Daily process mineralogy:

A metallurgical tool for

optimized copper leaching

Although future copper ores will increasingly require concentrator operations, Wolfgang Baum, Kevin Ausburn and
Randy Zahn. FLSmidth, USA
heap and stockpile leaching (including bio-leaching of low grade primary
sulfides) will continue to represent a significant production segment in copper
mining. Future copper leach operations will be faced with lower grades, harder,
finer grained and more acid-consuming ores, complex mineralogy and cost
increases related to water, power, reagents and steel wear. It is, therefore,
imperative that existing and new leach operations are well-designed and have
robust data bases and daily control of the ore feed mineralogy. In order to
achieve optimal and consistent crushing, best-practice agglomeration, good
permeability, efficient curing, and lowest acid consumption, a leach operation
will require quantitative routine mineralogy data. Several heap leach operations
in Arizona, Peru and Northern Chile have benefited from long-term mineralogi-
cal feed and leach residue analyzes. Typically, modern laboratory technology
such as xrd Rietveld, near infrared, optical microscopy and automated mineral
analyzers were used. The application of the characterization techniques for
daily blast hole analysis in two Arizona mines and select operations in Chile
and Peru has minimized ore routing errors, supported a better p80 and
throughput in crushing, reduced permeability failures, and optimized hydro-
metallurgical treatment. This paper provides application examples and recom-
mendations for production mineralogy in conventional copper leaching,
bio-leaching and/or hybrid heap-stockpile concepts. The use of automated
small to large mineralogy laboratory modules for mine-site mineralogy will
be illustrated.

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INTRODUCTION
Future mining of sulfide ores will be faced with lower grades, harder and finer grained rock
matrices, complex mineralogy, more reagent consumption, remote locations, severe staff shortages,
and cost escalations for power, water, reagents and (steel) wear. To exacerbate these challenges, the
cyclical exploration approach may not be able to provide sufficient “re-fills” in the reserve
pipelines. High throughput heap leach (and stockpile bio-leach) operations of the future will have
to use considerably better ore characterization and production control mineralogy in order to
achieve good copper extraction while maintaining low operating cost.
These better ore characterization approaches were pioneered in the 1980s and started to become
increasingly accepted in the new copper leach operations in Chile in the 1990s.
One case study example is the step-changing process mineralogy work at the El Indio gold-silver-
copper operation (then owned by St. Joe Minerals Corporation) which resulted in substantial plant
metallurgy improvements and significant gold, silver and copper recovery increases (Baum et al
1989).
A break-through for process mineralogy for copper leach operations was accomplished with the
extensive use of mineralogical ore characterization by both the El Abra and Radomiro Tomic leach
operations. Specifically at Radomiro Tomic, the first robust, semi-quantitative copper and alteration
mineralogy was carried out on large sample numbers and probably contributed to good startup
and continuously high leach extraction (Cuadra C. and Rojas S. , 2001) and Baum 1998b cited in
Cuadra and Rojas).

Challenges in copper leaching

A ground rule for optimized copper leaching (J.Campbell, 2004, pers. comm.) states “…maximize
your first cycle leach recovery and control your mineralogy…”
The copper leach operations of the past had the advantage of relatively good ore grades combined
with oxide copper mineralogy. These ore types are becoming depleted and a variety of ores
including secondary sulfide ores, mixed oxide-sulfide ores, bornite-dominated and, finally, low-
grade chalcopyrite ores will make up the feeds of the future. Also, the future ores may be harder
and will have high(er) acid consumption depending on the host rock type and increase of skarns
and volcanic rocks. Finally, in order to compensate for the declining grades, leach operations
require higher throughput. All of the factors mentioned will place considerable demands on good
ore control which is synonymous with reliable ore characterization.
Operating competitive future heap and bio-stockpile leaching will not be economically attractive
without routine quantitative feed and leach residue mineralogy. Mineralogical analyses, today, are
capable of providing daily/weekly data on:

Mineralogical data Process parameters optimized by mineralogy

Overall gangue mineralogy Geo-technical features
Pyrite content Blast indexing & crusher efficiency
Copper deportment Agglomeration
Clay content Curing requirements

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Acid consumers Permeability failures
Salting potential Acid, Ferric, PLS Impurities, Cu extraction

Although diagnostic extraction tests (i.e. flash leach tests), copper assays, bottle roll, column and
mini heap tests remain baseline metallurgical tools, they cannot and will not provide the answers
for low recoveries, high acid consumption, poor agglomeration and low permeability (to name a
few). Mineralogical analyses are required to assess the cause(s) for poor metallurgy.
The following examples (Tables 1 and 2) illustrate the importance of mineralogy for identifying
leach problems:

Table 1 Variance in Acid Consumption – Oxide Leach Ore – Northern Chile

Parameter Ore Type A Ore Type B

Leach extraction, % 74.3 58.9
Acid consumption, lbs/t 18.9 29.6
Matrix fracturing, % 26.5 41.2
Iron hydroxides, % 16.2 25.4
Ca-Montmorillonite,% 4.3 15.8
Modified after Baum, Smith & Sepulveda 1996

Table 2 Diagnostic Quick Leach & Copper Deportment Errors

Total Cu = 0.89% - Cyanide Soluble Cu = 69%

Diagnostic Leach Conclusion: 77% Covellite/Chalcocite Mineralogy
Actual Mineralogy
Copper Mineral % Distribution Leach Type
Cu-Fe-hydroxide/Chrysocolla 36 Semi-Refractory
Covellite/Chalcocite 20 Ferric Acid Leachable
Chrysocolla/Malachite 29 Acid Soluble
Chalcopyrite/Turquoise 15 Refractory

Estimated Total Recovery

Mineralogy 60%
Diagnostic Leach 77%
Assays 53%
Bottle Roll Tests 65%
45 Day Column Tests 59%
Modified after Baum 1998a

METHODOLOGY
The currently available mineralogical tools consist of 5 major optimized techniques or innovations
which were introduced during the last 20 years:
1. Automated sample preparation for high throughput and fast turnaround

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 2. Polarized Light Microscopy
3. XRD (x-ray diffraction) Rietveld mineralogy (quantitative)
4. NIR or FT-NIR (near infrared or Fourier transform near infrared) analyses
5. Automated mineralogy (via QEMSCAN, MLA, TIMA, others*)
*QEMSCAN, QEMSCAN WellSite, MLA, MLA Express, ASPEX: FEI, Hillsboro, OR USA
TIMA: Tescan USA, Cranberry Township/PA USA
RoqSCAN: Fugro Robertson/Carl Zeiss, Houston, TX USA
EVO MA 15 & Particle SCAN VP: Carl Zeiss, Oberkochen, Germany
Further, the availability of larger, automated or central laboratories, permits mineralogical work on
daily blast hole samples and the use of these data for constant ore control, ore blending, ore routing
and, last but not least, for process control (Allen et al. 2007, Baum, 1996a & b, 1998a, 1999, 2007,
2009, 2013).

Automated sample preparation

The introduction and implementation of robotics technology for sample preparation at various
mining companies has been a step change in providing fast and high-throughput laboratory data
(Best et al, 2007). Specifically, for mineralogy, the availability of automated XRD-NIR laboratories
has enabled data feedback for mining and processing on a daily basis (Baum, 2009).
- Both Freeport-McMo-Ran Copper & Gold laboratories, the Central Analytical Service
Center (Best et al 2007) and the AXN XRD-NIR Mineralogy Lab (Baum 2009) are good
examples of integrating the daily use of mineralogy for leach and concentrator operations.
Other milestone labs include the largest automated laboratory in mining, Anglo’s Easter
Bushveld Regional Laboratory (EBRL) and the BHP Newman Iron Ore Lab in Australia
(IMP 2012)). The FLS-built automated commercial Labtium Lab in Finland supports this
increasing trend to lab automation, even for smaller lab modules (FLSmidth 2009).

XRD Rietveld mineralogy

The introduction and optimization of Rietveld refinement methods has been the breakthrough for
quantitative XRD mineralogy. For leach operations, this method offers daily mineralogy profiling
on blast holes or any other samples. As such, key minerals which govern hardness and crushing
such as QKP (quartz-K-feldspar-plagioclase), changes of the ore type’s gangue, sulphides, acid
consuming minerals and minerals impacting geo-technical features can be consistently monitored.
Case study example 1
The Safford Mine (a copper oxide heap leach operation) in Arizona utilizes the XRD and NIR
mineralogy for better blasting and crusher optimization (Brandt et al., 2011).
• On the basis of the XRD Mineralogy, i.e. using the QKP = Quartz+K-feldspar+Plagioclase
content as rock hardness indicators which are directly related to rock type and alteration.
• The drill index number typically corresponds to geological characteristics of the rock and
has a very strong correlation with QKP.
• With this information and other data, linear equations were developed relating to the
tertiary crusher equivalent throughput.
Although many of these applications are ore-specific, may not always exhibit clear relationships
and require continuous refinement, they offer considerably more continuous control and more

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optimization than the previous conventional approaches which did not include quantitative
mineralogical data.
A key element in any use of new standard operating procedures and better practices in both ore
characterization and hydrometallurgy is stated well by Brandt et al (2011): “It has also shown that for
this process to remain successful there must be a team with a champion to keep the process alive.”
Case study example 2
In one of the Arizona copper leach operations, Allen et al (2007) illustrated the improvements of
using QEMSCAN and XRD ore profiling over merely visual ore classification using ternary mineral
diagrams.
• The visual ore classification of the alteration coding resulted in considerable overlap of key
minerals and no clear discrimination of the ore types.
• The use of QEMSCAN and XRD (which apply quantitative measurement techniques)
enabled the mine to reliably profile distinct ore types (which have distinct processing and
recovery features).
• Allen et al (2007) indicate that the combined use of XRD and NIR lab technology for ore
control may assist in reducing acid consumption in one specific case by 3%.

Clay models and permeability

The combination of conventional analyses for swelling clay and the capability to generate spectral
models for clays and other hydrated alteration minerals via near infrared (NIR) or Fourier-
Transform near infrared (FT-NIR) analyzers enables mine sites to perform continuous clay and acid
consumption analyses (Allen et al., 2007). These methods, in concert with XRD, permit a mine to
forecast the permeability features of an ore and avoid massive permeability failures (as they have
occurred in the past).
Case study example 3
Allen et al (2007) documented in an excellent study the impact of clay (and lack of good
mineralogical clay control) on permeability and copper leach losses. The assumption was that high
clay contents (normally >10-12% clay – note by author) stacked daily with the heap leach ore will
result in an ongoing 10% loss in recovery in the heap. The cost figures are in 2007 US $.
• For ores with 0.6% Total Cu content and production of 80,000 st/d
• @ 10% leach recovery loss = 1.2 lbs Cu/st = 96,000 lbs Cu/day
• Margin of $ 0.25/lb for lost copper
• Total loss = $ 24,000 = $ 168,000/week = $ 8.7 M/Year
Case study example 4
Allen et al (2007) also showed a case were daily XRD or NIR mineralogy control could have
prevented serious problems with material handling and equipment shutdown.
• A significant increase of muscovite (from 15% to 38%) in concert with elevated clay (10%)
resulted in high moisture additions to maintain good agglomeration. Ultimately, these
uncontrolled moisture additions plugged the conveyor chutes and forced a shutdown.

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Acid consumption control
One of the most important (i.e. costly) but still neglected issues in copper leaching is the better
forecasting and control of short- and long-term acid consumption. Since acid consumption may
represent 10->25% of the operating cost, this should become a major optimization target. Today’s
laboratory technology (XRD and NIR/FT-NIR) can assist companies in improving the acid
consumption issues by establishing acid consumption models. In addition to copper minerals, a
large range of gangue minerals (carbonates, feldspars, biotite, chlorite, clays, talc, Fe-hydroxides,
calc-silicates, tourmaline, serpentine, etc.) consume acid.
Case study example 5
Baum, Smith, & Sepulveda M. (1996) showed that, in a specific case, the acid consumption is
directly related to a combination of copper mineralogy, rock fracturing (=texture), presence of
hydrous iron oxides and swelling clay.
• They documented that both the copper extraction differences of 74.3% vs. 58.9% and the
acid consumption differences of 18.9 lb/t and 29.6 lb/t were results of the above
mineralogical parameters.
• With a better or control, ore routing and adjustment of crushing, curing, agglomeration and
leaching, the plant could have achieved higher copper extraction.
Case study example 6
The same authors (Baum, Smith & Sepulveda M. 1996) also showed in a case study that
discrepancies between so-called flash leach tests and column/heap extractions to be distinctly
related to a combination of textural copper occurrence.
• Ore zones with higher amounts of coarse pyrite (>100 micron) caused lower column and
heap extractions due to the poor accessibility under conventional heap p80 crushing.

Automated mineral analyses (QEMSCAN, TIMA, MLA, Others)

The major innovation breakthrough for mineralogy was the introduction and optimization of the
automated mineral analyzers. Several systems are on the market. However, the authors have
specific and extensive experience with QEMSCAN and TIMA use, and the following observations
and analyses are primarily based on these systems.
The automated mineral analyzers are automated SEMs with special software and hardware to
perform quantitative mineralogy to concentrations of <1%, particle size analysis, liberation-locking
analysis and size-by-size mineralogy on ore and process samples including material balances to
validate the mineralogy. A milestone project was the large-scale heap survey (Fennel, Guevara et
al., 2005) which represents the very first systematic, quantitative mineralogical characterization of a
copper heap leach operation. This work has been refined and optimized in various mining
companies. Today, automated mineral analyses can forecast column leach extractions on the basis
of quantitative gangue/copper mineralogy, particle size, and textural features.
Case study example 7
Fennel, Guevara et al (2005) have conducted (worldwide) the 1st QEMSCAN heap leach survey at
the Cerro Verde operation. The purpose of this survey was to demonstrate the utility of

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QEMSCAN quantitative mineralogy for monitoring ore response through leach cycles and assist in
refining the leach kinetics for better metallurgical processing.
In addition, they evaluated the impact of mineralogy on leach recovery.
• They approached the objective with a very robust sampling program.
• The mineralogical data and assay reconciliation with QEMSCAN-calculated recoveries
were excellent and confirmed the importance of the extensive sampling. It also confirmed
the sampling emphasis advocated by Lotter et al 2010.
• The overall mineralogical data obtained assisted them in delineating the key opportunities
for additional copper recovery which were mainly related to the textures and mineral
associations (intergrowth) of the unleached chalcocite and covellite.
• They also concluded that mineralogy has a direct effect on the leaching process, as
mineralogy changes through the leach cycle have been profiled.
• Follow-up work can then be targeted on optimizing metallurgical practices as they related
to the unleached copper.

CHANGES IN BIO-LEACHING
It is recommended that, specifically the copper and gold industry, consider different heap and/or
stockpile leach approaches (J. Campbell, 2009, pers. comm.) which (a) include the use of HPGR as a
secondary or tertiary crusher and (b) apply innovative leach concepts such as deslimed heaps
which was recommended some time ago (Herkenhoff & Dean, 1987, Baum, 1998).
It is viable to conclude that within 2 years, the HPGR use for heap and agitation leaching will make
a measurable breakthrough. Particularly in concert with designed and instrumentalized heaps and
stockpiles, very large future HPGR systems have the potential to facilitate the leaching of very low
grade chalcopyrite ores. This could dramatically improve the extraction of copper (or gold) from
the coarse material fractions via better bacterial and solution access as well as significantly
optimized leach kinetics (Thompson, Baum & Ausburn, 2012).
Hopefully, larger scale pilot testing of hybrid systems including the use of HPGR and desliming
(Baum & Ausburn 2011) will be tested in the near future. Leaching of increasingly important
bornite ores (or mixed chalcopyrite-bornite) is accompanied by challenges of substantial jarosite
salting. Additional development is required for the high-extraction heap leaching of mixed bornite
ores.
Mineralogy with its process-impacting gangue and alteration minerals, acid consumers,
bactericides, textural parameters including liberation/locking or solution access and the myriad of >
20 mineralogy-related leach parameters represents a big impact and/or govern any bacterial
metallurgy. Bio-leach plants, like any other process operation, will not run efficiently without
continuous material characterization – chemical/microbiological analyses alone will not suffice.
The inclusion of frequent ore characterization, geo-metallurgical databases and continuous use of
process mineralogy to rapidly trouble shoot and improve their heap, stockpile or agitation leach
systems, will be of substantial importance for plant optimization.

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CONCLUSIONS
State-of-the-art mineralogical laboratory technologies enable today’s and future copper leach
operations to (a) conduct robust forecasts, (b) minimize ore type variance, control and minimize
acid consumption, (c) achieve best practice agglomeration and permeability, (d) minimize geo-
technical failures and (e) achieve maximum copper extractions. A considerable amount of the
mineralogical analyses can be performed on-site via small, efficient, automated lab modules. These
on-site labs can work with consulting service labs in order to achieve high quality and/or perform
routine external audits.
The expanded implementation of bio-leaching in future mining operations may benefit from a
combined approach using well-engineered and instrumentalized heaps, stockpiles and hybrid
stockpile operations which may include innovative comminution such as HPGR systems and a
revised approach to leaching using deslimed heap strategies.
In the age of larger capital layouts, higher throughput and de-bottlenecking or process optimization
of existing plants, the use of routine ore characterization and process-accompanying mineralogy
will be a key to a more competitive leach operation.

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