranges.
In doing this, the adjustments must be alternately carried out at these points
until the echo flanks are at the correct scale positions. With modern digital
instruments the calibration range of 100 mm and the sound velocity of 5920
m/s are firstly entered. After coupling the probe to the calibration block, the
function delay or probe delay is changed until the echoes are correctly
positioned, Fig. 42.
97
Fig. 42 USK 7 D: Consideration of the probe delay
Example 2: Calibration range of 250 mm in aluminum
10 scale graduations correspond to 250 mm in aluminum: k = 25

mm/graduation. We couple the straight-beam probe to an aluminum test block
which is 80 mm thick, i.e. a backwall echo sequence is produced from this
thickness (t = 80 mm), Fig. 43.
Fig. 43 USK 7 D: Calibration of a 250 mm range with an 80 mm aluminum

path
The calibration table now looks like this:
Exact reflector location is only possible after correct calibration of a test

instrument. The ultrasonic operator moves the probe over the test object. In a
98
normal case, i.e. when a discontinuity does not exist, only the initial pulse and
the backwall echo are visible on the display. As soon as a discontinuity is
within the area of the sound beam, an additional echo appears between the
initial pulse and the backwall echo, Fig. 44, e.g. an echo at scale graduation
1.4. With calibration in the 250 mm range the distance to the reflector s is
therefore 1.4 x 25 = 35 mm.
Fig. 44 USK 7 D: Sound path measurement
5.1.2 Calibration with a TR probe
For technical reasons, the calibration with a TR probe can only be made to a
certain extent using a backwall echo sequence from a comparison object. Due
to the slight angular beaming, Fig. 35, transverse waves occur with the TR
probe which cause strong interference behind the 1 st backwall echo so that
the 2nd backwall echo is often unable to be identified. Therefore, a stepped
calibration block is used for the adjustment of both echoes, alternately going
between two steps (2 point calibration).
Example 3: Calibration range for 10 mm steel
Step block VW (steel: 1 8 mm). The 3 mm and 6 mm steps
should be used for calibration. The step selection
depends on the depth range of the expected reflectors.
Here the echo from 3 mm must be adjusted to the 3rd scale
graduation and the echo from 6 mm to scale graduation 6,
Fig.45a+b.
99
Fig. 45a The two positions (3 mm and Fig. 45b Calibration echo at the 3rd graduation
6 mm step) of the TR probe on the (top) Calibration echo at the 6th graduation
stepped calibration block VW (bottom)
a. Firstly, we couple the TR probe to the 3†mm step and use the delay
control for adjusting the echo flank to the 3rd scale graduation.
b. Now we couple the probe to the 6 mm step and bring the echo to the 6th
scale graduation with the range control.
c. Steps a) and b) are alternately repeated until both echo flanks are exactly
on the 3rd and 6th scale graduations, Fig. 45a+b.
The main application of TR probes are wall thickness measurements, but they
are also suitable for the detection of near-to-surface discontinuities, Fig.
46a+b.
Fig. 46a Probe DA 312 on a Fig. 46 b Detection of the drill hole

speciemen with a side drilled from Fig. 46 a
hole in a depth of 1mm
5.1.3 Calibration with an anglebeam probe
For calibration of the test instrument with an anglebeam
probe the standard calibration block 1, Fig. 47a, and the
calibration block V2 (according to BS 2704 A4), Fig.
47b, are almost exclusively used because no backwall echo
sequence is received due to the angular beaming from a
planeparallel calibration block.
100
Fig. 47a WB 60-2E on Calibration Fig. 47b MWB 45-4E on Calibration
Block 1 Block 2
The advantage with echoes from the circle segment of the calibration block is
that the same sound path is always given independent of the probe angle,
Fig. 48.
When the angle-beam probe is exactly coupled in the center of the circle
segment, a first echo is exactly received from 100 mm out of V1 block.
According to the reflection law, the sound waves coming out of the arc are
reflected away from the coupling surface to the back, this means away from
the arc, Fig. 49a.
Fig. 48 Different probe angels at V1 block
101
Fig. 49a Sound path in the V1 block without angle reflection
Fig. 49b Sound path in the V1 block with angle reflection
A second echo out of the arc, needed for the calibration sequence, cannot
therefore be produced. For this, there are two saw cuts made in the center of
the quarter circle: in the edges, which these saw cuts form with the surfaces,
the sound waves are reflected back within themselves due to double reflection
(angle reflection effect) so that they go back to the arc, Fig. 49b.
Fig. 50 Range: 250 mm with a WB 60-2 on V1 block
102
Because the radius of the circle segment is exactly 100 mm we will regularly
receive an echo sequence with distances of 100 mm, 200 mm, 300 mm etc.
with which we are able to carry out calibration of the test instrument the same
way as the straightbeam probe. Fig. 50 shows calibration of the 250 mm
range.
For the miniature anglebeam probe one uses the

considerably smaller and lighter Standard Calibration
Block 2 (V2 block). This has, as opposed to the V1 block,
two circle segments with a common center point, however
it does not have saw cuts. The required echo sequence is
produced here by the alternating reflection of the sound
waves, Fig. 51a+b.
Fig. 51b Path of a sound wave in a V2 Fig. 51b Path of a sound wave in a
block, radius 25 mm V2 block, radius 50 mm
The corresponding echo sequence is produced according to whether the

probe beams into the 25 mm radius or the 50 mm radius. No echoes appear
with sound paths by which the sound pulses from the "wrong" direction meet
at the center point because these pulses are absorbed by the front damping
element of the probe.
Fig. 52 shows calibration of the 100 mm range by scanning into the 25 mm

radius of Standard Calibration Block V2.
103
Fig. 52 Range: 100 mm calibrated on V2, radius 25 mm
5.1.4 Locating reflectors with an angle-beam probe
The echo of a discontinuity on the instrument display does not now give us
any direct information about its position in the material. The only available
information for determination of the reflector position is the scale position and
therefore the sound path s, this means the distance of the discontinuity from
the index point (sound exit point) of the probe, Fig. 53.
Fig. 53 Scanning a reflector using an angle beam probe
The mathematics of the right-angled triangle helps us to evaluate the Surface

Distance and the Depth of a reflector which are both important for the
ultrasonic test, Fig. 54a.
104
Fig. 54a The flaw triangle
Fig. 54b Reduced surface distances and x-value
We therefore now have the possibility to instantly mark a detected flaw's

position on the surface of the test object by measurement of the surface
distance from the sound exit point and to give the depth. For practical
reasons, the reduced surface distance is used because this is measured
from the front edge of the probe. The difference between the surface distance
and the reduced surface distance corresponds to the x-value of the probe,
this is the distance of the sound exit point to the front edge of the probe, Fig.
54b.
With ultrasonic instruments having digital echo evaluation these calculations

are naturally carried out by an integrated microprocessor and immediately
105
displayed so that the operator does not need to make any more time-
consuming calculations, Fig. 55.
Fig. 55 USN 50: A hole being scanned with the probe MWB 60-4E
This is of great help with weld testing because with the calculation of the flaw
depth an additional factor must be taken into account, namely: whether the
sound pulses were reflected from the opposing wall. If this is the case then an
apparent depth of the reflector is produced by using the depth formula which
is greater than the thickness T of the test object.
Fig. 56a The apparent depth
The ultrasonic operator must acertain whether a reflection comes from the
opposite wall and then proceed with calculating the reflector depth, Fig. 56b.
106
Fig. 56b The real reflector depth after sound reflection
107
FIGURE 1: DIMENSIONS OF REFERENCE BLOCK
108
FIG. 2 BLOCK WITH ADDITIONAL REFLECTING, SURACES
The other side of the shorter edge (Fig. 1C) shall have engraved markings
indicating the positions of the probe index for the 75° and 80° positions
relative to 1.5 mm diameter hole. Along the same edge shall be engraved a
linear scale 0 to 200 mm in 5 mm graduations. This scale is used for setting
the working sensitivity with shear wave probes (see 12.2).
One side of the longer edge (Fig. 1C) shall have engraved markings indicating
the positions of the probe index for the 60°, 65°, 70°,75° and 80° positions
relative to the plastics insert.
The other side of the longer edge (Fig. 1A) shall have millimeter graduations,
engraved up to 10mm on either side of the geometric centre of the 100 mm
radius quadrant. This scale is intended for determining the exact index of a
shear wave probe.
109
USES
The following calibrations of the ultrasonic unit and the connected probe
systems may be carried out with the reference block;
a. Check of linearity of time base and amplifier;

b. Calibration of range for both compression and shear waves;
c. Determination of transmission point (correction for the time delay due
to distance travelled by ultrasonic waves in the probe shoe, if any);
d. Determination of the position of probe index;
e. Determination of the angle of refraction;
f. Approximate estimation of the dead zone;
g. Estimation of the resolving power; and
h. Setting of working sensitivity.
CHECK FOR LINEARITY OF TIME BASE AND AMPLIFIER
When the time base is linear, the distance between multiple echoes shall be
equal. This check may be made at the time of calibration of the test ranges. If
the echoes do not coincide with appropriate scale divisions, a graphical
calibration shall be prepared.
The amplification is linear when the ratio of the heights of any two consecutive
echoes remains constant when the sensitivity of the apparatus is altered.
CALIBRATION OF RANGE
This calibration is required both for compressional and shear waves
Compressional Waves
. Ref to
Fig.
a) Ranges below 200 mm:
Position of probe C 3A
Appearance on the screen 3D
b) Ranges above 200 mm:

Position of probes A and B 3A
Appearance on the screen:
Linear scale 3B
Non-linear scale 3G
110
3B Linear scale of 1000 mm (Position A) and of 500 mm
(Position B)
3C Non-linear scale of 500 mm (Position B)
3D Linear scale of 100 mm (Position C)
3E Linear scale of 250 mm (Position D) for shear waves.
All dimensions in millimeters.
FIG. 3 CALIBRATION OF TIME BASE
For these determinations, the distance t be taken into consideration is that

corresponding to successive bottom echoes, for the distance between the
transmission signal and the bottom echo is always slightly different from the
real value.
Shear Waves – Calibration of shear waves can be carried out from

compression waves using the distance of 91 mm for steel which corresponds
to 50 mm in shear waves:
. Ref to Fig.
Position of probe D 3A
Appearance on the screen in the case of linear scale 3E
NOTE-The plastics insert shall not be used for calibrating test ranges.
DETERMINATION OF CORRECTION OF TRANSMISSION POINT
The presence of a plastics shoe in a shear wave probe causes a considerable
111
time lag between the moment at which the signal is emitted and the time at
which it enters the specimen (see Fig. 4B). Account shall be taken of this
delay in the calibration of the scale on the screen. Zero on this scale shall
correspond to the moment when the signal enters the material to be
examined.
To check for the transmission point, the probe is positioned at the point P
(centre of the 100 mm quadrant) aiming at 100 mm radius (see Fig. 4A). The
first echo from the quadrant is set at a distance of 100 mm and the second
smaller echo originating from the groove having a radius of 25 mm is set at a
relative distance of 225 mm. With these two deflections coinciding with the
positions of 100 mm and 225 mm scale marks on the cathode-ray tube
screen, the zero on the scale will represent the point on the metal surface at
which the beam enters the material (see Fig. 4C).

FIG. 4 CORRECTION OF TRANSMISSION POINT
(X = DELAY IN PROBE SHOE)
112
DETERMINATION OF THE POSITION OF PROBE INDEX
This applies to shear and surface wave probes only. The probe is positioned
at L as shown in Fig. 5A, and is moved so as to obtain the maximum signal
amplitude. When this maximum is reached, the probe index corresponds to
the point P on the block. The appearance on movement on screen is an
shown in Fig. 5B.
FIG. 5 DETERMINATION OF BEAM INDEX
DETERMINATION OF THE ANGLE OF REFRACTION
The probe is positioned at M1, M2, ………………, Mn as shown in Fig. 6A,

and the appearance on the screen is as shown in. Fig. 6B.By moving the
probe, the maximum signal amplitude is sought. When this maximum is
reached, the angle of refraction is read off from the position of the probe
index.
FIG. 6 DETERMINATION OF THE ANGLE OF REFRACTION
113
ESTIMATION OF THE DEAD ZONE
It is possible to obtain an approximate estimation of the dead zone.
This test applies to compressional wave probes only.
The probe is first positioned at G (see Fig. 7). If a clear echo is obtained the
dead zone is less than 5 mm. If a clear echo is not obtained the probe is
positioned at F (see Fig. 7), and if a clear echo is now obtained the dead zone
is less than 10 mm. If even in the latter position a clear echo is not obtained,
the dead zone is greater than 10 mm.
NOTE-The positions F and G may also be used for the calibration of small
ranges, namely, below 50 mm.
FIG. 7 ESTIMATION OF DEAD ZONE
ESTIMATION OF RESOLVING POWER
A compressional wave probe is placed upon the longer edge of the block
immediately opposite the slot and the two surfaces which provide path lengths
of 85, 91 and 100 mm respectively (see Fig. 8).
The range controls are set and the probe position is adjusted so that a group
of three clear echoes with the best possible separation appears on the screen
on divisions corresponding to 85, 91 and 100 mm. The heights of second and
the third echoes should be similar and should be adjusted to approximately
two-thirds of the screen height.
The three echoes should be seen separately. Typical examples of the displays
which might be obtained are shown in Fig. 8.
114
SETTING OF WORKING SENSITIVITY
Compressional Wave
With high gain settings the probe is positioned at S, and the appearance on
the screen is as shown in Fig. 9B.
To record the setting, the number of echoes and the height of the last of them
are noted. It is possible in this way to regulate the power output and
amplification of the apparatus.
With low and medium gain settings the probe is positioned at J as shown in
Fig. 9A, and the appearance on the screen is as shown in Fig. 9C.

FIG. 8 EXAMPLES OF RESOLUTION
By moving the probe, the maximum amplitude of the echo from the 1.5 mm
diameter hole is sought, no account being taken of the bottom echo. The
maximum amplitude of the echo from the hole constitutes in these conditions
a relative measure of sensitivity.
115
NOTE – The target hole should be kept free of grease or oil at all times when
calibrations are in progress.
FIG. 9 SETTING OF WORKING SENSITIVITY
Shear Waves
The probe is positioned at K as shown in Fig. 9A and the appearance on the

screen is as shown in Fig. 9D, when the 1.5 mm diameter is viewed as a
corner reflector.
The probe (or probes) is placed in an appropriate position, for example, for
direct scan, double traverse technique, etc, and is moved so as to obtain the
maximum. Echo amplitude from the 1.5mm diameter hole. The corresponding
position of the probe on the block is carefully noted as well as the amplitude of
the echo and its position on the screen. (This last measurement may be made
only if the calibration of the scale and the correction of the transmission point
have been correctly carried out.)
116
CHAPTER VI
BLOCKS & DISCONTINUEITY DETECTION - QUESTIONNAIRE
1. Standard reference blocks used in general for calibration or reference

are
a. Area Amplitude blocks
b. Distance Amplitude blocks
c. IIW blocks
d. All the above
2. The primary purpose of the reference block is to

a. aid the operator in obtaining maximum block reflections
b. obtain the greatest sensitivity possible from an instruments
c. Obtain a common reproducible signal.
3. Area Amplitude blocks are ones which consist of

a. Same size of flat bottom holes at different metal distance.
b. Different size of flat bottom holes with same metal distance.
c. Same size of flat bottom with same metal distance.
d. All of the above.
4. An area-amplitude block has the designation 4340 - 4 - 0500. This

indicates that it is:
a. An aluminum block with a # 3 hole at a depth of 5 inches.
b. A steel block with a 1/16 inch at a depth of 5 inches
c. A steel block with a # 5 hole at a depth of 4 inches
d. A titanium block with a # 4-hole at a depth of 5 inches.
5. Area amplitude blocks are used to establish

a. To draw DAC curve
b. To find out velocity of UT waves.
c. To find out mis-match rates between two media
d. To establish the area amplitude response curve and the sensitivity of
the UT System.
6. Which of the following is a reference reflector that is not dependent on

beam angle?
a. Flat bottom hole
b. V-notch
c. Side drilled hole which is parallel to plate surface and perpendicular
to the sound path
117
7. A reference block used for defect evaluation in welding?
a. Should have the same surface quality as the work piece.
b. Should be made up of the same material as the work piece.
c. Should have approximately same geometry as the
work piece
d. All the above.
8. Distance amplitude blocks are ones in which

a. The flat bottom holes are of different sizes with same metal distances
b. The flat bottom holes are of same sizes with different metal distances
c. Both the flat bottom holes sizes and metal distances are same
9. Distance amplitude blocks are used to

a. To find out the attenuation in the metal
b. To monitor the absorption or scattering levels due to travel
c. To establish the distance / amplitude response characteristics of the
UT system in the test material.
d. Either (a) or (b)
10. The basic set of ASTM reference blocks is

a. V1 or V2 block
b. Standard reference block
c. Concave and convex block
d. It is a combination of area and distance amplitude blocks.
11. The main advantage of the basic set of ASTM reference blocks is that
they
a. Provide excellent signal amplitude
b. provide area amplitude and distance amplitude reference in one
small set.
c. Provide good results with regard to calibration
d. All the above
12. A primary purpose of a reference block is

a. To provide a means for adjusting the instrument in order to evaluate
discontinuities which could be harmful to the proper function of the
work piece
b. To give the tester a tool for determining exact defect size
c. To provide assurance that all defects smaller than a certain reference
reflector are capable of being detected by the test
d. To provide a standard reflector, this exactly simulates natural defects
of a critical size.
13. From the fig the 91 mm distance provided in VI block is for

a. Checking resolution
b. Using this distance for calibrating 100 mm with shear wave
c. Both a & b
118
14. Probe `C' is being used to establish
a. Verification of probe angle
b. Resolution
c. Sensitivity of calibration
d. Distance calibration
15. `B' is being used to establish

a. Verification of probe angle
b. Resolution
c. Sensitivity of calibration
d. Distance calibration
119
CHAPTER VI
BLOCKS & DISCONTINUEITY DETECTION -
QUESTIONNAIRE
ANSWERS
Q.NO. ANS
1 D
2 C
3 B
4 B
5 D
6 C
7 D
8 B
9 C
10 D
11 B
12 A
13 C
14 C
15 B
120
CHAPTER - VII
EVALUATION OF DISCONTINUITIES
Of course, a discontinuity is best evaluated when its size (extension) is

known. The operator's wish to accurately know the "real reflector size" is
understandable therefore it is expected that an nondestructive testing method,
such as ultrasonic testing, give this information. However, due to the fact that
on the display only the echo can be interpreted, this means the reflected
sound coming from the discontinuity, it is very often difficult, and in some
cases even impossible, to reliably assert the size of the reflector. In fact, the
echo height plays the decisive part when evaluating discontinuities during
manual Ultrasonic Testing.
Scanning method
In ultrasonic evaluation one is frequently able to come near to the true

reflector size as long as the discontinuity is large compared to the diameter of
the sound field. The discontinuity then reflects the complete impacting energy
back, Fig. 57.
By scanning the boundaries of the discontinuity, reliable information can be

obtained about its extension. The ultrasonic operator normally observes the
height of the discontinuity echo. The probe position on the test object at which
the echo drops by exactly half indicates that the discontinuity is only being hit
by half the sound beam, Fig. 58a.
This means that the acoustic axis is exactly on the boundary of the
discontinuity. The probe position is marked and the operator determines
further boundry points until a contour of the discontinuity is formed by joining
the marked points together, Fig. 58b.
121
Fig. 57 A large reflector in the sound beam
Fig. 58a Straight beam probe on Fig. 58b Top view with reflector for
the reflector boundry extension
Location of the reflector boundry becomes more exact the smaller the
diameter of the sound beam is at the reflector position. Therefore, if the
reflector extension is to be exactly measured it is recommended that a probe
be selected which has its focal point at the same distance as the reflector. TR
probes are especially suited which have a hose-shaped sound beam with a
small diameter (1 - 3 mm) at their most sensitive depth range.
Evaluation of small discontinuities: The DGS method
A reflector which is completely contained within the sound beam is regarded

as a small reflector. If such a reflector is evaluated by scanning then it is not
the size of the reflector which is obtained as a result but the diameter of the
sound beam! Therefore, the scanning method is not practical in this case. We
have noticed previously that the height of a reflector echo will become greater
the larger the sound beam area is which covers the reflector. This feasible
behavior can be used on small reflectors: their echo heights increase with
122
their areas, Fig. 59.
Fig. 59 Reflectors with different areas and their echoes
Under optimal conditions, e.g. drill holes with flat bottoms and at equal depths,
this law can be confirmed:
Example: The flat-bottom hole with a diameter of 2 mm has an echo which is

4 times that of a 1 mm flat-bottom hole because the area has quadrupled.
However, if the echoes from two drill holes at different depths are compared
then an additional distance dependence of the echo heights is established,
Fig. 60.
123
Fig. 60 Reflectors at different depths and their echoes
With accurate tests using flat-bottom holes at different depths a simple law
can be found, at least in the far field of the applied sound beam:
This does not normally apply to the nearfield of the sound beam! Here, the
test results show that the echo heights within the focus reach their highest
amplitude and are reduced again at shorter distances, Fig. 61.
124
Fig. 61 Distance amplitude curve of a 2 mm – disk reflector
If such curves are put on transparent scales having the CRT format then we
immediately have the possibility to comparatively evaluate echoes from
unknown reflectors and those from natural reflectors, i.e. the echo height of
the discontinuity is compared to that of a circular disk. The discontinuity in Fig.
62 reflects the sound waves the same as a circular disk having a diameter of
4 mm.
Due to the fact that we can only assess the sound reflected from the
discontinuities we must of course not equate the diameter of 4 mm with the
"true size" of the discontinuity. We therefore refer to them as an equivalent
disk-shaped reflector or as equivalent reflector size (ERS). The equivalent
reflector size only corresponds to the true reflector size of a discontinuity in an
ideal case which is when it is circular and exactly hit vertical to the acoustic
axis.
Fig. 62 Evaluation of a discontinuity (F) using evaluation curves
In practice this almost never occurs which means that the true size of a
discontinuity is normally larger than the equivalent reflector size. A law for this
125
cannot be derived because the echo height is strongly dependent on the
characteristics of the discontinuity, this means its geometry, orientation to the
sound beam and the surface quality. For example, a pore (spherically shaped
gas inclusion) with a diameter of 2 mm has an equivalent reflector size of 1
mm; an angled flat reflector 5 mm long gives, according to orientation, a result
of ERS 0 (not detectable) to perhaps ERS 2.
This uncertainty in the evaluation of the discontinuity is however neutralized

when other possibilities and techniques in ultrasonic testing are used to
inspect detected discontinuities closer. An experienced ultrasonic operator
can, without additional expense, accurately give information about the
discontinuity which he has detected. Scanning the discontinuity from different
directions, assessing the echo shape and the behavior of the display when
moving the probe (echo dynamics) are just a few techniques which can be
successfully applied.
Despite the remaining uncertainty with evaluation of natural discontinuities the

above method of discontinuity evaluation is applied in many countries due to
the fact that the method is based on well proven laws in the sound field. It is
therefore reproducible, i.e. the evaluation results are independent of testing
device and operator.
The socalled DGS scales or discontinuity evaluation can be obtained from the
probe manufacturer for many probes and various calibration ranges. DGS
means that the scale is allocated an echo at the Distance, with correctly set
Gain and (equivalent reflector) Size. However, the modern version of the DGS
scale would need some explanation because it was developed to fulfill the
requirements of the most common specifications in practical testing: If, on a
certain test object whose purpose and therefore stress values are known, an
ultrasonic test is to be carried out then firstly, if necessary with destructive
testing, it should be established how large the permitted material flaw should
be. Of course, the position of such a flaw in the material and its rate of
occurance play a part.
If a permitted flaw size has been determined then this size is multiplied with
the safety factor which, amongst others, also takes the evaluation uncertainty
of the ultrasonic test into account. The corresponding echo amplitude curve
for this size is now of importance for the ultrasonic test. The ultrasonic
operator scans the test object with the probe and only needs to record the
indications which exceed this recording curve, Fig. 63.
126
Consequently, only one curve is necessary for the evaluation. Due to the fact
that, depending on the application, different recording limits occur, it must be
possible to allocate other equivalent reflector sizes to this curve. This
allocation is shown by a table positioned at the top right of the scale: starting
from a defined default setting of the instrument, the auxiliary gain is taken
from the table which belongs to the required recording value and added to the
gain controls. If the correct range calibration has been made then test object
scanning can now begin. When an indication from the test object exceeds the
recording curve then this result is to be recorded in writing and evaluated. If
required, the test instructions provide the following measures: rejection,
repair or further tests for exact assessment of the discontinuity (diagnosis).
Fig. 63 DGS scale for the probe B 4 S
Fig. 64 shows testing of a forged part. The recording curve corresponds to

Equivalent Reflector Size 3. The detected discontinuity, at a depth of 110 mm,
exceeds the curve, i.e. all reflector data must now be recorded into a
predetermined form.
127
Fig. 64 Discontinuity evaluation with a DGS scale
Sound attenuation
In addition to the laws which establish the behaviour of disk shaped reflectors
within the sound beam of a probe (distance and size laws) another effect
can be observed: The sound attenuation. The sound attenuation is caused
by the structure of the test object but is also strongly dependent on the
frequency and the wave mode of the applied probe. Only when these effects
are known can they be considered by the discontinuity evaluation. However,
the evaluation becomes more difficult, timeconsuming and more unreliable so
that DGS evaluation can be burdened with tolerances which are too great.
The reference block method
These uncertainties in evaluation can be reduced when there is a socalled

reference block available which is made of the same material as the object
to be tested and which also contains artificial reflectors whose echoes can be
directly compared to the discontinuity echoes from the test object. The
application of the reference block method is, in practise, made in two
different ways:
Comparison of echo amplitudes
The test object is tested with a high gain setting by which the smallest
detectable reflector is displayed. An echo indication is peaked, i.e. the
maximum echo indication is achieved by careful movement of the probe and
the echo peak set by adjustment of the gain to a predetermined height, e.g.
80% CRT screen height (reference height), Fig. 65.
128
Fig. 65 Test object with a flaw: echo at 80% (reference height)
Using the same settings, the reflector from the reference
block is scanned which is approximately positioned at the
same distance as the discontinuity, Fig. 66.
Fig. 66 Reference block: reference echo at 30%
The quantative unit for evaluation is now the gain change of the ultrasonic
instrument which is necessary to set the reference echoto the reference
height, Fig. 67.
Fig. 66 Reference block: reference echo at 30%
129
Fig. 67 References block: reference echo to reference
height
Result: The discontinuity echo is 8 dB higher than the reference echo

because the gain must be increased by 8 dB (from 34 dB to 42 dB).
The recording limit normally corresponds to the echo height of the reference
reflector whose size is to be determined, the same as the DGS method,
before the ultrasonic test.
Distance amplitude curve
All reflectors in the reference block are scanned before the test, their
maximum echo heights marked on the attachment scale of the display and
joined by a curve, Fig. 68.
The curve produced is called the Distance Amplitude Curve, or DAC for
short. When a discontinuity echo appears, an immediate assessment can be
made whether or not the discontinuity echo exceeds the DAC. In addition to
this a determination is made, by a corresponding gain change, to see by how
many dBs an echo exceeds the curve. This excess recording echo height
(EREH) is our reproducible measure for the evaluation and reporting of the
discontinuity.
Fig. 68 Reference block with side drilled holes and resulting echoes
The advantages of the reference block method with a DAC are:
130
1. that it is no longer necessary to compare each discontinuity echo with the
corresponding reference echo from the reference block but to directly
make the evaluation with the DAC.
2. that the heavy reference block need not be transported to the testing
location.
3. that the recording of a DAC for certain applications is only required once
because the curve is documented on a transparency or in the memory of a
modern ultrasonic test instrument.
By recording the curve using reflectors in a test object comparable to the work
piece, this curve contains all the influences in the test object (distance law,
sound attenuation, surface losses). Corresponding corrections are therefore
not necessary. Regarding the evaluation results, we must understand here
that the effect of the discontinuity (geometry, orientation and surface quality) is
not taken a great deal into account the same as the DGS method. Therefore,
the result of a discontinuity evaluation with the reference block method has
the same uncertainty as the DGS method.
The preference regarding which method to use is subjective. The

corresponding national test specifications normally state the test method to be
used so that the operator is not able to make his own decision. If no data is
available, the test situation should be analyzed in order to decide which
method be best used:
Firstly, it must be established whether a reference block exists which

corresponds to the test object. If yes, then the test can be carried out simply
and reproducibly with the reference block method. If no reference block is
available then the DGS method can be used, or a reference block must be
subsequently produced comparable to the test object.
However, in many cases the DGS method can be used without difficulty,
namely when the test object is made of low alloy steel, has a simple
geometry, a low sound attenuation and an even surface quality. The test
should be carried out with a narrow band standard probe with a frequency
between 1 MHz and 6 MHz for which there is a DGS diagram or a DGS scale.
The new computer controlled instruments normally support the program

controlled recording of DACs. With the USD 10 the recorded DAC is
automatically converted to a horizontal line. This is known as time corrected
gain (TCG), Fig. 69.
131
The recording curve is therefore an horizontal line so that the evaluation can
be visually and acoustically supported using a monitor gate (flaw alarm), Fig.
70a-c. At the same time for each echo, the excess recording echo height is
displayed in dB (DBR value in the measurement line of the USD 10) in
addition to the data for discontinuity location.
Fig. 69 DAC of the reference echoes (top) and with time corrected gain
(bottom)
Of course, the recorded curves, including the complete instrument settings,

can be stored. It is therefore guaranteed that any later tests can be carried out
with the same settings. By storing the instrument settings, including the active
A-Scans with the discontinuity echo, the operator has all the data available for
producing a test report at any time.
Fig. 70a Weld testing with the Fig. 70 b A discontinuity to be Fig. 70c A discontinuity not to be
USD 10 recorded, DBR 14,4 dB recorded; DBR -9.2 dB
132
Artificial Reflectors
There are several reflector types commonly used as a
basis for establishing system performance and
sensitivity. Among them are spheres and flat bottom holes
(FBH), notches, side drilled holes (SDH) and other
special purpose or designs. See the table beneath.
Type Characteristics Uses

Solid sphere Omni directional Transducer sound
assessment
Notches Flat, Corner Simulates near surface
cracks
Flat Bottom hole Disc reflector Reference gain
Side-drilled hole Cylindrical symmetry Distance DAC Calibration
Special Custom reflectivity Simulate natural flow
conditions.
Spherical reflectors are used most often in immersion testing for assessing
transducer sound fields. Spheres provide excellent repeatability because of their
omni-directional sound wave response. The effective reflectance from a sphere is
much smaller than that received from a flat reflector of the same diameter due to its
spherical directivity pattern. Most of the reflected energy does not return to the
search unit. Spheres of any material can be used; however, steel ball bearings are
the normal since these are reasonably priced, extremely precise as to size and
surface finish and available in many sizes.
Flat reflectors are used as calibration standards in both immersion and

contact testing. They are usually flat-bottom drilled holes of the desired diameters
and depths. All flat reflectors have the inherent weakness that they require careful
sound beam - reflector axis alignment. Deviations of little more than a few degrees
will lead to significantly reduced echoes and become unacceptable for calibration.
However, for flaws of cross section less than the beam width and with a
perpendicular alignment, the signal amplitude is proportional to the area of the
reflector. Generally, if flaw echo amplitude is equal to the amplitude of the calibration
reflector, it is assumed that the flaw is at least as large as the calibration reflector.
Notches are frequently used to assess the detectability of surface - breaking

flaws such as cracks, as well as for instrument calibration. Notches of several
shapes are used either be of a rectangular or "Vee" cross section. Notches may be
made with milling cutters (end mills), circular saws or straight saws.
133
End-mill (or EDM) notches may be made with highly variable length and depth
dimensions. Circular saw cuts are limited in length and depth by the saw diameter
and the configuration of the device holding the saw. Even though it is somewhat
more difficult to achieve a desired length to depth ratio with the circular saw, these
notches are used frequently because of their resemblance to fatigue cracks, e.g.
shape and surface finish. Notches may be produced perpendicular to the surface or
at other angles as dictated by the test configuration. On piping, they may be located
on the inside diameter and or the outside diameter and aligned either in the
longitudinal or transverse directions.
Side-drilled holes are placed in calibration blocks so that the axis of the hole
is parallel to the entry surface. The sound beam impinges on the hole, normal to its
major axis. Such a reflector provides very repeatable calibrations, may be placed at
any desired distance from the entry surface and may be used for both longitudinal
waves and a multitude of shear wave angles. It is essential that the hole surface be
smooth, thus reaming to the final diameter is often the final step in preparing such
holes.
Used in sets with differing distances from the surface and different
diameters, side-drilled holes are frequently used for developing distance-amplitude
correction curves and for setting overall sensitivity of shear wave testing schemes.
After the sweep distance is set, signal from each reflector are maximized (by
maneuvering the search unit) and the results are recorded on the screen using
erasable markers or stored in a digital format. The peak signals from each reflector
are then connected by a smooth line and it is this line that is called the distance-
amplitude correction (DAC) curve.
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CHAPTER VIII
ULTRASONIC TESTING METHODS
Main Methods
Two major modes of coupling ultrasound into test parts used in UT are
contact and immersion. The manual contact technique is the most common for
large items which are difficult to handle (e.g) plate materials, structures and
pressure vessels. Both straight and angle beams are used. Coupling for the manual
contact technique requires a medium with a higher viscosity than that of water and
less than that of heavy greases. In mechanized (automated) testing, the couplant is
often water that is made to flow between the couplant and the test part. During
manual tests, the operator provides the couplant respectively during the
examination.
Manual contact testing is very versatile since search units are easily
exchanged as the needs arise and a high degree of flexibility exists for angulation
and changes in directions of inspection. Test items of many different configurations
can be examined with little difficulty. One of the prime advantages of contact testing
is its portability.
Contact testing is divided into three techniques which are determined by the
sound beam wave mode desired; the straight beam technique for transmitting
longitudinal waves in the test specimen, the angle beam technique for generating
shear waves, and the angle beam surface wave techniques for producing Rayleigh
or Surface waves.
Straight beam techniques

The straight beam technique is accomplished by projecting a sound beam
perpendicularly to the test surface on the test specimen to obtain pulse-echo
reflections from the back surface or from discontinuities which lie between two
surfaces. To avoid confusion from dead zone and near zone effects encountered
with straight beam transducers, parts with a thickness less than 5/8 inch (15.9mm)
are tested with straight beam probes that utilize a delay line or stand off to absorb
these effects. This technique is also used in the through transmission technique
using two transducers where the internal discontinuities interrupt the sound beam
causing a reduction in the received signal.
135
Pulse - echo techniques
Pulse - echo techniques may use either single or double straight beam
transducers. See fig which shows the single unit straight beam transducers in use
with the signal unit the transducers act as both the transmitter and receiver
projecting a pulsed beam of longitudinal waves in to the specimen and receiving
reflections from the back surface and from any discontinuity lying in the beam path.
The double transducer or dual element transducer unit is useful when the test
surface is rough or when the specimen shape is irregular and the back surface is
not parallel with the front surface. One transducer transmits and the other receives
as shown on the fig. In this case, the receiver will receive discontinuity reflections
and may receive back surface reflections.
136
Through - Transmission technique
Two transducers are used in the through transmission technique - one on
each side of the test specimen as shown in fig.
One unit acts as transmitter and the other as a receiver. The transmitter unit
projects a sound beam in to the material. The beam travel through the material to
the opposite surface and the sound is picked up at the opposite surface by the
receiving unit. Any discontinuities in the path of the sound beam can cause a
reduction in the amount of sound energy, reacting in the receiver unit. For best
result, in this technique, the transmitter utilizes a crystal that is the best available
generator of acoustic energy, and the receiver utilizes a crystal that is the best
available receiver of acoustic energy.
Dead Zone
The dead zone is an area directly below the surface of the specimen where
a transducer is coupled. The depth of this zone is sometimes estimated by the
position of the initial pulse displayed on CRT. Discontinuity detection is impossible in
this zone of the sound beam. Dead zone depth corresponds to the elapsed time
137
duration of the transducer element excitation pulse. This means a small portion of
the material directly below the transducer can not be adequately inspected when
using straight beam transducer.
When detection of near surface discontinuities is important to the inspection

and access to both sides of the part is available simply inspecting from the opposite
side may be an easy solution. In a situation where two sided access is not available,
a delay line or dual element probe to indicate near surface defects is used.
For a single crystal probe, dead zone is the initial envelop of sound
displayed on the screen, caused by the probe `ringing ', due to;
Pulse length
Dual function of the transducer
Amplifier gain-time.
Gain setting
Internal reverberation
Angle Beam Techniques

The angle beam technique is used to transmit sound waves into the test
material at a pre determined angle to the test surface. According to the angle
selected, the wave modes produced in the test material may be mixed longitudinal
and shear (bimodal), shear only or surface modes. Usually shear wave transducers
are used in angle beam testing. fig. shows an angle beam unit technique, the sound
138
beam enters the test material at an angle and proceeds by successive zigzag
reflections from the specimen boundaries until it is interrupted by a discontinuity or
an acoustical interface oriented perpendicular to it where it reverses direction and is
reflected back to the transducer. Angle beam techniques are used for testing welds
pipe or tubing, sheet and plate material and for specimens of irregular shape where
straight beam units are unable to contact the entire surface. Angle beam
transducers are identified by case markings that show the refracted angle (usually
in steel) though no standard exists for making probes.
Surface wave Technique

The surface wave technique requires special angle beam transducers that
project the sound beam into the test specimen at an angle slightly beyond the
second critical angle. For test specimens where near - surface discontinuities are
encountered, surface wave transducers and used to generate Rayleigh surface
waves in the test material.
139
Immersion Techniques
The immersion method of coupling ultrasound to test parts permits a wide
variety of test conditions to be used without the need for custom-designed
transducer assemblies, and with consistent coupling characteristics, allowing for
imaging for test parts with regular shapes (a) plate, rod, cylinder, pipe and simple
forging sand assemblies such as honey comb panels.
The flexibility of immersion testing is both a bane and blessing and a bane is
that it permits the use of a single set of test equipment (transducer mostly) to be
used for a large variety of inspection.
Protocols (inspection angles, modified beam patterns, regulated scanning

patterns and high sensitivity transducer, but involves relatively expansive systems
and significantly extends the set up time for each inspection.
Alignment of sound beams to test part surfaces is expedited by the use of

the multiple reflections which occur as result of sound having reflected from the
water -test part interface back to the transducer face, and re-reflected back and
forth between the transducer and the test part. By monitoring these multiple
reverberation while angulating the transducer manipulator, the presence of the
largest array of multiples ensure that the annual beam is aligned perpendicular to
the test parts front surface and the sound beam is normal to the surface. In
immersion testing, because of the large difference between the velocity of the
sound in water and metallic parts, this alignment is critical because slightly off axis
beams are refracted by a leverage factor of approximately 4:1 (see the fig.)
The figure shows the presence of water multiples as well as the multiple
echoes developed within the flat steel plate.
The gain used in immersion testing is rather high due to the large amount of
sound energy lost at the water - test part interfaces which are often very different in
acoustic impedance. When the transducer is relatively close to an item with parallel
surfaces, the CRT often displays an array of multiple reverberations from with-in the
item as well as from the water multiplies. In this case, the water multiples are readily
identified by displacing the transducer along its longitudinal axis toward the test
item. As the transducer moves the water multiples will tend to gather closer together
as the transducer approaches the test past, tending to "Walk through" the test part
multiples, and eventually piling up at the first interface signal.
Immersion testing is used in the pulse - echo mode as well as through -

transmission. A variation on the through - transmission approach uses a fixed beam
reflector placed beyond the test panel and adjusted so that its echo can be detected
by the sending transducer in the pulse-echo manner. This delayed reflector - plate
signal is indicative of the strength of the sound beam after passing through the
140
panel two times. A weak reflector-plate signal (if properly aligned) usually signifies a
material with a high level of attenuation due to its composition, the presence of
highly attenuating voids or scatterers which may not result in a discrete back
scattered echo of their own.
Angle beam, shear wave testing is often achieved by rotating (Swiveling or

angulating) the transducer with respect to the sound entry surface. For cylindrical
items, it can also be done by offsetting the transducer to the point where the
curvature of the test part yields a refracted shear wave as shown in the fig.
The curvature of the test surface results in the refraction of the sound beam
in a manner that tends to spread the sound with the water-item interface functioning
as a cylindrical lens, diverging the beam. Areas with concave surfaces, such as
inner-radiused forging, are sometimes difficult to inspect because they focus the
sound beam into narrow region, making complete, uniform coverage quite difficult.
141
It is possible to compensate for some of these contoured surfaces through
the use of specially designed transducers or the introduction of contour - correcting
lenses applied to flat transducers.
Any one of several techniques may be used in immersion testing.
(a) The immersion technique where both the transducer and the test specimen
are immersed in water.
(b) The bubbler or squirter technique where the sound beam is transmitted
through a column of flowing water.
(c) The wheel transducer technique where the transducer is mounted in the axle
of a liquid - filled tire that rolls on the test surface.
In all these techniques, a further refinement is the use of focused

transducers that concentrate the sound beam (much like light beams are
concentrated when passed through a magnifying glass).
The immersion technique (a) has been already explained in the previous
pages.
(b) Bubbler Techniques

The Bubbler technique is a variation of the immersion method. In the bubbler
techniques, the sound beam is projected through a water column into the test
specimen. The bubbler is usually used in automated system for high speed
scanning of plate, sheet, strip, cylindrical forms and other regularly - shaped parts.
142
The ultrasound is projected into the material through a column of flowing
water, and is directed in a normal direction (perpendicular) to the test surface to
produce longitudinal waves or is adjusted at any angle to the surface to produce
shear waves.
Wheel transducer techniques

The wheel transducer technique is an aspect of the immersion method in
that the ultrasound is projected through a water-filled tire into the test specimen. The
transducer, mounted in the wheel axle, is held in a fixed position, while the wheel
and tire rotate freely. The wheel may be mounted on a mobile apparatus that runs
across the material, or it may be mounted on a stationary fixture where the material
is moved passing it. See figure below which illustrates the stationary and the
moving - wheel transducer.
The position and the angle of the transducer mounting on the wheel axle
may be constructed to project straight beams.
Equipment features
The basic electronic pulsar / receiver display units are augmented with
special features intended to assist operators in easing the burden of maintaining a
high level of alertness during the often uninteresting process of conducting routine
inspections, particularly of regular shapes during original manufacture, as well as
obtaining some type of permanent record of the results of the inspection.
143
A-Scan
A-scan information represents the material condition through which the

sound beam is passing. The fundamental A-scan display, although highly
informative regarding material homogeneity, does not yield information regarding
the spatial distribution of ultrasonic wave reflectors until it is connected with
scanning mechanism that can supply the physical location of the transducer in
conjunction with the reflector data obtained with A-Scan unit.
144
B-Scan
When cross-sectional information is recorded using a rectilinear B-Scan

system, it is the time of arrival of pulse (vertical direction) plotted as a function of the
transducer position (horizontal direction) that is displayed. Circular objects are often
displayed using a curvilinear coordinate system which displays time of pulse arrival
in the radial direction (Measured from the transducer) and with transducer location
following the surface contours of the test object.
C-Scan
When plan views of objects are needed, C-Scan system is used and it is
particularly effective for flat materials including Lancy comb panels, rolled products,
and adhesively bonded or laminated composites. The C-Scan is developed using a
raster scan pattern (X verses Y) over the test part surface. The presence of
questionable conditions is detected by gating signals falling within the thickness of
the part (or monitoring loss of transmission) as a function of location. C-Scanning
systems use either storage oscilloscopes or other recording devices, coupled to
automatic scanning systems which represent a "plan" (i.e.) map, view of the past,
145
similar to the view produced in radiography, see fig.
Resonance Testing
The resonance technique is perhaps the oldest acoustic / ultrasonic non-
destructive testing technique other than the visual method. Metal structures,
especially castings and forgings, will audibly ring when struck with a sharp blow. An
experienced listener could often tell by the ringing tone whether the part was flawed
or not. A structure such as a bell when severely flawed sounds wrong to most
anyone, experienced or not; however the accuracy of this technique left much to be
desired. With the advent of equipment capable of operating at ultrasonic
frequencies, resonance was one of the first techniques used for thickness
measurement; although for some flaw detection, such as for laminations also
resonance technique is used. When a piezo electric crystal is excited with a voltage
varying at the resonant frequency, the mechanical energy produced is greatly
increased. This frequency is achieved when the wave length in the material is twice
the thickness or a multiple there of.
In general use, a transducer is excited by a time varying frequency, designed

to sweep the crystal through the fundamental and several harmonic frequencies.
When a resonant condition is achieved, it is sensed as an increased loading on the
transducer by the electronics and displayed on the read out device. Since the
difference between harmonic frequencies is equal to the fundamental frequency it
does not matter which harmonics are excited.
Resonance testing was commonly used, especially in the basic material

industries such as the steel producers, as a quality control measure for both
thickness and laminar defects. Improved electronic circuits have been used to
create pulse-echo devices which are more accurate and easier to use and interpret.
146
As a result, resonance testing is no longer in common use except for some primary
materials characterizations.
147
CHAPTER - VIII
QUESTIONNAIRE
1. Major methods of ultrasonic testing of materials are

a. Contact testing
b. Pulse echo testing
c. Immersion testing
d. Both (a) & (c)
2. In automated ultrasonic testing, usually the couplant is

a. Oil
b. Grease
c. Either a or b
d. Water
e. both a and d
3. One of the prime advantages of contact testing is

a. Clear CRT presentation
b. Good sensitivity is achieved
c. Its portability
4. Contact testing is divided in to 3 techniques as

a. Normal beam technique, straight beam technique & Angle beam
technique
b. Normal beam technique. Angle beam technique & surface wave
technique
c. Normal beam technique, oblique learn technique,
5. In straight beam probes, the near field effects are eliminated by

a. Using angle beam probes
b. Using surface technique probes
c. Using focus probes
d. Using delay line or stand off probes.
6. Pulse echo technique employs

a. Single crystal probe
b. Dual crystal probe
c. Focal length probe
d. (a) & (b)
7. Dual crystal probe will be useful when

a. Test surface is rough
b. The specimen surface is irregular
c. The back surface is not parallel with the front surface
d. All of the above
148
8. Through - transmission technique is one in which
a. Two transducers serve as receivers
b. Two transducers serve as transmitters
c. The ultrasonic waves would pass through two or more media
d. One transducer serves as transmitter and the other as receiver
transducer placed on the other side of the surface.
9. In through-transmission technique, the advantage to get best

results is
a. To use good transmitter crystal and use ordinary receiver crystal
b. To use good transmitter good receiver crystal
10. Dead- zone is the area

a. Far below the surface where there is mismatch with other foreign
materials
b. Where sensitivity and resolution give best results
c. Directly below the surface of the specimen where transducer is
coupled and discontinuity detection is found is be impossible
d. Which is same as near-zone.
11. The probable solution to avoid dead -zone problem is

a. To use bigger size probes
b. To use higher frequency
c. To use higher or lower frequency
d. To have an access from other side of the test surface (or) to use
delay line or dual element probe.
12. Usually in angle beam testing

a. Longitudinal waves are used
b. Surface waves are used.
c. Refracted, mode converted shear waves are utilized
d. Plate or lamb waves are utilized
13. Normally, angle beam technique is used to check

a. Plates with lamination and delamination
b. The bonding between two materials
c. Welds, tubes and pipes
d. Both b & c
14. Immersion technique is used in

a. Pulse echo system
b. Contact system
c. Through- transmission system
d. Both (b) & (c)
149
15. In immersion technique, angle beam shear wave testing is achieved
often by
a. Using angle probes
b. Using surface wave probes
c. Adjusting the water - path
d. Rotating or angulating the transducer with respect to sound entry
surface.
16. The basic rule in determining the water path distance when
inspecting steel or Aluminium is that it should be equal to
a. 1/4 T + 6mm
b. 1/4T - 6mm
c. 4T+6mm
d. T+6mm
17. In immersion testing, the water multiples that may be seen on the
CRT screen between the front and back surface reflections can be
eliminated
a. Using a different frequency transducer
b. Increasing distance from transducer to test specimen
c. Using contour correction lens
d. Decreasing instrument sensitivity.
18. The technique in which a flowing stream of water is used to couple

the transducer to the test specimen is called
a. Water column technique
b. Bubbler technique
c. Surface technique
d. All of the above
19. To improve the directivity of a sound beam and decrease beam

spread
a. Use filters
b. Use collimators
c. Use acoustic lens
d. Both a & b above
20. In wheel tire, the transducer is mounted inside

a. Bubbler chamber
b. Liquid filled tire
c. Plastic block with holes
d. Scanner tube of immersion tank
21. Standing waves are set up within a specimen when using the
a. Pulse-echo system
b. Through- transmission system
c. Resonance system
d. Immersion system
150
22. The frequency difference between two adjacent harmonics equals
the
a. Maximum resonant frequency
b. Fundamental resonant frequency
c. Residual frequency
d. Wave length
23. The resonance system can be used to

a. Find small discontinuities
b. Find out large discontinuities
c. Measure material thickness
d. Both (b) & (c)
24. Most resonance systems use

a. A single transducer transmitting continuous waves
b. A single transducer transmitting pulsed waves
c. Separate transducers transmitting pulsed waves
d. Separate transducers transmitting continuous waves
25. Resonance occurs when the material thickness is

a. The same as wave length
b. Half of the wave length
c. Twice the wave length
151
CHAPTER - VIII
QUESTIONNAIRE
Q.NO. ANS
1 D
2 E
3 C
4 B
5 D
6 D
7 D
8 D
9 B
10 C
11 D
12 C
13 C
14 D
15 D
16 A
17 B
18 B
19 B
20 B
21 C
22 B
23 C
24 A
25 B
152
CHAPTER - IX
ULTRASONIC INSPECTION
Ultrasonic inspection is carried out on plates, weldments, forgings, castings

etc in accordance with the code requirements. These requirements and
performance tolerances vary from one code to another, but their basic intent
remains the same, to assure accurate and linear data presentation.
Tolerance specified in this lesson generally reflects the requirements of

ASME Sec V which is guidance and it may or may not satisfy a particular code
requirements.
Linearity:
Prior to carry out any ultrasonic inspection, system performance or

instrument's linearity is to be checked, at the beginning of each period of extended
use or on periodic basis. Linearity can be best defined as the signals occurring after
equal time interval (e.g. multiple echoes from back wall) should appear with equal
spacing from CRT.
Horizontal linearity:
The horizontal linearity of an instrument can be determined by placing a

straight beam transducer on a suitable calibration block and adjusting delay and
sweep controls to display multiple echo patterns. Instrument reject control should be
off for all linearity checks. The echoes should be then adjusted as close as possible
to their respective scale divisions.
The relationship between the displayed thickness and the true material
thickness is used to verify horizontal linearity.
(E.g.) If 25 mm calibration block was selected for the check, each of the ten
echoes should represent 25mm of material thickness and should be precisely
located at 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10 respectively.
The tolerance is + or _ 2% of the full screen width in order to provide

adequate linearity.
Also, procedure may require that this check be performed at each range
setting on the instrument or each range setting to be used during the examination. A
non linear horizontal sweep will provide incorrect depth data during examination.
153
Vertical linearity:
The vertical linearity of an instrument can be assured by displaying two

indications (1st and 2nd BWE) on X-axis. This can be accomplished by coupling a
straight beam transducer on calibration block to get echoes near mid position on X-
axis. The echoes should be adjusted 100% and 50% full screen height by use of the
instrument gain control. After these adjustments have been made, the transducer
must be held steady and remain free of movement throughout the rest of the check.
To do this, generally, special probe with small calibration block fitted (e.g. KKN-23)
is used. The relationship between the 100% and the 50% full screen height echoes
is 2 to 1 ratio (100/50 =2). This ratio is then observed as the gain control of the
instrument is decreased in 2 dB increments to the point where the first echo is at
10% full screen height.
Maintaining a 2 to 1 ratio at each gain setting is evidence of vertical linearity.

A typical allowance for error in vertical linearity is 5% of full screen at each gain
setting. Instrument error in vertical linearity will result in inaccurate amplitude
response relationships from discontinuities or reference reflections.
Amplitude (Gain/Attenuator) control linearity
To check the accuracy of this control, a transducer is placed on a suitable

celebration block to produce one echo at Horizontal midscreen. With this echo
adjusted to 80% full screen height, increase and decrease the gain control for
various echo heights. This should be within tolerances: proper amplitude control
linearity will insure accurate dB comparison from one discontinuity to another over
the full screen height of the CRT, Records of the linearity checks should be
maintained and be traceable to the instrument.
If the instrument is incapable of confirming to the
linearity requirements of a code, it will require
internal electronic adjustment to the instruments to
correct its linearity error.
Echo set at % of FSH dB change Echo limit % of FSH

80% -6dB 32 to 48%
80% -12dB 16 to 24%
40% +6dB 64 to 96 %
20% +12dB 64 to 96 %
154
Angle probe:
When testing with an angle beam probe, the sound travels from the crystal in
the probe through the plastic delay block to the surface of the test specimen. A very
large percentage of parts tested using angle beam probes are made of steel. That is
why the angle marked on the angle probe is with the transverse refraction angle it
delivers in the steel. The most commonly available angles are 45, 60 & 70.
Special angles like 35& 80 are also available.
As far as the frequency is concerned, angle beam probes do not have the
variety we find in normal probes. The main reason for this is that high frequency
transverse waves already undergo a very high attention due to scatter at the grain
boundaries. Because of this, the range of angle probe is very low.
With the angle probes, we do not get reflection from back wall in plane
parallel test piece. The reflection is received either from the quadrant or from the
corner and no doubt from the reflector lying perpendicular to the beam.
So for the calibration, we need special blocks like V1 or V2 or Semi circle.

The curved surfaces of reference blocks serve as reference reflectors. In this, the
echoes used for calibration travel the same distances regardless of the refraction
angle of the probe. After the calibration of sound paths, (V path) the echo from the
discontinuity does not give any immediate information regarding the location. It is
only after the multiplication of the Beam path (BP) with the sine & cos of the
refraction angle B that we get surface distance/ projection distance (SD) and depth
(d).
The values derived are with respect to a particular point on the probe
radiating maximum energy called as Beam Index / Exit point/ Beam Exit at a correct
angle (the marked angle may deviate during use) So these tests are first to be
carried out.
Checking Beam Index
Maximize the echo from quadrant, the probe point coinciding with radius
focal point marked on the calibration block is correct Beam Index. Instead of
marking this point, the distance from the front of the probe to this point is found and
called an `X' value of the angle probe. Generally for krautkramer miniature probes it
is 12 mm but can vary during use.
It is better to do this calibration prior to checking the angle of the probe to

avoid any misleading indication.
155
Calibration
1. Calculate the minimum two echo positions from the calibration block.
2. Peak the first echo by proper positioning of probe at radius focal point.
3. Adjust delay and fine controls for 1st and 2nd quadrant echoes
respectively for positioning of the echoes.
Checking angle:
On V1 or V2 block, the angles are marked for checking the angle of the
probe.
Angle beam examination
Angle beam examinations have several distinct differences from straight

beam examinations. Angle beam examinations make use of shear waves rather
than compressional waves. This offers an increase in sensitivity. Since these shear
waves are propagated at an angle to the parts surfaces, the internal reaction when
no discontinuities are present reflected away from the transducer.
A discontinuity oriented perpendicular to the sound beam will cause

ultrasound to be reflected back to the transducer along these same angular paths of
beam propagation. Locating a discontinuity is not simple matter of determining its
depth below the transducer. The discontinuity must be located along an angular
sound path. It is this angular sound path that is represented on the CRT sweep.
Formula for discontinuity location
In order to determine its location, the following formula can be used.
PD = BP X sin θ
d = Bp X cos θ
PD = surface or projection distance. Distance from transducer exit point to a point

where material surface directly above discontinuity.
BP = Beam path. Distance displayed on CRT
Sin θ = Sine of transducer angle
d = discontinuity depth from the surface.
Cos θ = cosine of transducer angle.
An important factor for the application of angle probes is the so called “Skip
distance"
156
When an angle probe is coupled to plane parallel to work piece and moved
inside from the edge of the block, at one particular position of the angle probe the
ultrasonic wave will be reflected from the lower corner giving maximum indication.
The distance between the edges of the block to the beam index is called ½ skip
distances. At this location of the angle probe the distance observed on the screen is
called Beam path (BP) or ½ `V' paths. Further movement of the probe gives an
echo from the top edge of the block, now the distance is known as `Full skip
distance and now the distance absorbed on the screen is called Full beam path.
Formula for skip distance `SD' & `V' path calculation.
½ SD = t tan θ
SD = 2 t tan θ
½ `V' path = t/cos θ
V path = 2t / cos θ
During depth calculation, sometimes the calculated depth may work out
more than plate thickness. (This happens when the reading of reflector is more than
½ `V' path but less than `V' path). The true depth (depth from the top surface) is
calculated as.
True depth = Two times thickness - calculated depth of work piece.
157
Calibration of Projection distance
Project distance = BP x Sin θ

Where BP is Beam path
θ = Transducer angle used.
Defect Sizing
It is understood that the echo height seen on the screen is reflected energy.
The echo height to be representative of area of reflector, the centre of the reflector
should be on beam axis lying perpendicular such as FBH.
The Natural reflector in a material is unlikely to be a nature of FBH, so when

a defect is sized it should be clearly understood that it is Equivalent Flaw size (EFS)
and not Actual Flaw size.
Defects can be said to be small or large. Large reflector is the one whose
diameter is greater than the beam cross section at the testing range. Small reflector
is encircled at the testing range by the beam cross section.
Large Reflector
a. Half value / 6dB drop method

Mostly used for plotting lamination boundaries in plate testing. The echo
indication as compared to the maximum indication decreases by 6dB if half of the
sound beam strikes the reflector and half of it passes by. If by moving the probe, we
look for the 6dB drop points, then the axis of the beam (centre line of the probe)
points directly to the edge of the reflector.
Small reflector
20 dB drop Method: used to find the edge of discontinuity by plotting the points
where the indication of discontinuity drops to 10% (20dB) of the maximum echo.
a. Equivalent Reflector size

Blocks with FBH to compare echo heights.
b. DGS diagram
Distance, Gain and size method is also based on FBH. Generally for a small
reflector, instead of sizing a defect, practical method used in "GO / NO GO"
indication. That is drawing Distance Amplitude Correction (DAC) curve on the
screen called as Reference level. Any indication above this is unacceptable.
158
DAC curve for angle probe
1. Determine material type and thickness. For (e.g.) 25 mm steel.
2. Select an angle beam probe say 45.
3. Select a suitable calibration block (25mm of steel) that contains a reference
reflector. For this example, the reference reflector will be in the form of a
3/32" side drilled hole located at ½ T, T being equal to block thickness (i.e.
25mm)
4. Calibrate for 10mm test range.
5. Couple the transducer to the calibration block in a position that will produce a
maximum amplitude indication from the reference reflector at 2/8th `V' path.
6. Using the gain control, adjust this indication to 80% full screen height and
record the dB setting. This then becomes to reference Sensitivity Level
(RSL). Mark the peak of the indication on the CRT.
7. With no further adjustment to the gain control, couple the transducer in a
position to a produce a maximum amplitude indication from the reference
reflector at 6/8th `V' path. Mark the peak of the indication on the CRT.
8. With no adjustments to the gain Control, couple the transducer in a position
to produce a maximum amplitude indication from the reference reflector at
10/8th `V' path. Mark the peak of the indication in the CRT. Connect the dots
on the CRT with a smooth line.
Similar DAC curve can be plotted with normal probe generally using a side
drilled hole (SDH) offering maximum three distances from different
directions. (FBH can also be used for DAC curve plotting and there have to
be at least three holes of different depths)
ANGLE BEAM SCANNING TECHNIQUES
Rotational
To distinguish between lack of fusion defects and crack like defects (multi -
faceted). Lack of fusion defects give a signal which dies off quickly on rotational
scan where crack like defects continue to rise and fall.
Orbital
Interpretation of spherical defects (i.e.) porosity Orbital Scan retains a similar

signal on this type of defect.
Lateral
Mainly used to detect lengths. Lateral scan is also used when performing a
critical roof scan.
159
Traversing
It is mainly used to determine through-section or depth of defect. During

weld body scanning, a combination of lateral and traversing techniques is used.
COUPLANTS
In pulse echo contact testing, if a transducer is placed in contact with the

surface of a dry part very little energy is transmitted thro' the interface into the
material because of the presence of air between the transducer and the test
material. The air causes big differences in acoustic impedance at the interface. A
couplant is used between the transducer face and the test surface to ensure
efficient sound transmission from transducer to test specimen.
The couplant can be of liquids, semi liquid pastes and even some solids. A
couplant should have the following properties.
a. A couplant should be as thin as possible

b. A couplant must wet both the surface of the test specimen and the
face of the transducer and excludes all air between them.
c. It should be easy to apply
d. A couplant should be homogeneous and free from air bubbles or
solid particles in the case of a non-solid.
e. A couplant should be harmless to both test specimen and transducer.
f. A couplant must have the tendency to stay on the surface but easy to
remove.
g. A couplant has an acoustic impedance value between the impedance
value of the transducer face and the impedance value of the test
specimen that is preferably approaching that of the test surface.
160
In immersion testing, clean de-aerated tap water with a corrosion inhibitor
and a wetting agent is used for a couplant. The water temperature is maintained at
21C by automatic controls. Wetting agents are added to the water to ensure that
the surface is thoroughly wet, there by eliminating air bubbles.
In contact testing, the choice of couplant depends primarily on the test

surface conditions, rough or smooth, the temperature of the test surface, and the
position of the test surface (horizontal, slanted or vertical)
One part gelatin (cellulose) with two parts wetting agent is often used on
relatively smooth horizontal surfaces. For slightly rough surfaces, light oils (such as
engine oil) may also be used. Rough surfaces, hot surfaces and vertical surfaces
require the use of a heavier or special purpose couplants. In all cases, the couplant
selected must be as thin as possible and allow for consistent, effective results.
Couplant manufacturers offer a wide variety of special couplants.
161
CHAPTER X
DOCUMENTATION
The higher the value of a test object or the greater the importance of a
component with regard to the safety requirements of the complete object, e.g.
an aircraft bolt, then the more important the required ultrasonic documentation
becomes (product liability). On the one hand this documentation proves that
the test was completely and correctly carried out, and on the other hand
enables the test to be repeated at any time under the same conditions (test
reproducibilty).
The documentation, the test report of an ultrasonic test, roughly consists of 3

parts:
a. Data concerning the test object and the test method.

b. Data concerning the testing device.
c. Results of the test: Typical tabular list of all detected and evaluated
discontinuities, refer to the example report, if necessary, a drawing of
the test object with flaw positions.
The operator must record data during the test, especially data of the detected
discontinuity. Creation of the actual report is normally made later in the office.
The recordings must be frequently supplemented by calculations before the
operator transfers them into the report. The creation of a test report very often
takes as much time as the actual test itself and should be taken into account
when determining test expenditure. Even when working conscientiously,
transfer or calculation errors cannot be excluded, especially with large
amounts of data.
Modern ultrasonic instruments with memory and data transfer functions

greatly improve recording of the adjustment data and test results during the
test as well as creation of the test report and therefore ease the operator of a
burden, who can then concentrate on the test task. By directly storing of all
discontinuity data in the instrument, transfer errors can be excluded, position
coordinates of the detected discontinuities are entered into the instrument and
are therefore contained in the stored data set along with the A-Scan. If
required, the documentation can be printed at the test location, Fig. 71.
162
Fig. 71 USD 10: My Choice table with flaw data
Individual documentation matched to the test task is carried out with a PC.
The possibilities for measurement data processing are as versatile as the
programs offered on the market. In order to make the application of data
communication with a digital ultrasonic instrument flexible, a utility program is
very often used. This is normally a program which is easy to operate and
enables reliable data transfer between PC and test instrument.
In addition to this, all stored instrument settings (= Data set), the

corresponding adjustment parameters (= Function lists), the display contents
(= A-Scans) as well as the individual parameters can be recalled and stored
on a floppy disk or hard disk. Function lists are filed into an ASCII format, A-
Scans and LCD menus in normal graphic formats (PCX, IMG). A data set
corresponds to a complete instrument adjustment and is saved in a
hexadecimal format. This guarantees that by return transfer of the data set to
the test instrument exactly the same instrument settings are available. The
function lists and graphics are now available to the operator for further use.
Now he is able to use his own program (word processing, database) for
individual design of his own test documentation. Instrument settings and
display graphics are simply read into his program. This routine work is easily
made by a so called Macro. A macro is nothing more than a list of commands
belonging to the user program being used and runs automatically thus
creating the required documentation. The names of the files to be processed
are requested, in dialog, by the operator.
The following report is an example of documentation automatically produced

for a weld test. The test was made with the USK 7 D and the indications from
the discontinuities stored in the instrument. Finally, all data (function lists and
163
A-Scans) were stored on a disk using the program UltraDoc. The test report
was made with a macro from the program WordPerfect 5.1:
Ultrasonic test report
Sample Information to be provided
Indications to be recorded:
164
Interpretation of indications;
1. The weld process and joint preparation should be studied first before
evaluating the indication
2. The indications may relevant, false, geometrical, or due to mode

conversions.
3. True indications may be from a planar discontinuity, or from volume

discontinuity.
4. All planar discontinuity will be linear in one direction for the probe travel.
Such discontinuity can easily be identified by rotational scanning. If the
planar discontinuity is linear by rotating the probe about an axis, the
incident beam will be at an angle with respect to the normal, this will cause
the indication not get reflected back in the same direction, but get reflected
in a direction in which the angle of reflection is equal to the angle
incidence. Such indications will immediately vanish from the screen even
for small angle of tilt.
5. Volume discontinuity may be spherical (porosity, blow holes) or of irregular

shape, like slag inclusions. Porosity indication will be very small as it can
reflect the beam in small proportion only, and the rest are scattered
however by orbital scanning the echo height will not get changed. Slag
inclusion appears with pine tree appearance as surface is irregular and
also with depth (beam path) will vary continuously this causes the broad
pattern of echo on the sweep line.
6. By exactly co-ordinating the defect position with respect to the weld

configuration, the nature of the defect can be identified. For example the
reflection from incomplete penetration, lack of side wall fusion and crack
may look alike, but their nature is identified from their position in the weld.
7. Before taking decision for rejection of a joint the defect noticed may be
confirmed may be confirmed with some other geometry, by projecting the
beam in some other direction and towards the defect.
8. The relative size of the discontinuity with the known flaw should be
estimated, positioned, and reported.
9. Figures in the next page indicate the typical indications from typical flaws.
165
Indications of typical welding flaws
Change of
Discontinuity Nature CRT Pattern Scanning Method
Echo Pattern
Generally
Echo pattern
smooth surface,
and height do
Porosity with a small Orbital scanning
not change in
reflecting
height
surface
Not a smooth
Special scanning is
reflecting
Slag not required defect is
surface, located -------
inclusions confirmed by its
any where in
pattern
any shape
Located on the
By rotating the probe
edge of grove
to small angle the
preparation Echo
Lack of side normally reflected
generally disappears
wall fusion echo will be reflected
smooth and from the CRT
to the angle of
planar type
incidence
reflector.
Linear smooth
Incomplete
reflecting “” “”
penetration
surface
Cracks, “” “” “”
Miss match or Sharp reflecting

“” “”
high low surface
Reflection from
Undercut sharp v notch “” “”
like defect
166
CHAPTER XI
REPORT WRITING
I. IDENTIFICATION:
1. Dare of inspection :
2. Time of inspection :
3. Place of inspection :
4. Customer to whom the work is done:
5. Inspector carrying out the work:
6. Component examined-serival no. description of material.
7. Code, specification or standard used.
II. EQUIPMENT.
1. Flaw detector
2. Probe-size, frequency, angle
3. Calibration and reference blocks used.
4. Scanning manual-automatic
5. Couplant used
III. CALIBRATION
1. Sensitivity for all probes used

2. Time base for all probes used (a base range)
3. Attenuation and transfer corrections, where appropriate.
IV. TECIINIQUE:
1. Scans made (limits and coverage with each probe)

2. Sizing method used.
3. Recording and reporting level used
4. Limitations on inspection quality imposed by shape or situation of
object, time or other factors.
V. RESULTS:
1. Indications found
2. Scale drawing showing location and size of defects
3.
4. Relationship between defects found and acceptance standard.
167
VI. STYLE OF THE REPORT:
The report should be made in plain language. Technical terms should be used
in their correct senses, and initials or abbreviations should only be used after
you have used the full term once in association with that abbreviations, for
example “3mm diameter (ф) FBH. Results should be in tabular form, easy to
fellow Remember the person. Who reads the report may not be an expert in
ultrasonic testing.
168
MANUFACTURING STANDARDS
ACCEPTABLE NORMS FOR ULTRASONIC SOUNDNESS OF FORGINGS

PERMISSIBLE INDICATION PATTERNS
DEFECT CRACK DEFECT NATURE OF

CLASS GRADE ECHO PATTERN
ECHO % ECHO % DISTEN DEFECT
0 NIL 100
FINE NON
1 UP TO 50 100 ISOLATED Metallic
Inclusions
I
Coarse Non
2 50 – 100 100 Isolated Metallic
Inclusions
Fine
3 UP to 50 100 In zones Inclusions
Clustered
Coarse
II 4 50 – 100 100 In Zones Inclusion
Clustered.
Cracks
Porosity
5 25 – 75 75 – 25 Isolated
Bubbles
etc..
Cracks
Porosity
6 25 – 75 75 – 25 In Zones
Bubbles
etc.
III
Cracks
Porosity
7 100 100 – 50 Isolated
Bubbles
etc.
Cracks
Porosity
8 100 100 – 50 In Zones
Bubbles
etc.
Defects
IV 9 100 50 – 0 Isolated Larger than
Probe Dia.
Defects
10 100 50 – 0 In Zones Larger than
Probe Dia.
169
Sample Report
Ultrasound Analysis
SOUTHERN INSPECTION SERVICES

K2 Narayani Apartments, Velan Nagar, Valasaravakkam Chennai 600 087, Ph:24864836
ULTRASONIC TEST REPORT
Client : STAR ENGINEERING Date : 20-03-06 Work Order : 23
Reporot No : 6611
RAGHAV
Tested at : ENGG., Tested On : 20-03-06
KRAUT KRAMMER
Equipment : USM2 Test Std : ASME SEC V
Setting : Gain : 40 db Accept Std: ASME SEC VIII
Reject : 0 Ref Std : SEC V
Probe Used : Scanning Details :
Normal : Angle : 45º Method Pulse echo contact testing
4
Angle : Freq : mHz Couplant : Oil
T/R :
Sl.No DESCRIPTION DRG NO THICKNESS QTY

1 OD = DIA 180 X 20 MM KA 394239/A 20 MM 2 NO
2 OD = DIA 135 X 20 MM KA 306011 20 MM 1 NO
RESULT : NO SIGNIFICANT DEFECT RECORDABLE FOUND

ACCEPTABLE
Thickness Gauge
Report
Deviation Percentage
Mean Reading
Operator Name : For SOUTHERN INSPECTION SERVICES
170
SOUTHERN INSPECTION SERVICES
ULTRASONIC INSPECTION REPORT
WELD DISPLAY
WELD TYPE V
MTL THK 30 mm
WELD WIDTH 20 mm
WELD ANGLE 30 º
WELD DISTANCE 78 mm
Company Job number

Specification Date 04-29-08
PROBE
Test Object Type Angle Probe Model Tru-Sonic

Test Class Freq MHZ Gain 25.6 dB
BASIC
Material P-Zero 0.00 us REF dB +00 dB

PARAMETER
Instruction X-Value 12.8 mm Reject 00%
Operator Angle 60.0º Pulse 400V
Signature Crystal Mm Damp 200
Test Location Velocity 3240 m/s
Recorded Threshold Ala 80.0% Range 250 mm
Flaw Report Sa 106.0 mm Ra 78.9mm Da 7.0 mm
Thickness Report
Note:
Final Decision O Accepted O Not Accepted O Repaired & Accepted
171

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CHAPTER - I

FIRST AND BEST UT INSPECTOR :

WHY USE ULTRASONICS FOR NONDESTRUCTIVE MATERIAL

c = Sound velocity [km/s]

PRINCIPLE OF WAVE PROPAGATION

When a drum head is struck, vibrations are transferred to the air

Vibration is said to have the following properties, period, frequency wave

It is the time taken by the vibrating body to complete one cycle. It is

If a source makes 20 oscillations per second, then the source is said to be

If the vibrating source is having a frequency of 4 MHZ, it is understood that

Wave Length `λ'

The velocity of propagation at a particular temperature is dependant upon

Its unit is meter / second

Speed of sound in any gas

The speed of sound in any gas is a function of temperature, the molecular

Speed in various gases

The speed of sound for various gases at 0° C:

Carbon Dioxide 259

Speed and Temperature

v = 331.4 + 0.6Tc m/s

where Tc is the Celsius temperature.

The other names of the wave are compressional, plane, dilatational

Longitudinal velocity is given by

Schematic representation of longitudinal ultrasonic waves

Transverse velocity is given by

Where G is the shear modulus

Production of transverse waves

Surface wave velocity = 0.9 x VT

Production of Surface Waves

In symmetrical plate waves, there is longitudinal particle displacement

In asymmetrical plate waves, there is transverse particle displacement

Properties of plate waves

Production of Plate Waves

Table - Sound Velocity, Density, Acoustic Impedance

Aluminium Oxide 9000 5500 3.6 32.4

Bismuth 2180 1100 9.8 21.4

Brass 4430 2120 8.1 35.9

Cadmium 2780 1500 8.6 23.9

Cast Iron 2200 3500 6.9 24.2

Concrete 4600 - 2.0 9.2

Copper 4700 2260 8.9 41.8

Glass 4260 2560 3.6 15.3

Glycerin 1920 - 1.3 2.5

Gold 3240 1200 19.3 62.5

Grey casting 4600 2650 7.2 33.1

Hard Metal 6800 4000 11.0 74.8

Lead 2160 700 11.4 24.6

Magnesium 5770 3050 1.7 9.8

Motor oil 1740 - 0.87 1.5

Nickel 5630 2960 8.8 49.5

Perspex 2730 1430 1.18 3.2

Platinum 3960 1670 21.4 84.7

Polyamide (nylon) 2620 1080 1.1 2.8

Polyethylene 2340 925 0.94 2.2

Polystyrol 2380 1150 1.06 2.523

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC

Quartz 5760 - 2.65 15.2

Quartz Glass 5570 3515 2.6 14.5

Silver 3600 1590 10.5 37.8

Steel (low Alloy) 5940 3250 7.85 46.6

Steel (Calibration block)

Catin block 5920 3250 7.85 46.5

Tin 3320 1670 7.3 24.2