Module III

Fundamental concepts in Sociology

a) study of Human society

b) Community
c) Association
d) Institution
e) Social groups
f) Culture and Cultural change
g) Status and Role
h) Social Action
i) Social system
j) Norms and Values
k) Conformity and Deviance
l) Law and Customs
A) Society
Society may be defined as a web of social relationships which may be hundreds or thousands
of types. Society exists only where social beings create relationship with one another .There
are two types of definition of society. Functional and structural perspective. In functional
perspective society is defined as the complex of groups in reciprocal relationships,
interacting upon one another, enabling human organism to carry on their life-activities and
helping each persons to fulfill his wishes and accomplish his interests in association with his
fellows. While structural perspective views society as the total social heritage of folkways,
mores and institutions, of habits and sentiments and ideals

Definitions

“Society is the collection of individuals united by certain relations or modes of behavior which
mark them off from others, who do not enter into these relation or who differ from them in
behavior”-Moris ginsberg

“Society may be defined as the complex whole of human relationship in so far as they grow out
of action in terms of means-end relationships-intrinsic or symbolic”-Parsons

“Society is complex of organized association and institutions within the community”-

G.D.H.Cole

“Society is the union itself, the organization, the sum of formal relations in which associating
individuals are bound together”-giddings

“Society is any permanent or continuing group of men women and children, able to carry on
independently the process of racial perpetuation and maintenance on their own cultural level”-
Harkins

Characteristics of society

1.Likeness and differences Each society has a likeness .similarities are found in members of
society with respect to customs, traditions, folkways ,mores ,norms , values, beliefs , attitudes
etc. Thus similarities provides better understanding among the members of society. But this
likeness does not mean that society excludes diversity or differences or variation or conflict.
They also differs on various grounds. People differ from one another with respect to ability,
talent, interest, as well as there exists variation with respect to thoughts and ideals, professions
and economic activities. So society involves both likeness and differences.

2.A feeling of solidary prevails among the individuals on the basis of common history, common
belief, common territory, cultural ethos ,common goals and so on .
3.Abstract organization Society embodies social relationships which we cannot be seen or
touched as they are abstract feeling which bind fellow human beings together. Society is an
organization which also consists of customs, law, mores, values which are abstract and
intangible. Thus we can say that Society is abstract because it is not something which we can be
seen, observed, touched or scented but can be felt and experienced with the social relationship
among individuals. Social relationships are something.

4. Interdependence and co-operation society involves co-operation and interdependent among its
individuals. In societies individuals had to depend upon others. for eg family ,the first society in
which we are associated is based on biological interdependence. In a family some members earn
and others depend upon them. The children depend upon parents in childhood and parents
depend upon their grown up children in their old age. Inter-dependence is also is very much
visible in modern world. Not only individuals are dependent upon others, but it can be seen that
countries are also depending upon others for their existence. No society can exist without the
co-operation of its individual members. Unless people co-operate with each other,they cannot
lead a peaceful and happy life.Thus co-operation seems to be an essential element of society.

5.Existence of sociability .Society is a not a group of people but structure of people with social
interactions and interralations. Man cannot lead an isolated life, for leading a social life there
should be society. Human feelings of sympathy, affection, obligations are developed in
societies. So sociability can be said to be highly essential for the constitution of society.

Types of society

1. Tonnies classified society two types

a) Gemeinschaft type of society characterized by intimate , private exclusive living together in a

localized group

b) Gesselschaft type of society in which secondary relation predominate

2. Durkheim classified society on the basis of division of labour, collective consciousness and set
of laws in given society

a. Society based on mechanical solidarity-homogeneity, shared values, developes out of likeness,

strong collective conscience, simple division of labour, characteristics of primitive society .

b.Society based on organic solidarity-heterogeneity, different values, develops out of differences,

weak or peripheral conscience, complex division, modern society

3. Spencer classified society into militant society and industrial society based on type of internal
regulation.

Militant society-characterized by compulsory co-operation and centralized government .Rigid

system of stratification .in this individual exists for the benefit of state
Industrial society voluntary co-operation and decentralized government, here open system of
stratification is there and state exists for the sake of individuals

4. Redfield classified society into

i) Folk society –relatively more isolated, homogeneous traditionally organized , less secular
individuals.

ii) Urban society –Predominance of non agricultural occupations, high degree of specialization
resulting in division of labour.

Functions of society

1. Recruitment of new individuals (reproduction) Man die or migrate to decrease the population
of society but society continues to exist owing to reproduction

2. Satisfaction of primary needs-Man can satisfy his primary needs like food clothing shelter
medical care by living in society

3. Socialisaiton a human baby is transformed to human being by the process of socialisation by

learning of social life in society

4. Social control society checks individual’s behavior through social control so that they cannot
deviate from goals of society

5. Provision of means of communication human society provide readymade and adequate

facilities of communication for its members

6. Providing a sense of meaning to life a progressive human society gives sufficient attention to
its members provides them with values and social motivations

7. Human prosperity social life provides opportunities for realizing human potentials

b) community

Definitions

“Community is the smallest territorial group that can embrace all aspects of social life”

“A society that inhibits a definite geographical area is known as community”

“Community is a local area over which people are using same language, conforming to same
mores, feeling more or less same and acting upon same attitudes”

“Community is the social group with some degree of we feeling and living in a given area ”

Characteristis
1.Members of the community uses same language ,same sentiments , same attitudes etc

2.Communities are not created by act of will , but are natural

3.Community is related to definite locality.Since without locality the relationship between

human beings cannot established and we feeling cannot evolve.

4.Community is permanent one and not transient or temporary.

5.community is not a legal person.In the eyes of law , community has no rights and duties.

6.In communities people associate not for the fulfillment of particular end .The ends of the
communities are wider and natural

7.A community may be big or smaller. In larger communities intimate relationships and
interaction will be less compared to smaller communities which aims in enhancing friendships
and intimacy

Types of communities

Based on the size, wealth, specialized functions and the kind of organization community , we can
classify the communities into following types

1)primitive community or folk community- most of the primitive communities were

homogenous in nature with strong sense of solidarity They were relatively very small ,simple
and self sufficient. The organization of such communities were coherent and spirit of one’s
affection of such type of community was very powerful civilized communities are marked by the
forces of technological advancements mainly in means of transport and communication

2)Tribal community based upon kinship , united in language, dialect, following tribal traditions
beliefs and customs having territorial affinity and geographic condition

3)Rural community –human settlement relatively small, less densely populated and
homogeneous with reference to social , economic ,linguistic and cultural uniqueness.

4)Urban community-Human settlement relatively large and socially heterogeneous and having its
occupational and economic structure as predominantly non agricultural.

Difference between community and society

1.Community may be defined as a group of people living in common geographical locality and it
is necessary that a definite geographical area is essential for a community. While a definite
geographical area is not necessary for society . It is universal and pervasive.

2.Community is less heterogeneous compare to society.

3.In society similarities and differences exists side by side, while in communities tries to avoid
conflicts or differences

4.Society is the integration of various communities. i.e. Community lies within society

5.In community an individual must follow instructions of community. But if we take the case of
society, though there are also rules and regulations for its members, people have wider scope of
freedom compared to that of community.

6 society is a web of social relationships .It includes every relationship which is established
among the people.This social relationship may be direct or India organized or
unorganized,conscious or unconscious.But community consists group of individuals.

7.Society is abstract .It is the network of relationships which cannot be seen or touched.On the
other hand , community is concrete.It is a group of people living in a particular area.We can see
this group and locate its existence.

c)Association

An Association is a social organization purposefully created to attain specific goals.These goals

may be very broad and abstract, such as making a profit , eliminating poverty etc.They may also
be quite precise and limited such as manufacturing bicycle bearings , teaching basis of computers
etc.Goals sought by associations and its organizational characteristics varies .Based on the goals
of associations we can categorise them into following

1.Political associations –BJP,Congress etc

2.Religious associations-Ramakrishna mission, Arya samaj

3 Students associations –National students union of India(NSUI),The Akhil Bharatiya Vidyarthi

Parishad(ABVP)

4.Labourer’s Association-Bharatiya Mazdoor Sangha, All India Trade Union Congress.

5.Professionl Associations –Indian Medical Association,The Bar council

6.Economic Associations or Business Associations-Chamber of Commerce, Hotel owner

association etc

Definitions

“Association is an organization deliberately formed for collective pursuit of same interest of set
of interest, which members share”-MacIver

“An Association is usually working together of people who wish to achieve certain purposes”-
Bogardus
“An association is group of individuals united for a specific purpose or held together by
recognized or sanctioned modes of procedure or the

“An association is a group of social beings related to one another by the fact that they possess or
have instituted in common an organization with a view to securing a specific ends”-Ginsberg

Characteristics of Association

1.Membership to Association is voluntary. An association is not an essential organization like

state or society. A person becomes a member because he wants and likes it and if he grows a
feeling of dislike he is absolutely free to disown any association. Membership of Membership to
association is formal. One has to apply for membership and members have to pay membership
fee.

2.It is a concrete form of organization it is a concrete form of organization of human beings with
specific aims and objectives. They are created by men to satisfy some motive or cause. It exists
for its aims and objectives.

3. Rules and regulations for its members. Fixed and written rules are there to be followed by
members of the association. Its officials are elected for a definite period of time.It also contain
code of conduct for its members. Any one acting contrary or disowning the obligations of
association as members may be expelled from the membership of the associations.

4.Its aim is determined. Associations are formed deliberately to achieve definite goals and
protect the interests of its members. No association is formed without any aim and association
loses its identity if it does not have any objective and goals..

5.Apart from political and economic association ,today’s society has health ,social welfare etc.

Factors responsible for the formation of Association

1.Role of interests-In the formation and maintenance of associations, the role of interests is
greater than that of attitudes.

2.Heterogeneous and specialized community affords more opportunity for the creation of
organized groups than a simple or primitive community. The constant changes that occur in a
specialized communities favours the emergence of new groups.

3.The role of leadership is very important in the formation of association. Usually initiative,
enthusiasm and energy of small number of people with a proper leadership prepares ground for
the formation of associations.
Associations are important in modern society to form many social functions. Healthy
associations are emblems of healthy society because society is a combination of association
working in it. Society helps in many ways in the cultivation of human personality.

Usually the term association is often confused with community and society.

Difference between association and community

A community is naturally developed, while association is manmade organization .communities

are more stable that associations. In the case of membership in communities, it cannot said to be
absolutely voluntary. It is more or less compulsory. But membership to associations is voluntary.
Communities cannot have legal status but associations when acquire legal status their actions can
be challenged in the court of law.

d) Social Instituition

The term institution is used in sociology to describe practices that are regularly and continuously
repeated, are sanctioned and maintained by social norms and have a major significance in the
social structure.It is used to describe normative systems that operate in five basic areas which
may be designated as the primary institutions.

a)in determining kinship

b)in providing for legitimate use of power
c)in regulating the distribution of goods and services
d) in transmitting knowledge from one generation to the next
e)in regulating our relations to supernatural
These five basic institutions are called family,government, economy, education and religion.

Definitions

“Institution can be regarded as the means for the control and utilization of social energy”.-
L.F.Ward

“It is grouping or relation that is sanctioned by society ”-E.A.Ross

“The habitual ways of living together which have been sanctioned ,systematized and established
by authority of communities”-C.A.Ellwood

“It is a whole or any part of established and recognized apparatus of social life”-Hobhouse

“It is established forms or conditions of procedure characteristic of group activity.

Kinds of institutions
 There are five primary institutions.These are i)family ii)Economics iii) religion
iv)education v) state.There are a number of secondary institutions derived from this primary
institutions.The secondary institutions derived from family are marriage, divorce, monogamy,
polygamy etc.Secondary institutions of economics are property ,trading, credit, banking etc.The
secondary institutions of religion are temple, mosque, church, totem, taboo etc. The secondary
institutions of education are school, college, universities etc. The secondary institutions of state
are interest groups, political parties, democracy etc.

An institution never dies .New institutional norms may replace old norms, but the institution
goes on. For eg the modern family has replaced the norms of patriarchal family, yet family as an
institution continues. When feudalism died the government did not end. The governmental and
economic functions continued to be fulfilled although according to changed norms, all primary
institutions are thousands of years old. Only institutional norms are new.

Functions of institutions

The functions of institutions are of two kinds

i) Manifest is those functions which are intended and main functions. i.e. those functions for
which institutions exists.

ii) Latent functions-are unintended functions .There are not the primary functions but only the
by- products.

Thus manifest functions of education are development of literacy, training for occupational roles
and inculcation of basic social values. But its latent functions may be keeping young off the
labour market, weakening the control of parents or development of friendship. The manifest
functions of religion are worship of god and instruction in religious ideology. But its latent
functions would be to develop attachment to one’s religious community, to create religious
hatred. The manifest functions of economic institutions is to produce and redirect education. The
latent functions of an institution may support the intended objectives or may damage the norms
of institution.

The major functions of institutions can be summarized as follows

1.Institutions serves as a means of meeting the needs of society .No institutions arise unless need
is felt. Those needs range from essential ones to relatively unimportant ones.

2.Institutions serve as a means of regulating and controlling man’s activities. This is true of
governmental institutions, but a broader sense all institutions exercise control over the members
of a society by making it clear to them what is not allowed or what is not desirable. Finally it
must be remembered that various institutions are not independent entities, but are interrelated as
well as interdependent.
All institutions of the society are inter related and face the problem of continuously adjusting
themselves with changing society. Changes in social environment bring changes in social
institutions. Any change in one institution had effect on the other institutions. Break down of
economic institutions had impact upon family and state. In fact no institution can avoid affecting
or avoid affected by other.

e)Social groups

“Social group may be thought as number of persons two or more, who have some common
objects of attention, who are stimulating to each other, who have common loyalty and participate
in similar activities”

“Whenever two or more individuals come together and influence one another , they may be said
constitute a social group ”

“A group may be defined as two or more people who carry on social relation with one another”

Characteristics of social groups

1.A number of individuals –there must a number of individuals to form a social group.No single
person can form a group.

2.Feeling of unity is essential for every group .By this a sense of sympathy develops

3.Reciprocal relations-Members of the groups are related to each other .the member of group
should be interrelated

4.We-feeling members help each other in performing their duties and defend collectively against
harmful power.

5.Common interests-ideals and values of persons of group tend to be common

6.Similiar behavior As interests, ideals and values of persons of group are common ,the behavior
of members tends to be similar.A social group is not merely a group of persons , but is the
continuation of their behavior.

7.Control of group-In each group there are some customs, norms and procedures which are
acceptable to everyone and the members of group have to obey them.

8.Recognition –it is recognized as a social group by themselves and other groups as well

9.Influence of group each group has certain characteristics which separate it from similar and
dissimilar groups .these affects the members constituting groups.

For eg family is a group as it has all above characteristics.Members are related to each other by
intimate relationships such as husband-wife, father-son, brother-sister etc and all work together ,
extending mutual help for the common good of the family.All treat each other as their own and
though their interests may be different , their ideals and behavior tends to be similar .All
members are controlled by the norms of the family and if they do not obey the family norms ,
they are punished.

Functions of social groups

1.Social groups satisfy human needs

2.Social groups provide security

3.Special groups perform multiple functions which are either public or private.Thus family is a
special group which meets both private and public needs of its members.

4.Groups share common goals .If the goals of group are religious , the members tend to share
opinion on religious matter.

5.Groups provide many activity which would not be possible by a lone individual .

6.Social behavior and responsibilities are shaped by group to which they belong

7.Individuals derive such satisfaction from groups affiliation itself becomes precious for them.

8.Groups provide opportunities for functional interdependence as individuals are dependent upon
one another for their survival

Types of classification of groups

Factors which form the basis of classification of groups are

1. social interaction

2 degree of quality of interaction

3.intimacy of contacts

4.range of group interests

5.duration of interests

6.degree of organisatio

7 on the basis of Size

Social groups are classified as follows

1.Primary and secondary group->Cooley

2.Ingroup and Outgroup->sumner

3.Vertical and horizondal group->Miller

4.public group and private group->Giddings

5.Voluntary and Involuntary group->Wards

Primary and secondary group

Social groups are classified into primary and secondary groups on the basis of interaction
.Primary groups are those where social contacts are intimate, informal, personal and total in that
they involve many parts of person’s life experiences. But in secondary groups social contacts are
impersonal, segmental and utilitarian. One is not concerned with the other person as a person but
as a functionary who is filling a role.

Primary social groups are small in size and are relation oriented, while secondary groups are big
and includes several groups and is goal oriented .

In primary group the position of individual is fixed according to his birth order and age .It is
concerned with the development of total personality of the individual .while in the case of
secondary groups we can see that position is fixed according to the roles and is concerned with
particular aspect of personality and it develops only that aspect.

In group and out group

In groups are usually referred to as we group, while out groups as they groups.Members of in
groups usually have mutual sympathy , co-operation , help , good will and respect for mutual
benefits and rights .eg.family , club , college

Out groups are usually characterized by avoidance, disgust,competition and even conflict.
eg.workers usually consider the owners of industry as out group

Formal and informal group

The groups which are organized formally by written rules and regulations for its members are
called formal groups.The behavior of members of formal groups are coordinated by customary
norms and rules. This groups always has a normative hierarchical structure or status system.
eg.Political parties, government agencies , hospitals etc

A group without framed rules , joint activities , goals or leaders are called informal group. These
groups has established system of interpersonal relations, joint activities, the feeling of belonging
to a group but they lack nany legal status of belonging to a group but they lack any legal
status .Members of informal groups are united by friendly feelings , mutual liking , emotional
attractions and exert a beneficial influence on relationship within group.The behavior in these
groups are influenced by unwritten rules and regulations eg.family.

Horizontal and vertical groups

Horizontal groups are composed of persons who belong to same social class, who have similar
economic and social attributes which are ranked similarly in hierarchy and status. In this group
members have equal status and social prestige in terms of similar jobs eg.upper and lower
division of clerks.

Vertical groups are composed of members who belong to different social classes , different
income levels and whose social prestige varies .Large groups are horizontal groups whereas
small divisions are vertical groups.

Voluntary and involuntary groups

Voluntary groups are big in size .The members do not have any close relations .The membership
of person in voluntary groups depends upon his interest.eg.Clubs,political parties , etc

Involuntary groups are small in size, members have intimate relations eg.family

Reference groups

This concept introduced by Heymen later it was .developed by R.K.Merton. These groups are
considered as models to others and to which individual compares, contrasts his behavior, goals,
sentiments etc.The values and norms of reference groups are considered ideal and are adopted by
any individual who wants to improve his status.

It can be defined as “those groups to which individuals relates himself as a part or to which he
relates himself psychologically”

Reference groups can be further classified into positive reference group and negative reference
groups.positive reference groups are those, the membership of which is eagerly sought by
individuals like for eg occupational groups, athletic teams, upper classes etc

While negative groups are those ways or wants are to be avoided .upper strata groups look at
lower strata group as negative reference groups.

Peer groups

Group of people of similar status are called peer groups.eg-classmates.Most close friendship is
formed between members of peer groups because they have much in common and can share
experiences as equals and mostly of same age category.

Social and anti social groups

A social group is a group that combines and mixes with other groups and helps other group in
social progress.Anti social group acts against collective interest of society and tried to slow down
social progress.Pseudo social group participates in larger social life but mainly for its own gain
and not for greater good.

Disjunctive and overlapping groups

A disjunctive group may be said to be one which does not allow a person to join similar other
group at one and same time eg.College

A overlapping groups is one in which members can join as many groups they like.

Social groups acquires importance because of the fact that it is not possible for human beings to
lead an isolated life. Social nature of man is being expressed through the formation of social
groups.Thus it plays an important role as it deeply affect society.

F)Culture and Culture change

Culture consists of thoughts and behavior patterns that members of a societ learn through
language and other forms of symbolic interaction-customs, habits, beliefs and values. The
common view point that binds them together as a social entity.

Definitions

“Culture stands for the beliefs, ideas, customs ,laws ,morals , arts and other capabilities and skills
acquired by man as a member of society”-E.B.Taylor

“Culture is the expression of our nature in our modes of living and our thinking intercourse, in
our literature, religion , in recreation and enjoyment”-MacIver

“Culture is the handiwork of man and the medium through which he achieves his ends”-
Mallinoswi

“Culture is the product of agrofacts (product of civilization), artifacts (products of

industry),Sociofacts( social organization) and mentifacts (language , religion) art and so on”-
Bidney

“Culture of society is the way of life of its members, the collection of ideas and habits which
they learn , share and transmit from generation to generation.”-Ralph Linton

“ Culture is a design for living held by members of a particular society”-Klukhon

Characteristics of culture
Culture is something which is relative because it cannot be usually be strictly compared as well
as contrasted with other cultures, but even then there is every scope for anyone to say that one
culture is better than other. Culture has its own characteristics. Some of these include

1. It is not innate and cultural traits can be acquired through socialisation and habits. I.e
culture is learned and does not come of its own.
2. Culture is something which is collective. It includes the expectations of the group as a
whole and is a social product.
3. It is always idealized and efforts are made to achieve these ideals and it reflects ideal
norms and behavior of a group.
4. It has always a link with past .It is the past which is given to the future in the form of
customs, traditions etc.
5. Each groups has certain common ends which are met by the culture.It thus meets ethical
and social needs of the group as a whole.
6. Culture is not a disintegrated whole but its various parts are closely linked and integrated
with each other. Any element which gets introduced and accepted by culture also gets
integrated.
7. Culture is usually passed on with the help of language.

Thus we can say that culture plays an important role in human society enabling them to lead a
social life.It can be seen that it is present in all societies though culture of one society varies with
that of other.

Cultural change

Cultural change denotes some internal and external factors leading to change in the cultural
patterns of society. It can be material as well as non material in nature.cultural change may come
from many sources but most of them comes through the contact with other culture, inventions
and internal adjustments of culture.

Cultural change is a world reality process and a historical reality.It is sometimes rapid while
sometimes it is slow.During a period of social reform it may be more apparent and fast while in
some periods of history it is stable and rather stagnant.

Factors of cultural change

1.Ecological or geographical factor-climate, altitude of place, closeness to sea , all decides

culture and lifestyle of people.Any change in these factors will automatically lead to a change in
their culture, habits and way of living.

2.Any technological evolution in the country may lead to change in culture also

3.Contact between two societies will change the culture of both the societies through the process
of cultural diffusion and acculturation.
Process of cultural change

Some scholars lay importance on the location of change in the attitudes and behaviors of the
people in the societyl others think study of change in the social and cultural system are of
dynamic social importanc.Through the mechanism of cultural evolution and cultural growth we
can estimate the nature and degree of change spread over generations.

g)Status and Role

Status

In the society we can see the existence of numerous types of social relationships such as that of
parenthood, marriage , friendships etc. Sociologists examines these social relationship and for
the purpose of analysis and understanding each social relation is conceived in terms of status
and role.Status can be considered as a social position that an individual occupies in society
.Each and every individual in the society has status and every individual occupies multiple
statuses.For eg a young girl is the daughter, granddaughter, sister and so on .As she grows up
gets even more status as that of wife, daughter in law, sister in law etc.Thus status denotes the
term by which an individual is identified and evaluated.Status of a person can be high as well as
low .The status of a person is high if the role he is playing is considered important by the
group.If the role is regarded less important , its performer may be accorded lower status.

Definitions

“Status is one’s position in a given social struture”

“Status is the position which an individual occupies in society”

“Status is the location of individual within the group, his place in social network of reciprocal
obligations and privileges, rights and duties”.

Determinants of status

Parsons identified six determinants of status namely

1.Birth

2.Pocessions

3.Personal qualities

4.Personal achievement

5.Power

6.Authority
Secord and Buckman views following forms the basis of status

1.Capacity of persons for rewarding those with whom he interacts

2.Extent to which a person is receiving awards

3.Type of costs incurred and investments made

Race, ethnic background back ground, family age sex, seniroty confer upon a person a right to be
accorded a higher status.

Characteristics of status

1. In all societies it grants certain prorogation and privileges

2. Each individual in society has different status

Types of status

i) Ascribed status and ii) Achieved status

Ascribed status is form of status not acquired but assigned when a child is born and usher into
the process of socialisation.It is based on sex, age, heredity etc.The ascribed status of individual
cannot be changed.

Achieved status-Which person earn or attain out of his own personal efforts.For eg higher
education, skill in music, scientific knowledge etc raise the status of individuals

Difference between ascribed and achieved status

1.No precondition is necessary for getting ascribed status but for getting achieved status certain
preconditions are required .

2.Ascribed status is attained by birth, while ascribed status is based on capacities , characteristics
and abilities.

3.Ascribed status is more rigid and permanent ,while achieved status is changeable and flexible

4.Ascribed status leads to stagnation of person’s life while achieved status makes person to
higher status

5.Ascribed status can be regarded as the gift from society, while achieved status is the results of
efforts of individuals .

Need for status system

Status is important for society as well as individuals.More the individual acquires social status he
becomes more responsible.It is considered essential for the promotion of responsibilities.The
society grows and develops as individual always make efforts to reach higher achieved status.

Role

Role is action aspect of status .The role includes various types of actions that a person has to
perform in accordance with expectations of society. Roles are bundles of socially defined
attributes and expectations associated with social positions.

Definitions

“Role is a set of socially expected and approved behavioral patterns, consisting of both duties
and privileges , association with a particular position in group”

“What an individual does or performs in society we call it as his role”

“When a number of interrelated behavior patterns are clustered around a social function we call
it a combination of social role”-fisher

Characteristics of role

1.It involves various types of action that individual has to perform in accordance with
society.Role is said to be the action aspect of status.

2.Social role are in conformity with social values, ideals ,patterns etc which changes and so the
perception of role also varies. Role that may be justified at particular time may not be justified
for some other time.

3.Every role has a limited area of operation and role has to be confined within that .For eg a
doctor has a role to play in hospital but when he reaches his family his role ceases as doctor and
in family he has to perform the role of father , husband , son etc

Types of role

Ascribed role where individual has no choice over ascribed role.It is established at birth based on
sex, age,race etc

Achieved roles includes all occupational roles.

Terminology of role

Role distance is term coined by Goffman .It refers to the detachment of the performer from the
role he is performing.
Role conflict arises in heterogeneous society than in homogeneous society .It may arise either
because role partners have conflicting outlooks or if one partner is unwanted to other.

Role set is defined by merton .Roles do not exist themselves in isolation from one another,each
role has its complimentary or associated roles.

Role discontinuity refers to lack of congruity between expectations associated with social roles
taken on consequently by an individual

Role insulation is a state of relative isolation of the occupants of role that results from the
tendency persons occupying a given role. To have more informal social interaction with each
other than with persons occupying other roles.

h)Social action

There are certain prerequisities of human existence. To solve these problems of existence,man
develops a series of patterns of action considered the basic forms of social organization.These
actions range from the simplest customs through units of intermediate size,complexity and
completeness such as community and culminate in the self sufficient society, the largest unit for
sociological anlaysis.

Definition

“Action is social in so far as , by virtue of the subjective meaning attached to it by acting

individual it takes account of the behavior of others and is thereby oriented in its course.It
includes all human behavior when and in so far as acting individual attaches a subjective
meaning to it”-Weber

“ Social action is a process in the actor situation system which has motivated significance to the
individual actor or in the case of collectivity , its component individuals”-Parsons

“Every social action has two aspects one is its reality and other is its form ,reality involves the
actual existence of the thing and the form is the way the phenomenon presents itself to the
human mind.The first is called subjective aspects”-Pareto

Social action according to Weber possesses the following characteristics

1.Relationship with actions of others

2.Social action is not isolated

3.Result of co-operation and struggle between individual or members of society

4.Has a meaningful understanding with other.

Elements of social action

1.an actor is the first element of social action.Every action has an agent , which implies not the
body of actor but the ‘ego’ or self.

2.Another element is the ‘end’ which motivates individuals action.

3.Conditions are another element of social action.Conditions are obstacles in the way of
realization of an end.They set the stage to which the end may be realized.

Types of social action

Weber has classified four types of social action.They are as follows

1.Rational action-in terms of rational orientation to a system of discrete individual ends, i.e
.through expectations as to the behavior of objects in the external situation and of other human
individuals , making use of these expectations as ‘conditions’ or ‘means ’ for the successful
attainment of the actors own rationally chosen ends.

2.Evaluative actions involve a conscious belief in the absolute value of some ethical,aesthetic,
religious or other form of behavior, entirely for its own sake and independently of any prospects
of external success

3.Emotional actions –In terms of effectual orientation, especially emotional , determined by the
specific affects and states of feeling of the actor.

4. Traditional actions-traditionally oriented , through the habituation of long practice.

While parsons has identified three types of social action namely

1.Instrumental action which is oriented towards the achievement of a goal which is an

anticipated future state of affairs

2.Expressive action here the primary orientation is not the attainment of a goal anticipated for the
future, but action itself is goal and gives primacy to cathectic mode of orientation.

3.Moral action here the focus is on the system of order itself not on goals or on gratification of
interests of the actor.

Parsons views on social action

Parsons view on social action is based on his concept of society .He is of opinion that all social
actions proceed from mechanism which is their ultimate source. They are also related with actors
relations with other person’s social situation and culture.

Social actions are guided by three systems which may also be called three aspects of systems of
social action.
1)personality system this aspect of social action is responsible for the needs for fulfillment of
which the man makes efforts and performs certain actions.But once the man makes efforts he has
to meet certain conditions.these conditions have definite meaning and they are distinguished by
symbols and symptoms

2)Cultural system once the process of social action develops , the symbols and the signs acquire
general meaning.They also develop as a result of systematized system, and ultimately when
different actors under a particular cultural system perform various social interactions , special
situation develops .

3) social system consists in a plurity of individual actor’s interacting with each other in a
situation which has at least a physical environmental aspect, actors are motivated in terms of
tendency to the optimisaition of gratification and whose relations to the situation including each
other, is defined and motivated in terms of system of culturally structured and shaped symbols.

In parsons view each of the three main type of social action systems-culture, personality and
social system has a distinctive coordinate role in the action process and therefore has some
degree of causal autonomy.Thus personalities organize the total set of learned needs, demands
and action choices of individual actors , no two set of whom are alike.

j)Norms and values

Norms are rules and regulations governing behavior in a society. Norm is social expectations for
an individual’s behavior. It can be said as a rule, standard or pattern for action or as rules of
conduct .Thus norms forms the standard by which behavior is judged and approved or
disapproved.So it can be defined as the law,rule or principle proposed to adjust the actions
keeping with the values.

Definitions

“Norms are blue prints for behavior , setting limits with in which individuals seek alternative
ways to achieve their goals ”

Characteristics of norms

1. Norms are standards of group behavior it compels or intends an individual to adopt group
attitude

2. Norms may arise in relation to any aspect of human society and experience that comes to be
regarded as of any importance or consequence. There are norms for perceiving ,feeling , thinking
, evaluating and acting but usually norms is commonly used to design rules for social
interaction.

3. It has relationship with cultural pattern of a particular society and is based on those behavior
which govern or form the foundation of society.
4.Norms are learned by individuals in social interaction with others through the process of
socialisation .it changes from groups to groups according to the purpose for which they are
formed.the norms which are operative in one social system may not be effective in another.

5.Most of the norms are conservative. It not only guides and influence the behavior of individual,
but they get formed and influenced by individuals .

Functions

1.Regulate the behavior of the individuals

2.Its helps the individual to fulfill social needs properly

3.It helps individual to maintain social aims and objectives

4.It influences the thinking and attitude of individuals and regulate and control individual as well
as social system

5.It establishes standards of behavior and thereby give order to social relationship

Classification of norms

1.Prescriptive and proscriptive norms

prescriptive norms are rules and regulations to be followed in social activities and behavior .It
tells us what we shall do

proscriptive norms are the prohibitive orders. It tells us what we should not do

2.Ideal and practical norms

Ideal norms are those society expects should be accepted and obeyed .Some people may follow
while other leave them unattainable .

Practical norms are those which society expects to be strictly followed.

Folkways and mores

Social norms can be distinguished into folkways and mores .Folkways are behavioral patterns of
everyday life which generally arise unconsciously in a group.Folkways are the ways the people
have for satisfying their needs, for interacting with one another and for conducting their lives.

Mores are those customs and group routines which are thought by members of society to be
necessary to group’s continued existenee.Mores are morals which society accepts for well
being .we cannot violate mores.

Distinguish between folkways and mores

1.Folkways are general and less effective, while mores are less general and effective

2.Folkways changes quickly and cannot help in deciding our values .But mores are deep rooted
and does not change quickly so they are helpful in deciding our values

3.Folkways are customary and conformity to the folkways is neither required by law nor
enforced by any special agency.Mores are obligatory and conformity to mores ,is through law
which is enforced by state.

Social values

Values are views about what is desirable .They are general standards that are somewhat
independent of specific situations .They are assumptions of what is right and important for
society.They provide ultimate meaning and legitimacy for social arrangements and social
behavior and social activity.

l) Law and customs

Custom is a social behavior that , having persisted for a long period of time , is well established
in a society.It has become traditional and has received some degree of formal recognition.

The term custom is used by anthropologists at various levels of abstraction such as a)The routine
acts of daily life b) the rules implicit in routine c) The cultural patterns discernible in repetitive
acts d) The distinctive nature of the whole culture.

Law is a system of standardized norms, regulating human conduct deliberately established for
the purpose of social control.Laws are interpreted and enforced by formal public /political
authority rather than by custom.

Essentiality of law and custom in social life

Custom establishes a social order of its own and supplements the role of law.Though law has a
role of formal superiority, both are necessary for the maintenance of society

They are complementary each other in the following ways

1.customs not only under normal conditions becomes a support of law but also supplement law
and prepared way for its development .Law establishes conditions which bring new customs into
being

2.Constitutional or fundamental law is intimately related to customs.

Difference between law and customs

1.When particular law attacks any custom of a community , it has to depend very largely on the
precarious sanction of force.
2.Law is explicitly and deliberately made by definite power of state whereas customs is a group
procedure that has gradually emerged without enactment, without any constituted authority to
declare it, to apply it and to safeguard it.

3.Law is applied by the special agency but custom doesnot need any special agency for its
application.

4.Law is definite and clear customs on the other hand are not definite or clear.They are not
codified in any single book

5.The fact that customs establishes a social order of its own leads to clash between custom and
law. It is an unfavourable situation when law and customs are opposed and men prefer to follow
customs rather than law

6.Law is more idealistic than culture.custom is the product of experience and concerned with
daily routine of life.Law reforms and abolish those customs which are out of tune with changing
conditions.

7.Law generally deals with matters which are vital to the life of society

Whereas subject matter of custom is more ordinary and familiar .

8.Customs fade and disappear without formal abolition and without recognition by any authority,
but disappear only when abolished by recognized authority .

9.Law is more flexible and adaptable than custom.Law can adjust itself to changing conditions
whereas customs are relatively fixed and permanent.