Article

Australian Journal of Career Development

2017, Vol. 26(3) 153–164
Using work-integrated learning to ! Australian Council for Educational
Research 2017
enhance career planning among Reprints and permissions:
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business undergraduates DOI: 10.1177/1038416217727124

journals.sagepub.com/home/acd

Denise A Jackson
Edith Cowan University, Australia

Abstract
Effective career planning among undergraduates is increasingly important amid competitive graduate labour markets and
high levels of graduate underemployment. Students must be able to set clearly defined career objectives and be equipped
to identify suitable development pathways to achieve their career goals. This study examined the impact of work-
integrated learning on student career planning. It focused on the completion of an elective work placement by 102
business undergraduates in a Western Australian university. The study adopted a qualitative approach and used struc-
tured reflections to examine how the placement influenced students’ career objectives, developed their self-awareness in
the context of career planning, and helped them identify personal development strategies to improve their employment
prospects. Drawing on social cognitive career theory, the study advances our understanding of how work-integrated
learning can shape undergraduate career objectives and improve currently weak levels of student engagement with
career planning. Implications for future career counselling are discussed.

Keywords
Career planning, work-integrated learning, work placement, student, business

develop an understanding of effective professional

Introduction
Effective career planning involves setting clearly
defined career objectives and strategies for achieving
them (Gould, 1979). The modern worker must
successfully interpret and navigate a myriad of evol-
ving career opportunities, adapting and up-skilling
themselves to the changing needs of industry (Lent,
2013). Despite career management provision evolving
far beyond individual counselling and sometimes
being embedded in undergraduate curriculum
(Watts, 2006), students are often undecided about
where they are heading and what avenue to pursue
postgraduation (McKeown & Lindorff, 2011). Given
highly competitive graduate labour markets
(Graduate Careers Australia (GCA), 2016) and ele-
vated levels of graduate underemployment and
unemployment (Karmel & Carroll, 2016), it is increas-
ingly important for students to be proactive and
focused in their career planning (Segers & Inceoglu,
2012).
Work-integrated learning (WIL) is one platform
that can give clarity to students on which career
objective to pursue and how. It enables students to
practice through integrating their learning across
practice and education settings (Billett, 2011). While
grounded in the theory of experiential learning (Kolb,
1984), Billett asserts the two settings may produce
different experiences and learning, which the student
will come to associate and reconcile (or perhaps
reject) through reflection and critical evaluation.
This provides a rich, and superior, learning experience
and affords deep insight into student’s intended
profession and world of work. There has been some
attention to the typology of WIL (see, for example
Sattler, Wiggers, & Arnold, 2011) and acknowledge-
ment that it can take many forms. These include
‘immersed’ models – such as internships, placements,
and practicums – and others where individuals might
not be physically based in the work setting for pro-
longed periods – such as industry-based projects and
simulations.
WIL provides insight into the realities of a
profession (Daniel, 2010) and affords students the
opportunity to experiment with their professional
identity (Trede, Macklin, & Bridges, 2012). It can
influence career choice (see Anderson et al., 2012)

Corresponding author:
Denise A Jackson, School of Business and Law, Edith Cowan University, 2.361b, 270 Joondalup Drive, Joondalup, WA 6027, Australia.
Email: d.jackson@ecu.edu.au
154
and assists students with developing career self-
management skills (see, for example Pegg, Waldock,
Hendy-Isaac, & Lawton, 2012; Smith et al., 2009).
The overarching aim of this study is to explore the
influence of WIL on career planning, motivated by
an apparent lack of research in this area and weak
levels of student engagement with career planning
processes (see McKeown & Lindorff, 2011; Pegg
et al., 2012). Being a phenomenological study, it
explores the experiences of students who participate
in WIL and seeks to address the following research
objectives: (i) to examine the influence of WIL on
career objectives; (ii) to explore key factors which
students learn about themselves, in the context of
career planning, during their WIL experience; and
(iii) to examine how WIL helps students identify
and evaluate strategies for improving themselves and
their employment prospects.
The study adopts a qualitative approach and uses
the structured reflections of 102 business undergradu-
ates undertaking WIL in a Western Australian uni-
versity. The focus is on students gaining work
experience through immersion in a professional set-
ting relevant to their degree studies, termed a work
placement. The study contributes to existing literature
in two ways. First, it advances our understanding of
the factors that underpin undergraduate career object-
ives and how WIL might influence these. Second, it
draws on social cognitive career theory (SCCT) (Lent,
Brown, & Hackett, 1994); exploring how WIL can
improve career planning among students. The paper
is structured to review relevant literature, followed by
an overview of methodology and presentation of
results. Findings are discussed in respect to implica-
tions for stakeholders, before the concluding remarks.
Background
Career planning
Career planning involves setting goals, identifying
strategies, and establishing an action plan, with asso-
ciated timelines, required to successfully achieve the
intended career objectives (Zikic & Klehe, 2006). It
can be interpreted through the theoretical lens of the
DOTS model of career development (Watts, 2006)
which comprises the four elements of decision-
making learning, opportunity awareness, transition
learning, and self-awareness. In particular, career
planning aligns with the dimension of decision-
making learning. Setting career goals or objectives
gives the individual direction and stability and is
associated with higher levels of commitment, perse-
verance, and resilience to changing conditions (see
Seibert, Kraimer, Holtom, & Pierotti, 2013). It can,
however, be ‘a tricky proposition, especially in the
context of an uncertain, changing, and sometimes
unkind environment’ (Lent, 2013, p. 6). There has
been an increasing shift towards intensive global
Australian Journal of Career Development 26(3)
competition and complex working structures (Yuhee
& Takeuchi, 2016) and a rise in part-time, project-
based, and contract-based working with increased
job mobility and less organisational career develop-
ment (see Lent, 2013). Lent argues workers are
expected to adapt to the evolving needs of the organ-
isation and role, requiring effective career planning to
remain competitive.
The call for career planning is amplified by the shift
to the boundaryless career (Arthur & Rousseau, 1996)
where individuals are no longer focused on the
‘organisational’ career but now seek opportunities
across different organisations. The modern career is
increasingly characterised by multiple job changes,
horizontal career movement, and global mobility
(Foundation for Young Australians (FYA, 2015),
requiring fine-tuned skills in career self-management
and a clear idea of long-term aspirations and how
they will be achieved (Coetzee & Beukes, 2010).
Further, many of the roles with which our curricula
align could radically change in the coming years due
to automation (FYA, 2015) and students must stay
abreast of shifts and trends in the labour market.
Students also need to consider how they can differen-
tiate themselves from the growing pool of recruits to
enhance their chances of graduate-level employment.
To source suitable opportunities and access the
hidden job market, they need a personal brand and
must be networked and connected (Bridgstock, 2016).
Never before has career planning been so important
to our students.
Role of WIL
WIL integrates academic learning and real-world
experience and capitalises on self-reflection and indus-
try feedback (Smith, 2012). There has been significant
attention to the benefits of WIL, suggesting it
enhances student self-confidence (Lowden, Hall,
Elliott, & Lewin, 2011), improves their non-technical
skills (Australian Workforce and Productivity Agency
(AWPA), 2013), and provides them with a unique
insight into the conduct and behaviour associated
with a particular profession (Woodley & Beattie,
2011). WIL offers professional development for the
host organisation’s staff through their mentoring of
participating students (AWPA, 2013) and allows
industry to direct student learning and identify
talent prior to graduation (Wilson, 2012). It presents
a collaborative opportunity for students, educators,
and industry to develop graduate work readiness,
for which they are all responsible (Jackson, 2016).
In this study, SCCT’s basic interest and choice
model of career counselling (Lent, Brown, &
Hackett, 2000) is drawn upon to interpret how WIL
can enhance career planning. SCCT asserts that
choice of career is influenced by an individual’s beliefs
of whether they are capable of succeeding in a par-
ticular career (self-efficacy), their expectations of the
Jackson 155

outcomes they can achieve (outcome expectations),
and personal goals. Objective and perceived
environmental variables will influence career develop-
ment, such as personal characteristics, labour market
conditions, and recruitment bias. Lent (2013) argues
there are six obstacles that might prevent the
development or implementation of a suitable career
plan. These are a lack of identifiable career interest,
perceived or actual skill limitations, problematic
career outcome expectations, difficulty in framing
career goals, environmental barriers, and lack of envir-
onmental support. The model is aligned to developing
life preparedness, which ‘can lead to the use of pro-
active strategies to manage barriers, build supports,
and otherwise advocate for one’s own career-life
future’ (Lent, 2013, p. 7). Lent argues that career coun-
selling should focus on identifying barriers to achieving
goals and developing strategies to manage them, and
fostering agency and resilience among students.
It would make sense that WIL generates career
interest among participating students and allows
them to evaluate their commitment to a particular
career. There is evidence that WIL assists students
in establishing career objectives through observing
and experimenting with different roles in their
intended field. Previous studies (see Chen & Shen,
2012; Daniel, 2010; Hughes, Mylonas, &
Benckendorff, 2013) have also noted the role of
WIL in clarifying career goals and making students
aware of the capabilities required for their intended
career. Usher (2012) found WIL helped students to
better understand pathways leading to their career
objective through immersion in the professional com-
munity of practice (Zegwaard & Coll, 2011), including
career discussions with seasoned professionals and
workplace colleagues. Indeed, McIlveen et al. (2011)
found that all four DOTS model dimensions were
featured in the WIL programmes delivered by careers
provision 36 Australian universities, although deci-
sion-making learning was least apparent. There
appears, however, to be relatively little discussion of
how WIL might help students recognise barriers to
their aspirations and identify support systems for
achieving career plans.
Method
Participants
One hundred and two students completing a work
placement, an elective component of their business
undergraduate degree programme in a Western
Australian university, participated in the study. All
were in the latter stages of their degree and had suc-
cessfully applied to participate in the placement pro-
gramme. The programme attracts academic credit and
combines 100–150 hours of relevant work experience
with on-campus sessions and assessments, including
reflective activities and an e-portfolio. Students were
assigned to placements based on their course
major and/or chosen area of interest with only a
small proportion sourcing their own placement
opportunity. Participant characteristics are sum-
marised in Table 1. Approximately 70% of the

Table 1. Summary of participant characteristics (N ¼ 102).

Semester 1 Semester 2 Total

Characteristic Subgroup N Valid % N Valid % N Valid %

Age Less than 20 years 1 2 9 17.3 10 9.8

20–24 years 33 66 27 51.9 60 58.8
25–29 years 9 18 9 17.3 18 17.6
30 years and over 7 14 7 13.5 14 13.7
Gender Male 11 22 19 36.5 30 29.4
Female 39 78 33 63.5 72 70.6
Specialisation Human Resources Management 8 16 7 13.5 15 14.7
Finance/Accounting 14 28 14 26.9 28 27.5
Marketing, Public Relations 5 10 14 26.9 19 18.6
and Advertising
Tourism, Hospitality, 15 30 9 17.3 24 23.5
Recreation and Events
Management and other 8 16 8 15.4 16 15.6
Sector of host Public sector 8 16 7 13.5 15 14.7
organisation Private sector 35 70 36 69.2 71 69.6
Not for profit 7 14 9 17.3 16 15.7
Residency status Domestic 38 76 45 86.5 83 81.3
International 12 24 7 13.5 19 18.7
156 Australian Journal of Career Development 26(3)

sample were female, the majority were aged between of combined inductive and deductive analysis can
20 and 24 years and most completed their placement produce clear and rigorous results (Fereday & Muir-
in the private sector. Participants were studying and Cochrane, 2008).
working in a range of different disciplines within the To enhance rigour, the analysis of the first semes-
field of business. ter’s reflections was repeated by an independent
research assistant trained in qualitative research meth-
ods. Individual responses were revisited for the few
Procedures
areas of difference until consensus was reached. The
Students participating in the work placement pro- analysis of the second sample of reflections was
gramme were required to write a structured, assessed repeated by a different research assistant, also trained
reflection in the final weeks of their placement. All 111 in qualitative research methods and familiarised with
students enrolled in the programme were invited by the developed framework of themes. Again, data were
email to share their reflection for research purposes, re-examined for the very few areas of difference until
of which 102 agreed. Data were collected during May consensus was reached. Trustworthiness was
2016 (first semester, N ¼ 50) and then October 2016 enhanced (see Merriam, 1995) through analysing
(second semester, N ¼ 52). data over two different time periods, conducting mul-
tiple analyses and keeping an audit trail, which
detailed decisions made and issues encountered
Measures during the analysis.
Phenomenology intends to capture the experiences of
individuals and their interpretation of them (Taylor,
Results
1993) and is suited to examining the experiences of
those in professional practice (Adams, Daly, Mann, Themes identified in the analysis are summarised in
& Dall’Alba, 2011). Structured reflections were used Table 2 for each of the following subsections: choice
to investigate students’ career objectives and plans, as of personal career objective, how self-awareness in the
well as how their WIL experience influenced these.
Reflection is integral to WIL, and reflective writing
forms a core element of the business undergraduate Table 2. Summary of themes.
programme; thus, students are well versed in this
Area of exploration Themes
when entering the placement programme. First, stu-
dents were asked to reflect on, in 800 words, what is Choice of career objective Personal gratification
their career objective and how, if at all, this changed Opportunity for promotion
since during their work placement. Second, they were Collaborative working
asked to outline the three main things they have Promotes well-being
learned about themselves, within the context of their Scope for professional
intended career. Finally, they were asked to define five development
action points for improving themselves and their Organisation type and size
chances of securing a graduate-level job, and to Experience for self-employment
Utilises personal strengths
explain how these placement highlighted these and
Enhanced self-awareness, Emphasised commitment and
how they plan to address them in the next 12 months. in relation to career suitability to intended career
planning, during WIL Better understanding of required
Analysis non-technical capabilities
Better able to benchmark cap-
The 102 reflections were thematically analysed to abilities and identify areas for
enhance our understanding of the influence of WIL, improvement
more specifically the work placements, on career plan- Enhanced self-confidence in pur-
ning. Using the basic principles of qualitative research suing career
(see, for example Mishler, 1990), the first semester’s Action points for personal Become more self-confident
reflections (N ¼ 50) were reviewed and individual development Improve non-technical and disci-
responses were assigned to various themes using an pline-related capabilities
inductive coding approach. A detailed coding scheme Become more proactive
was developed and the resulting framework of themes Gain more practical experience
included an explanation of each. This framework was Improve ability to self-manage
career
used to analyse the second semester reflections
Achieve better work–life balance
(N ¼ 52) using deductive coding processes. While the Undertake more professional
thematic analysis for the second semester sample was development, including fur-
not confined to the original themes, there was little ther study
difference in the data with only one new theme
WIL: work-integrated learning.
added and no original ones revised. This methodology
Jackson
career planning context was developed during WIL,
and action points for personal improvement.
Career objective
Identified themes were interpreted in the context of
literature relevant to WIL and career management.
First, in relation to personal career objectives, there
were a number of underlying themes in student
responses. Approximately one-quarter of students
chose their career based on personal gratification
and were drawn towards doing something they had
a passion for and where they felt they could make a
difference. Gaining intrinsic satisfaction through
mentoring others and striving for sustainability
featured strongly in this theme. This aligns with
Allan, Owens, and Duffy’s (2016) findings of the
importance of seeking meaningful work and the
value undergraduates place on this as part of their
career counselling. It also supports evidence of millen-
nials’ motivation to pursue a career which offers sat-
isfaction gained from altruistic behaviour and
contributing to societal good (Deloitte, 2016).
Fifteen per cent of students stated opportunity for
promotion was pivotal and underpinned their career
objective, cognisant with other studies exploring
career aspirations and desired progression among
the younger generations (Deloitte, 2016). Being able
to work in a team environment was important to six
students when deciding their career objective. This is
positive, despite the small proportion, as collaborative
mindset and desire for ongoing learning are both
important for operating successfully in the new econ-
omy (FYA, 2015). Approximately 20% of students
were very broad in their consideration of career
objective and specified only the field – such as
Marketing – they wished to enter. Given students
were placed in a placement opportunity aligned with
their study major/field, it is perhaps surprising they
did not further refine their objective post-placement.
On balance, developing a broad skill set which can be
transported across different working contexts is con-
sidered critical to surviving the future demise of cer-
tain occupations (FYA, 2016) and could prove a
useful strategy for employment.
It was evident that some students focused more on
where they wished to work when considering their
career objective. Around 10% specified high profile,
larger organisations as their ideal destination, perceiv-
ing them as more dynamic and offering better oppor-
tunities for working overseas and/or interstate. This
preference for larger organisations among new gradu-
ates is well documented (Deloitte, 2015) and their
global outlook is applauded given the need for inter-
national mobility (FYA, 2015). Two students stated
their career objective was to work for an organisation
which offered a healthy environment, work–life bal-
ance, and promoted well-being, documented as
important among millennial workers (Deloitte, 2016).
157
Seven students wished to gain sufficient experience
to achieve their ultimate goal of running their own
business, important given entrepreneurship enables
future graduates to create their own work. For 15%
of the students, their career objective was defined by a
strong desire to utilise their personal strengths and
undertake work which they excelled in, drawing on
skills and knowledge acquired during their degree
programme. Interestingly, only two students explicitly
stated pursuit of a financially rewarding career as
their underlying objective. A global survey of millen-
nials revealed that pay and financial benefits are the
key driver in career decisions (Deloitte, 2016) and
Eagen et al. (2014) found financial reward was far
more important to commencing college students
than developing a meaningful ‘philosophy of life’.
Influence of WIL on career objectives
Just over 40% of the students had a long-established
career objective, perhaps through current and prior
work experience, which was not changed by their
work placement. The remaining 59% believed WIL
influenced their objective although this was in a var-
iety of ways. Just under one-half of the sample found
the work placement strengthened and clarified their
career objective. The experience affirmed their
intended pathway through exposure to the various
work environments in which their profession oper-
ates; experiencing different aspects of their intended
profession through their undertaking of projects and
tasks; and raising awareness of the skills, knowledge
requirements, and expectations of their intended pro-
fession. One student simply felt ‘my placement has
made me feel more comfortable about the job field I
am about to enter into’.
Nine students declared their placement made them
realise they no longer wished to pursue their original
career objective. These students found the experience
either highlighted elements of their intended role
which they did not enjoy or find rewarding, such as
working in an office or completing tasks that did not
appeal to them, or required capabilities which they
did not possess or felt would be difficult for them to
master. One student, for example, stated
Now at the end of my internship, I feel like I must go
a completely different way in terms of a career, as a
career in business does not seem to excite me and
make me feel like I am making a difference.
Three students found the placement created uncer-
tainty about where they were heading, which they
had not experienced previously, due to realising the
range of options available within their field. An equal
number found the work placement emphasised that
their capabilities exceeded their expectations and, as
a result, upgraded their career objective to a higher
status role.
158
There was an overwhelming sense among students
who believed that WIL somehow influenced their
career objective that the experience took them one
step closer to making the right career decision. One
student commented, for example, ‘the more experi-
ence I got, the closer I had got to determining which
area is suitable for my future job. This created
changes in my awareness of planning activities and
led me to set out better objectives’. This applied to
even those where the work placement created uncer-
tainty about their original career objective as the
experience had highlighted varying options and the
need for more careful consideration on which path-
way to pursue. This finding aligns with Drysdale,
Frost, and McBeath’s (2015, p. 150) assertion that
WIL can ‘broaden their knowledge about the careers
available in their field of study, allowing them to
become more cognisant of many possible occupations
and less certain about one specific career path’. Again,
this is not a bad thing given the need for new gradu-
ates to be flexible and open to working in different
roles and contexts.
Self-awareness in relation to career planning
In regards to what the students learned about them-
selves during their work placement in the context of
career planning, four themes emerged (see Table 2).
First, just over one-quarter of the students found the
placement emphasised their level of commitment and
suitability to their intended career pathway. One
observed, ‘my placement has taught me that I am
more interested, passionate and committed than I ini-
tially thought and has allowed me to confirm the career
direction I wish to take’. As noted previously, the
placement strengthened the desire for most students
to achieve employment in their intended area while,
for others, it highlighted they might be better suited
to a different type of role. This involved assessing
their suitability to the expectations and characteristics
of the working environment associated with their
career objective, including sector, organisation size,
working hours, and the ability to work from home.
Second, almost all of the students felt the work
placement helped develop mastery in at least one
non-technical capability considered important for
graduate employment. Working effectively as part of
a team within a business environment featured in the
comments of 17% of the sample. Approximately 10%
spoke of their increased ability to adapt to and work
effectively in a culturally diverse environment and
15% of levels of professionalism in relation to dres-
sing appropriately, conducting themselves appropri-
ately, being respectful, and managing confidentiality.
This connection with their professional self was
expressed by one student,
I found that I naturally developed a professional per-
sona when creating connections with other members
Australian Journal of Career Development 26(3)
in the group, instead of shying away as I do more
usually, I began to break away from my shell and
adapt to meet the needs around me.
Self-management – spanning multitasking, time
management, and working autonomously – was men-
tioned by just under one-fifth of the sample.
Approximately 30% commented on their greater
willingness to try new things, be adaptable, and
embrace change. Development in these areas might
enhance career progression as flexibility, global out-
look, confidence, curiosity, and having a collaborative
mindset are inherent to succeeding in today’s econ-
omy (Chartered Accountants, 2016). Also positive
was around one-quarter noting the work placement
had aided their understanding of the importance of
and their ability to communicate effectively. One
stated, ‘after 100 hours of internship I started to
realise that building rapport and consistent communi-
cation are effective approaches to creating a func-
tional team’. Other areas were an improved ability
to adhere to expected ethical practice (6%), being
accountable (7%), giving and receiving feedback
(16%), conducting research (10%), managing stress
(4%), and following instructions (5%).
Third, approximately one-half found the place-
ment improved their understanding of personal skill
deficiencies and areas requiring development to attain
graduate employment. Despite their workplace learn-
ing, some felt they needed to improve in aspects of
technical expertise and/or non-technical skill and
admitted they had overestimated their capabilities
prior to placement, a tendency common among stu-
dents due to ‘not knowing what they don’t know’
(Smith, Ferns, & Russell, 2014). One student
admitted, ‘It is hard to admit that improvements
need to be made, but in reflection, the improvements
are always beneficial and provide interesting
challenges’. Approximately 10% of all students felt
they lacked the confidence and self-trust to apply
their disciplinary skills and identified this as an area
for development. One realised, ‘if I do not push myself
to be more confident, appear more confident or pro-
active, it will affect my performance’. Two believed
they did not have a sufficiently diverse mix of skills
to be competitive in the labour market, while four
others commented on their lack of industry know-
ledge and poor understanding of the external environ-
ment relevant to their profession.
Fourth, and contrary to the third theme, around
one-third believed they had underestimated their abil-
ity to function effectively in the workplace and found
they already possessed the required capabilities for
their intended career. One student commented, ‘I
was not mindful of the importance of study until I
got to work placement. Even though the study from
university mostly is conveyed based on theory, it is
useful in processing tasks in the real workplace’. As
these students reflected on an emerging sense of their
Jackson
own capabilities, some reported enhanced confidence
arising from the placement. They commented on how
their degree had given them a solid base of knowledge
for their chosen career and how they were confident in
their ability to perform to the standards expected by
industry. As one eloquently stated, ‘I am as smart as I
want to be, I just have to find a particular point within
the work that I enjoy or can do well’.
Students seemed to understand how resilient they
actually were with one stating, ‘I am emotionally
stronger than I thought – discipline is a hard thing
to learn but I believe through my work experience I
have learned to overcome and go beyond my conven-
tional self-doubts’. Student exposure to contemporary
working practices appears, therefore, to not only have
provided valuable insight of what is required of them
postgraduation but also gave them confidence in
meeting the demands and challenges of the new
world of work.
Action points for personal improvement
Students identified a number of action points, sum-
marised in Table 2, for improving themselves and
their chances of graduate-level employment. They
cited several aspects of their WIL experience as
useful in defining these action points. First, observing
and interacting with seasoned professionals in an
authentic setting gave them insight into expected
standards against which they could benchmark their
own capabilities. The usefulness of career counselling
in the workplace was noted by students, in addition to
informal and formal feedback from workplace men-
tors, supervisor(s), and peers, which helped them to
gauge their performance, strengths, areas for
improvement, and developmental pathways.
Reflective assessments and activities during on-
campus sessions were deemed to encourage students
to consider their preferences and future career direc-
tion. Professional networking opportunities with
internal and external stakeholders were considered
vital in providing the ‘bigger picture’ and how their
profession relates to the external environment.
Self-confidence. Approximately one-third stated they
needed to become more self-confident with one com-
menting, ‘over the course of the next year I will focus
on having a ‘‘can do’’ attitude with a willingness to
learn above and beyond what is required of me’.
Students cited several ways of achieving this, includ-
ing trying not to overthink things; watching inspir-
ational videos and reading strategies on developing
confidence; attending more networking events and
interacting more with clients; being more focused on
the positives; aligning body language and signals with
high levels of confidence; undertaking additional
work placements; seeking feedback from peers and
colleagues; deliberately placing oneself in unfamiliar
situations; and practicing calming techniques in
159
circumstances which placed them outside of their
comfort zone.
Skill development. The majority of students noted the
need for up-skilling in at least one skill area, and there
were many instances where students acknowledged
the benefits of reflecting on their capabilities. One,
for example, stated ‘the placement highlighted to me
that it is okay to have weaknesses and that working
on my strengths is important to improve myself’.
Approximately one-half commented on the need to
improve their communication skills, aligning with
effective communication being one of the most
highly demanded skills among graduate employers
(GCA, 2016) and critical for success in the new
economy (FYA, 2016). Strategies for improvement
included reading more books, articles, and news-
papers; making eye contact when conversing with
others; practising ‘small talk’ and how to make
conversation; attending workshops and seminars;
proactively engaging in discussions and debates; prac-
ticing writing professional emails and public speaking;
and enrolling in classes dedicated to business English.
Thirty per cent commented on needing to improve
their discipline-related skills, achieved by obtaining
more industry-related qualifications; asking more
questions relevant to given tasks; reading literature
relating to their intended profession; undertaking pro-
fessional development; and researching skills relevant
for their profession. Almost one-half of the sample
acknowledged they needed to improve their informa-
tion technology skills with deficiencies predominantly
noted in software specific to their profession, design,
social media, and Google analytics. The dominating
approach to up-skilling was researching the most
utilised software and then undertaking formalised
training – online or otherwise – to attain proficiency.
This finding is interesting, given digital literacy is
considered pivotal for future ways of working
(FYA, 2016).
Further developing time management and organ-
isation skills were noted by approximately one-third
of the sample and strategies for improvement included
breaking down tasks, setting goals and milestones,
having regular progress reviews, establishing a rou-
tine, prioritising tasks, delegating tasks as needed,
reducing procrastination, keeping a diary, taking
more precise notes, avoiding unnecessary distractions,
and managing sleep patterns. Two other key areas
were team working and generating new ideas. The
10% of students commenting on the former did not
align with the overwhelming priority employers asso-
ciate with this skill (GCA, 2016), or perhaps students
felt their collaborative working skills were sufficiently
developed. Strategies for improvement included prac-
tising listening skills, gaining more work experience,
and attending relevant workshops. Generating new
ideas was noted by almost one-fifth of the sample,
aligning with the expectation that entering graduates
160
are able to contribute in the workplace and become
tomorrow’s leaders (Trede et al., 2012). Students prof-
fered a number of strategies for up-skilling, including
learning to communicate new ideas effectively,
engaging in continuous learning and development,
reflective journaling, attending workshops, gaining
additional experience, staying current with best prac-
tice, and thinking outside the box.
There were several areas for improvement noted
only by a handful of students. Eight felt they needed
to become more self-aware, which could be achieved
through self-assessments, possibly in combination
with peer and 360 degree reviews, striving for excel-
lence and constantly searching for ways to better one-
self, focusing on one’s strengths, and developing ways
to uncover weaknesses. The same number noted the
need to become more professional in terms of presen-
tation and attitude, attained through observing and
‘copying’ seasoned professionals. Five felt they
should improve on their critical evaluation skills
through completing ‘brain games’, mathematical puz-
zles, and reading more books, while two wanted to
develop their project management skills through rele-
vant training. Emotional intelligence was acknowl-
edged as an area for improvement by five students,
achieved by attending training on better recognising
and managing emotions, and volunteering in diverse
organisations. Finally, only five students commented
on developing their leadership and management skills,
perhaps highlighting a disconnection with the import-
ance assigned by industry as 14% of Australian
graduate employers identify leadership skills as their
most important selection criteria (GCA, 2016).
Being proactive. Approximately one-third of students
felt they needed to be more proactive and learn to
show more initiative to improve their career pro-
spects. This included taking responsibility for their
actions, requesting feedback, and exhibiting self-moti-
vation. New graduates are often accused of being
spoon-fed and one student’s comment emphasises
this, ‘I am going to stop asking questions about a
problem until I am a hundred per cent certain that I
cannot do it’. Demonstrating initiative is highly
regarded by industry (Lowden et al., 2011) and, anec-
dotally, a key characteristic sought in WIL students.
Strategies identified to achieve enhanced initiative
were fairly broad and included updating industry
knowledge so one felt better equipped to take the
lead in certain situations; sourcing academic and pro-
fessional mentors; working on finding solutions to
problems without assistance; giving more attention
to detail in future work; and requesting feedback
more regularly to improve skills and capabilities in
the long term, thus being able to work more autono-
mously in the future.
Practical experience. Students noted the importance of
gaining more practical experience through
Australian Journal of Career Development 26(3)
employment, volunteering, and additional intern-
ships. Although only 30% stated this as a key strat-
egy, undertaking relevant work experience featured in
other themes such as increasing self-awareness and
improving one’s skills. The importance of relevant
work experience to enhancing graduate employment
prospects is well documented (see, for example
Department of Employment, 2016). Fifth, 28% of
students realised the importance of developing indus-
try knowledge through volunteering work, using
library and internet resources to research industry
practices, attending relevant events and workshops,
subscribing to industry news, enrolling in a mentor
programme, and undertaking training to that particu-
lar industry.
Career self-management. Almost all of the students
believed enhanced career self-management skills
would improve their job prospects, aligning with
their asserted connection with graduate employability
(Bridgstock, 2009) and employment outcomes (Pegg
et al., 2012). There were a number of sub-themes and
associated strategies within career management.
Building professional networks and developing net-
working skills were noted by almost one-half of the
sample as key to improving employment prospects,
cognisant with literature acknowledging their import-
ance for graduate success and navigating the new
work order (Bridgstock, 2016). A broad range of stra-
tegies were noted, which included developing or
improving one’s personal brand; being more proactive
in social media (such as LinkedIn); allocating more
time and effort to connecting with other professionals
through industry events, career fairs, volunteering
work, and professional association membership; par-
ticipating in an industry mentoring programme; creat-
ing a blog; and nurturing existing professional
contacts. One student confidently stated,
creating an authentic personal brand can help me to
attract new opportunities and gain recognition in my
future career. The best way to start with is by making
a self-assessment of values and skills and to define
how I want to be perceived by people.
Just under 10% of students felt they needed to
become more career focused by setting goals and
actively pursuing strategies to achieve them.
Approximately 20% felt it is important to seek guid-
ance from career counsellors through attending sem-
inars and/or individual sessions to improve their
interview skills, resume, and cover letter writing tech-
niques. While most commented on seeking support
from university career services, some realised the
value of advice from experienced professionals.
Eight noted the benefit of strong job search skills
and their desire to develop different techniques, in
particular using online platforms. Finally, five noted
the importance of developing resilience by ‘staying
Jackson
focused on wanting a graduate job and gravitating
towards positivity and success . . . (retaining a) ‘‘don’t
let one failed attempt get you down’’ mentality’.
Work–life balance and professional development. Around
18% of students believed achieving a better work–life
balance to be a valuable action point for professional
success. This could be attained by making time for
family and friends, and undertaking physical activities
before or after work. There was acknowledgement of
the different demands on their time with one student
stating, ‘I have realized that I’m in the developing
stage in balancing my personal life, work and studies;
where being on-call for my casual jobs has greatly
impacted on my time management’. Finally, an
equal portion of students stated their career prospects
would improve by continuing their studies with a
focus on both professional qualifications and broader
postgraduate tertiary qualifications.
Implications
WIL appears to be helpful in addressing four of
SCCT’s six inhibitors to career planning: lack of iden-
tifiable interest, skill limitations, problematic outcome
expectations, and difficulty in framing career goals.
WIL’s exposure to professional ideology enables stu-
dents to explore their career interests in the context of
more informed outcome expectations. Findings sug-
gest WIL largely generated student interest in their
career with most having some notion, albeit broad,
of their career objective. Grounded in experiential
learning theory, quality WIL incorporates activities
where students gain feedback and reflect on their
skill capabilities and limitations (Smith, 2012).
Academic mentors and host organisations helped stu-
dents to identify skill gaps and pathways to improve
to expected levels for graduate employment. Through
direct exposure to the professional environment, WIL
students developed a more detailed understanding of
what their intended career involves and framed their
goals and objectives accordingly. Underpinned by a
pedagogy of reflection, WIL augmented self-aware-
ness and encouraged students to evaluate their com-
mitment to their intended career. This, in combination
with enhanced disciplinary expertise and non-techni-
cal capabilities, means students who complete WIL
often experience greater self-confidence in pursuing
their career objective.
Career development learning, certainly in the WIL
space, could be extended to focus on the remaining
two inhibitors to effective career planning: environ-
mental barriers and lack of environmental support.
Findings indicate a vast array of strategies for per-
sonal development emerged during the students’
WIL experiences. Reflective processes and observing
and interacting with established professionals, among
other things, enabled students to identify useful action
points to aid their employment prospects and
161
resilience in highly competitive graduate labour mar-
kets. Their consideration of action points prompted
students to reflect on both areas for improvement and
inhibitors to graduate-level employment in their
desired field.
Career planning should not be imparted to WIL
students as an isolated event but something that is
fluid and requiring ongoing consideration and
adaption in line with environmental factors and per-
sonal preference (Smith et al., 2009). Identifying
action points to achieve career plans could become
integral to WIL assessment and reflective activities,
emphasising the need to regularly review and revisit
formed plans. Contingency planning might help
students learn to understand that career planning is
confounded by the reality of resource limitations and
environmental factors (Lent, 2013) and can be
affected by unplanned events (Seibert et al., 2013). A
graduate suffering financial hardship, for example,
might simply need to take any job – or might be
diverted to an alternative pathway – rather than
pursue the career they would most like to enter. As
suggested by Lent, students could undertake a form of
contingency planning where they identify support
mechanisms and coping strategies – drawing on
both newly formed and established networks – for
managing the unexpected.
Rather than encouraging WIL students, and
others, to focus narrow-mindedly on one particular
career, encouraging them to be adaptable, resilient,
and alert to opportunities, which might assist in
reaching their career goals, as well as factors which
might cause a change in direction, could be particu-
larly useful (Lent, 2013). In line with this, many of the
development strategies identified by WIL students
were broad and not specific to their career intentions.
The value of, for example, enhancing their self-con-
fidence and improving their non-technical skills can
be transferred across different work contexts and are
worthy action plans for most entry-level positions.
Encouraging students to develop a career action
plan that encompasses broad objectives and can there-
fore be responsive to changing economic conditions
and any resource limitations could prove highly bene-
ficial (see FYA, 2016).
Importantly, the highlighted benefits for future
career planning can only be harnessed for a broad
spectrum of students with increased employer engage-
ment in WIL. Industry is often reluctant to participate
in work placements due to concerns with mentoring
and supervisory capacity and insufficient resourcing,
resulting in an imbalance in the supply and demand of
work placements (Department of Industry, 2014).
While educators must articulate the importance of
effective career planning to students, providing
access to authentic WIL opportunities to help develop
career planning skills – and general work readiness –
is the responsibility of all stakeholders. As outlined in
Australia’s National Strategy for WIL (Universities
162
Australia et al., 2015), educators, industry, and the
government must work together to upscale WIL and
harness the benefits for more students.
Finally, findings highlight the importance of
innovative forms of WIL – such as incubator cen-
tres to foster start-ups among students (see
Universities Australia, 2016) – in developing entre-
preneurial capabilities among students. While it is
true that entrepreneurs tend to be older (Ardagna
& Lusardi, 2010), the expressed desire among some
students to gain experience necessary to start their
own business highlights the need for greater empha-
sis on self-employment during undergraduate educa-
tion, particularly given the cohort is business
students. Although innovative, WIL is attracting
increasing attention, more understanding is needed
of its influence on professional networking and
career self-management in comparison with more
immersed models.
Concluding remarks
Findings affirm that WIL, the intersection of aca-
demic and workplace learning, can play a valuable
role in engaging students with meaningful career
planning processes. It can assist with clarifying
career objectives, enhancing self-awareness in the
context of career planning, and can help students
identify development pathways to improve graduate
employment prospects. It is important to note this
particular WIL programme is reasonably resourced
and regularly evaluated to ensure adherence to qual-
ity principles in WIL design and delivery, such as
those outlined by Smith (2012). This helps to avoid
common issues such as inadequate workplace super-
vision and poor student preparation prior to place-
ment, which might mediate the positive influence of
WIL on career planning. In alignment, there are
some caveats to the largely positive results of the
study. First, students in this study were assigned to
placement opportunities that aligned with their
study major and which were rigorously vetted to
ensure they offered meaningful and relevant work
experience. Sourcing meaningful work as part of
their career counselling is important to students
(Allan et al., 2016) and they should undertake
placements which align with their career intentions.
Without this, the positive results of this study might
not be replicated.
Second, students had elected to participate in WIL
and had undergone a fairly rigorous selection process
to gain entry onto the programme. This may have
meant a more career-motivated sample who were
committed to exploring their career aspirations and/
or who had already defined the career objectives they
wished to experiment with. Third, it is important to
acknowledge there are often barriers to certain stu-
dent groups undertaking WIL which may mediate
its positive influence on career planning. In addition
Australian Journal of Career Development 26(3)
to international and mature students, these include
those of lower socio-economic status, who have
mental illness or a disability, and who are single par-
ents (see Peach et al., 2016). While demonstration of
sound work ethic is the determining factor of entry
onto this particular WIL programme, it is possible
that these marginalised groups opted not to apply
due to inhibiting factors such as the cost of clothing,
travel, and childcare (Brough, Correa-Velez, Crane,
Johnstone, & Marston, 2014).
Fourth, students in this study completed a min-
imum of 100 hours in the workplace and were nearing
the completion of their degree programme. The latter
might mean they were more inclined to be actively
considering their career and exploring the impact of
WIL on career planning in earlier stages of study
might be useful. As WIL is often undertaken in the
later stages of the degree, it should be complemented
with other initiatives – such as individual career coun-
selling and/or embedded career development learning
– as career planning should start early (Bridgstock,
2009).
Limitations of the study are that, first, data were
collected only from one university using one single
method (online survey), although at two separate
time points, which might raise concerns with
common method variance (Podsakoff, MacKenzie,
Lee, & Podsakoff, 2003). The generalisation of results
might be limited as the sample comprised only busi-
ness students and there might be variations in career
decision-making by discipline (Daniels, Stewart,
Stupnisky, Perry, & LoVerso, 2011). Finally, it was
not possible to capture data on socio-economic status
for this particular cohort, and therefore any mediating
influence on the relationship between career planning
and WIL could not be assessed.
Nevertheless, the study provides a useful insight
into how the work placement can influence a stu-
dent’s career planning through the theoretical lens
of SCCT. It explores the link between career
development learning and WIL which, despite
their corresponding importance for graduate
employability, remains a research area in relatively
infancy. It provides a foundation for future studies
exploring the influence of other forms of WIL and
variations across different disciplines. Examination
of earlier stages of study and different length WIL
programmes will be useful in assessing the
transferability of findings, as would be comparing
the clarity of career objectives and the level and
quality of action planning between students com-
pleting WIL and those who are not. Investigating
the mediating influence of contextual variables –
such as those identified in SCCT (Lent et al.,
2000) – on career planning in the WIL context
would be useful. Finally, replicating the study in a
core WIL programme would further enrich our
understanding of the role of WIL and future
career counselling interventions.
Jackson
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with
respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of
this article.
Funding
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial
support for the research, authorship, and/or publication
of this article: The author received a strategic research
grant from the School of Business and Law, Edith Cowan
University, to support the research.
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