No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by Photostat, microform retrieval

system, or by any other means, without the prior written permission of the publisher.

Copyright © 2020 by Nelson Mgeni.

All rights reserved.

2
PREFACE

This manual has been developed to assist LEVEL 5 ABMA Journalism and Media students, but
can also be useful in other boards and levels. The manual is not a substitute for classes nor is it
a ceiling for students not to under-go independent research and study. Students are,
therefore, encouraged to attend classes for maximum understanding, insight and clear
grasping of subject matters expressed herein.

Enjoy, and not endure the reading.

Nelson Mgeni

3
Contents

Introduction

Chapter One – Convergent Journalism : The Definiiton

Chapter Two – Digital Technology : The Toolto Convergent journalism

Chapter Three – Writing the Multi-media Story

Chapter Four – Editing the Multi-media Story

Chapter Five – Standards for Reporting Multi-,media Stories

Chapter Six – Repackaging from traditional to digital platforms

Chapter Seven – Media content as an Intellectual Property

References

in-------------------------

4
INTRODUCTION

With the advancement in technology, and the rise in social media, the traditional media
audience is gradually shifting its attention to the new media (online) whose influence has
been proliferated due to the coming in of the internet. The result that this shift has brought is
both worrisome and good, by some margins. For once, traditional media platforms have lost
their ground, been rendered value-less and old-fashioned. The loss in a myriad number of
audience members by traditional news organization has again forced them to adopt other
media platforms to which their audience members have moved to. While not completely
abandoning their traditional media platforms, they adopt others making them operate
under a number of media platforms. The name given to such a practice in journalism is
CONVERGENT JOURNALISM.

UNIT AIM

This unit aims to help the learner to understand the development and scope of convergent
journalism. The unit also helps the learner to know how to research, write and edit stories for
multi-platform delivery.

UNIT OVERVIEW

This unit is for those considering careers in journalism and who wish to understand the
advantages and disadvantages of working in convergent journalism, using different digital
technologies. Learners will analyse the process of researching a potential story, whilst
considering how to avoid potential legal liabilities and ethical dilemmas that might arise.
Learners will also have an opportunity to learn the principles of copy writing and how to
repackage printed stories for different media.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

After successfully completing this unit, the learner will:

 Understand the advantages and disadvantages of working in convergence

journalism
 Understand how to research stories for multi-platform delivery
5
  Understand how to write copy for multi-platform delivery
 Understand how to adapt and edit printed stories

The module focuses on three core aspects of convergent journalism, namely

 Information gathering
 Reporting
 Editing

6
Chapter
1

CONVERGENT JOURNALISM : THE DEFINITION

It is a form of cross-media cooperation, usually involving broadcast, print, photography and

internet sites. It requires a journalist to be skilled in more than one discipline, for instance, a
convergent journalist could write a story for a newspaper, and produce a broadcast
package on the same story, all in one day. It also adds more elements to the story through
the use of more than one outlet to tell the story.

It is more appealing for a reader to see pictures and videos while reading a news-print
article; this is the formula for convergent journalism. This new type of journalism makes the
reporter more attractive and marketable to prospective employers because of their
knowledge and skill in different types of media outlets. Rather than being an expert in only
broadcast journalism, convergent journalism allows the journalist to be an expert in print as
well as online and photography.

Print Television

Media
Organization

Online Radio

DEFINING FEATURES OF CONVERGENT JOURNALISM

Convergent journalism is characterized by the following:

 Integrated production
 Multi-skilled professionals
 Multiplatform delivery
7
  An active audience.

INTEGRATED PRODUCTION

The most relevant signs of convergence in this dimension are to be found in the
reorganization of newsrooms, but obviously this is closely linked to the redefinition of
professional roles, technological innovation and the development of new news formats and
languages.

A developed form of integration is achieved through coordinated office desks of once

separate newsrooms or the integration of all the journalists into one newsroom that produces
content for different outlets at the same time.

MULTI-SKILLED PROFESSIONALS

Journalistic convergence can be also analyzed from the standpoint of the redefinition of
professional roles and skills of reporters and editors. Scholars suggest that current trends can
basically summarized in the idea of flexibility. The ideal multi-skilled journalist would be able to
produce news for any medium using any technological tool needed in every step of the
process. They would be able to adapt the stories to the language of each medium and
develop the whole production process.

Besides this, journalists also may need to be flexible in the topics they are to be ready to
cover. Research has showed that multi-skilled journalism has usually been promoted by
media companies to justify job cuts. Digitization was already used in the 1980s to make many
technical positions redundant in the newspapers, giving journalists more and more
responsibilities beyond news writing. The same happened in broadcasting. This may
empower the journalists to have a greater degree of control over the final product and
guarantee a more coherent coverage of the same event in different media, but also can
overwhelm them and provoke poorer performance than single medium news production.
From the corporate perspective, the investment in technology can be naturally
compensated by job cuts as digitization makes technical tasks easier to be dealt with by the
journalists themselves.

MULTIPLATFORM DELIVERY

Distribution of content has been the dimension of convergence that more visibly has
developed in recent years, even though journalism research has seldom paid attention to
8
the implications of this trend. The maturity of the Internet and mobile communications, as
well as the data-enabled digital television systems, have broaden the range of options for
the citizens to access the news. Digitization, again, has facilitated the development of
multiplatform delivery strategies that aim to make news distribution as efficient as possible,
ideally using the work of one reporter on an issue as the common source for any version of
the story in the different outlets of the media company. The media perceive multiplatform
strategies as a way to reach new audiences and increase the visibility of their content; and
the users may be attracted by the easy anywhere anytime access to news.

Digital technologies let the process to be completely automated, having a database and
software that repurpose to different outlets literal or shorter versions of the content originally
produced for one medium. Another strategy is that a journalist does all or part of the
repurposing; human intervention in the process can improve the quality of the result. And, in
integrated newsrooms, every story can be originally produced already to fit different media
at the same time.

ACTIVE AUDIENCE

Current media trends do not only seem to blur the differences among the media, but also
the distance between producers and audiences. Digital distribution technologies allow for
the customization of content and ease the production of news that is highly targeted to
specific niche audiences. But it is active participation that may have a greater influence in
the redefinition of professional journalism.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF CONVERGENT JOURNALISM

The development of convergent journalism is one that was coupled by a number of factors.
In this, we will look at factors that necessitated or that assisted the coming in of this form of
media practice.

FACTORSTHAT LED TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF CONVERGENT JOURNALISM

There are three major factors that led to the birth of convergent journalism, namely:

 Political/legal factors
 Social reasons
 Technological reasons

9
POLITICAL/LEGAL FACTORS

The dictatorial tendencies in most states made it so uneasy for people to openly express their
views and discontent with current leadership on the then existing traditional media forms
such as radios, newspapers and televisions. During those days, though even now, traditional
media outlets were/are highly regulated, either by the legal system or by the incumbent
government. This therefore required that, if people wanted to express themselves openly
without fear, and without any fear with regard to the law or politicians, a new medium or
podium had to come into place. And the medium platform that could offer such an
opportunity was the online. The coming i9n of the online medium thus facilitated the grand
move of people from the traditional media platforms to the new media. This movement thus
meant that journalists had a few audience members left with them on the traditional media
platforms. The end result is the adoption of this new medium. Such an adoption thus made
them operate using two or more media platforms: convergent journalism.

Again, sometimes the media would find some information deemed necessary for its public,
but such information would turn out not to be in tandem with the existing legal provisions. But
because the information is important, journalists would look for another media platform that
is nor regulated for the purpose of wanting to inform its audience. The turning to a new
medium ensured that convergent journalism came into being.

SOCIAL FACTORS

The audience’s growing need for a more interactive media meant that they had to shift a
percent of their attention from the seemingly dull and un interactive traditional media
platforms. And with profits the major driving force for media organizations, they will need a
larger audience to sell to their advertisers. The shifting focus of the audience members meant
that other media platforms had lost some m of its audience leading to decreasing profits. This
eventually pushed them to adopt the interactive media platforms for the sake of following
their lost audience members. In the end, a media organization tends to operate under a
number of media platforms, thus achieving the requirements of convergent journalism:
integrated production and multi- platform delivery.

10
TECHNOLOGICAL FACTORS

The proliferation of technology has made it possible for audience members to access
information through their gadgets e.g. phones. This has forced journalists to use the very
same technology to deliver news to these people. To achieve this, however, media
organizations would have to adopt those media platforms that would necessitate and
facilitate this technologically-moved news distribution. The adoption of other media
platforms is convergent journalism in the making.

ROLES IN CONVERGENT JOURNALISM

The role of a convergent journalist is to gather information, and craft it specifically to meet
the requirements of individual media platforms. Practically, once a reporter gathers
information, they have to start thinking convergent, where, with the same news angle in
mind, the information needs to meet the demands of the media platform as well as meet the
expectations of media audience of that media platform. This arrangement, consequently
requires that a journalist should be in possession of skills needed to frame stories for such a
sophisticated number of media platforms.

SKILLS AND KNOWLEDGE SUB SETS OF CJ

 Multi-media skills

The requirement to gather the information through a number of media platforms means that
the information should also be framed so as to meet needs and expectations of both media
audience and media platform. That being said, a convergent journalist needs to possess skills
needed to generate and process content for a number of media platforms.

 Ability to work under pressure

The fact that convergent journalism deals with a number of media platforms makes pressure
an obvious expectation in this form of journalism. Working under such pressure is therefore a
needed and valuable skill.

 Knowledge of equipment

Gathering information has been made easy through the use of sophisticated equipment. For
convergent journalists, information would have to be gathered using different equipment
since individual media platforms will require a different forms of information to meet their
demands.

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  Good research skills

Just like in any other form of journalism, research is of the essence, and for convergent
journalism, due to the sophistication in terms of the different forms of information a reporter
has to deal with, excellent research skills are arguably handy.

 Knowledge of journalistic ethics

Journalism requires that a reporter professionally conducts himself by strictly complying to the
journalism standards. The pressure associated with dealing with a number of media platforms
would at times mean that reporters would try to make shortcuts just to have information, and
in the process ignoring other important tasks like verification which is an ingredient to
achieving truthful reporting

 Ability to understand media audiences

Knowledge of equipment and media platforms is one thing, and knowledge of audiences is
another. Understanding audiences would translate into generating content that meets their
needs and expectations and pitching the content at an appropriate level.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF CONVERGENT JOURNALISM

ADVANTAGES

 It assures the reaching of a wider and diverse audience.

 The many media platforms also ensure that the audience members in each and
every media platform are reached. This means that the audience members that
could not be reached through a certain media platform will be reached through
another.
 It offers opportunities for partnership working. The availability of journalists with
different backgrounds offers an opportunity for reporters to learn from one another
and to work in partnership with one in meeting the organization’s goals and
objectives.
 It also induces the much needed innovation. Because of the competitive nature of
the new medium environment, reporters work so as to set themselves apart from
others. This in the end tends to improve the nature and quality of stories delivered to
the audience members.

12
  It is also said to be cost effective in the sense that the integration of resources tends
to make the initiate cheaper as opposed to a situation when one of these media
platforms were managed separately.
 This new type of journalism makes the reporter more attractive and marketable to
prospective employers because of their knowledge and skill in different types of
media outlets. Rather than being an expert in only broadcast journalism, convergent
journalism allows the journalist to be an expert in print as well as online and
photograph.
 It has also contributed tremendously to the traditional entertainment role of
journalism. One of the boring aspects of the global economy in modern times is
entertainment. Citizens of the world are fast realizing the importance of getting
entertained, escape from the ordinary and avoid much stress. The entertainment
industries are not oblivious of this development. Multimedia has helped and is still
helping to add glamour to entertainment production. With multimedia, the
entertainers can now achieve different kinds of effects including making an object
appear larger, fly or give impression of a ghost depending on the kind of effect
desired. With multimedia’s ability to create virtual reality, the unimaginable can be
created and made to appear real before the targets.
 Research evidence has shown that modern media consumers are becoming more
active than before. This has serious implication in public information packaging and
delivery. Targets of public information delivery now need facts to convince them that
the content of public information is authentic and credible. For this reason, public
information is no long embellished with rhetorics or words alone. It is now rooted on
verifiable data, facts rather than fiction or prose-like verbal presentation. It is often
presented with good blend of verbal, graph, charts, and maps (where necessary).
Multimedia has made the combination of all these not only possible but also
interesting and with less friction.

DISADVANTAGES

 Clashes of work place culture: the introduction of newsroom staff to another different
kind of environment makes it hard, and takes time for them to cope as they were
used to work places that were by far so different with the one they are in now. In the
first place, it becomes hard for them to cope, but as time goes, they tend to adapt.
 Retraining which turns out to be costly: the introduction of staff from one environment
to the other requires training them to acquaint them to the new environment.
 Power struggles: some forms of convergent journalism are in form of mergers where
different media organizations totally in different media platforms agree to start

13
 producing content as one in a single newsroom. During such cases, leadership
becomes a challenge. You find a situation where someone was a boss at a certain
media organization and it becomes hard for others to accept to begin copying
under the leadership of someone when they themselves were bosses at their
respective media organizations.
 Coping with the new environment is usually hard, and takes time.
 The organization’s desire to reduce cost costs will leave a reporter with a lot of work
to do, and which would at times compromise quality of delivery.
 Again, it is more likely of increase the levels of journalists on the job market because
there is no space for others since a single reporter might, approximately take up the
place or job more likely to be done by three or four individuals.

SWOT (Strength, Weakness, Opportunities and Threats) ANALYSIS

Here, we would consider the advantages to be the strengths, and the disadvantages to be
the weaknesses.

OPPORTUNITIES

 The increasing number of people going for sophisticated and different forms of
getting information
 An existing number of people still reliant on the traditional forms of media
 Technological advancement

THREATS

 The decreasing reliance on other media platforms such as print poses pressure and a
threat to convergent journalism, as it widely prophesied that sometime soon in the
future, newspapers would become extinct.
 The high costs of running a convergent platform are at times a threat. This would be
du e to decreasing levels of advertisement in other media platforms such as online
medium.
 The increasing proliferation of citizen journalism, is assumedly, lowering the standards
of professional journalism, and is likely to give a challenge to journalism, since,
obviously, journalists might only become evident in traditional media platforms such

14
 as print and broadcast. That would obviously lead to decreasing levels of media
audience since more audience are opting for the online media.

CHALLENGES TO CONVERGENT JOURNALISM

This tends to have a long term effect on freedom of the press since journalistic
independence is compromised. The challenges posed by the legal framework would make
reporters fail to produce same content for all media platforms. The restrictions that the law
poses on some media platforms as to what information should be publicized through a
certain media would make reporters to write a story just for one, if not a few media outlets.
This in the end tends to hinder the progress of convergent journalism.

Sources’ unwillingness: The reluctance of some sources to give you information suitable for
media platforms is also another challenge. The challenge comes in, for example due to other
sources refusing to be on camera or their voices recorded.

The challenges of ‘breaking news’ and live reporting, including the use of mobile phone
images and social media authenticity and responsibility in online journalism. The challenge is
that the pressure to break news so as to beat competition may result in several inaccuracies
and lack of verification for information in the story.

Pressure given to reporters makes them produce substandard material. There is too much
expectation form one single reporter and this tends to compromise the quality of the final
output.

Verifying accuracy of information and reliability of sources the pressure on journalists reduces
the time they spend in verifying information from sources.

The speed in trying to deliver information brings out several inaccuracies in the story as it is
likely that a reporter would fail to verify information because he would want to provide the
information faster through a given media platform(s)

Again, the very same demand would tempt them to plagiarize just to get things done in
times and as per expectations from the audience and more specifically employers. The
danger posed on journalists due to lack of verification might force them to use other
people’s work without acknowledging them.

15
IMPLICATIONS OF CONVERGENT JOURNALISM

TECHNICAL IMPLICATIONS

The nature of convergent journalism requires that, technically, a news organization should
have the technical resources needed to facilitate the production and processing of content.
It also demands that the content producers must possess technical skills and knowledge
needed to produce and process multi-media content.

Financial implications

It is argued that based on evidence, convergent journalism, because it it requires

sophisticated digital resources would have a financial bearing on the news organization. This
explains why there’s talk of convergent journalism being for financially sound news
organizations.

Legal implications

In some instances, it would be very difficult for a convergent journalist to gather information
of a certain form due to legal constraints making it hard for him to process information of a
certain from through a given media platform

LEGAL AND ETHICAL CONSTRAINTS RELATED TO CONVERGENT JOURNALISM

Convergent journalism demands that journalists disseminate information through quite a

number of media platforms, while also aiming towards meeting the requirements and
expectations of the media audience. These demands and requirements could not be met,
at times due to legal issues. For example, a reporter could be denied access by the law to
information of a certain form or kind, i.e video, but wouldn’t gather. This makes it hard for him
to effectively tell a multi-media story as one or two media platforms that depend on that
certain information type might suffer.

Journalism is guided by principles, and sometimes these principles at as a challenge in the

information gathering process since they would restrict as from gathering information of a
certain kind. In respect to the ethical standards, a reporter fails to gather certain information

16
and this eventually translates into the story not meeting the needs of audiences or media
platform alike.

17
Chapter
2

DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY : THE TOOL FOR CONVERGENT JOURNALISM

The term digital technology is used to describe the use of digital resources to effectively, find,
analyse, create, communicate, and use information in a digital context to allow for quicker
as well as easier access to all things of media. This encompasses the use of digital media
tools, software applications, as well as programming tools.

It enables immense amounts of information to be compressed on small storage devices that

can be easily preserved and transported. Digitization also quickens data transmission speeds.

The media has also relied on digital technological methods to transmit messages. As such,
digital technology is viewed as largely involving the use of technological devices that are
aimed at making work efficient and faster

FORMS OF DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY

 Digital cameras  Voice recorders

 Computers  Flash disks, etc

ADVANTAGES

 Make journalistic work easier and quicker

 Efficient since quality is assured.
 User friendly

DISADVANTAGES

 Require technical know how

 Expensive
 Not reliable since storage of unprocessed media product is not strongly assured.

18
ADVANTAGES OF SOCIAL MEDIA IN CONVERGENT JOURNALISM

Social media facilitates interaction. The primary factor that led to the development of
convergent journalism is the need for audiences to socialise. Observably, research could
reveal that the interaction audiences used to and do find in the traditional media platforms is
limited. With that, they are always on the look-out for a platform that will offer them
maximum interaction. The incorporation of the social media therefore guarantees the
interaction these audiences need because of its interactive nature.

To ensure effectiveness, communication requires feedback. According to the new

communications model by Denis Mc Quail, feedback is essential for improvement. Because
the social media facilitates interaction, it offers an opportunity to convergent journalists to
harvest feedback which they can use to improve on their story presentation.

The comments offered in the process of interaction could also help journalists secure news
ideas for other news stories, a process called crowd-sourcing.

Social media can also help journalists locate sources of information as the feedback offered
in the comments section could be a guide to a source who could present information on
which a news story could be based.

PLAGIARISM

Simply, plagiarism is defined as the use of ideas and writings of others and representing them
as your own. Because plagiarism is punishable by the law, convergent journalists should
avoid or prevent it at all cost.

PLAGIARISM AVOIDANCE STRATEGIES

 Doing your own research

No matter how big the pressure could be, the reporter shouldn’t bypass the process of doing
his or her own research just because he wants to get things done in time.

 Give credit where credit is due

This simply requires a reporter to acknowledge where he or she has taken the information
from.

 Subjecting the stories to rigorous editing and proofreading

19
This means going through your copy and seeing which information that wasn’t as a result of
your research hasn’t been attributed to.

20
Chapter
3

MULTI-MEDIA STORY DEVELOPMENT : WRITING THE MULTI-MEDIA STORY

STAGES INVOLVED IN RESEARCHING A POTENTIAL STORY

Selection of a story to research that is suitable for multi-platform delivery

This means the story selected (angle) has to be legally, socially and journalistically for
all the media outlets, otherwise failure to suit in two or more of the media outlets
wouldn’t qualify the story for multiplatform delivery.

Analysis of a range of possible sources for stories

Again the sources approached have to be willing to offer news for all the media
platforms the organization is engaged in so that alternatives should be made in time
and to suit the needs of each media platform.
Critical analysis of each stage of the research process
(a) The aim, purpose
In the very first place, the reporter should realize the focus and purpose of each medium
so that all his work should strive to meet the demands of each media platform on its own.
(b) Deadline
Knowing the deadline for each will assist the reporter to prioritize well.
(c) Identification of angle and type of story
The angle chosen has to be the same. There could be changes, sometimes
depending on the nature of the target audience and the nature of the medium itself.
(d) Assessing the relevance of story to digital audience
The story should again be seen to be suitable for audience members of all the media
platforms at use. This ensures that the effort taken to write the story isn’t wasted, and
that the communication is made to the intended audience. As an addition, the
stories should be treated differently to meet the needs of the diversified audience.
(e) Research and interview methods, obtaining suitable background and source
materials
There has to be a clear and robust research in an effort to get as much information as
possible and in different forms, as well as to get the necessary background.

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EXAMPLES OF GOOD AND BAD PRACTICE IN CONVERGENT JOURNALISM

BAD PRACTICES

 Shovel-ware journalism

Shovelware journalism refers to a situation where a news story that was initially meant for a
given media platform is disseminated through another without any substantial changes
made to it. Convergent journalism requires that stories be treated differently, and shovelware
journalism erodes that principle as stories are only written to fill available space, and not
considering requirements for specific media platforms and audiences.

 Plagiarism

This is the copying of someone else’s information and presenting it as if it is one’s own without
any acknowledgement made. It usually occurs due to the pressure that is associated with
convergent journalism, and makes convergent reporters fail to gather more information
because of the desire to swiftly provide information to audiences.

 Inaccurate reporting

It is a bad practice if convergent journalists blame pressure associated with it as an excuse to

provide information inaccurately

 Incomplete reporting

It is a fact that convergent journalism goes along with pressure, and some journalists tend to
use that pressure as an excuse not to have details complete in the story.

 Disregard to standards

Standards are key to journalism practice, and strict compliance is mandatory, but due to the
nature of convergent journalism, some reporters would commit an ethical offence by, for
example, failing to verify the information which results in the truth (an important principle in
journalism)

 No feedback-harvest system

In order to improve convergent journalism, it is important to create a feedback harvest

system that will partly help facilitate interaction and socialization which is the basis for
convergent journalism. A lack of such an essential feedback system means that convergent
journalism is not being effectively and efficiently practised.

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  Story telling without relevant information for specific media platforms

With convergent journalism, media platforms are to be treated differently in terms of the
nature and form of information that needs to be disseminated through them. If a reporter
does not gather information needed in another media platform and not in another, then
the story wouldn’t be told effectively in a convergent way.

 No regard for deadlines

If deadlines are not respected, stories lose value, and if that happens, a news
organization eventually loses audiences, which are the basis for attracting advertisers.

GOOD PRACTICES

 Proof reading

The primary objective of a news organizations’ involvement in convergent journalism is to

amass as many audiences as possible. This could however be far-fetched if nothing is done
to improve the readability of the stories. Proof-reading and editing come handy in solving the
readability issues.

 Verification

Verification translates into a truth-based news story, and it is the basis for building
trust/credibility. And since a news organization is in search of audiences, proofreading and
editing could help in that area.

 Feedback harvest system

Having a feedback harvest system is a plus in convergent journalism as it assists in facilitating

the much needed interaction as well help the news organization collect information
necessary to initiate changes in its information delivery.

 Strict compliance to standards

As journalists, reporters working in organizations operating under convergent journalism need

to have knowledge and apply standard of practice in journalism in order to operate
effectively, and that is seen as an example of good practice in convergent journalism.

23
  Completeness

Although pressure cannot be underestimated, not having details of a story complete is

inexcusable. Completeness which means a story will have everything needed to make the
story understood by audiences is an example of good practice.

 Improving design

In order to attract the attention of audiences, stories in convergent journalism need to be

provided in an interesting way through the use of designing knowledge and skills. Designing
acts as an attraction tool that helps a news organization attract more audiences.

 Gathering and provision of necessary information

The difference in media platforms means they also need to treated differently, and good
practice is when information that covers all forms needed to tell a story for different media
platforms.

 Ability to meet deadlines

Timeliness is always of the essence in journalism, and deadlines help facilitate meeting
deadlines. This clearly shows that meeting deadlines as a way of presenting information
faster to audiences is an example of good practice in convergent journalism.

THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PRINT AND ONLINE JOURNALISM IN WRITING STYLE AND TECHNIQUE

Narrative versus actionable content

Print publications contain linear content that's often consumed in a more relaxed setting and
manner than the solution-hunting behavior that characterizes most high-value Web use.

In print, you can spice up linear narrative with anecdotes and individual examples that
support a storytelling approach to exposition. On the Web, such content often feels like filler;
it slows down users and stands in the way of their getting to the point. For example, in print,
discussing the tall-friendly rooms in the Palms Casino Resort in Las Vegas feels somewhat
interesting. That's not the case online when a user is looking for tall-friendly rooms in Chicago
(or wherever he or she is going next week). Web content must be brief and get to the point
quickly, because users are likely to be on a specific mission. In many cases, they've pulled up
the page through search. Web users want actionable content; they don't want to waste
away their time on (otherwise enjoyable) stories that are peripheral to their current goals.

24
Instead of a predefined narrative, websites must support the user's personal story by
condensing and combining vast stores of information into something that specifically meets
the user's immediate needs. Thus, instead of an author-driven narrative, Web content
becomes a user-driven narrative.

Detailed content versus brevity

Forget what your English teacher said about a three-sentence minimum for paragraphs. Web
audiences prefer short, pithy blocks of text and tend to stay longer on web pages that
feature concise, one or two sentence paragraphs.

Print publications contain linear content that's often consumed in a more relaxed setting and
manner than the solution-hunting behavior that characterizes most high-value Web use.

In print, you can spice up linear narrative with anecdotes and individual examples that
support a storytelling approach to exposition. On the Web, such content often feels like filler;
it slows down users and stands in the way of their getting to the point. For example, in print,
discussing the tall-friendly rooms in the Palms Casino Resort in Las Vegas feels somewhat
interesting. That's not the case online when a user is looking for tall-friendly rooms in Chicago
(or wherever he or she is going next week). Web content must be brief and get to the point
quickly, because users are likely to be on a specific mission. In many cases, they've pulled up
the page through search.

While readers may stare at their computer monitors all day, they rarely focus on a single
article for more than a minute or two. That’s why the vast majority of

what’s written for the Internet is under 1,000 words. Reading multi-page articles online can be
a frustrating challenge, but taking in long-form content in print, or at least on an e-reader,
tends to be much more enjoyable.

Great long-form journalism still gets published on the web every day, but it often comes from
outlets traditionally known for print. But considering what it takes to keep up with the speed
of news, longer articles just aren’t cost effective for anymore for a lot of online outlets.

Tone

Regardless of whether you’re writing for web or print, the tone of your writing needs to be
matched to your audience and the purpose of the piece. For example, an online white

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paper will likely require a much different tone than an internal company newsletter. But in
general, print writing tends to be more rigid than web writing since online readers prefer
informal writing styles laced with elements of the writer’s personality.

Information carrying content

Importance of information carrying content and methods used

1. Links

Links are the citation method of the Information Age. But links are also a way to increase the
value of your writing by providing opportunities for readers to access additional information
on specific topics or engage more deeply with your brand’s other online assets

2. Hyper-links

3. Hash tags

ONLINE NEWS STORY WRITING : CHUNKING

Studies have shown that nearly four out of five web readers don’t read web content word-
for-word. Instead, they scan the page, culling information from headlines, section breaks and
bullet points. As an online content creator, it’s important to use that information to your
advantage, composing pieces that feature bulleted lists, sub-headings and other web-
specific composition strategies, a concept referred to as chunking.

When people read on paper, they usually start at the beginning and work their way through
in a linear fashion from page one to page two to page three, etc. When people read on the
Web, however, they start where the website sent them, and that could be anywhere on the
website. Once they get there, website visitors will quickly skim the page, looking for chunks of
text and keywords that tell them they are in the right spot.

What’s “chunking” you ask? Chunking is an approach to organizing and writing information
online to make it more accessible and readable. This approach recognizes that online
readers often do not read things in chronological order. Instead, they tend to click around
on web sites, targeting whatever looks most relevant and/or interesting.

That’s why online writers try to break stories into stand-alone segments, or chunks, that will
make sense even if you read them “out of order” or don’t read all of them.

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Chunking could also be defined as a method of presenting information which splits concepts
into small pieces or "chunks" to make reading and understanding faster and easier. Chunking
is especially useful for material presented on the web because readers tend to scan for
specific information on a web page rather than read the page sequentially.

When you chunk text, you break down what may have started as one really long article into
smaller, manageable, more easily understood blocks of text.

HOW JOURNALISTS ACHIEVE CHUNKING

Most online journalists achieve the concept of chunking through the use of:

 Bulleted lists
 Short subheadings
 Short sentences with one or two ideas per sentence
 Short paragraphs, even one-sentence paragraphs
 Easily scannable text, with bolding of key phrases
 Inline graphics to guide the eyes or illustrate points which would normally require
more words

Advantages of chunking

 Chunking helps journalists convey information more efficiently

 Chunking helps readers find what they are looking for quickly
 Chunking allows material to be presented consistently from page to page, so users
can apply previous knowledge of page layout and navigation and focus on the
content rather than the presentation

Journalists’ task should therefore be to create chunks of information that can stand on their
own, but that also fit within the larger context of a news website.

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Chapter
4

EDITING STORIES FOR MULTI-MEDIA DELIVERY

Advisably, when editing for multiplatform delivery, the 5Cs are recommended.

THE FIVE Cs | Clarity, Correctness, Conciseness, Completeness, Consistency |

Clarity

Despite the overriding pressure journalists in this media genre have journalists do not have an
excuse in terms of making ideas clear. Every story in each medium should be clear and
befitting of its medium requirements and audience needs.

Correctness

Again, the pressure should not be an excuse for reporters to fail to put facts correctly
together. Accuracy here should be of the essence for better results.

Conciseness

So much that you are telling the story through different media platforms, it is gain advisable
to be brief and sensible. The knowledge about the decreasing attention people pay towards
larger volumes of information should drive editors to have fewer details that make sense
other than larger volumes of information that will end up not being read.

Completeness

But the allowance for conciseness should not compromise completeness. Each media
platform story should be complete in its capacity. The story should thus use all the tools
available within each medium in trying to explain or tell an event. In simpler terms, the story
should be a direct representative of an event.

Consistency

The fact that each media platform is different from one another is a guarantee that each
should also be treated differently. That should also include consistency in the way stories are
written each medium.

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PROOF-READING

Proofreading is often neglected, but they are the crucial final stages of the story writing
process. Even the smallest error can result in embarrassing or even costly outcomes
(misspelling a name, transposing digits in a telephone number, mistakes in a prospectus) so
taking time and care to check what you have written is essential.

To many people, editing and proofreading are one and the same thing. There is, however, a
distinct difference between the two. The term ‘proof reading’ is the process of correcting or
removing the errors contained in the proof reading of your original writing’. In some aspects
and angles, editing could not differ much with proof-reading.

One major and noticeable similarity between these two terms is that both editors and the
proof readers, usually sub-editors, are some kind of ‘gate keepers’ whose role it is to ensure
that no unwanted material appears in the final printed job. The proof reader is therefore the
last gate keeper the story must pass through before the newspaper is finally printed. Any
mistake which was not dictated and removed at this stage will certainly find its way in the
finished job.

But is editing the same thing as proofreading? Not exactly. Although many people use the
terms interchangeably, editing and proofreading are two different stages of the revision
process, and although proof reading and editing seem to play similar function - which
involves dictation and removing or correcting errors in a copy, they differ significantly in terms
of their purpose and goals.

Again, even though both demand close and careful reading, they focus on different aspects
of the writing process and employ different techniques.

REASONS FOR PROOF-READING

Content is important. But like it or not, the way a paper looks affects the way others judge it.

When you’ve worked hard to develop and present your ideas, you don’t want careless errors
distracting your reader from what you have to say. It’s worth paying attention to the details
that help you to make a good impression.

Most people devote only a few minutes to proofreading, hoping to catch any glaring errors
that jump out from the page. But a quick and cursory reading, especially after you’ve been
working long and hard on a paper, usually misses a lot. It’s better to work with a definite plan
that helps you to search systematically for specific kinds of errors.
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Sure, this takes a little extra time, but it pays off in the end. If you know that you have an
effective way to catch errors when the paper is almost finished, you can worry less about
editing while you are writing your first drafts. This makes the entire writing process more
efficient. Try to keep the editing and proofreading processes separate. When you are editing
an early draft, you don’t want to be bothered with thinking about punctuation, grammar,
and spelling. If you are worrying about the spelling of a word or the placement of a comma,
you’re not focusing on the more important task of developing and connecting ideas.

The essence of proof reading therefore, is to take a final thorough reading through the galley
to ensure that every noticeable and or perceivable error is expunged before the actual
printing of the final job.

STRATEGIES FOR PROOF-READING

Proofread for only one kind of error at a time

If you try to identify and revise too many things at once, you risk losing focus, and your
proofreading will be less effective. It’s easier to catch grammar errors if you aren’t checking
punctuation and spelling at the same time. In addition, some of the techniques that work
well for spotting one kind of mistake won’t catch others.

Read slow and read every word out loud

Try reading out loud, which forces you to say each word and also lets you hear how the
words sound together. When you read silently or too quickly, you may skip over errors or
make unconscious corrections.

Separate the text into individual sentences

This is another technique to help you to read every sentence carefully. Simply press the return
key after every period so that every line begins a new sentence.

Then read each sentence separately, looking for grammar, punctuation, or spelling errors. If
you’re working with a printed copy, try using an opaque object like a ruler or a piece of
paper to isolate the line you’re working on.

Circle every punctuation mark

This forces you to look at each one. As you circle, ask yourself if the punctuation is correct.

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Read the paper backwards

This technique is helpful for checking spelling. Start with the last word on the last page and
work your way back to the beginning, reading each word separately. Because content,
punctuation, and grammar won’t make any sense, your focus will be entirely on the spelling
of each word.

Read your work aloud

This technique is aimed at actually hearing any awkward spots. (Hint: read slowly enough
that you can catch typos and missing words).

Have someone else read your work aloud to you

In this, you listen for places where the reader stumbles or reads something different to what
you wrote or meant.

Circle verbs to locate passive voice

Circle prepositional phrases to locate potential wordiness

If you are aware of several sorts of errors you make consistently, read through your draft
several times, looking for only one error each time.

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Chapter
5

JOURNALISTIC STANDARDS COMMONLY REQUIRED BY EMPLOYERS

SEEK TRUTH AND REPORT IT

Journalists should be honest, fair and courageous in gathering, reporting and interpreting
information. Journalists should, therefore, in seeking truth:

 Test the accuracy of information from all sources and exercise care to avoid
inadvertent error. Deliberate distortion is never permissible.
 Diligently seek out subjects of news stories to give them the opportunity to respond to
allegations of wrongdoing.
 Identify sources whenever feasible. The public is entitled to as much information as
possible on sources’ reliability.
 Always question sources’ motives before promising anonymity
 Clarify conditions attached to any promise made in exchange for information.
 Keep promises
 Never plagiarize.

MINIMIZE HARM

Ethical journalists treat sources, subjects and colleagues as human beings deserving of
respect. Journalists should thus:

 Show compassion for those who may be affected adversely by news coverage. Use
special sensitivity when dealing with children and inexperienced sources or subjects.
 Be sensitive when seeking or using interviews or photographs of those affected by
tragedy or grief: Recognize that gathering and reporting information may cause
harm or discomfort.
 Pursuit of the news is not a license for arrogance.
 Recognize that private people have a greater right to control information about
themselves than do public officials and others who seek power, influence or
attention.

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  Only an overriding public need can justify intrusion into anyone’s privacy.
 Show good taste. Avoid pandering to lurid curiosity.
 Be cautious about identifying juvenile suspects or victims of sex crimes.
 Be judicious about naming criminal suspects before the formal filing of charges.
 Balance a criminal suspect’s fair trial rights with the public’s right to be informed.

ACT INDEPENDENTLY

Journalists should be free of obligation to any interest other than the public’s right to know. As
such, journalists should:

 Avoid conflicts of interest, real or perceived.

 Remain free of associations and activities that may compromise integrity or damage
credibility.
 Refuse gifts, favors, fees, free travel and special treatment, and shun secondary
employment, political involvement, public office and service in community
organizations if they compromise journalistic integrity.
 Disclose unavoidable conflicts.
 Be vigilant and courageous about holding those with power accountable.
 Deny favored treatment to advertisers and special interests and resist their pressure to
influence news coverage.
 Be wary of sources offering information for favors or money; avoid bidding for news.

BE ACCOUNTABLE

Journalists are accountable to their readers, listeners, viewers and each other. As such,
journalists should thus:

 Clarify and explain news coverage and invite dialogue with the public over
journalistic conduct.
 Encourage the public to voice grievances against the news media.
 Admit mistakes and correct them promptly.
 Expose unethical practices of journalists and the news media.
 Abide by the same high standards to which they hold others.

ACCURACY

 A journalist should strive to ensure that information disseminated is honestly conveyed,

accurate and fair.

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OBJECTIVITY AND BALANCE

 Journalists shouldn’t show favoritism towards one party in its reporting. In cases of
conflict, both sides of an issue should be brought forward as a means of balancing
up.

WHY JOURNALISM STANDARDS ARE NEEDED IN CONVERGENT JOURNALISM

In principal, and in in practice, convergent journalism is associated with pressure and

competition. These latter is common in all forms of journalism, while the former is as a result of
reporter’s new found environment where he is expected to present news items to audiences
through different media platforms.

These two characteristic factors forming convergent journalism make it very hard for a
convergent journalist to abide to the journalism codes of conduct, since time and situations
doesn’t give him the luxury to do so. In an effort to beat the competition and to meet
deadlines for specific and demanding media platforms, a reporter would fail to verify
information, thereby compelling him to plagiarise or not to verify information, thereby
increasing the possibility of disseminating information not based on truth, which is specifically
and ethical offense.

Despite such characteristic challenges, the requirement to disseminate information out of

public interest, present audiences with the truth and to avoid litigation makes it very
important for convergent journalists to consider applying journalism standards in their
professional practice. Additionally, the establishment of convergent journalism is based on
the need to have a wider base in order to attract advertisers. Therefore, the failure to provide
audiences with information they need because a news organization is trying to beat the
competition or reporters being under pressure might make the news organization lose
credibility and the audiences it sought to attract.

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Chapter
6

THE PRINCIPLES INVOLVED IN REPACKAGING FROM PRINT TO DIGITAL

Reducing text content

The content in print news stories is usually large as opposed to other mediums. The reason is
that in other digital media platforms such as radio or online, audios and videos or images
help tell the story whereas in print journalists rely heavily on text to tell the story, so a move
from print will definitely require a reduction in text.

Changing balance between word and pictures

There’s evidently an imbalance between words or text and images or pictures in print media.
The imbalance comes in due to a high volume of text as opposed to the images added. The
reason for this imbalance is that the print media is originally meant for reading and not
viewing. As such, more concentration is given to text other than image. With this, when
changing from print to digital, the imbalance reverses, and now you see more images than
text, since in TV or online, the focus is to tell a story using images, and the text sometimes
comes just to explain a bit about the images.

Improving use of links, hyperlinks, hash-tags, threaded discussions, or comment facilities.

The online media is also characterized by information to information. This means the online
media can provide information about other information meaning, single information can
direct you to another form of information. However, this can only be visible in online media
through the use of links, hyper-links, and hash tags.

Again, there has to be some addition of some commentary facilities, taking into account
that the online medium offers opportunities for instant interaction between readers and
journalists and sometimes among themselves.

Restructuring stories

Because there is a difference between these media platforms, the story structure has to
change as we move from print to digital. Use of shorter sentences, for example 5. Changing
use of color. There has to be an addition of color in order to make the broadcast media

35
more interesting and to help tell the story in an interesting way. 6. Examples with supporting
justification of improvements made

TECHNIQUES USED TO IMPROVE CONVERGENT JOURNALISM

Strict adherence to writing styles for different media platforms

Professional journalism is based on reporter’s compliance to journalism standards which act

as a guide as to how reporters are to conduct themselves.

Improvement of design and layout

As much as working on the content is important, it is far much important to also work on
those features that will work towards assisting in attracting audiences into the stories that
have been technically worked on by reporters and editors in the newsroom. The role of the
designer, therefore is to make sure that the outward appearance of a publication gets
improved.

Completeness and correctness

Regardless of the pressure convergent journalists work under, leaving the story incomplete or
incorrect is not excuse. There is need therefore to collect and include all details that will
make the story make sense and clear, as well as removing and correcting errors that could
distract audiences from getting the key message from the story.

Not writing too much

The general consensus in journalism is that we are living in a busy world, and such, audiences
would not want to be bombarded with too much information. Borrowing from this
establishment, individual media platforms should have stories that concisely communicate
an idea to audiences.

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Chapter
7

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY

Intellectual property refers to creations of the mind: inventions, literary and artistic works, and
symbols, names, and images used in commerce. Intellectual property is divided into two
categories:

 Industrial Property
 Copyright

Includes patents for inventions, trademarks, industrial designs and geographical indications.

COPYRIGHT

Includes literary works such as novels, poems and plays, films, musical works, artistic works
such as drawings, paintings, photographs and sculptures, and architectural designs. Rights
related to copyright include those of performing artists in their performances, producers of
phonograms, and those of broadcasters in their radio and television programs.

INDUSTRIAL PROPERTY RIGHTS

These are like any other property rights – they allow the creator, or owner, of a patent,
trademark, or copyright to benefit from his or her own work or investment. These rights are
outlined in Article 27 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which sets forth the right to
benefit from the protection of moral and material interests resulting from authorship of any
scientific, literary, or artistic production.

WHY PROTECT INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS

The progress and well-being of humanity rests on its capacity for new creations in the areas
of technology and culture.

An efficient and equitable intellectual property system can help all countries realize
intellectual property’s potential as a powerful tool for economic development and social
and cultural well-being. The intellectual property system helps strike a balance between the
interests of the innovator and the public interest, providing an environment in which creativity
and invention can flourish, to the benefit of all.

37
The legal protection of these new creations encourages the expenditure of additional
resources, which leads to further innovation.

The promotion and protection of intellectual property spurs economic growth, creates new
jobs and industries, and enhances the quality and enjoyment of life.

FORMS OF IPR

 Patents
 Trademarks
 Geographical Indication
 Industrial design
 Copyrights

Patents

A patent is an exclusive right granted for an invention, which is a product or a process that
provides a new way of doing something, or offers a new technical solution to a problem. A
patent provides protection for the invention to the owner of the patent. The protection is
granted for a limited period, generally 20 years.

What kind of protection does a patent offer? Patent protection means that the invention
cannot be commercially made, used, distributed or sold without the patent owner’s consent.
These patent rights are usually enforced in a court, which, in most systems, holds the authority
to stop patent infringement. Conversely, a court can also declare a patent invalid upon a
successful challenge by a third party.

Trademarks

A trademark is a distinctive sign, which identifies certain goods or services as those produced
or provided by a specific person or enterprise. Its origin dates back to ancient times, when
craftsmen reproduced their signatures, or “marks” on their artistic or utilitarian products. Over
the years these marks evolved into today’s system of trademark registration and protection.
The system helps consumers identify and purchase a product or service because its nature
and quality, indicated by its unique trademark, meets their needs.

Industrial design

An industrial design is the ornamental or aesthetic aspect of an article. The design may
consist of three-dimensional features, such as the shape or surface of an article, or of two-
dimensional features, such as patterns, lines or colour. Industrial designs are applied to a
wide variety of products of industry and handicraft: from technical and medical instruments
38
to watches, jewellery, and other luxury items; from housewares and electrical appliances to
vehicles and architectural structures; from textile designs to leisure goods. To be protected
under most national laws, an industrial design must be new or original and non-functional.

This means that an industrial design is primarily of an aesthetic nature and any technical
features of the article to which it is applied are not protected.

Geographical indication?

A geographical indication is a sign used on goods that have a specific geographical origin
and possess qualities or a reputation that are due to that place of origin. Most commonly, a
geographical indication consists of the name of the place of origin of the goods. Agricultural
products typically have qualities that derive from their place of production and are
influenced by specific local geographical factors, such as climate and soil. Whether a sign
functions as a geographical indication is a matter of national law and consumer perception.
Geographical indications may be used for a wide variety of agricultural products, such as,
for example, “Tuscany” for olive oil produced in a specific area of Italy, or “Roquefort” for
cheese produced in this region of France.

WAYS OF PROTECTING CONTENT ONLINE

The online media platform has made plagiarism easier, thus prompting strict means in
ensuring protection of news content which in this case is hereby being referred to as an
intellectual property because content production in journalism requires one to think in order
to produce something for public consumption.

 Contract

Web site terms of use or terms of service agreements represent one of the most important
legal strategies for protecting content on the Internet. These agreements, whether in the
form of click-wrap or browse-wrap agreements, are generally binding, valid, and
enforceable. To be enforceable, it is critical that users have an opportunity to review the
terms of use applicable to the site. If they are buried or otherwise inconspicuous, they will be
more difficult to enforce. Web site terms of use should be used to manage, allocate,
mitigate, limit, and avoid the legal risks related to content and to protect the intellectual
property rights and other property rights in and to such content. For purposes of this article,
content includes content owned by the site as well as third-party content licensed or
otherwise provided to the site. Content also includes content submitted by users. Contract
provisions in the Web site terms of use agreements should deal with all forms of content and
the legal risks related to each form of content. The contract terms are the first level of legal
39
defence for protecting content on the Internet. Typically, the Web site terms of use will state
in essence that: "Your Practice use of the Web site, content and services offered on or
through the Web site are subject to the terms and conditions in this Website Terms of Use. By
using the Web site, you are agreeing to be bound by and comply with the Website Terms of
Use." The Web site owner usually reserves the right to change the terms at any time to allow
for new services, new concerns, and flexibility in the dynamic Internet arena. Continued use
of the Web site following the posting of changes to the terms usually means that the user
accepts the changes.

 Warranty

Warranty or Originality is a constitutionally mandated prerequisite for copyright protection.

For content to be considered "original," it cannot be substantially copied from another work
and it must demonstrate a modicum of creativity. This originality requirement is relatively easy
to meet. The requirement does not demand that novelty or uniqueness be present. No
artistic merit or beauty is required. The creativity threshold for copyright ability is quite low. A
work is original in the copyright sense if it owes its originality to the author and was not copied
from some pre-existing work. Original content is likely to meet the originality requirements for
copyright protection.

A work can incorporate existing material with the permission of the author and still be
original. When an existing work is included in a new work, the copyright on the new work
extends only to the original material contributed by the author. If the content on the Web site
is not original, the Web site owner may still have a copyright in the compilation of the
content. For compilations such as databases the originality may extend only to the selection,
coordination, and arrangement of the content. If the Web site owner has contributed
original content, the copyright will extend to the text, photos, graphics, and other original
expressive content contributed as well as to the selection, coordination, and arrangement of
the content. If the Web site owner has not contributed any original expressive content, then
the Web site owner may need to rely upon a compilation copyright. For example, facts are
not protectable by copyright. If the Web site owner contributes only factual content and
third-party content, then under such circumstances the Web site owner may be able to use
only a compilation copyright.

 Use of content protection softwares

Technologists have also created softwares aimed at helping protect online content from
abuse. The softwares prevent copying and pasting or even using in another forum apart from

40
the website itself. The content is automatically set not to be shared or used by any other third
user without approval.

 Online consortiums

Representation Respecting User Content Another contract provision related to user content is
for the user to provide a warranty and representation respecting the content submitted. An
example of this type of provision follows. By posting, uploading, inputting, providing or
submitting User Content you warrant or represent that you own or otherwise control all of the
rights to your User Content as described in these Website Terms of Use including, without
limitation, all the rights necessary for you to provide, post, upload, input or submit your User
Content submissions.

 Embedding passwords to website’s specific content

 Some Web sites may contain password-restricted areas. Restricted areas may make it
possible to protect the content in these areas by copyright and trade secret
protection. Typically, the Web site terms of use agreement will provide that, if the user
is registered as an authorized user to gain access to the password protected areas of
the Web site, the user will agree to be entirely responsible for maintaining the
confidentiality of its password and agree to notify the Web site if the password is lost,
stolen, disclosed to an unauthorized third party, or otherwise may have been
compromised. Password protection provides another layer of protection for content
that may be useful in some circumstances. The confidentiality restrictions imposed on
the user may create a relationship of confidence and trust with the user consistent
with the use of trade secret protection.

 Copyright registration

In Getaped.com, Inc. v. Cangemi,5 the court ruled that making a Web site available on the
Internet constitutes a "publication." If copyright registration of the Web site is made within
three months after publication or prior to infringement of the work, statutory damages and
attorney's fees will be available to the copyright owner in copyright infringement actions.
Timely registration with the Copyright Office is especially important with respect to protecting
copyrighted content on the Internet because one of the real problems on the Internet is that
it is often very difficult to prove actual damages from a third party's unauthorized use of
content. As such, assuring the option of recovering statutory damages and attorney's fees is
very important, even though an award of attorney's fees is discretionary and is becoming
increasingly more difficult to obtain unless the infringement suit or defense is shown to be
objectively unreasonable. A copyright registration strategy for Web site content will help

41
manage the risks relating to the unauthorized reproduction, public display, use, and
distribution of copyright-protected content.

 Copyright notice

The use of a copyright notice is no longer required under US law, although it is often
beneficial and is recommended. Use of the notice informs the public that the Web site
content is protected by copyright, identifies the copyright owner, and shows the year of first
publication. The notice also provides a defence against alleged innocent infringement and
strengthens the argument for finding the infringement wilful.

 Online licensing consortiums

To obtain this safe harbor protection under the DMCA, the service provider must designate
an agent to receive notifications of claimed copyright infringement by providing the contact
information of the designated agent to the Copyright Office and by posting such information
on the service provider's publicly accessible Web site. Many Web site owners include the
contact information for the designated agent and the contents of such third-party
notification of copyright infringement claims as part of their Web site terms of use agreement
or hyperlink to this information in the Web site terms of use agreement.

 Content licensing

Licence agreements enable the exploitation of intellectual property rights, such as copyright
or registered trademarks. A licence is essentially permission by the licensor to the licensee to
make use of the right in question in the ways specified in the licence. A licence does not
transfer ownership of the right which is the subject of the licence. It is simply a permission.
Licences may be exclusive, sole or non-exclusive. An exclusive licence means that the grant
of rights is exclusive to the licensee. No other party, including the licensor, may exercise the
rights granted by the licence in the territory covered by the licence. Exclusive licences of
copyright must be in writing and signed by or on behalf of the copyright owner.1 A sole
licence means that the licensee is the only party to whom the licensor grants rights but the
licensor retains the right to exploit the rights himself. A sole licence of copyright may be in
writing, or it may be an oral agreement. For reasons of certainty, it is better if the terms are
recorded in writing. A non-exclusive licence means that licensee may have to share the
exploitation of the rights with other parties, including the licensor. The licensee has no
exclusivity. A non-exclusive licence of copyright may be oral or written. Where the right which
is the subject of the licence is a registered trade mark, s 28 of the Trade Marks Act 1994
provides that the licence must be in writing signed for or on behalf of the licensor whether it is

42
an exclusive licence, a nonexclusive licence or a sole licence. A licensee will generally have
to pay more for exclusive rights.

 Warranties from the licensor

The licensor usually has to give warranties (which are essentially contractual promises) about
the rights which are the subject of the licence.

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Do your best, and God will do the rest

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45