Veterinary Parasitology: Regional Studies and Reports 22 (2020) 100456

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Veterinary Parasitology: Regional Studies and Reports

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Original Article

Seroepidemiology of Toxoplasma gondii in small ruminants in Northwest T

Ethiopia
Sisay Esubalewa, Zewdu Seyoum (Zed) Tarekegn Drb, , Wudu Temesgen Jemberu Drb,
⁎

Shimelis Dagnachew Nigatub, Mulugeta Kussab, Abrham Ayele Tsegayeb,

Girma Birhan Asteraye Drb, Basazinew Bogaleb, Mersha Chanie Kebede Profb
a
Estie District Livestock and Fishery Development Office, Amhara Regional state, Amhara, Ethiopia
b
The University of Gondar, College of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, Gondar, Ethiopia

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: This cross-sectional study with a cluster random sampling method was undertaken from November 2018 to May
Northwest Ethiopia 2019 to estimate the prevalence and assess the potential risk factors of T. gondii seropositivity, and to assess the
Risk factors association of the T. gondii seropositivity with reproductive losses in small ruminants in Northwest Ethiopia. A
Seroepidemiology total of 576 blood samples from 135 small ruminant flocks were collected and assayed for T. gondii IgG anti-
Small ruminants
bodies using the Toxo-latex slide agglutination test. A questionnaire survey was also conducted to gather in-
Toxoplasma gondii
formation on the potential risk factors of T. gondii seropositivity and on the status of reproductive losses in the
small ruminant flocks. The study demonstrated a high flock and animal level T. gondii seroprevalence of 96.3%
(95% CI: 91% - 98%) and 70.48% (95% CI: 68% - 79%), respectively. Mixed effect logistic regression analysis of
the potential risk factors showed that the odds of seropositive for T. gondii was significantly higher in sheep
(OR = 1.7, 95%CI: 1.19–2.46) than in goats, in adult (OR = 1.6, 95%, CI: 1.11–2.31) than in young, in the
presence of cats (OR = 2, 95%CI:1.32–3.04) than in the absence of cats, in the lack of knowledge on the role of
cats as a pathogen source than knowing it (OR = 1.82, 95% CI:1.21–2.77). The study also showed that the
likelihoods of experiencing the abortion, neonatal death and weak birth in the previous one year in T. gondii
seropositive flocks were 20.76 (95% CI: 2.2–195.1, p < 0.001), 8.90 (95% CI: 1.99–83.0, p = 0.021) and 9.33
(95% CI: 1.1–86.2, p = 0.019) times more than the seronegative flocks, respectively. In conclusion, this study
revealed high flock and animal level seroprevalence of T. gondii in the small ruminant population in northwest
Ethiopia, suggesting that lamb and goat might be a source of this pathogen for human infection if their infected
meat is consumed undercooked or uncooked. Besides, the observed association of T. gondii seropositivity with
reproductive losses may suggest the economic importance of the pathogen for the small ruminant producers.
Therefore, it warrants control attention to reduce its economic and public health burden in the study areas.
Further works on the economic impacts, bioassay, isolation, and genetic characterization of the pathogen are
suggested.

1. Introduction
Toxoplasma gondii is an important food and waterborne obligate
intracellular protozoan parasite affecting animals and humans Dubey,
2009; Schlüter et al., 2014). Globally, it infects one-third of the human
population and results in substantial health and economic concerns.
Food animals are sources of human infection (Dubey, 2010). Humans
can acquire the infection through 1) consumption of raw or under-
cooked meat of food animals containing infective tissue cysts; 2) con-
sumption of contaminated food and water with environmental oocysts;
and 3) congenitally from infected mother to the fetus (Dubey, 2010).
Domestic cats and wild felids play a key role within the transmission
dynamics of the pathogen to humans and animals because they are the
sole definitive hosts that excrete environmentally resistant oocysts in
their faeces (Dubey, 2010). Infection in felines occurs mainly through
the consumption of infected tissues from intermediate hosts (Dubey,
2010; Robert-Gangneux and Dardé, 2012). The infection of cats and
other felids also occurs from the ingestion of sporulated oocysts.
Toxoplasma gondii infection in the small ruminants may result in
congenital infections (related to embryonic death, fetal resorption/

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: Zewdu.seyoum@uog.edu.et (Z.S.Z. Tarekegn).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vprsr.2020.100456
Received 8 May 2020; Received in revised form 3 August 2020; Accepted 25 August 2020
Available online 29 August 2020
2405-9390/ © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
S. Esubalew, et al.
mummification, abortion, stillbirth or neonatal death) and reduced
flock milk production (Wang et al., 2011; Schlüter et al., 2014; Al-
Kappany et al., 2018); subsequently posing a possible challenge to the
small ruminant producers (Robert-Gangneux and Dardé, 2012). Meat
from infected sheep and goats is a very important source of human
infection (Dubey, 2009) and thus pose a zoonotic risk because humans
can acquire the pathogen from infected sheep and goats through raw or
undercooked meat and milk consumption (Yang et al., 2012; Al-
Kappany et al., 2018).
Various studies have reported the seroprevalence of T. gondii in
small ruminants across the world using different serological tests (Wang
et al., 2011; Yang et al., 2012; Gebremedhin et al., 2013; Gazzonis
et al., 2015; Al-Kappany et al., 2018; Rasti et al., 2018; Sah et al., 2018;
Bentum et al., 2019; Pereira et al., 2020). In Ethiopia, small ruminants
have been kept for income generation, sociocultural role, and animal
protein source, accounting for up to 35% of meat and 14% milk con-
sumption in the country. Over 63 million heads of small ruminants are
raised under diverse agro-ecological zones of Ethiopia (CSA, 2018);
however, geographically limited studies on T. gondii seropositivity have
been done in the country (Negash et al., 2004; Teshale et al., 2007;
Gebremedhin et al., 2013; Zewdu et al., 2013; Tegegne et al., 2016;
Tilahun et al., 2018) and particularly no seroprevalence study has been
done in the northwest part of the country. The findings of these pre-
vious studies have shown that the seroprevalence of T. gondii antibodies
in small ruminants ranges from 11.6% to 74.9% (Bekele and Kasali,
1989; Teshale et al., 2007; Gebremedhin et al., 2013; Tegegne et al.,
2016). Within the country, the causes of most reproduction losses
(abortion, stillbirth and neonatal deaths) within the flocks of small
ruminants are not well documented and also the association with the
seroprevalence of T. gondii has not been well noted (Teshale et al.,
2007; Gebretensay et al., 2019). Data on the seroprevalence of T. gondii
in small ruminants would be caring for planning and implementing
precautionary measures for public health and economic impacts.
Therefore, the objectives of our study were: 1) to estimate the ser-
oprevalence and the possible risk factors of Toxoplasma gondii infection
in small ruminants in Northwest Ethiopia and 2) to assess the re-
lationship of seropositivity for T. gondii with reproductive losses in the
small ruminants.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Study areas
The study was conducted in Estie and Gondar- Zuria districts,
Amhara regional state, northwest Ethiopia. Estie district is situated at
11°39′59.99” N latitude and 38°09′60.00″ E longitude with an altitude
ranging from 1500 to 3420 m above sea level. The district annual
temperature and rainfall range from 8.3 °C - 25 °C and 1307-1500 mm,
respectively. According to Estie district Animal Resource and Health
Care Office (EDARHCO, 2017); its livestock population comprises about
176,737 cattle, 86,487 sheep, 66,696 goats, and 39,938 equines.
Gondar-Zuria district: is also located at 12° 40′ 0″ N latitude and 37° 20′
0″ E longitude with an altitude ranges from 1966 to 2133 m above sea
level. The district average minimum and maximum annual temperature
and rainfall range from 24 °C–33 °C and 950 - 1035 mm, respectively.
According to the Gondar-Zuria District Agricultural office (2015)
GZDAO, 2015, the livestock population in the district includes 212,164
cattle, 75,324 sheep, 97,640 goats, 28,345 equines, and 173,391 do-
mestic chickens.
2.2. Study animals
The study animals were indigenous sheep and goats kept under
extensive management in the mixed crop-livestock production system
of the area. Animals, which six and above months of age were included
in the sampling process.
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Veterinary Parasitology: Regional Studies and Reports 22 (2020) 100456
2.3. Study design and sample size
This cross-sectional study with a cluster random sampling was un-
dertaken from November 2018 to May 2019. The sample size was
calculated using a formula given by Dohoo et al. (2003). Expected
prevalence (Pexp) of 50%, desired absolute precision (d) of 5% and a
confidence level of 95% were considered for sample size calculation.
Therefore, 384 small ruminants were considered for sampling purposes.
However, to account for the design effect associated with the clustering
of study units within flocks and locations, the sample size was inflated
by 50% and that resulted in a total sample size of 576 small ruminants.
2.4. Blood sample collection and serum separation
Whole blood samples (about 3–5 ml) were collected aseptically
through jugular vein puncture using 10 ml plain vacutainer tubes. All
necessary information related to each animal: sex (female and male),
age (adult: > 1 year and young: ≤ 1 year), species (sheep and goat) and
reproductive failure reports (abortion, stillbirth and fetal death) were
properly labeled on blood collection tubes and the data recording sheet.
The blood samples were then allowed to clot in a slant position for a few
minutes and centrifuged at 4000 rpm for 5 min to separate the sera.
Subsequently, sera were decanted into 1.5 ml Eppendorf tubes and kept
at −20 °C until serological analysis for the presence of anti- T. gondii
antibodies.
2.5. Questionnaire survey
A pretested semi-structured questionnaire survey was conducted
during blood sample collection by interviewing owners or attendants to
assess the potential risk factors for T. gondii infection in sheep and goat
population. The hypothesized potential risk factors for T. gondii such as
having knowledge on the role of a cat as a source of a pathogen (yes/
no), altitude (highland: ≥ 2300, midland: 1500–2300 and low-
land: ≤ 1500 m above sea level (m.a.s.l)), flock size (≤ 10, 11–20
and > 20), presence of house as well as feral cats in or around the
household (yes/no), presence of rodents and wild feline in the house-
hold (yes/no), cat-feed sources (raw animal product, cooked animal
product, household leftover or hunting), dead animal disposal method
(buried, feeding for cat and dog or throw away in the field), and animal
feed contamination by cat faces (yes/no) were assessed. Also, previous
experiences of owners/attendants about the occurrence of reproductive
losses in breeding animals at flock or a household level were inter-
viewed. Thus, reproductive failures such as a history of abortion (yes/
no), neonatal death (yes/no) and weak birth (yes/no) over the previous
one year were recorded.
2.6. Serological analysis
Toxoplasma gondii antibodies were assayed in the collected serum
samples using the Toxo-latex slide agglutination test (SPINREACT, S.A/
S.A.U, GIRONA, SPAIN) following the previous reports (Ibrahim et al.,
2014; Tegegne et al., 2016) and manufacturer's recommendations.
Agglutinates were detected using the naked eye and stereomicroscope.
The presence of agglutination was considered as positive at a titer of
≥1:2 and indicates an antibody concentration equal to or greater than
4 IU/ml. The herd also considered when at least one animal was found
positive. The laboratory procedures were performed at the University of
Gondar, College of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, Veter-
inary Parasitology Laboratory.
2.7. Data management and analysis
The data generated was stored in the Microsoft Excel spreadsheet
(2010) and analyzed using STATA Version14 software for windows.
The data were summarized using descriptive statistics. Seroprevalence
S. Esubalew, et al. Veterinary Parasitology: Regional Studies and Reports 22 (2020) 100456

Table 1
Univariable and multivariable mixed-effect logistic regression analysis of potential risk factors for Toxoplasma gondii.
Variables Category No. of No. of Prevalence% Univariable Multivariable
examined positive (95%CI)
COR (95% CI) P-value AOR (95%CI) P-value

Species Goat 281 182 65 (0.59–0 0.70) 1.0

Sheep 295 224 76 (0.71–0.80) 1.72(1.19–2.47) 0.003 1.90(1.28–2.82) 0.001
Sex Male 131 89 68 (0.59–0.75) 1.0
Female 445 317 71 (0.67–0 0.75) 1.16(0.77–1.78) 0.467
Age Young 209 134 64 (0.57–0 0.70) 1.0
Adult 367 272 74 (0 0.69–0.78) 1.6(1.11–2.31) 0.011 1.76(1.20–2.58) 0.004
Altitude Low land 80 53 66 (0.55–0.75) 1.0
Mid land 354 250 71 (0.66–0.75) 1.2(0.7–2.0) 0.442
High land 142 103 73.5 (0.65–0.79) 1.3(0.7–2.3) 0.326
Dead animal disposal Buried 40 11 28 (0.15–0.43) 1.0
Feeding for cat 435 316 73 (0.68–0.77) 7(3.3–14.4) < 0.001
Throw away 49 39 80(0.65–0.89) 10(3.8–27.4) < 0.001
Cat feed source Cooked animal 45 10 22.2 (0.12–0.37) 1.0
product
Hunting 188 139 73.9 (0.67–0.79) 9.92(4.58–21.55) < 0.001
Household left over 101 81 80.1 (0.71–0.87) 14.17(6.02–33.38) < 0.001
Raw animal product 123 107 86.9 (0.79–0.92) 23.4(9.73–56.29) < 0.001
Knowledge on the cat as a pathogen Yes 398 266 67 (0.62–0.71) 1.0
sources No 178 140 77 (0.72–0.84) 1.82(1.21–2.77) 0.004 1.89(1.22–2.92) 0.004
Flock size ≤ 10 239 166 69(0.63–0.75) 1.0
11–20 195 139 71(0.65–0.77) 1.09(0.72–1.67) 0.679
> 20 142 101 71(0.63–0.78) 1.08(0.68–1.79) 0.731
Cat-feed contamination No 92 62 67 (0.57–0.76) 1.0
Yes 364 274 75 (0.71–0.79) 1.47(0.91–2.42) 0.125
Feral cat presence No 226 159 70 (0.64–0.76) 1.0
Yes 350 247 71 (0.66–0.75) 1.01(0.70–1.46) 0.955
Cat presence No 120 70 58 (0 0.49–0.67) 1.0
Yes 456 336 74 (0.69–0.78%) 2(1.32–3.04) 0.001 1.70(1.09–2.64) 0.018
Wild feline presence No 162 182 65 (0.56–0.71) 1.0
Yes 414 224 76 (0.68–0.77) 1.50(1.02–2.22) 0.038

COR = crude odds ratio, AOR = adjusted odds ratio.

of T. gondii infection was calculated by dividing the total number of 3. Results

seropositive animals to the total number of examined animals.
Similarly, flock level seroprevalence was calculated as the number of
flocks with at least one positive animal divided by the total number of
flocks tested. Mixed effect logistic regression analysis was used to
identify potential risk factors associated with Toxoplasma seropositivity.
First, a univariable logistic regression analysis with the flock as a
random effect was done was made and potential risk factors (ex-
planatory variables) with p-values ≤0.25 were screened for the mul-
tivariable mixed-effect logistic regression. Before running the multi-
variable mixed-effect logistic model, the explanatory variables were
checked for multicollinearity using the variance inflation factor (VIF),
and a variance inflation factor value of greater than 10 was considered
the cut-off point for the collinearity diagnostics (Johnston et al., 2018).
The associations were considered statistically significant when
P < 0.05 at 95% confidence level. Odds ratios (OR) at a 95% con-
fidence interval (CI) were used to express the strength of the risk of the
diseases associated with the tested factors. Association of reproductive
losses (abortion, neonatal death, and weak birth) with seropositivity for
T. gondii at flock level was analyzed similarly using mixed-effect logistic
regression considering reproductive flosses as outcome variables and
seropositivity as the explanatory variable.
2.8. Ethical consideration
Ethical approval for the study protocol was obtained from the
Institutional Review Board of the University of Gondar (reference letter
No: O/V/P/RCS/05/1237/2018; On May 16, 2018). Samples and other
available data were taken from owners after informed consent ex-
plaining the purpose, benefit, and possible risks of the study.
3.1. Questionnaire survey on potential risk factors for Toxoplasma infection
A total of 135 small ruminant owners/attendants participated in the
questionnaire survey aimed at collecting data about potential risk fac-
tors for toxoplasmosis. Out of 135 respondents, 87.75% did not know
concerning the role of a cat as a pathogen source. All of them practiced
an extensive management system. Among the respondents, 84.4% had a
cat in their homes. The most frequently mentioned feed sources for
domestic cat was hunting (34%) followed by household leftover (32%),
raw animal product (26%) and cooked animal product (8%).
Respondents also stated that wild felines (67%) and feral cats (86%)
present in the area and around their home. Of the respondents, 54% of
them stated that the time of abortion for sheep and goats was mostly in
the early gestation period while 19% of them said in mid-gestation and
27% in the last gestation. In the study areas, farmers disposed of dead
animals in different ways, such as burying (8%), feeding for cat and dog
(31%), and throw away in the environment (61%).
3.2. Seroprevalence and risk factor analysis
3.2.1. Flock and animal level seroprevalence
In the current study, a total of 576 small ruminants' sera from 135
flocks were assayed by Toxo-latex slide agglutination test. The overall
IgG seropositivity for T. gondii was found 96.29% (95% CI: 91% - 98%)
and 70.48% (95% CI: 68% - 79%) at flock and animal level, respec-
tively. Higher animal level seroprevalence was recorded in Estie 74%
(95% CI: 68% - 78%) than in Gondar- Zuria district 67% (95%CI: 61% -
72%). However, the difference was not statistically significant
(p > 0.05). Seroprevalence of T. gondii in young sheep (70%; 95%CI:
61% - 77.6%) was significantly (p < 0.05) lower than in adult sheep
(80%; 95%CI: 73% - 86%). Similarly, it was significantly (p = 0.020)

3
S. Esubalew, et al.
lower in young goats (54%; 95% CI: 43% - 65%) than in adult goats
(69%; 95%CI: 62% - 75%).
3.2.2. Analysis of risk factors
From the total of 12 potential risk factors considered in the uni-
variable logistic regression analysis, species, age, the presence of cats
and wild felines, cat feeding sources, dead animal disposal methods and
knowledge on the role of a cat as pathogen source showed association
with of T. gondii with p < 0.25 (Table 2) and qualified for the risk
factor analysis using the multivariable mixed-effect logistic recession
analysis.
Among those potential risk factors screed for multivariate logistic
regression analysis cat feed sources, animal feed contamination by cat
faces, and dead animal disposal methods were removed from the model
because of multi-collinearity with cat's presence. In the multivariable
analysis, age, species, the presence of a cat, and knowledge on the role
of the cat as a pathogen source found to have a statistically significant
effect on the seropositivity for T. gondii in the small ruminant popula-
tion (p < 0.05). The risk of acquiring T. gondii infection was higher in
adult than young (OR = 1.76), in sheep than goat (OR = 1.90), in the
presence of cat than the absence of cat (OR = 1.70), in lack of
knowledge on the role of the cat as a pathogen source than knowl-
edgeable (OR = 1.89) (Table 1).
3.3. Association of Toxoplasma gondii seropositivity with reproductive
losses
Reproduction losses (abortion, neonatal death, and weak birth)
identified in this study were significantly associated with seropositivity
for T. gondii (P < 0.05). The likelihoods of experiencing the abortion,
neonatal death, and weak birth in the previous one-year in the ser-
opositive flocks were 20.76, 8.9, and 9.33 times more than seronegative
flocks, respectively (Table 2).
4. Discussion
Small ruminants (sheep and goat) are important animal protein
sources (meat and milk) and play a crucial role in the food and nutrition
security in Ethiopia. However, products derived from these animals
could be important sources of zoonotic disease pathogens. One of such
zoonotic disease pathogens is Toxoplasma gondii. As intermediate hosts,
small ruminants are important sources of T. gondii for human infection.
This study has indicated the widespread occurrence of T. gondii infec-
tion in the small ruminant population in northwest Ethiopia with a high
flock and animal level seroprevalence of 96.29% and 70.48%, respec-
tively. This coincides with the previous studies in Ethiopia, which si-
milarly reported high seroprevalence of T. gondii in small ruminants
(Negash et al., 2004; Teshale et al., 2007; Tegegne et al., 2016). Simi-
larly, the present findings are compatible with the reports of Hove et al.
(2005) from Zimbabwe, Al-Kappany et al. (2018) from Egypt, Pereira
et al. (2020) from Sao-Tome and Principe, and Gazzonis et al. (2015)
from Italy. But, the present finding is higher than some other previous
reports from Ethiopia (Gebremedhin et al., 2013, Gebremedhin et al.,
2013a, 2014; Zewdu et al., 2013; Gebremedhin and Gizaw, 2014), from
Table 2
Reproductive lose status of flocks and the association between reproductive loses and Toxoplasma seropositivity.
Reproductive loss. No. of flocks Toxoplasma seropositivity % (95% CI)
Abortion Yes 110 99 (93.7–99.9)
No 25 84 (63.6–94.0)
Neonatal death Yes 91 98.9 (92.0–99.8)
No 44 90.9 (77.8–96.6)
Weak birth Yes 92 98.9 (92.5–99.8)
No 43 90.6 (77.3–96.5)
4
Veterinary Parasitology: Regional Studies and Reports 22 (2020) 100456
Africa (Fereig et al., 2016; Bentum et al., 2019), from Asia (Wang et al.,
2011; Rasti et al., 2018; Bachan et al., 2018; Sah et al., 2018;
Pagmadulam et al., 2020) and Europe (Cenci-Goga et al., 2013; García-
Bocanegra et al., 2013; Lopes et al., 2013). We hypothesized that many
factors attributed to this variation among reports such as diagnostic
tests used and their cut-off values, geographical and climate variations,
hygienic status difference, presence and relative density of the cat po-
pulation, access of contaminated feed and water to the study animals,
sample size and management system.
Species of small ruminants have shown a significant effect on the
seropositivity for T. gondii. Sheep had higher seropositivity for anti- T.
gondii antibodies (76%) than in goats (67%). Published reports gen-
erally show that the prevalence in sheep is higher than in goats (García-
Bocanegra et al., 2013; Lopes et al., 2013; Fereig et al., 2016; Rasti
et al., 2018). This conforms to the previous reports in Ethiopia (Negash
et al., 2004; Gebremedhin et al., 2013, 2014; Gebremedhin and Gizaw,
2014; Tegegne et al., 2016; Tilahun et al., 2018) and across the globe
(Tzanidakis et al., 2012; Gazzonis et al., 2015; Bentum et al., 2019;
Tagwireyi et al., 2019; Pagmadulam et al., 2020). This might be as-
cribed to the differences in feeding behavior because sheep are more
likely to acquire sporulated oocysts from the pasture during grazing
close to the soil than goats which have a preference for browsing. On
the other hand, authors from elsewhere in the world had documented a
higher prevalence in goats than in sheep (Abu-Dalbouh et al., 2012; Al-
Kappany et al., 2018; Tonouhewa et al., 2019; Pereira et al., 2020).
According to these authors, this might be associated with herding
practices and the behavior of caprine since they are accustomed to
higher activity and movement that increases the probability of contact
with contaminated sources, although these require further investiga-
tion.
In the current survey, age has also shown a significant association
with anti-Toxoplasma gondii antibodies seropositivity. The adult animals
were 1.6 times more prone to seropositivity for anti- T. gondii antibodies
than young animals. Similar results were also confirmed by
Gebremedhin et al. (2013a), Zewdu et al. (2013), Gebremedhin et al.
(2014), Gazzonis et al. (2015), Tegegne et al. (2016), Sah et al. (2018)
and Pereira et al. (2020). This variation might be attributed to the
cumulative effect of age as compared with younger animals. Older
animals are more likely to acquire repeatedly the sporulated oocysts
from the environment as they lived longer. Other previous reports have
also shown a higher exposure risk associated with increasing age
(Teshale et al., 2007; Bachan et al., 2018; Sah et al., 2018; Tilahun
et al., 2018).
The risk factor analysis further showed a significant effect of having
a cat in the household on the seropositivity for T. gondii in the study
animals (p < 0.05). This suggests that cats could be important sources
of T. gondii for hosts such as grazing animals through infectious oocysts
contamination of the environment. This finding is consistent with
previous studies (Abu-dalbouh et al., 2012; Deng et al., 2016; Al
Hamada et al., 2019). The presence of cats is imperative in the life cycle
of T. gondii and results in increasing seroprevalence among inter-
mediate hosts in various studies (Dubey, 2010).
Although feral cats are important in the epidemiology of Toxoplasma
gondii, it is astonishing that the seropositivity in small ruminants was
OR (95%CI) P-value
20.76 (2.2–195.1) 0.0003
8.90 (1.99–83.0) 0.021
9.33 (1.1–86.2) 0.019
S. Esubalew, et al.
not significantly associated with the presence of feral cats. This might
be because in flocks where feral cats absent in the surrounding,
household cats and wild felids would access and contaminate the feed
and water sources of animals. Moreover, according to Tzanidakis et al.
(2012), farmers might not notice feral cats around their house or on the
grazing areas, which can be responsible for the contamination of pas-
tures or feed and water sources.
Toxoplasma gondii infection in sheep and goats can cause embryo/
fetal resorption or mummification, abortion, stillbirth, fetal death, the
birth of a weak lamb or kid (Pavlović and Ivanović, 2005; Givens and
Marley, 2008; Abu-Dalbouh et al., 2010). This study demonstrated a
significant association between flocks having a history of reproductive
losses (abortion, neonatal death, and weak birth) and flock level ser-
opositivity for T. gondii (P < 0.05). Similar findings were reported by
Gebremedhin et al. (2013) and Heidari et al. (2013). In our study,
99.9% of flocks having a history of abortion resulted in T. gondii posi-
tive reaction. This finding is supported by Ahmed et al. (2008) who
reported as all aborted ewes and does reveal a positive reaction for T.
gondii infection. Moreover, Abu-Dalbouh et al. (2012) also revealed that
from 93 flocks that had cases of abortion, 40 flocks (43%) had at least
one T. gondii PCR-positive animal. On the other hand, in Ethiopia,
neonatal losses have been reported to be higher from T. gondii infection
in sheep (Gebremedhin et al., 2013; Gebretensay et al., 2019); thus the
findings are supported by our report. This is strengthened in the as-
sertion that parasite is one of the main causes of abortion, neonatal
losses, and weak birth in sheep and goat population (Dubey, 2009;
Caldeira et al., 2011). Borde et al. (2006) also observed T. gondii de-
creases the fertility rate of goats and increase mortality and abortion
rate.
In conclusion, the current study revealed high seroprevalence of T.
gondii in the small ruminant population in northwest Ethiopia, sug-
gesting that lamb and goat might be a source of this pathogen for
human infection if their infected meat is consumed undercooked or
uncooked. Species, age, cat's presence around the farm, and knowledge
on the role of the cats as pathogen sources were identified as risk factors
for T. gondii seropositivity. The study also demonstrated seropositivity
for T. gondii was associated with reproductive losses with an important
economic consequence for flock owners. Therefore, it warrants control
attention to reduce its economic and public health concerns. Further
works on the economic impacts, bioassay, isolation, and genetic char-
acterization of the pathogen are suggested.
Ethical statement
Ethical approval for the study protocol was obtained from the
Institutional Review Board of the University of Gondar (reference letter
No: O/V/P/RCS/05/1237/2018; On May 16, 2018). Samples and other
available data were taken from owners after informed consent ex-
plaining the purpose, benefit and possible risks of the study.
Declaration of Competing Interest
We have no conflict of interest with this manuscript or report.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the owners of sheep and goats who allowed
collecting blood samples from their animals. We would also like to
acknowledge the Office of Vice President for Research and Community
Service, the University of Gondar for its financial support.
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