Calculus 1 All-Notes PDF

POLYNOMIALS AND RATIONAL FUNCTIONS
A function f is a rule that

assigns exactly one element
y in a set B to each element
x in a set A. In this case, we write y = f (x).
We call the set A the domain of f. The set of all values f
(x) in B is called the range of f , written {y|y = f (x), for
some x in set A}.
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Unless explicitly stated otherwise, whenever a function f

is given by a particular expression, the domain of f
is the largest set of real numbers for which the
expression is defined.
We refer to x as the independent variable and to y as the

dependent variable.
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Functions
By the graph of a function f, we mean the graph of the
equation y = f (x).
That is, the graph consists of all points (x, y), where x is in
the domain of f and where
y = f (x).
Notice that not every curve is the graph of a function,

since for a function, only one y-value can correspond to a
given value of x.
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Functions
We can graphically determine whether a curve is the
graph of a function by using the vertical line test:
if any vertical line intersects the graph in more than

one point, the curve is not the graph of a function,
since in this case, there are two y-values for a given
value of x.
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Using the Vertical Line Test
Determine which of the curves correspond to functions.
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Using the Vertical Line Test
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TRANSFORMATIONS OF FUNCTIONS
Finding the Composition of Two Functions
Note that for x to be in the domain of g, we must have

x ≥ . The do ai of f is the whole real line, so this places
no further restrictions on the domain of f ◦ g.
The domain of ( f ◦ g) is
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The resulting square root requires x2 − ≥ or |x| ≥ .

“i e the i side fu tio f is defined for all x, the
domain of g ◦ f is
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INVERSE FUNCTIONS
The Concept of Inverse Functions
Given an output (that is, a

value in the range of a given
function), we wish to find the
input (the value in the domain)
that produces the observed output.
That is, given a y ∈ Range{ f }, find the x ∈ Domain{f } for

which y = f (x).
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INVERSE FUNCTIONS
The Concept of Inverse Functions

For instance, suppose that f (x) = x3
and y = 8. Can you find an x such that
x3 = 8?
That is, can you find the x-value

corresponding to y = 8?
Of course, the solution of this particular equation is

. In fact, in general, if x3 = y, then . In
light of this, we say that the cube root function is the
inverse of f (x) = x3.
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INVERSE FUNCTIONS
Two Functions That Reverse the Action of Each Other
If f (x) = x3 and g(x) = x1/3, show that f (g(x)) = x and g( f (x)) = x, for all x.
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INVERSE FUNCTIONS
Two Functions That Reverse the Action of Each Other
For all real numbers x,
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INVERSE FUNCTIONS
Assume that f and g have domains A and B, respectively,

and that f (g(x)) is defined for all x ∈ B and g( f (x)) is
defined for all x ∈ A.
If f (g(x)) = x, for all x ∈ B and g( f (x)) = x, for all x ∈ A,

we say that g is the inverse of f, written g = f − .
Equivalently, f is the inverse of g, f = g− .
Note that many familiar functions have no inverse.
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INVERSE FUNCTIONS
Pay close attention to the notation. Notice that f − (x)

does not mean 1/f (x).
We write the reciprocal of f (x) as:
1/f (x) = [ f (x)]− .
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INVERSE FUNCTIONS
A Function with No Inverse
Show that f (x) = x2 has o i erse o the i ter al −∞,∞ .
Note that f (4) = 16 and f − = .
That is, there are two x-values that produce the same y-
value.
So, if we were to try to define an inverse of f, how would

we define f− (16)?
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INVERSE FUNCTIONS
A Function with No Inverse
Show that f (x) = x2 has o i erse o the i ter al −∞,∞ .
Look at the graph of y = x2 to

see what the problem is.
For each y > 0, there are two

x-values for which y = x2.
Such functions do not have an
inverse.
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INVERSE FUNCTIONS
For f (x) = x2, it is tempting to jump to the conclusion that

is the inverse of f (x).
Notice that although for all x ≥

(i.e., for all x in the domain of g), it is not generally true
that .
In fact, this last equality holds only for x ≥ . Ho e er, for

f (x) = x2 restricted to the domain x ≥ , e do ha e that
.
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INVERSE FUNCTIONS
A function f is called one-to-one when for every

y ∈ Range{ f }, there is exactly one x ∈ Domain{ f } for
which y = f (x).
Observe that it is equivalent to say that a function f is

one-to-one if and only if the equality f (a) = f (b) implies
a = b. This version of the definition is often useful for
proofs involving one-to-one functions.
Slide 20
INVERSE FUNCTIONS
The Horizontal Line Test

Notice that a function is one-to-one if and only if every
horizontal line intersects its graph in at most one point.
This is usually referred to as the horizontal line test.
not one-to-one
one-to-one
Slide 21
INVERSE FUNCTIONS
A function f has an inverse if and only if it is one-to-one.
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INVERSE FUNCTIONS
Finding an Inverse Function
Find the inverse of f (x) = x3 − .
It is not entirely clear from the

graph whether or not f passes
the horizontal line test.
To find the inverse function,
write y = f (x) and solve for x
(i.e., solve for the input x that
produced the observed output
y).
Slide 23
INVERSE FUNCTIONS
Finding an Inverse Function

Find the inverse of f (x) = x3 − .
Adding 5 to both sides and taking the cube root gives us
Reversing the variables x and y:
(Convince yourself that f ( f− (x)) = x for all x and f− ( f (x)) = x for all x.)
Slide 24
INVERSE FUNCTIONS
A Function That Is Not One-to-One
Show that f (x = − x4 does not have an inverse.
The function f is not one-to-one; for instance, f (1) = f −

= 9. Consequently, f does not have an inverse.
Slide 25
INVERSE FUNCTIONS
Graphs of Inverse Functions

Let (a, b) be a point on the graph
of y = f (x) and assume f has an
inverse, f− .
Since b = f (a), we have that

f− (b) = f− ( f (a)) = a. That is,
(b, a) is a point on the graph
of y = f−1(x).
Further, notice that the point (b, a) is the reflection of the
point (a, b) through the line y = x.
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INVERSE FUNCTIONS
Graphs of Inverse Functions
It follows that given the graph of

any one-to-one function, you can
draw the graph of its inverse
simply by reflecting the entire
graph through the line y = x.
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INVERSE FUNCTIONS
Most often, we cannot find a formula for an inverse

function and must be satisfied with simply knowing that
the inverse function exists.
Slide 23
INVERSE FUNCTIONS
Drawing the Graph of an Unknown Inverse Function
Draw a graph of f (x) = x5 + 8x3 + x + 1 and its inverse.
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INVERSE FUNCTIONS
Drawing the Graph of an Unknown Inverse Function
We are unable to find a

formula for the inverse
function. Despite this, we can
draw a graph of f− with ease.
We simply take the graph of

y = f(x), and reflect it across the
line y = x.
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TRIGONOMETRIC AND INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
A function f is periodic of period T if f (x + T ) = f (x)

for all x such that x and x + T are in the domain of f.
The smallest such number T > 0 is called the fundamental

period
Slide 31
The Unit Circle, Sine, and Cosine

Measure θ in radians, given by the length of the arc
indicated in the figure.
Defi e si θ to be the y-coordinate
of the point on the circle and
cos θ to be the x-coordinate of the
point.
It follo s that si θ and cos θ are
defi ed for all alues of θ, so that ea h has do ai
−∞ < θ < ∞, hile the ra ge for ea h of these fu tio s is
the i ter al [− , 1].
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Unless otherwise noted, we always measure angles in

radians.
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The functions f (θ) = sin θ and g(θ) = cos θ are periodic,

of period 2π.
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Solving Equations Involving Sines and Cosines
Find all solutions of the equations (a) 2 sin x − = a d

(b) cos2 x − cos x + 2 = 0.
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(a) 2 sin x − =
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(b) cos2 x − cos x + 2 = 0
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Altering Amplitude and Period
Graph y = 2 sin x and y = sin 2x, and describe how each

differs from the graph of y = sin x.
Slide 42
Altering Amplitude and Period
Slide 43
Amplitude and Frequency
A is the amplitude
f is the frequency:
p is the period: p = 1/f
Slide 44
Slide 45
Inverse Sine Function

Notice from the graph that we
cannot define an inverse to
f (x) = sin x, since sin x is not
one-to-one. (It fails the
horizontal line test.)
Slide 46
Inverse Sine Function

We remedy this by restricting
the domain to the interval
[−π/2, π/2].
Note carefully the restricted domain [−π/2, , π/2]. It might

be tempting to write sin− (sin π) = π, but this is incorrect,
as sin− (sin π) = sin− (0) = 0.
Slide 47
Mathematicians often use the notation arcsin x in place

of sin− x.
People will read sin− x i ter ha gea ly as i erse si e

of x or ar si e of x.
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Evaluating the Inverse Sine Function
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Graph of y = sin-1 x
We can draw a graph of y = sin− x simply by reflecting
the graph of y = sin x on the interval [−π/2, π/2] through
the line y = x.
Slide 52
Inverse Cosine Function
To make the cosine function

one-to-one, restrict its
domain to the interval [0, π].
Consequently, we define the

inverse cosine function by
Slide 53
Inverse Cosine Function
Note that
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Evaluating the Inverse Cosine Function
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(a) You ill eed to fi d that a gle θ in [0, π] for which

cos θ = 0.
It’s ot hard to see that os− (0) = π/2.
Note that if you calculate this on your calculator and get

90, your calculator is in degrees mode, in which case, you
should change it to radians mode.
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Graph of y = cos-1 x
We obtain the graph of y = cos–1 x by reflecting the graph
of y = cos x on the interval [0, π] through the line y = x.
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Inverse Tangent Function

We define the inverse tangent function by
Slide 59
Inverse Tangent Function
Slide 60
Evaluating an Inverse Tangent
Evaluate tan− (1).
You ust look for the a gle θ on the interval [−π/2, π/2]
for hi h ta θ = 1.
This is easy enough. Since tan π/4 = 1 and

π/4 ∈ [−π/2, π/2], we have that tan− (1) = π/4.
Slide 61
Inverse Secant Function

There are several reasonable ways in which to suitably
restrict the domain of y = sec x to get an inverse function,
and different authors restrict the domain differently.
We have (arbitrarily) chosen to restrict the domain of

y = sec x to be [0, π/2) ∪ ( π/2 , π].
Slide 62
Inverse Secant Function
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Evaluating an Inverse Secant
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Evaluating sec x and sec-1 x on a Calculator

Calculators do not usually have built-in functions for sec x
or sec− x.
To compute values of these, you must convert the desired

secant value to a cosine value or use the inverse cosine
function.
Slide 65
We can likewise define inverses for cot x and csc x.
As these functions are used only infrequently, we will

omit them here and examine them in the exercises.
Slide 66
Finding the Height of a Tower
A person 100 feet from the base of a

radio tower measures an angle of
60o from the ground to the top of
the tower.
(a) Find the height of the tower.
(b) What angle is measured if the
person is 200 feet from the
base?
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(a)
Using the similar triangles:
Slide 68
(b)
Using similar triangles:
Since 0 < θ < π/2, we have
Slide 69
Simplifying Expressions Involving Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Simplify sin(cos− x) and tan(cos− x).
Slide 70
By the Pythagorean Theorem:
(What, if anything, in the

figure changes if x < 0?)
Slide 71
Note that this identity is valid,

regardless of whether
x = cos θ is positive or
negative.
Slide 72
EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS
RULES OF EXPONENTS (FOR x, y > 0)
Slide 73
Converting Expressions to Exponential Form
Convert each to exponential form:
Slide 74
Converting Expressions to Exponential Form
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Slide 75
For any constants a ≠ a d b > 0, the function

f (x) = a ∙bx is called an exponential function. Here, b is
called the base and x is the exponent.
Note that the domain of an exponential function is

the entire real line ( –∞, ∞ hile the ra ge is the
ope i ter al , ∞ , si e bx > 0 for all x.
Slide 76
Sketching Graphs of Exponentials

Sketch the graphs of the exponential functions
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For any positive number b ≠ , the logarithm function

with base b, written logb x, is defined by
Note that the domain of a logarithmic function is the

ope i ter al , ∞ hile the ra ge is the e tire
real line ( –∞, ∞ .
Slide 80
Evaluating Logarithms
The logarithm logb x gives the exponent to which you
must raise the base to get the given number x.
The most useful bases turn out to be 2, 10, and e.

log10 x = log x (common logarithm)
loge x = ln x (natural logarithm)
Slide 81
Graphing Logarithms
Using a graphing calculator or computer we may obtain
the following graphs.
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Exponential and Logarithmic Inverse Relationship
and are inverse functions for b > 0, b ≠ 1.
Slide 83
Solving a Logarithmic Equation
Example:
Take the exponential of both sides and solve.
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Solving an Exponential Equation
Example:
Take the natural logarithm of both sides and solve.
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Left as an exercise. Check the graph
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Simplifying Logarithmic Expressions
Example: Write each as a single logarithm:
Slide 89
Simplifying Logarithmic Expressions
(a)
(b)
Slide 90
Expanding a Logarithmic Expression
Example:
Slide 91
Rewriting Exponential Expressions

Any exponential can be rewritten as an exponential with base e:
For example,
Slide 92
Change of Base Formula

We can rewrite any logarithm in terms of natural logarithms:
For example,
Slide 93
Preliminaries
We study special combinations of exponential functions.
The hyperbolic sine function is defined by
The hyperbolic cosine function is defined by
Slide 94
Graphs of Hyperbolic Sine and Cosine
Slide 95
Computing Values of Hyperbolic Functions

Example: Compute f (0), f (1), and f − , a d deter i e ho f (x)
and f −x) compare for f (x) = sinh x.
Slide 96
Computing Values of Hyperbolic Functions
The same rule holds for sine:

Slide 97
Matching Data to an Exponential Curve

Example: Find the exponential function of the form f (x) = aebx that
passes through the points ( 0, 5 ) and ( 3, 9 ).
Slide 98
We must solve for a and b.

The graph passes through the point ( 0, 5 ) means
The graph passes through the point ( 3, 9 ) means
We now solve this equation for b.
Slide 99
THE NATURAL LOGARITHM AS AN INTEGRAL
General Exponential Expressions

More general exponential functions, such as f (x) = bx , for
any base b > 0, are easy to express in terms of the natural
exponential function, as follows.
Notice that for any constant b > 0, we have by the usual

rules of logs and exponentials that
Slide 1

Each time you run across the exponential function
f (x) = bx ,
simply rewrite it as
f (x) = ex ln b
and then use the familiar rules for the derivative and
integral of the natural exponential and the chain rule.
Slide 2
General Logarithms
Recall that for any base a > 0 (a ≠ 1) and any x > 0,
y = loga x
if and only if x = ay .
Taking the natural logarithm of both sides of this equation,

ln x = ln(ay ) = y ln a.
Solving for y,
Slide 3
We can now use our calculators to compute loga b. For

example,
Slide 4
THE HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
Preliminaries
We study hyperbolic functions because of their usefulness
in applications and their convenience in solving equations
(in particular, differential equations).
for all x ∈ −∞,∞ .
Slide 4
Preliminaries
for all x ∈ −∞,∞ .
We leave it as an exercise to use the definitions to verify

the important identity
for all x.
Slide 5
Preliminaries
Notice that if we take x = cosh u and y = sinh u, then,
which is the equation of a hyperbola. This identity is the

sour e of the a e hyper oli for these fu tio s.
Slide 6
Preliminaries
We define the hyperbolic tangent function tanh x, the hyperbolic
cotangent function coth x, the hyperbolic secant function sech x and
the hyperbolic cosecant function csch x as follows:
Slide 7
Graph of y = sinh x
Slide 13
Graphs of y = cosh x and y = tanh x
Slide 14
The Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

Note from the graphs of sinh x and tanh x that these
functions are one-to-one (by the horizontal line test).
Also, cosh x is one-to-one for x ≥ .
Slide 15

Thus, we can define inverses for these functions, as follows.
For any x ∈ −∞,∞ , we defi e the inverse hyperbolic
sine by y = sinh− x if and only if sinh y = x.
For any x ≥ , we defi e the inverse hyperbolic cosine by

y = cosh− x if and only if cosh y = x, and y ≥ .
Finally, for any x ∈ − , 1), we define the inverse hyperbolic tangent

by y = tanh− x if and only if tanh y = x.
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Example: Finding a Formula for an Inverse Hyperbolic Function
Find an explicit formula for sinh− x.
Slide 21
Finding a Formula for an Inverse Hyperbolic Function
Recall that y = sinh− x if and only if sinh y = x. So,
Also recall that So,
Slide 22
Taking the natural logarithm of both sides,
Slide 23
An Explicit Formula for cosh-1 x and tanh-1 x

Similarly, we can show that for x ≥ ,
a d for − < x < 1,
We leave it to the exercises to derive these formulas and

corresponding formulas for the remaining inverse
hyperbolic functions.
Slide 24
Limits and Continuity
A BRIEF PREVIEW OF CALCULUS: TANGENT LINES AND THE LENGTH OF
1.1 A CURVE
Secant Lines
The slope of a straight line is the change in y divided by the change in x.
The line through two points on a curve is called a secant line .
Slide 2
1.1 A BRIEF PREVIEW OF CALCULUS: TANGENT LINES AND THE LENGTH OF
A CURVE
Slope at a Point
So, what do we mean by the slope of a curve at a point?
The answer can be visualized by graphically zooming in on the specified
point.
The Limit: Informal Idea
In this section, we develop the notion of limit using some common

language and illustrate the idea with some simple examples.
Slide 3
1.2 THE CONCEPT OF LIMIT

Suppose a function f is defined for all x in an open interval containing a,
except possibly at x = a.
If we can make f (x) arbitrarily close to some number L (i.e., as close as

e’d like to ake it y aki g x sufficiently close to a (but not equal to
a), then we say that L is the limit of f (x), as x approaches a, written
Slide 4
For instance, we have
since as x gets closer and closer to 2, f (x) = x2 gets closer and closer to 4.
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Example:
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Evaluating a Limit
Since the two one-sided limits

of f (x) are the same, we
summarize our results by saying
that
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Evaluating a Limit
We can also determine the limit algebraically.
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A Limit that Does Not Exist
Example:
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A limit exists if and only if both corresponding one-sided limits exist

and are equal. That is,
In other words, we say that
if we can make f (x) as close as we might like to L, by making x sufficiently

close to a (on either side of a), but not equal to a.
Slide 11
Example: Determining Limits Graphically

Use the graph to determine
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Example: A Limit Where Two Factors Cancel
From the left:
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A Limit Where Two Factors Cancel
From the right:
Conjecture:
Slide 22
A Limit Where Two Factors Cancel
Algebraic cancellation:
Likewise:
Slide 24
Example: A Limit That Does Not Exist
From the right:
Conjecture:
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A Limit That Does Not Exist
From the left:
Conjecture:
Conjecture:
Slide 27
Computer or calculator computation of limits is unreliable.
We use graphs and tables of values only as (strong) evidence pointing

to what a plausible answer might be.
To be certain, we need to obtain careful verification of our

conjectures. We explore this in sections 1.3–1.7.
Slide 19
1.3 COMPUTATION OF LIMITS
For any constant c and any real number a,
For any real number a,
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Finding the Limit of a Polynomial
Example:
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Finding a Limit by Factoring
Example:
Notice right away that
since the limit in the denominator is zero.
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Finding a Limit by Factoring
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Example: Evaluating the Limit of an nth Root of a Polynomial
Slide 25
Example: Finding a Limit by Rationalizing
Notice that both the numerator and the denominator approach 0 as

x approaches 0.
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Finding a Limit by Rationalizing
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Finding a Limit by Rationalizing
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(Squeeze Theorem)
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Example: Using the Squeeze Theorem to Verify the Value of a Limit
Slide 20
Example: Using the Squeeze Theorem to Verify the Value of a Limit
Slide 22
A Limit for a Piecewise-Defined Function
Example:
(Consider one-sided limits.)
Slide 33
A Limit for a Piecewise-Defined Function
Slide 24
1.4 CONTINUITY AND ITS CONSEQUENCES
Continuity: Informal Idea
We say that a function is continuous on an interval if its graph

on that interval can be drawn without interruption, that is,
without lifting the pencil from the paper.
Slide 35
Definition:
Slide 36
Remark
For f to be continuous at x = a, the definition says that
(i) f (a) must be defined,

(ii) the limit must exist
and
(iii) the limit and the value of f at the point must be the same.
Further, this says that a function is continuous at a point
exactly when you can compute its limit at that point by simply
substituting in.
Slide 37
Examples of Points of Discontinuity
Slide 38
Finding Where a Rational Function Is Continuous
Example:
(continuous at each point different from 1)
Slide 8
Removing a Hole in the Graph
Example:
Extend the function from previous example to
make it continuous everywhere by redefining
it at a single point.
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Removing a Hole in the Graph
Let
for some real number a. If we let a = 4,

Then
and g(x) is continuous at x = 1.

Slide 10
Removable Discontinuities
When we can remove a discontinuity by redefining the function at that
point, we call the discontinuity removable. Not all discontinuities are
removable, however.
Removable
Not removable
Slide 42
Functions That Cannot Be Extended Continuously
Example: Show that (a) and (b) cannot
be extended to a function that is continuous everywhere.
Slide 43
Hence, no matter how we might

define f (0), f will not be continuous
at x = 0.
Slide 44
Due to the endless oscillation,

the limit does not exist, and
there is no way to redefine the
function at x = 0 to make it
continuous there.
Slide 45
Theorem All polynomials are continuous everywhere.
Additionally, sin x and cos x are continuous everywhere.
is continuous for all x, when n is odd and for x > 0, when

n is even.
Slide 46
Theorem
Suppose that f and g are continuous at x = a. Then all of the following
are true:
Simply put, Theorem says that a sum, difference or product of

continuous functions is continuous, while the quotient of two
continuous functions is continuous at any point at which the
denominator is nonzero.
Slide 47
Theorem Suppose that and f is continuous at L.

Then,
Corollary
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Continuity for a Composite Function

Example:
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Definition:
If f is continuous at every point on
an open interval
(a, b), we say that f is continuous
on (a, b).
Following the figure, we say that f
is continuous on the closed
interval
[a, b], if f is continuous on the
open interval (a, b) and
Slide 50
Remark
Finally, if f is o ti uous o all of −∞,∞ , e si ply say that f is continuous.
That is, he e do ’t spe ify a i te al, e ea o ti uous
everywhere.)
Slide 51
Continuity on a Closed Interval
Example:
Observe that f is defined only for

− ≤x≤ .
Note that f is the composition of

two continuous functions and
hence, is continuous for all x for
hi h − x2 > 0.
Slide 52
Continuity on a Closed Interval
“i e − x2 > fo − < x < 2, we have that f is

continuous for all x i the i te al − , 2).
Finally, we test the endpoints to see

that
and
so that f is continuous on the closed

i te al [− , 2].
Slide 53
Theorem (Intermediate Value Theorem)

Suppose that f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b] and W is any
number between f (a) and f (b).
Then, there is a number c ∈ [a, b] for which f (c) = W.
Slide 54
Intermediate Value Theorem

Theorem says that if f is continuous on [a, b], then f must take on every
value between f (a) and f (b) at least once.
That is, a continuous function cannot

skip over any numbers between its
values at the two endpoints. To do
so, the graph would need to leap
across the horizontal line y = W,
something that continuous functions
cannot do.
Slide 55
Corollary
Suppose that f is continuous on [a, b] and f (a) and f (b) have opposite signs
[i.e., f (a) · f (b) < 0].
Then, there is at least one number
c ∈ (a, b) for which f (c) = 0.
(Recall that c is then a zero of f .)
Notice that Corollary is simply the

special case of the Intermediate Value
Theorem where W = 0.
Slide 56
Finding Zeros by the Method of Bisections

Example:
(Since f is a poly o ial of deg ee , e do ’t ha e a y fo ulas fo fi di g

its zeros. The only alternative then, is to approximate the zeros.)
Slide 57
Corollary suggests a simple yet effective

method, called the method of bisections.
Taking the midpoint of the interval [0, 1], since

f (0. ≈ − .469 < 0 and
f (0) = 3 > 0, there must be a zero between 0
and 0.5.
Slide 58
Next, the midpoint of [0, 0.5] is

0.25 and f (0. ≈ .001 > 0, so that the zero is in
the interval (0.25, 0.5).
We continue in this way to narrow down the interval

i hi h the e’s a ze o
Slide 59
Slide 60
Continuing this process through 20 more steps leads to the approximate

zero x = 0.40892288, which is accurate to at least eight decimal places.
The other zeros can be found in a similar fashion.
Slide 61
1.5 LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITY; ASYMPTOTES
A Simple Limit Revisited
Example:
We write
It is important to note that while the limits do not

exist, e say that they e ual ∞ a d −∞,
respectively, only to be specific as to why they do
not exist.
Slide 62
A Simple Limit Revisited
The graph approaches the vertical line x = 0 as

x→ .
We say that the line x = 0 is a vertical

asymptote.
Finally, since the one-sided limits do not agree,

we say
Slide 63
A Function Whose One-Sided Limits Are Both Infinite
Example:
Since both one-sided limits agree (i.e., both

te d to ∞ , e say that
This one concise statement says that the

limit does not exist, but also that there is a
vertical asymptote at x = 0, where f(x →∞
as x → f o eithe side.
Slide 64
Note 1: It may at first seem contradictory to say that

does not exist and then to write
Ho e e , si e ∞ is not a real number, there is no

contradiction here. We say that
to indicate that as x → +, the function values are

increasing without bound.
Slide 65
Note 2: Mathematicians try to convey as much information as

possible with as few symbols as possible. For instance,
we prefer to say rather than
does not exist, since the first statement not only says that
the limit does not exist, but also says that increases
without bound as x approaches 0, with x > 0 or x < 0.
Slide 66
Another Case Where Infinite One-Sided Limits Disagree
Example:
There appears to be a vertical asymptote at

x = − . Fu the , the fu tio appea s to
te d to ∞ as x →− +, a d to −∞ as x →− −.
Slide 67
Another Case Where Infinite One-Sided Limits Disagree
Verify the signs of the one-sided limits:
There is indeed a vertical asymptote at x = − a d
Slide 68
Limits at Infinity
We are also interested in examining the limiting behavior of functions as
x increases without bound (written x → ∞ o as x decreases without
bound (written x → −∞ .
Slide 69
Limits at Infinity
Returning to , we can see that as
In view of this, we write
Similarly,
The graph appears to approach

the horizontal line y = 0, as x →
∞ a d as x → −∞. We all y = 0 a
horizontal asymptote.
Slide 70
Finding Horizontal Asymptotes
Example:
As
So,
The line y = 2 is a horizontal asymptote.

Slide 71
Example:
Slide 72
Example:
Observe that you can make similar statements regarding

the value of , but be careful: the answer will
change depending on whether n is even or odd. (We leave

this as an exercise.)
Slide 73
A Limit of a Quotient That Is Not the Quotient of the Limits
Example:
You might be tempted to write
Slide 74
Whe a li it has the fo ∞/∞, the a tual alue of the li it a e

anything at all.
Fo this easo , e all ∞/∞ a indeterminate form, meaning that the

value of the limit cannot be determined solely by noticing that both
u e ato a d de o i ato te d to ∞.
Slide 75
Rule of Thumb: Whe fa ed ith the i dete i ate fo ∞/∞ i

calculating the limit of a rational function, divide numerator and
denominator by the highest power of x appearing in the denominator.
Slide 76
Slide 77
Finding Slant Asymptotes

Example:
Using our rule of thumb, we have
Slide 78
Using our rule of thumb, we have
Slide 79
Performing long division:
The third term tends to 0 as x → ∞, so the fu tio

values approach those of the linear function
y=
For this reason, we say that the graph has a slant (or
oblique) asymptote.
Slide 80
Slide 81
Two Limits of an Exponential Function
Example:
Slide 82
2.2 THE DERIVATIVE
Definition The derivative of the function f at the point x = a is

defined as
provided the limit exists. If the limit exists, we say that f

is differentiable at x = a.
An alternative form is
Slide 1
2.2 THE DERIVATIVE
Finding the Derivative at a Point
Example:
Slide 2
2.2 THE DERIVATIVE
Finding the Derivative at an Unspecified Point
Example:
Slide 3
2.2 THE DERIVATIVE
Definition: The derivative of the function f is the function f given by
The domain of f is the set of all x’s fo hi h this li it

exists.
The process of computing a derivative is called

differentiation. Further, f is differentiable on an open
interval I if it is differentiable at every point in I .
Slide 4
2.2 THE DERIVATIVE
Finding the Derivative of a Simple Rational Function
Example:
Slide 5
2.2 THE DERIVATIVE
Example: Sketching the Graph of f Given the Graph of f
Given the graph of f in the figure,

sketch a plausible graph of f .
Keep in mind that the value of the

derivative function at a point is the
slope of the
tangent line at that point.
Slide 6
2.2 THE DERIVATIVE
Sketching the Graph of f Given the Graph of f
Slide 7
2.2 THE DERIVATIVE
Sketching the Graph of f Given the Graph of f
Example:
Given the graph of f in the figure, sketch a
plausible graph of f.
Keep in mind that the slope of the tangent line of

f at a point is the value of f’ at that poi t.
Slide 8
2.2 THE DERIVATIVE
“ket hi g the G aph of f Gi e the G aph of f’
Slide 9
2.2 THE DERIVATIVE
Alternative Derivative Notations

If we write y = f (x), the following are all alternatives for
denoting the derivative:
The expression
is called a differential operator and tells you to take the

derivative of whatever expression follows.
Slide 10
2.2 THE DERIVATIVE
Differentiability Implies Continuity

We observed that f (x) = |x| does not have a tangent line
at x = 0 (i.e., it is not differentiable at x = 0), although it is
continuous everywhere.
Thus, there are continuous functions that are not

differentiable.
But, are there differentiable functions that are not

continuous? No.
Slide 11
2.2 THE DERIVATIVE
Theorem If f is differentiable at x = a, then f is continuous at x = a.
Note that Theorem 2.1 says that if a function is not continuous at a

point, then it cannot have a derivative at that point.
It also turns out that functions are not differentiable at any point where
thei g aph has a sha p o e , as is the ase fo f (x) = |x| at x = 0.
Slide 12
2.2 THE DERIVATIVE
Showing That a Function Is Not Differentiable at a Point
Example:
Slide 13
2.2 THE DERIVATIVE
Showing That a Function Is Not Differentiable at a Point
Since the one-sided limits do not agree (0 = 2), f (2) does

not exist (i.e., f is not differentiable at
x = 2). Slide 14
2.2 THE DERIVATIVE
Examples of Points of Non-Differentiability
Slide 15
2.2 THE DERIVATIVE
Examples of Points of Non-Differentiability
Slide 16
2.2 THE DERIVATIVE
Numerical Differentiation
There are many times in applications when it is not
possible or practical to compute derivatives symbolically.
This is frequently the case where we have only some data

(i.e., a table of values) representing an otherwise unknown
function.
Slide 17
2.2 THE DERIVATIVE
Approximating a Derivative Numerically
Example:
Slide 18
2.2 THE DERIVATIVE
Estimating Velocity Numerically
Example: Suppose that a sprinter reaches the following distances

in the given times. Estimate the velocity of the sprinter at
the 6-second mark.
Slide 19
2.2 THE DERIVATIVE
Estimating Velocity Numerically
Based on the table, conjecture

that the sprinter was reaching a peak speed at
about the 6-second mark. Thus, accept an
estimate of 35.2 ft/s. (There is not a single
correct answer to this question.)
Slide 20
2.3 COMPUTATION OF DERIVATIVES: THE POWER RULE
For any constant c,
(The tangent line to a horizontal line is the same

horizontal line.)
(The tangent line to the line

y = x is a line of slope one, which is not surprising.)
Slide 21
The Power Rule

The table presents a short list of
derivatives calculated previously
either as examples or in the
exercises using the limit definition.
Note that the power of x in the derivative is always one less than the
power of x in the original function. Further, the
coefficient of x in the derivative is the same as the power of x in the
original function.
Slide 22
Theorem: (Power Rule)
Proof
Slide 23
Example: Using the Power Rule
(a)
(b)
The General Power Rule

We have already seen these derivatives:
Note that each derivative can be rewritten:
suggesting that the power rule may be extended to all real

exponents (except zero).
Slide 25
Theorem (General Power Rule)
Example: Using the General Power Rule
(a)
(b)
(c)
Slide 26
Caution Be careful here to avoid a common error:
The power rule says to subtract 1 from the exponent (even if the
exponent is negative).
Theorem:
Slide 27
Finding the Derivative of a Sum
Example:
Slide 28
Rewriting a Function before Computing the Derivative
Example:
Slide 29
Finding an Equation of the Tangent Line
Example:
The li e ith slope − th ough the poi t , has e uatio
Slide 30
Higher Order Derivatives

We can compute the derivative of a derivative.
It turns out that such higher order derivatives have important

applications.
We can compute the derivative of f , called the second derivative of f

and written f . We can then compute
the derivative of f , called the third derivative of f, written f .
Slide 31
Higher Order Derivatives
Slide 32
Computing Higher Order Derivatives
Example:
Slide 33
Acceleration
You are probably familiar with the term acceleration, which is the
instantaneous rate of change of velocity.
Consequently, if the velocity of an object at time t is given by v(t), then the

acceleration is
Slide 34
Computing the Acceleration of a Skydiver
Example: Suppose that the height of a skydiver t seconds after jumping from
an airplane is given by f (t = − t − t2 feet.
Find the pe so ’s a ele atio at ti e t.
The elo ity ha ges y − ft/s every second and the speed in the
downward (negative) direction increases by 32 ft/s every second due to
gravity.
Slide 35
2.4 THE PRODUCT AND QUOTIENT RULES
Product Rule
The derivative of a product is not generally the product of the corresponding

derivatives.
Slide 36
Theorem: (Product Rule)
Proof:
Notice that the elements of the derivatives of f and g are present, but we
need to get them into the right form. Adding and subtracting f (x)g(x + h) in
the numerator,
Slide 37
(In the last step, since g is differentiable at x, it must also

be continuous at x, so that g(x + h → g(x) as h → .
Slide 38
Example: Using the Product Rule
Slide 7
Quotient Rule
Note that
Generally, the derivative of a quotient is not the quotient of the derivatives.
Theorem: (Quotient Rule)
Slide 40
Using the Quotient Rule
Example:
Slide 41
A Case Where the Product and Quotient Rules Are Not Needed
Example:
(Although it may be tempting to use the product rule for the first term and
the uotie t ule fo the se o d te , oti e that it’s si ple to fi st e ite
the function.)
Slide 42
Using the Derivative to Analyze a Golf Shot

Example:
A golf ball of mass 0.05 kg struck by a golf club of mass m
kg with speed 50 m/s will have an initial speed of
Show that u(m) > 0 and interpret this result in golf terms.
Compare u(0.15) and u(0.20).
Slide 43
u(m) increases as m increases

In golf terms, all other things being equal, the greater the
mass of the club, the greater the velocity of the ball will be.
Slide 44
The rate of increase in ball speed is much less for the heavier club than for
the lighter one.
Since heavier clubs can be harder to control, the relatively small increase in
ball speed obtained by making the heavy club even heavier may not
compensate for the decrease in control.
Slide 45
2.5 THE CHAIN RULE
The Chain Rule
We currently have no way to compute the derivative of a function such as
except by the limit definition.
However, observe that P(t) is the composition of the two

functions
so that P(t) = f (g(t)), where both f (t) and g (t) are easily computed.
Slide 46
2.5 THE CHAIN RULE
Theorem: (Chain Rule)
If y = f (u) and u = g(x), then y = f (g(x)), and the chain rule is
Slide 47
2.5 THE CHAIN RULE
Using the Chain Rule
Example:
Slide 48
2.5 THE CHAIN RULE
Using the Chain Rule with a Square Root Function
Example:
Slide 49
2.5
THE CHAIN RULE
Derivatives Involving the Chain Rule and Other Rules
Example:
Slide 50
2.5 THE CHAIN RULE
Derivatives Involving the Chain Rule and Other Rules
Slide 51
2.5 THE CHAIN RULE
A Derivative Involving Multiple Chain Rules
Example:
Slide 52
2.5 THE CHAIN RULE
Theorem:
Slide 53
2.5 THE CHAIN RULE
Proof:
Differentiating both sides of this equation gives
Applying the chain rule to the left side, we get
Solving for g’ x), we obtain
Slide 54
2.5 THE CHAIN RULE
The Derivative of an Inverse Function
Example:
From the given graph, it appears that the function f(x) = x5 + 3x3 + 2x +1 has
an inverse function g, compute g’ .
Slide 55
2.5 THE CHAIN RULE
The Derivative of an Inverse Function
We have
Also, and we write .

Thus
By trial and error we see that f(1) = 7 so that g(7) = 1.
Slide 56
2.6 DERIVATIVES OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
Conjecture
Use the graph of y = sin(x) to construct the basic features of the graph of y’:
Slide 1
Conjecture ?
Before proving this conjecture, we need two lemmas concerning sine and
cosine.
Lemma
Lemma
Slide 2
Proof:
3
Theorem
(from lemmas previous slide)

Slide 4
�
Theorem cos = −sin⁡ .
�
Proof: Use the identity cos + −= cos − sin⁡ sin⁡
�
Theorem tan⁡ =� .
�
Proof: Use the quotient rule.
5
The derivatives of the remaining trigonometric functions are left as exercises.
The derivatives of all six trigonometric functions are summarized below.
Slide 6
Example A Derivative That Requires the Product Rule
Slide 7
Example The Derivatives of Some Similar Trigonometric Functions
Slide 8
Example
Slide 9
Slide 10
6.3 DERIVATIVES OF EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS
Derivatives of Exponential Functions
Given f(x) = ax for a > 0, we compute by definition
Thus we have
Slide 11
The unknown constant is given by if this limit exists.
We explore numerically using a = 2.
Slide 12
The evidence suggests
Similarly we find
Note that
This evidence helps motivate the theorem that follows.
Theorem
Slide 13
Derivative of the Natural Exponential Function
If we wish to differentiate f(x) = ex, we see that Theorem gives us
This should be the easiest derivative formula to remember.
Theorem
Slide 14
Example The Chain Rule With Exponential Functions
Find the derivative of
Using the chain rule, we get
Slide 15
Using the product rule and chain rule, we get
Slide 16
Using Theorem and the chain rule, we get
Slide 17
6.1 DERIVATIVES OF LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS
Derivative of the Natural Logarithm
If f(x) = ln x, then by definition the derivative is given by
We do not know how to evaluate this limit, so we recall
With g(x) = ln x, f(x) = ex, and f ’ x) = ex, we have
Slide 18
Theorem
Example: Find the derivative of
Using the product rule, we get
Slide 19
Using the properties of logarithms we write
so now we are able to compute
Using the chain rule, we get
Slide 20
Example: Find the derivative of ln .
Use the chain rule, ln = .
Example: Find the derivative of

−
ln +8 , ⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡ ln , ⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡ ln tan , ⁡⁡⁡ ln ⁡⁡⁡
+5
Slide 21
Logarithmic Differentiation
A clever technique called logarithmic differentiation uses the rules of
logarith s to help fi d deri ati es of ertai fu tio s for hi h e do ’t
presently have derivative formulas.
Example: Find the derivative of f (x) = xx , for x > 0.

Begin by taking the natural logarithm of both sides of the equation f (x) = xx.
Differentiate both sides:
Slide 22
Solve for f’(x):
Example: Compute the derivative of

� ��
⁡ = .� �� = cos . ��
�
2 2
2
= �� =
2 ��
.
⁡ . f(x)=
2 2 �� 2
Use chain rule = � ⁡ = � .
Slide 23
Recall that =� � iff =
Taking the natural logarithm on both sides, we have
ln = ln = �
ln⁡
=
ln⁡
�
Theorem: For any base > , ≠ , and any x > , � � = .
� ⁡ln⁡ �
Slide 24
2.6 IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION
Implicit Functions
Compare the following two equations describing familiar curves:
y = x2 + 3 (parabola) and x2 + y2 = 4 (circle).
The first equation defines y as a function of x explicitly, since for each x,

the equation gives an explicit formula for finding the corresponding
value of y.
On the other hand, the second equation does not define a function,
si e the ir le does ’t pass the erti al li e test.
Slide 25
Implicit Functions
However, you can solve for y and find at least two
functions that are defined implicitly by the equation
x2 + y2 = 4.
Now, find the slope of the

tangent line to the circle
x2 + y2 = 4 at the point
Slide 26
Implicit Functions
Slide 27
Implicit Functions
Alternatively, assuming the equation x2 + y2 = 4 defines one or more
differentiable functions of x: y = y(x), the equation is x2 + [y(x)]2 = 4.
Differentiating both sides with respect to x, we obtain
Slide 28
This process of differentiating both sides of an equation with respect to

x and then solving for y(x) is called implicit differentiation.
Slide 29
Finding a Tangent Line Implicitly
Example: Find y’ x) for x2 + y3 − y = 3. Then, find the equation of the
tangent line at the point (2, 1).
Slide 30
Finding a Second Derivative Implicitly
Find ’’(x) implicitly for y2 + 2e− = 6. Then find the value of ’’ at the point
(0, 2).
Dividing out the common factor of 2 and differentiating

again, we get
Slide 31
We now solve for y’’ x) to get
(**)
Slide 32
Substitute x = 0 and y = 2 into the last equation to get
from which we conclude that
Substitute x = 0, y = 2 and y’ = i to (**) to get
Slide 33
6.5 THE CALCULUS OF THE INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
Derivative of sin− x
Begin by recalling the definition of sin− x:
Keeping in mind that y = sin–1 x, differentiate the equation sin y = x

implicitly,
Solving this for dy/dx, we find (for cos ≠ 0) that

Slide 34
Notice that for y ∈ [−π/2, π/2], cos y ≥ a d he e,
This leaves us with
Since y = sin–1 x,
Slide 35
Derivative of cos− x
We leave it as an exercise to show that
Slide 36
Derivative of tan− x
Recall that
Using implicit differentiation,
Solve this for dy/dx,
Slide 37
Derivative of sec− x
You can likewise show that
This is left as an exercise.
Slide 38
Derivatives of cot− x and csc− x
Slide 39
Finding the Derivative of an Inverse Trigonometric Function
Example: Compute the derivative of (a) cos− (3x2), (b) (sec− x)2 and (c)
tan− (x3).
From the chain rule,
Slide 40
Slide 41
6.6 THE HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
Preliminaries
We study hyperbolic functions because of their usefulness in applications

and their convenience in solving equations (in particular, differential
equations).
for all x ∈ −∞,∞ .
Slide 42
for all x ∈ −∞,∞ .
We leave it as an exercise to use the definitions to verify the important

identity
for all x.
Slide 43
Notice that if we take x = cosh u and y = sinh u, then,
which is the equation of a hyperbola. This identity is the source of the name
hyper oli for these fu tio s.
Slide 44
We define the hyperbolic tangent function tanh x, the hyperbolic
cotangent function coth x, the hyperbolic secant function sech x and the
hyperbolic cosecant function csch x as follows:
Slide 45
Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions

We can readily determine the derivatives, using what we already know
about exponentials. First, note that
Similarly,
Slide 46
Example: Compute the derivative of f (x) = sinh2(3x).
Slide 47
6.6*
Optional THE HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
Graph of y = sinh x
Note that
Further, since f’(x) = cosh x > 0, sinh x is increasing for all x.

Next, note that f’’(x) = sinh x. Thus, the graph is concave down for x
< 0 and concave up for x > 0.
Finally, you can easily verify that
Slide 48
6.6*
Optional
Graph of y = sinh x
Slide 49
6.6*
Optional
Graphs of y = cosh x and y = tanh x
Slide 50
6.6*
Optional
Note from the graphs of sinh x and tanh x that these
functions are one-to-one (by the horizontal line test).
Also, cosh x is one-to-one for x ≥ .
Slide 51
6.6*
Optional
Thus, we can define inverses for these functions, as follows.
For any x ∈ −∞,∞ , e defi e the inverse hyperbolic
sine by y = sinh− x if and only if sinh y = x.
For any x ≥ , e defi e the inverse hyperbolic cosine by
y = cosh− x if and only if cosh y = x, and y ≥ .
Finally, for any x ∈ − , 1), we define the inverse hyperbolic tangent by y
= tanh− x if and only if tanh y = x.
Slide 52
6.6*
Optional
Slide 53
6.6*
Optional
Derivatives of the Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
Recall the definition of the sinh–1 x:
y = sinh− x if and only if sinh y = x
Implicitly differentiate both sides of sinh x = y with respect
to x:
Slide 54
6.6*
Optional
Solving for the derivative,
since . Thus,
Slide 55
6.6*
Optional
The remaining derivatives are found in a similar manner.
Slide 56
6.6*
Optional
Find an explicit formula for sinh− x.
Slide 57
6.6*
Optional
Recall that y = sinh− x if and only if sinh y = x. So,
Also recall that So,
Slide 58
6.6*
Optional
Taking the natural logarithm of both sides,
Slide 59
6.6*
Optional
An Explicit Formula for cosh-1 x and tanh-1 x
Similarly, we can show that for x ≥ ,
a d for − < x < 1,
We leave it to the exercises to derive these formulas and

corresponding formulas for the remaining inverse
hyperbolic functions.
Slide 60
7.6 INDETERMINATE FORMS AND l’HÔPITAL’S RULE
Indeterminate Forms
Limits of the form
where
or
give rise to the forms , which we call indeterminate forms.
Slide 1
We cannot determine the limit of indeterminate forms without further

work. Note that each of the following have the form
(does not exist)
Slide 2
Theorem:
Slide 3
We prove only the case where f, f’, g and g’ are all continuous on all of
(a, b) and g’ c) ≠ 0.
First, by definition of the derivative, we have
By continuity we may write
Each function is continuous at x = c, so we have
Slide 4
The desired result now follows.
Slide 5
The Indeterminate Form 0/0
Example:
From the graph, the limit appears to be 0. This limit has

the indeterminate form 0/0 and all the hypotheses of
Theorem are met. We apply l’Hôpital’s Rule to get
Slide 6
The I dete i ate Fo ∞/∞
Example:
This has the fo ∞/∞ a d f o the g aph it appea s the

function grows larger and larger as x → ∞. Usi g
l’Hôpital’s Rule, we confirm our suspicion
Slide 7
A Limit Requiring Two Applications of l’Hôpital’s Rule
Example:
This has the fo ∞/∞ a d will e ui e us to apply l’Hôpital’s Rule twice.
Slide 8
An Erroneous Use of l’Hôpital’s Rule
Example:
Notice that , so l’Hôpital’s Rule does not apply.
The correct evaluation is
Slide 9
Si plifi atio of the I dete i ate Fo ∞/∞
Example:
This has the fo ∞/∞, so we apply l’Hôpital’s Rule to get
Slide 10
This agai has the fo ∞/∞, ut, athe tha apply l’Hôpital’s Rule, we
rewrite the expression to evaluate the limit.
Slide 11
Other Indeterminate Forms

There are five other indeterminate forms to consider:
The objective is to reduce these forms to
at which point l’Hôpital’s Rule can be applied.
Slide 12
The I dete i ate Fo ∞−∞
Example:
This has the ∞ − ∞ fo . We fi st ew ite i a fo to whi h l’Hôpital’s
Rule can be applied.
Slide 13
Slide 14
The I dete i ate Fo 0∙∞
Example:
This has the 0 ∙ ∞ fo . We fi st ew ite i a fo to whi h l’Hôpital’s Rule

can be applied.
Slide 15
Example: Evaluate the following limit lim �� .

�→−∞
This has the 0 ∙ ∞ fo . This means that we’ll need to write it as a quotient.
With each application of L’Hospital’s Rule we just end up with another 0/0 indeterminate form and in fact the
derivatives seem to be getting worse and worse.
Let’s move the exponential function instead.
The quotient is now an indeterminate form of ∞/∞ and use L’Hospital’s Rule gives,
The Indeterminate Form 1∞
Example:
This has the (1∞) form. To rewrite we define . We

may now write
Taking the limit of both sides of this equation, we have
Slide 17
We may now proceed as in previous examples
Slide 18
We have shown .
The original limit is thus given by .
Slide 19
3.2 MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM VALUES
Definition
For a function f defined on a set S of real numbers and a number c ∈ S,
(i) f (c) is the absolute maximum of f on S if f (c f (x) for all x ∈ S and
(ii) f (c) is the absolute minimum of f on S if f (c f (x) for all x ∈ S.
An absolute maximum or an absolute minimum is referred to as an absolute

extremum. (The plural form of extremum is extrema.)
Slide 1
Existence of Absolute Extrema
Functions do not necessarily have absolute extrema.
Slide 2
Example
(a) Locate any absolute extrema of f (x) = x2 − 9 o the i ter al −∞,∞ .
(b) Locate any absolute extrema of f (x) = x2 − 9 o the i ter al − , 3).
(c) Locate any absolute extrema of f (x) = x2 − 9 o the i ter al [− , 3].
Slide 3
(a)
(b)
Slide 4
(c)
Slide 5
A Function with No Absolute Maximum or Minimum
Example: Locate any absolute extrema of f (x) = 1/x, on [− , 0) ∪ (0, 3].
f clearly fails to have either an absolute maximum

or an absolute minimum on [− , 0) ∪ (0, 3].
Slide 6
Theorem: (Extreme Value Theorem)
A continuous function f defined on a closed, bounded interval [a, b] attains

both an absolute maximum and an absolute minimum on that interval.
(Theorem says that continuous functions are guaranteed to have an

absolute maximum and an absolute minimum on a closed, bounded
interval.)
Slide 7
Example: Find the absolute extrema of f (x) = 1/x on the interval [1, 3].
On the interval [1, 3], f is continuous.

Consequently, the Extreme Value Theorem
guarantees that f has both an absolute maximum
and an absolute minimum on [1, 3].
Judging from the graph in the figure, it appears that f (x)

reaches its maximum value of 1 at x = 1 and its minimum
value of 1/3 at x = 3.
Slide 8
Definition:
(i) f (c) is a local maximum of f if f (c f (x) for all x in some open interval
containing c.
(ii) f (c) is a local minimum of f if f (c f (x) for all x in some open interval
containing c.
In either case, we call f (c) a local extremum of f .
(Local maxima and minima are sometimes referred to as relative maxima

and minima, respectively.)
Slide 9
Local Extrema
Notice that each local extremum seems to

Occur either at a point where the
tangent line is horizontal
[i.e., where f (x) = 0], at a
point where the tangent
line is vertical [where f (x)
is undefined] or at a corner [again, where f (x)
is undefined].
Slide 10
A Function with a Zero Derivative at a Local Maximum
Example: Locate any local extrema for f (x = 9 − x2 and describe the behavior of
the derivative at the local extremum.
There is a local maximum at x = 0.
Slide 11
A Function with an Undefined Derivative at a Local Minimum
Example: Locate any local extrema for f (x) = |x| and describe the behavior of the
derivative at the local extremum.
There is a local minimum at

x = 0.
The graph has a corner at

x = 0 and hence, f (0) is
undefined.
Slide 12
Definition: A number c in the domain of a function f is called a critical
number of f if f (c) = 0 or f (c) is undefined.
Theorem: Fer at’s Theore

Suppose that f (c) is a local extremum (local maximum or local minimum).
Then c must be a critical number of f .
Slide 13
Example: Finding Local Extrema of a Polynomial
Find the critical numbers and local extrema of f (x) = 2x3 − x2 − x + 5.
Critical numbers:
The critical numbers x = –1 and x = 2 correspond to

local extrema.
Slide 14
An Extremum at a Point Where the Derivative Is Undefined
Example: Find the critical numbers and local extrema of f (x) = (3x + 1)2/3.
Of course, f (x ≠ for all x, but f (x) is undefined at x = − / , hi h is i

the domain of f . Thus, x = − / is the o ly riti al u er of f .
x = –1/3 corresponds to the location of a

local minimum (also the absolute minimum).
Slide 15
A Horizontal Tangent at a Point That Is Not a Local Extremum
Example: Find the critical numbers and local extrema of f (x) = x3.
f has a horizontal tangent line at x = 0, but does not have a

local extremum there.
Slide 16
A Vertical Tangent at a Point That Is Not a Local Extremum
Example: Find the critical numbers and local extrema of f (x) = x1/3.
Slide 17
Finding Critical Numbers of a Rational Function
Example:
Note that the domain of f consists of all real numbers other than x = − .
f (x) = 0 for x = 0,− a d f (x) is undefined for x = − . Ho e er, − is ot i the

domain of f and consequently, the only critical numbers are x = 0 and x = − .
Slide 18
Theorem: Suppose that f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b]. Then, each
absolute extremum of f must occur at an endpoint (a or b) or at a
critical number.
Remark: Theorem gives us a simple procedure for finding the absolute extrema
of a continuous function on a closed, bounded interval:
1. Find all critical numbers in the interval and compute function values
at these points.
2. Compute function values at the endpoints.
3. The largest function value is the absolute maximum and the
smallest function value is the absolute minimum.
Slide 19
Finding Absolute Extrema on a Closed Interval
Example: Find the absolute extrema of f (x) = 2x3 − x2 − x + 5 on

the i ter al [− , 4].
The maximum appears to be at the endpoint x = 4. The
minimum appears to be at a local minimum near x = 2.
The critical numbers are x = − a d x = 2. Both of these

are i the i ter al [− , 4].
Slide 20
Compare the values at the endpoints:
and the values at the critical numbers:
Theorem says that the absolute extrema must be

among these four values.
Thus, f (4) = 37 is the absolute maximum and f =− is the
absolute minimum.
Slide 21
3.3 INCREASING AND DECREASING FUNCTIONS
Definition:
A function f is increasing on an interval I if for every x1, x2 ∈ I with x1 < x2,
f (x1) < f (x2) [i.e., f (x) gets larger as x gets larger].
A function f is decreasing on the interval I if for every

x1, x2 ∈ I with x1 < x2, f (x1) > f (x2) [i.e., f (x) gets smaller as x gets larger].
Slide 22
See if you can notice what

happens at every point at
which the function is
increasing or decreasing.
Slide 23
Theorem:
Local extrema occur at points where

a function changes from increasing
to decreasing or vise versa.
Slide 24
Theorem: (First Derivative Test)
Suppose that f is continuous on the interval [a, b] and c ∈ (a, b) is a critical

number.
(i) If f (x) > 0 for all x ∈ (a, c) and f (x) < 0 for all x ∈ (c, b) (i.e., f changes
from increasing to decreasing at c), then f(c) is a local maximum.
(ii) If f (x) < 0 for all x ∈ (a, c) and f (x) > 0 for all x ∈ (c, b) (i.e., f changes
from decreasing to increasing at c), then f(c) is a local minimum.
(iii) If f (x) has the same sign on (a, c) and (c, b), then f (c)
is not a local extremum.
Slide 25
Finding Local Extrema of a Function with Fractional Exponents
Example: Find the local extrema of f (x) = x5/3 − x2/3.
The critical numbers are 6/5 [ f (6/5) = 0] and 0 [ f (0) is undefined].
Slide 26
f has a local maximum at x = 0

and a local minimum at
x = 6/5.
Slide 27
4.1 ANTIDERIVATIVES
Antiderivatives
We need to find a way to undo differentiation.
That is, given a function, f , e’d like to fi d a othe fu tio F such that
F’(x) = f (x). We call such a function F an antiderivative of f.
Slide 1
4.1 ANTIDERIVATIVES
Finding Several Antiderivatives of a Given Function
Example:
Slide 2
4.1 ANTIDERIVATIVES
Observe that if F is any antiderivative of f and c is any constant, then
Are there any other antiderivatives of f (x) besides F(x) + c?
The answer, as provided in Theorem, is no.
Theorem
Suppose that F and G are both antiderivatives of f on an interval I . Then,

G(x) = F(x) + c,
for some constant c.
Slide 3
4.1 ANTIDERIVATIVES
Proof: Since F and G are both antiderivatives for f, we have that G’(x) = F’(x).
It now follows, from Corollary 10.1 in section 2.10, that

G(x) = F(x) + c, for some constant c, as desired.
Slide 4
4.1 ANTIDERIVATIVES
Definition
Let F be any antiderivative of f on an interval I . The indefinite integral of
f (x) (with respect to x) on I is defined by
where c is an arbitrary constant (the constant of integration).
The process of computing an integral is called integration. Here, f (x) is called

the integrand and the term dx identifies x as the variable of integration.
Slide 5
4.1 ANTIDERIVATIVES
An Indefinite Integral
Example
You should recognize 3x2 as the derivative of x3 and so,
Example
Slide 6
4.1 ANTIDERIVATIVES
Derivative Rules Give Integration Rules
Every differentiation rule gives rise to a corresponding integration rule.
For instance, recall that for every rational power, r,
Likewise,
This proves the following result.
Slide 7
4.1 ANTIDERIVATIVES
Theorem For any rational power r ≠ − ,
Here, if r < − , the i te al I on which this is defined can be any interval that
does not include x = 0.
Example:
From the power rule,
Slide 8
4.1 ANTIDERIVATIVES
Example:
In any interval not containing 0,
Example
(a)
(b)
Slide 9
4.1 ANTIDERIVATIVES
Some Integration Rules
By reversing any derivative

formula, we get a corresponding
integration formula.
The formulas here can be obtained

using this strategy.
Slide 10
4.1 ANTIDERIVATIVES
Some Integration Rules
Slide 11
4.1 ANTIDERIVATIVES
Theorem
Suppose that f (x) and g(x) have antiderivatives. Then, for any constants,
a and b,
Note that Theorem says that we can easily compute integrals of sums,
differences and constant multiples of functions.
Slide 12
4.1 ANTIDERIVATIVES
Proof: We have that
It then follows that
Example
Slide 13
4.1 ANTIDERIVATIVES
Example:
Slide 14
4.1 ANTIDERIVATIVES
Theorem
Corollary
Slide 15
4.1 ANTIDERIVATIVES
The I defi ite I teg al of a F a tio of the Fo f’ /f
Example:
Slide 16
4.1 ANTIDERIVATIVES
Identifying Integrals That We Cannot Yet Evaluate
Example: Which of the following integrals can you evaluate given the
rules developed in this section?
Slide 17
4.1 ANTIDERIVATIVES
(a)
(c)
(d)
(e)
As yet, we do not know how to evaluate integrals (b) and (f).

Slide 18
4.4 THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL
Definition For any function f defined on [a, b], the definite integral of f
from a to b is
whenever the limit exists and is the same for every choice of evaluation
points, c1, c2, . . . , cn.
When the limit exists, we say that f is integrable on [a, b].
The elo gated “ is the integral sign.
The lower and upper limits of integration, a and b, respectively, indicate

the endpoints of the interval over which you are integrating. Slide 19
The dx in the integral corresponds to the increment Δx in the Riemann sum and
also indicates the variable of integration.
f (x) is called the integrand.
Theorem If f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b], then f is integrable on

[a, b].
Slide 20
A Riemann Sum for a Function with Positive and Negative Values
Example For f (x) = sin x on [0, 2π], give an area interpretation of
Partitioning the
interval into 10
partitions:
Slide 21
A Riemann Sum for a Function with Positive and Negative Values
Generally,
In this case, the integral turns out to be zero.
This gives us the notion of signed area, which we now define.
Slide 22
Definition
Suppose that f (x o the i te al [a, b] and A1 is the area bounded
between the curve y = f (x) and the x-axis for a x b.
Further, suppose that f (x o the i te al [b, c] and A2 is the area
bounded between the curve y = f (x) and the
x-axis for b x c.
The signed area between y = f (x) and the x-axis for a x c is A1 − A2, and
the total area between y = f (x) and the x-axis for a x c is A1 + A2.
Slide 23
Definition says that signed area is the difference between any areas lying
above the x-axis and any areas lying below the x-axis, while the total area is
the sum total of the area bounded between the curve y = f (x)
and the x-axis.
Slide 24
Relating Definite Integrals to Signed Area
Example
(a)
Since the function is always

negative on the interval [0, 2], the
integral is negative and
e uals −A, he e A is the a ea
lying between the x-axis and the
curve.
Slide 25
(b) On the interval [0, 3],

The total signed area is zero.
The total unsigned area is
Slide 26
Theorem
Slide 27
We now make a pair of reasonable definitions.
First, for any integrable function f, if a < b, we define
This should appea easo a le i that if e i teg ate a k a d alo g a

interval.
Second, if f (a) is defined, we define
If you think of the definite integral as area, this says that

the area from a up to a is zero. Slide 28
Functions that Are Piecewise Continuous
A function is integrable even when it has a finite number
of jump discontinuities, but is otherwise continuous.
(Such a function is called piecewise continuous.)
Slide 29
Example
Slide 30
By Theorem (ii),
So,
(The areas corresponding to the two integrals could be computed using simple
geometric formulas and so, there was no need to compute Riemann sums.) Slide 31
Theorem Suppose that g(x f (x) for all x ∈ [a, b] and that f and g
are integrable on [a, b].
Then,
Slide 32
Proof: Since g(x f (x), we must also

ha e that [ f (x − g(x)] on
[a, b] and in view of this,
represents the area under the

curve y = f (x − g(x , hi h a ’t
be negative. Using Theorem (i), we now have
from which the result follows.

Slide 33
Theorem (Integral Mean Value Theorem)
If f is continuous on [a, b], then there is a number c ∈ (a, b) for which
(A continuous function will take on its average value at some point.)
Slide 34
4.5 THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF CALCULUS
General Importance of the Fundamental Theorem
The Fu da e tal Theo e of Cal ulus ill…
…p o ide a sho t ut fo o puti g defi ite i teg als ithout st uggli g to

find limits of Riemann sums.
…u if the studies of de i ati es a d defi ite i teg als, sho i g us that

differentiation and integration are, in fact, inverse processes.
Slide 35
Theorem (The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part I)
If f is continuous on [a, b] and F is any antiderivative of f , then
(To compute a definite integral, we need only find an antiderivative and then
evaluate it at the two limits of integration. This is a vast improvement over
computing limits of Riemann sums.)
Remark We will often use the notation
This enables us to write down the antiderivative before evaluating it at the

endpoints. Slide 36
Example
Notice that f (x) = x2 − x is continuous on the interval [0, 2] and so, we can
apply the Fundamental Theorem.
Slide 37
Example
Observe that since f (x) = x1/2 − x− is continuous on [1, 4], we can apply the
Fundamental Theorem.
Since an antiderivative of f (x) is
Slide 38
Example Find the area under the curve y = sin x on the interval [0, π].
Since sin x a d si x is continuous on [0, π],
–cos x is an antiderivative of sin x
Slide 39
Example
Example
Slide 40
Example
Even when the upper integration limit is a variable, we can use the
Fundamental Theorem to evaluate the integral.
An Important Observation from previous Example
Note that
which is the same as the original integrand, except that the (dummy) variable of
integration, t, has been replaced by the variable in the upper limit of
integration, x. This is not a coincidence. Slide 41
Theorem (The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part II)
If f is continuous on [a, b] and then F’(x) = f (x), on [a, b].
Slide 42
Example
The integrand is f (t) = t2 − t + 3. By Theorem, the derivative is

F’(x) = f (x) = x2 − x + 3.
Notice that the lower limit of integration (in this case, 1) has no effect on
the value of F(x).
Slide 43
Using the Chain Rule and the Fundamental Theorem, Part II
Example
Slide 44
Remark
The general form of the chain rule used in example is:
if
then
or
Slide 45
Example
The Fundamental Theorem applies only to definite integrals with variables in

the upper limit, so first rewrite the integral by Theorem (ii) as
Using the chain rule,
Slide 46
Finding a Tangent Line for a Function Defined as an Integral
Example For the function find an equation

of the tangent line at x = 2.
There are almost no function values that we can compute exactly, yet we
can easily find an equation of a tangent line.
From Part II of the Fundamental Theorem and the chain rule,
Slide 47
(slope of tangent line at x = 2)
The tangent passes through the point with x = 2 and
An equation of the tangent line is
Slide 48
4.6 INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION
In this section, we significantly expand our ability to compute antiderivatives
by developing a useful technique called integration by substitution.
Example
Notice that 2x is the derivative of x2 and x2 appears as the argument of .

Further, by the chain rule, for ,
which is the integrand.
Slide 1
Generally, recognize that when one factor in an integrand is the derivative
of another part of the integrand, you may be looking at a chain rule
derivative.
In general, if F is any antiderivative of f, then from the chain rule,
Thus,
Slide 2
This suggests that
So, if we cannot compute the integral directly,

we often look for a new variable u and function f (u) for
which
where the second integral is easier to evaluate than the first.
Slide 3
Example
Observe that
which is a factor in the integrand. This leads to the substitution u = x3 + 5.
Slide 4
INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION
Integration by substitution consists of the following general steps:
• Choose a new variable u: a common choice is the innermost expression or
i side ter of a co positio of fu ctio s. I example, note that x3 + 5 is
the inside term of (x3 + 5)100.)
• Compute du = (du/dx)dx.
• Replace all terms in the original integrand with expressions involving u
and du.
• Evaluate the resulting (u i tegral. If ou still ca ’t e aluate the i tegral,
you may need to try a different choice of u.
• Replace each occurrence of u in the antiderivative with the corresponding
expression in x. Slide 5
Example:
Slide 6
Example
Slide 7
Example:
Slide 8
Example
Slide 9
Theorem
Slide 10
Example
Slide 11
Example
Slide 12
Example
Slide 13
When you introduce the new variable u, the limits of integration change
from x = a and x = b to the corresponding limits for u: u = u(a) and u = u(b).
Slide 14
Example:
x = 1:
x = 2:
Slide 15
Example
Slide 16
4.8 THE NATURAL LOGARITHM AS AN INTEGRAL
The standard precalculus definition of the natural logarithm is that it is the
ordinary logarithm with base e,
ln x = loge x,
where e is a (so far) mysterious transcendental number

e ≈ .71828. . . .
Why would a logarithm with a transcendental base be called natural?
Slide 17
Recall the power rule for integrals,
Then, what can we say about (n = –1)?
Slide 18
we know that since f (x) = 1/x is continuous for x ≠ 0, it must be integrable

on any interval not including x = 0.
By Part II of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus,
is an antiderivative of 1/x for x > 0. We give this new (and naturally arising)
function a name in the following definition.
Slide 19
Definition For x > 0, we define the natural logarithm function, denoted ln x, by
Slide 20
By Part II of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus:
This is the same formula we obtained . This can be

extended to obtain Thus we have
Slide 21
The Graph of the Natural Logarithm Function
Domain:
(increasing everywhere)
(concave down everywhere)

Slide 22
The Graph of the Natural Logarithm Function
Conjecture:
Slide 23
Theorem
Slide 24
Example
Simplify by using properties of logarithms:
Slide 25
Definition We define e to be that number for which ln e = 1.
That is, e is the x-coordinate of the point of

intersection of the graphs of y = ln x and y = 1.
In other words, e is the solution of the equation

ln x − = .
You ca sol e this appro i atel e.g., usi g Ne to ’s

method) to obtain e ≈ .71828182846.
Slide 26
For any rational power, x = p/q (where p and q are integers), the function ex is
easily evaluated:
On the other hand, if x is irrational, what could we mean by ex ?
What does it mean to raise a number to an irrational power? For instance,

could you give any meaning to eπ ?
Slide 27
Observe that for f (x) = ln x (x > 0), f’(x) = 1/x > 0. So, f is an increasing
function and consequently, must be one-to-one and therefore, has an
inverse, f − .
There is no algebraic method of solving for the inverse function. However,
from Theorem (iv), for any rational power x,
ln(ex ) = x ln e = x,
since we have defined e so that ln e = 1.
This says that f -1(x) = ex , for x rational.
Slide 28
That is, the (otherwise unknown) inverse function, f − (x), agrees with ex at
every rational number x.
Since ex so far has no meaning when x is irrational, we now define it to be

the value of f − (x), as follows.
Slide 29
Definition For x irrational, we define y = ex to be that number for
which
ln y = ln(ex ) = x.
According to this definition, notice that for any x > 0,

eln x is that real number for which
ln(eln x ) = ln x. (*)
Since ln x is a one-to-one function, (*) says that
Slide 30
For x irrational, we define y = ex to be that number for which
ln y = ln(ex ) = x.
Observe also that with this definition of the exponential function,
Thus, ex and ln x are inverse functions
Slide 31
Theorem
Slide 32
Derivative of the Exponential Function
According to Definition,
y = ex if and only if ln y = x.
Differentiating with respect to x,
Slide 33
The Graph of f(x) = ex
Since e = 2.718 . . . > 1,
Also,
so that f is increasing for all x and
so that the graph is concave up everywhere.
Slide 34
The Graph of f(x) = ex
Notice that you can obtain the graph of f(x) = ex by reflecting the graph of
y = ln x through the line y = x.
Slide 35
The Graph of f(x) = e–x
For f (x) = e–x,
From the chain rule, so that f is

decreasing for all x.
We also have so that the graph is

concave up everywhere.
Slide 36
The Graph of f(x) = e–x
Slide 37

More general exponential functions, such as f (x) = bx , for
any base b > 0, are easy to express in terms of the natural
exponential function, as follows.
Notice that for any constant b > 0, we have by the usual

rules of logs and exponentials that
Slide 38
In particular, observe that
Slide 39
Similarly, for b > 0 (b ≠ 1),
Slide 40
Each time you run across the exponential function
f (x) = bx ,
simply rewrite it as
f (x) = ex ln b
and then use the familiar rules for the derivative and integral of the natural
exponential and the chain rule.
Slide 41
Example Find the derivative of
Slide 42
General Logarithms
Recall that for any base a > 0 (a ≠ 1) and any x > 0,
y = loga x if and only if x = ay .
Taking the natural logarithm of both sides of this equation,

ln x = ln(ay ) = y ln a.
Solving for y,
Theorem
Slide 43
The Derivative of y = loga x
For any base a > 0 (a ≠ 1),
When you need to differentiate the general logarithmic function f (x) = loga x,
simply rewrite it first as
and use the familiar derivative of the natural logarithm.

Slide 44
7.1 REVIEW OF FORMULAS AND TECHNIQUES
Basic Integration Formulas: Chapter 4
Slide 1
Basic Integration Formulas: Chapter 4
We have expanded this list slightly by using the method of substitution.
Slide 2
Example:
Slide 3
Example
Example
This looks like

Slide 4
Slide 5
Example:
Complete the square in the denominator:
The denominator nearly looks like the denominator in

Factor out an 8 from the denominator:
Slide 6
Slide 7
7.2 INTEGRATION BY PARTS
Every differentiation rule gives rise to a corresponding integration rule.
So, for the product rule:
This rule is called integration by parts.
Slide 8
INTEGRATION BY PARTS
Using the notation u = f (x) and v = g(x),
To apply integration by parts, you need to make a judicious choice of u and

dv so that the integral on the right-hand side is one that you know how to
evaluate.
Example:
Realize that the choice of u and dv is critical. Slide 9

Previous example: A Poor Choice of u and dv
The last integral is one that we do not know how to calculate any better than
the original one.
Slide 10
Example:
Slide 11
Example: Repeated Integration by Parts
Slide 12
Example: Repeated Integration by Parts with a Twist
The last line includes the integral that we started with.

Slide 13
Add to both sides:
Slide 14
For any positive integer n, the integral will require integration by
parts. At this point, it should be no surprise that we take
Formulas of this type are called reduction formulas (n has been reduced by 1).
Slide 15
Example
Using reduction formula:
And again:
Two more times:
Definite Integrals
Slide 16
Example:
Slide 17
7.3 TRIGONOMETRIC TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION
Integrals Involving Powers of Trigonometric Functions
Evaluating an integral whose integrand contains powers of one or more
trigonometric functions often involves making a clever substitution.
Consider integrals of the form

where m and n are positive integers.
Slide 18
Case 1: m or n Is an Odd Positive Integer

If m is odd, first isolate one factor of sin x. You’ll eed this fo du.) Then,
replace any factors of sin2 x ith − os2 x and make the substitution
u = cos x.
Likewise, if n is odd, first isolate one factor of cos x. You’ll eed this fo
du.) Then, replace any factors of cos2 x ith − si 2 x and make the
substitution u = sin x.
Slide 19
Example:
Slide 20
Example:
Slide 21
Example:
Slide 22
Case 2: m and n Are Both Even Positive Integers

In this case, we can use the half-angle formulas for sine and
cosine to reduce the powers in the integrand.
Slide 23
Example:
Slide 24
Example:
Using the half-angle formula again,
Slide 25
Integrands of the Form tanm x secn x, m and n are integers
Case 1: m Is an Odd Positive Integer

First, isolate one factor of sec x tan x. You’ll eed this fo du.)
Then, replace any factors of tan2 x with sec2 x − a d ake the su stitutio
u = sec x.
Slide 26
Example:
Slide 27
Case 2: n Is an Even Positive Integer

First, isolate one factor of sec2 x. You’ll eed this fo du.)
Then, replace any remaining factors of sec2 x with 1 + tan2 x and make the
substitution u = tan x.
Slide 28
Example:
Slide 29
Case 3: m Is an Even Positive Integer and n Is an Odd Positive Integer

Replace any factors of tan2 x with sec2 x − a d the use a spe ial
reduction formula (given in the exercises) to evaluate integrals of the
form .
This complicated case will be covered briefly in the exercises. Much of this
depends on example 3.8.
Slide 30
Example
Notice that if we multiply the integrand by the fraction

we get
The numerator is exactly the derivative of the denominator. Let
Slide 31
Trigonometric Substitution
If an integral contains a term of the form
for some a > 0, you can often evaluate the integral by making a substitution
involving a trig function (hence, the name trigonometric substitution).
First, suppose that an integrand contains a term of the form , for

some a > 0.
Letting x = a si θ, he e −π/2 θ π/2, we can eliminate the square root, as
follows:
si e fo −π/2 θ π/2, cos θ . Slide 32

Terms of the form can also be simplified using

the substitution x = a cos θ, usi g a diffe e t est i tio fo
θ.
Slide 33
Example:
Slide 34
Slide 35
Next, suppose that an integrand contains a term of the form , for

some a > 0.
Taking x = a ta θ, he e −π/2 < θ < π/2, we eliminate the square root, as
follows:
si e fo −π/2 < θ < π/2, sec θ > 0.
Slide 36
Example: An Integral Involving
Slide 37
(using a right triangle)
Slide 38
Finally, suppose that an integrand contains a term of the form ,
for some a > 0.
Taking x = a se θ, he e , e eli i ate the s ua e oot,
as follows:
Slide 39
Example: Integral Involving .
(We chose the first half of the domain , so that x = 5 se θ > 5.)
Slide 40
Since x = 5 se θ, fo θ ∈ [0, π/2),
Slide 41
Summary
Slide 42
7.4 INTEGRATION OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS USING PARTIAL FRACTIONS
Partial Fraction Decomposition
Note that
Then,
The second integrand is called a partial fractions decomposition of the first

integrand.
Slide 43
More generally, if the three factors a1x + b1, a2x + b2 and a3x + b3 are all
distinct (i.e., none is a constant multiple of
another), then we can write
for some choice of constants A and B to be determined.

Notice that if you wanted to integrate this expression, the partial fractions
on the right-hand side are very easy to integrate.
Slide 44
Example:
For x = 1,
For x = –2,
Slide 45
INTEGRATION OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS USING PARTIAL
7.4 FRACTIONS
Whenever a rational expression has a denominator that factors into n
distinct linear factors, and if the degree of P(x) < n and the factors (ai x + bi ),
for i = 1, 2, . . . , n are all distinct, then we can write
for some constants c1, c2, . . . , cn.
Slide 46
INTEGRATION OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS USING PARTIAL
7.4 FRACTIONS
Example:
Likewise, taking x = 1, we find B = − a d taki g x = − , e fi d C = 4.
Slide 47
If the numerator of a rational expression has the same or higher degree than
the denominator, you must first perform a long division and follow this with a
partial fractions decomposition of the remaining (proper) fraction.
Since the degree of the numerator exceeds that of the denominator, first
divide:
Slide 48
It is a simple matter to solve for the constants:
Slide 49
Repeated Linear Factors
If the denominator of a rational expression contains repeated linear factors,
the decomposition looks like the following.
If the degree of P(x) is less than n, then we can write
Slide 50
Example:
repeated linear factor
Taking x = 0, we find A = 7. Likewise, taking x = − , e fi d that C = 9.

To determine B, substitute any convenient value for x, say x = 1. (Unfortunately,
notice that there is no choice of x that will make the two terms containing A and
C both zero, without also making the term containing B zero.)
You should find that B = − .
Slide 51
Denominators Containing Irreducible Quadratic Factors
If the degree of P(x) is less than 2n (the degree of the denominator) and all of
the factors in the denominator are distinct, then we can write
Partial Fractions with a Quadratic Factor

Example: Use a partial fractions decomposition to find an antiderivative of
Slide 52
Match up the coefficients of like powers of x:
This leaves us with B = 0 and so,
Slide 53
Partial Fractions with a Quadratic Factor
Example: Use a partial fractions decomposition to find an antiderivative for
(Partial fractions decompositions involving irreducible quadratic terms often

lead to expressions that require further work such as completing the square)
Solve this system of linear equations using elimination to get:

Slide 54
Putting equations together:
Slide 55
7.6 IMPROPER INTEGRALS
Improper Integrals with a Discontinuous Integrand
Try to see what is wrong with the following erroneous calculation.
Note that f (x) = 1/x2 is not continuous over the interval of integration.
Since the Fundamental Theorem assumes a continuous integrand, our use of
the theorem is invalid and our answer is incorrect.
Fu the , ote that a a s e of − / is espe iall suspi ious gi e that the
integrand 1/x2 is always positive.
Slide 56
Recall from Chapter 4, that we define the definite integral by
where ci is taken to be any point in the subinterval

[xi− , xi ], for i = 1, 2, . . . , n and where the limit must be the same for any
choice of these ci ’s.
So, if f (x → ∞ [o f(x → −∞] at so e poi t i [a, b], then the limit defining
is meaningless. We call such an integral an improper integral.
Slide 57
Consider
This is not a proper definite integral, as the

integrand is undefined at x = 1.
But, assuming the area is finite, notice that
for 0 < R < 1, we can approximate it by
Slide 58
The table suggests that, as R gets closer to 1 from
the left, the integral approaches 2.
Since we know how to compute
for any 0 < R < 1, we can compute the limiting value

exactly.
We generalize this technique in the following definition. Slide 59

Definition
If f is continuous on the interval [a, b) and | f (x | → ∞ as x → b−, we
define the improper integral of f on [a, b] by
Similarly, if f is continuous on (a, b] and | f (x | → ∞ as x → a+, we define the

improper integral
In either case, if the limit exists (and equals some value L), we say that the
improper integral converges (to L).
If the limit does not exist, we say that the improper integral diverges. Slide 60
A Divergent Improper Integral
Example
From Definition,
Since the defining limit does not exist, the improper integral diverges.
Slide 61
A Convergent Improper Integral
Example:
(In this case is continuous on (0, 1] and f (x → ∞ as x → +.)
From the computed values shown in the table, it appears that the integral is
approaching 2 as R → +.
Slide 62
The improper integral converges to 2.

The following slide extends the definition of improper integrals to those that
have a discontinuity within the interval [a, b].
Slide 63
Definition: Suppose that f is continuous on the interval [a, b], except at some c ∈
(a, b), and | f (x | → ∞ as x → c. Again, the integral is improper and
we write
If both and converge (to L1 and L2, respectively), we

say that the improper integral converges, also (to L1 + L2).
If either of the improper integrals or diverges, then
we say that the improper integral diverges, also.
Slide 64
An Integrand That Blows Up in the Middle of an Interval
Example:
From Definition,
Slide 65
Improper Integrals with an Infinite Limit of Integration
Another type of improper integral that is frequently
encountered in applications is one where one or both
of the limits of integration is infinite.
The integral shown may be approximated using

with R being a large value.
Slide 66
Definition: If f is continuous on the interval [a,∞ , e defi e the
improper integral to be
Similarly, if f is o ti uous o −∞, a], we define
In either case, if the limit exists (and equals some value L), we say that the
improper integral converges (to L).
If the limit does not exist, we say that the improper integral diverges. Slide 67
A Divergent Improper Integral
Example:
Note that as x → ∞.
Further, from the graph, it
seems at least plausible that the area under the curve
is finite.
However, from Definition,
The improper integral diverges. Slide 68

This previous example is a special cases of corresponding to p = 1/2.
In the exercises, you will show that this integral converges whenever p > 1 and
diverges for p .
Slide 69
A Convergent Improper Integral
Example:
The graph makes it appear plausible that there could be a finite

area under the graph.
From Definition,
Slide 70
i dete i ate fo ∞·
Resolve with l’Hôpital’s Rule:
Slide 71
Definition: If f is o ti uous o −∞,∞ , e ite
for any constant a, where converges if and only if both

and converge.
If either one diverges, the original improper integral also diverges.
Slide 72
An Integral with Two Infinite Limits of Integration
Example:
Since the function tends to 0 relatively quickly (both

as
x → ∞ a d as x → −∞ , it appea s plausi le that
there is a finite area bounded by the graph of the
function and the x-axis.
Slide 73
From Definition,
Slide 74
Similarly,
Slide 75
Do not write .
It’s e tai l te pti g to ite this, espe iall si e this ill ofte gi e a
correct answer, with about half of the work.
Unfortunately, this will often give incorrect answers, too, as the limit on the
right-hand side frequently exists for divergent integrals.
We explore this issue further in the exercises.
Slide 76
An Integral with Two Infinite Limits of Integration
Example:
From Definition,
Slide 77
An Integral That Is Improper for Two Reasons
Example:
The integral is improper for two different reasons.

There is a discontinuity at x = 1, and the upper limit of integration is infinite.
From Definition:
The second integral must be further broken into two pieces, since it is improper,
both at the left endpoint and by virtue of having an infinite limit of integration.
You can pick any point on (1,∞ at hi h to eak up the i te al. We’ll si pl
choose x = 2. Slide 78
We leave it as an exercise to show that the first two integrals diverge, while
the third one converges.
The original improper integral diverges (a conclusion you would miss if you did
not notice that the integrand blows up at x = 1).
Slide 79
A Comparison Test
Given two functions f and g that are continuous on the interval [a,∞ ,
suppose that 0 f (x g(x), for all x a.
If (the larger area) converges, then this
says that there is a finite area under the
curve y = g(x) on the interval [a,∞ .
Since y = f (x) lies below y = g(x), there can be only a

finite area under the curve y = f (x), as well. Thus,
converges also.
Slide 80
On the other hand, if (the smaller area) diverges, so must
This comparison of improper integrals based on the

relative size of their integrands is called a
comparison test (one of several) and is spelled out
in Theorem.
Slide 81
Theorem:(Comparison Test)
Suppose that f and g are continuous on [a,∞ a d 0 f (x g(x), for all x ∈ [a,∞ .
The idea of the Comparison Test is to compare a given improper integral to

another improper integral whose convergence or divergence is already known
(or can be more easily determined).
Slide 82
Using the Comparison Test for an Improper Integral
Example:
We do not know an antiderivative for and so,

there is no way to compute the improper integral
directly. However, notice that for x ,
It’s a eas e e ise to sho that

converges (to 1).
From Theorem, it follows that
converges. Slide 83
Using the Comparison Test for an Improper Integral
Example:
We do not know an antiderivative for the integrand .

However, observe that for
It’s a eas atte to sho that o e ges. B

the Comparison Test, it then follows that
also converges.
Slide 84
Using the Comparison Test: A Divergent Integral
Example:
We do not know an antiderivative for the integrand and so, we try a

comparison. First, recall that
Then,
Slide 85
We showed in example that diverges. The Comparison Test
now tells us that
must diverge, also.
Slide 86

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POLYNOMIALS AND RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

A function f is a rule that

Unless explicitly stated otherwise, whenever a function f

We refer to x as the independent variable and to y as the

Notice that not every curve is the graph of a function,

if any vertical line intersects the graph in more than

Determine which of the curves correspond to functions.

Using the Vertical Line Test

Finding the Composition of Two Functions

Note that for x to be in the domain of g, we must have

Finding the Composition of Two Functions

The resulting square root requires x2 − ≥ or |x| ≥ .

The Concept of Inverse Functions

Given an output (that is, a

That is, given a y ∈ Range{ f }, find the x ∈ Domain{f } for

The Concept of Inverse Functions

That is, can you find the x-value

Of course, the solution of this particular equation is

Two Functions That Reverse the Action of Each Other

For all real numbers x,

Assume that f and g have domains A and B, respectively,

If f (g(x)) = x, for all x ∈ B and g( f (x)) = x, for all x ∈ A,

Equivalently, f is the inverse of g, f = g− .

Note that many familiar functions have no inverse.

Pay close attention to the notation. Notice that f − (x)

We write the reciprocal of f (x) as:

1/f (x) = [ f (x)]− .

Show that f (x) = x2 has o i erse o the i ter al −∞,∞ .

Note that f (4) = 16 and f − = .

So, if we were to try to define an inverse of f, how would

A Function with No Inverse

Show that f (x) = x2 has o i erse o the i ter al −∞,∞ .

Look at the graph of y = x2 to

For each y > 0, there are two

For f (x) = x2, it is tempting to jump to the conclusion that

Notice that although for all x ≥

In fact, this last equality holds only for x ≥ . Ho e er, for

A function f is called one-to-one when for every

Observe that it is equivalent to say that a function f is

The Horizontal Line Test

A function f has an inverse if and only if it is one-to-one.

Find the inverse of f (x) = x3 − .

It is not entirely clear from the

Finding an Inverse Function

Adding 5 to both sides and taking the cube root gives us

Reversing the variables x and y:

A Function That Is Not One-to-One

Show that f (x = − x4 does not have an inverse.

The function f is not one-to-one; for instance, f (1) = f −

Graphs of Inverse Functions

Since b = f (a), we have that

Graphs of Inverse Functions

It follows that given the graph of

Most often, we cannot find a formula for an inverse

Drawing the Graph of an Unknown Inverse Function

Draw a graph of f (x) = x5 + 8x3 + x + 1 and its inverse.

Drawing the Graph of an Unknown Inverse Function

We are unable to find a

We simply take the graph of

A function f is periodic of period T if f (x + T ) = f (x)

The smallest such number T > 0 is called the fundamental

The Unit Circle, Sine, and Cosine

Unless otherwise noted, we always measure angles in