Unit Il: Western Art History

LESSON 7 Art in Early Civilizations

Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. Discuss how art was used by prehistoric people to depict everyday life;
2. Identify the central themes of prehistoric art;
3. Differentiate the techniques used during the three kingdoms of early Egypt; and
4. Explain how art is linked with religion in early Egyptian civilizations

Stone Age is a term used to describe a period of history when stones were used to make tools for
survival. The term "conjures an image of men and women dressed in skins, huddling before a fire in a
cave" (Fitchner-Rathus, 2013). Though prehistoric humans would not necessarily possess the complex
rational capabilities to tell their story through written records and accounts, some artifacts in the form
of cave paintings and sculptures would serve as the "storytellers."

In order to talk about prehistoric art, there is a need to situate them within the context of the three
periods of the Stone Age culture (which roughly span the 14,000— 2,000 BCE): Paleolithic (the late years
of the Old Stone Age), Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age), and the Neolithic (New Stone Age).

The unearthing of archeological artifacts and remains provides modern society a glimpse of the beliefs,
practices, and activities of early civilizations. The motives and reasons behind the creation of ancient
materials such as sculptures, paintings, and architectural structures may not be clearly defined.
Nevertheless, the early people produced such materials that reflect their attitudes and belief systems on
spiritual, social, political, and economic matters. It can be noted that works of art and architecture were
created from a wide array of materials from limestone to precious gems and metals to name a few. As
the early humans started to transition from being nomads to permanent settlers, their everyday
activities also had some changes, which is evident through the materials and even the works of art they
have created. Despite changes as a result of adapting to their environment, there are central themes in
their artworks. Most ancient artworks depict religious symbols, a wide array of organisms from nature
and activities of everyday life.

Let's Get Down to Business

Prehistoric Art

Archeological explorations reveal that there has been a gradual shift from a nomadic lifestyle of early
humans to that of permanent settlements, paving the way for the rise of early civilizations. The Stone
Age has witnessed how humans were able to lead more stable lives and eventually come up with
permanent shelters and tools for survival. To complement this stability and sense of permanence, early
humans also turned to the creation of paintings and sculptures that depict humans, animals, and their
natural habitats. It would seem that there were attempts to record the kind of lives they led within that
period of time. Central to the representation of early civilizations would be the establishing of possible
linkages among art, religion, and life.

Paleolithic Art is a product of climate change. As the climate got colder, part of the early humans'
instinct is to look for shelters that would provide them with warmth. Caves became protective havens
for the early humans and these caves paved the way for the birth of their first attempts to create art.
One cave painting can be traced back to Lascaux, France and its discovery came as a surprise. Two boys
chased after their dog into a hole where their ball got stuck in. When they followed the dog, they were
astonished to discover a cave with beautiful paintings. The cave paintings would eventually be called the
"Hall of Bulls."

Neolithic art has developed especially when life for the early humans has become more stable. They
have learned to cultivate the land and domesticate animals. By 4000 BCE, there were several
monumental and architectural structures erected. One of them is the Stonehenge located in Southern
England. The purpose of this fascinating edifice remains a mystery up to this day and age. Some regard it
as a temple while others see it as complex calendar the tracked the movements of both the Sun and
Moon. Others ascribe some magical element to it by associating it with Merlin the Magician from King
Arthur's Story. For whatever purpose it was built on, it still remains as one of the architectural wonders
the world has ever seen.
As the Neolithic Period drew to a close, it was evident that different elements of civilization flourished in
various parts of the world. It is also notable that most early civilizations emerged and flourished in river
valleys: the Nile in Egypt, Indus in India, Tigris and Euphrates in Mesopotamia, and Huang Ho River in
China.

Egyptian Art

The Fertile Ribbon starts from the banks of the Nile River, which flows north to Africa and ventures into
the Mediterranean. It is in this very ribbon where early

Egyptians recognized the integral role of the Nile River to their daily lives. It is this indispensability and
utility that eventually led to the belief that the Nile is to be worshipped as a god. With this came the
notion that art was something that can be ascribed and associated with religion. The Egyptian
civilization can be divided into three periods: Old, Middle, and New Kingdom. Looking at the three
periods, it can be noticed that for the Egyptians, art should be something religious and spiritual. There
may have been differences in the techniques used and style emphasized, but there are common
denominators among the artworks created during their respective time periods.
During the Old Kingdom, it was evident that religion was bound to the afterlife. A concrete
manifestation of this would have to be the erection of tombs. But the tombs were not just for keeping
the dead bodies of important people, particularly the pharaohs; they also served as a shelter for the
next journey, which is the afterlife. They decorated the tombs with everyday objects that would reflect
dayto-day activities as if the afterlife is a mere continuation of what transpired on earth. The human
figures seen in the tombs were represented in such a way that th e profile of the head was evident,
while the pelvis, legs, and upper torso were prominent and the eyes are in frontal view. Inside the
tombs, the walls were also decorated and carved in very low relief and incised detail. It can be noticed
that the use of color was evident but may have not been widely utilized because of its relative
impermanence.

One of the cosmetic palettes found in Egypt was called the Narmer Palette. It was a palette that utilized
and applied dark colors around King Narmer's eyes. The palette was also a symbol that commemorates
the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt. The unification was significant because it marked the
beginning of their civilization.

Figure 4. Narmer Palette

At the back of the palette, King Narmer can be seen wearing the crown of Upper Egypt looking victorious
over a slain enemy. In addition, two more dead warriors can be seen beneath him. To his right is a
falcon, the god Horus perched on papyrus stalks, which is a symbol of Lower Egypt. The top is sculpted
with bull-shaped heads with human features that is a representation of Hathor. This god symbolizes love
and joy. What is very prominent is the king's size in comparison with the objects in the palette. Narmer,
being the subject, is evidently larger than the people around him. This is a clear indication and assertion
of his royal status. The front palette, on the other hand, shows lion-like figures with intertwined necks
bound on leashes and tamed by two men. King Narmer is still present at the front side and he is shown
reviewing the captured enemies. In this portrait, he is seen wearing the crown of Lower Egypt and
holding some objects that denote power. The Narmer Palette is one of the artifacts that emphasizes the
king's supreme and absolute authority. In most cases, the king is not just an authority figure but can be
depicted and revered as a deity. This common notion among Egyptians is seen in Egyptian tomb
sculptures, which are basically large in dimensions and proportions and made out of hard materials. The
choice of materials is deliberate since they want the sculptures to endure and withstand any condition.
Permanence was important because these sculptures would serve as the house of the ka or soul once
the remains of the mummy disintegrate. One striking feature of most sculptures is that regardless of the
age of death, the ka figures highlight the prime life of the deceased.

During the Old Kingdom, one of the architectural wonders was also constructed The pyramids in Giza
served as tombs since their main purpose was to provide a resting place for the pharaohs. These
pyramids are massive in size and were constructed using roughly more than two million limestone
blocks. The stones used for the pyramids were quarried from a nearby plateau. The construction of the
pyramids highlighted the ingenuity and advancement of the Egyptians for their time. Workers
painstakingly moved the stones from the plateau going to the construction site using wooden rollers•
Stonecutters on the site carved !the blocks in a fine way before stacking them. The stacking process also
showed the advancement of the Egyptians since they already used a system of ropes and pulleys. They
finished it off by applying the surface with limestone for a more refined and flawless finish. The
construction of the pyramids did not only show the brilliance of the early Egyptians but it also
highlighted the reverence of the people to their pharaoh at the expense of the citizens. A lot of the
workers died or punished for not reaching the quota in the process of constructing these massive
architectural structures. However, they did not stop ensuring the excellent quality of the outsides. The
Egyptians also ensured that the insides of the pyramids would celebrate the life of their pharaoh by
lavishly decorating them. However, it posed as a problem since thieves usually plundered the valuable
objects used to decorate the insides of the pyramids.
Probably one of the greatest discoveries from the Egyptian civilization was the tomb of Tutankhamen.
He became king at a very young age and died at the age of eighteen. Howard Carter discovered his tomb
in 1922. They were astonished to find gold artworks and that the coffin was made out of solid gold. The
body of the young king was covered in linen and a gold mask covered his face.
LESSON 8 Art of Emerging Europe

Learning Outcomes
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. identify the major periods in Western art history;
2. compare and contrast the artworkS produced during the different time periods and art
movements; and
3. discuss the importance of art to the development of Western culture.

Ancient Greece

The Greeks were known to excel in various fields and aspects of society. For example, their political
ideals eventually became the framework for the democratic form of government in modern times. They
also valued poetry, drama, and philosophy, which remain interesting fields of study for the
contemporary times. For those who want to be involved in the arts—painting, sculpture, and
architecture—one is required to have a certain skill sets and body of knowledge.

The Greeks were known to place prime importance in the use of reason. For this civilization, man was at
the center of society and how they trained their minds could be the very foundation of how they lived
their lives. The humanist ideals of the Greeks were reflected in their democratic form of government.
This certain level of freedom was also reflected in their artworks, architecture, literature, and
philosophy. The Greeks were notably passionate about natural phenomenon and believed that nature
should be in perfect order. These principles, belief systems, and ideologies are at the core of Greek art
and architecture.

The development of Greek art can be divided into four periods: Geometric, Archaic, Classical, and
Hellenistic. The Geometric Period was a time when Greece was starting to get back from the onslaught
of what seemed to be their Dark Ages. It was a period when geometric shapes and patterns have taken
the spotlight in most of the artworks. The Archaic Period, on the other hand, placed importance on
human figures. This was primarily a result of Greece's trading activities with other civilizations. The peak
of Greek sculpture and architecture was during the Classical Period. It was during this time when the
Greeks found themselves rebuilding their temples and focusing on creating artworks. The time of
Alexander the Great was called the Hellenistic Period. During this time, art was primarily focused on
showcasing emotions and depicting reality. Hellenistic sculptures started to emphasize balance while
showcasing dynamic poses and a number of emotions evoked by the subjects. One of the famous
Hellenistic sculptures is the "Lacoon and His Sons." The sculpture depicts Lacoon, a Trojan priest,and his
sons being strangled by serpents. Their position was a result of Lacoon's instructions during the Trojan
War. He instructed to keep the gates of Troy locked up because he felt that the wooden horse offered
by the Greeks as a gift to Athena was a trick. Poseidon, the Greek god of the sea was enraged by such
action which led him to send serpents to strangle Lacoon and his sons.
Figure 8. "Lacoon and His Sons." This is an example of work wherein the Greeks emphasized the details
of the body. Most subjects of their work included that of the gods from Greek mythology.

The origins of theater and drama can be traced back during the Greek civilization. The followers of
Dionysus—the god of fertility—started the Greek theater. People who were devoted to Dionysus would
dance during ceremonies while giving their offerings to their god. Eventually, the Dionysians devised a
more structured form of drama involving dances and choral songs, which depicted Greek, mythologies.
Eventually the Greeks organized theatrical contests where the performances were held in front of large
citizens.
Ancient Rome

The Roman Republic was established around 500 BCE. This civilization eventually transformed into one
of Western Europe's mightiest empires. Since they had expanded and covered many territories, they
interacted with neighboring civilizations, particularly with the Greeks.

It can be said that Roman civilization came of age during the Hellenistic Period. As mentioned earlier, it
was a period when the Greek culture's influence has reached its Peak in the Mediterranean world. The
Romans were fond of the Greeks and their achievements in the arts. The fusion of Greek and Roman
cultures can be seen in most Roman artworks. Some would argue that the Romans merely copied Greek
art. This eventually made the Romans produce artworks that are often looking stern, harsh, and strong.
They also invoked the principles of realism in most of their works, highlighting the features of human
beings. Aside from this, the Romans were also known to be master builders, which earned their
reputation for grand monuments and architectural infrastructures. One of their architectural
achievements would have to be the Colosseum. This amphitheater was planned and constructed during
the reign of Emperor Vespasian. One of its main uses was for entertainment purposes like public events
and gladiator games. This structure was a concrete manifestation of Roman builders' craftsmanship
which focused on logical organization of the entire edifice.

Figure 9. "Poseidon and Medusa." Just like the Greeks, the Romans valued their gods and this was
evident with their sculptures and artworks.

Ancient Greece had a huge impact in the formation of Roman culture. There are a lot of Greek
influences evident in Roman theater and drama. Writers of comedy like Platus and Terence have
patterned their works to those of Greek works. Since the Roman audience was not as enthusiastic about
theatrical works unlike their Greek counterparts, most plays had to be included in the Roman games.
Middle Ages

As the term denotes, it is the period between the decline of the Roman Empire and the Renaissance. It
was a period that is characterized by ignorance and darkness . Another dominant characteristic of the
period was that the Church was the central figure and authority of the period. Since the Church was the
most important figure, the most important products of the early Middle Ages would have to be copied
of Christian scriptures. The printing press came later after the Middle Ages, so copies the scriptures
were done by hand. These copies were also done with illustrations decorations which highlight the
religious focus of the period. During this time, great cathedrals were also built. These cathedrals can be
categorized into two periods: Romanesque (1050—1200), inspired by the old Roman Empire; and Gothic
(1200— 1500), which had a more northern flavor from the Goths—vulgar and barbarian.

Renaissance Art

During the Renaissance Period, artists valued the "individual" as a subject of arts.
The influence of humanism shifted the focus of some artworks during the Renaissance Period to
empower the "individual." Most artworks emphasized naturalism, which was also an influence of
humanism since there was a great emphasis on the proportionality Of the human body. Most artists also
added perspective of depth wherein spaces were explored in different artworks. This technique
provided a three-dimensional perspective of most Renaissance paintings. Renaissance artists also gave
importance to non-religious themes or subjects. This was also brought by the privatizations of the art
during the Renaissance Period, however most artworks remained religious in its focus and theme.
Figure 10. Michelangelo, "David." This sculpture is an example of how humanism was a dominant belief
system during the Renaissance. There is emphasis on the details of the body of the human being.

Mannerism

Mannerism was a period in art history, which was a product of the Renaissance Period. During the
Renaissance, artists would observe nature and try their best to emulate it based on their observations.
As the Renaissance ended, artists started directly copying subjects from existing works of art. Most
artworks during this period displayed distorted figures, two-dimensional spaces, discordant hues and
colors, and lack of defined focal point.

Baroque and the Rococo

The term "baroque" is derived from the Portuguese term barocco which is translated as "irregularly
shaped pearl." This is a suitable description that Rome was the birthplace of the Baroque Period, which
according to some historians was a response to Protestantism. This period roughly spanned from 1600
to 1750. Although it was a period following the Renaissance, it can be said that a lot of artists have
developed styles and techniques different from their Renaissance predecessors. Most artists used
colorful palettes and ornamentation in their works. This was a time when Italy in particular,
strengthened not only their religion but also other aspects like politics and art. Expansion was the
central theme of this period, which became very much evident in the artworks produced during this
time. Motion and space were taken into consideration by artists like the use of dramatic lighting and the
concept of time.

Aside from art, music also flourished during the Baroque Period. This is because people believed that
music could serve as powerful tool to communicate messages that can evoke certain feelings among its
listeners. Baroque music was able to clearly distinguish loud from soft and solo from ensemble. Since
the birthplace of this period was in Rome, it did not come as a surprise that most composers come from
Italy. This include Vivaldi, Corelli, and Monteverdi. Eventually, the influence of Baroque music spread
outside Italy and reached other parts of Europe. Other well-known Baroque composers include
Germany's Bach and Handel. Since Baroque composers, through their works, tried to evoke certain
emotions from their audience, they began to make more complex musical compositions and
performances. However, it can be noted that initially, this kind of music was limited only to powerful
institutions like the Church and individuals like the patrons. Eventually, such performances would be
made accessible to the middle class and the masses.
Figure 11. "The Assumption of the Virgin." A painting by Titian located at Venice, Italy. The Biblical event

in the painting shows how the Baroque Period reverted to having religious subjects in their works.

Neoclassicism
There seems to be a debate among historians as to the beginnings of modern art. There are accounts
that would attribute for the emergence of this kind of art during the French Revolution in 1789.
However, other historians claim that it was the year 1863 when there was an emergence of modern
painting exhibitions.

Neoclassicism was a movement in Europe that transpired during the late eighteenth and early
nineteenth centuries. It was the dominant art movement that time which basically aimed to revive and
rekindle the influences of Greek and Roman into art and architecture. The ancient Greeks and
Europeans had placed emphasis On human reason and keeping society in order. These very principles
were also the d0minant principles during the Enlightenment Period. Some historians would also say that
this movement was a reaction to the artworks produced during the Baroque Period. There was a call to
veer away from such extravagance in terms of style and form of the Baroque Period.

Romanticism

Romanticism, as an art movement, used the central themes of Neoclassicist artworks as a springboard.
Romanticists have highlighted heroic elements into their work. During the Age of Revolutions, there has
been a tremendous focus on patriotic and nationalistic movements. One of the major revolutions in
history would be the French Revolution. Such revolutionary movements became the focal point of most
Romantic works.

The major and central themes of Romanticism movement include the emphasis on the goodness of
mankind. Most works also promoted justice, equality, and social order. Artists also emphasized
emotions and feelings of man, which was a deviation from the humanist principles of rationalism.

Figure 13. Théodore Géricault, "The Raft of Medusa"

Realism

Realism as a style of work focuses on the accuracy of details that depicts and somehow mirrors reality
There is little room for imagination in this movement since emphasis is placed in observable traits that
can concretize through artworks. Realism was heavily influenced by Hellenistic Greek culture since most
artworks during that period placed emphasis on the human body.
Realism as a modern movement in art veered away from traditional forms of art. In a way, it
revolutionized themes and techniques in paintings. In addition, this movement also expanded and
widened existing notions of what can be considered as art. Since artists worked within the context of
revolutions and social change, artistic works began to depict real-life events. Idealistic concepts and
images were replaced by real manifestations of society. There is a move to combine both art and life in
artistic works since the modern world were suitable for subjects of art. This movement also reexamined
existing belief systems and traditions.

Figure 14. Gustave Courbet, "Burial at Ornans"

Impressionism

The Impressionism movement started in France, which led to a break from the tradition in European
painting. Impressionism is a style of painting that emerged in the mid- to late 1800s. Impressionist
artists incorporated scientific principles to achieve e more distinct representation of color. The
distinctive characteristic of this style is tha it allows the artist to emphasize the immediate impression he
has of a particular even or scene. The said impression is communicated by the artist through his work
and car be seen through the brushstrokes, distinction of colors, and the lights and shadows used by the
artist.

Post-impressionism

It is an art movement that emerged in France, which is a result of both the influence and rejection of
Impressionism. Most artists that belong to this movement started off as impressionists but later on saw
the inherent limitations and flaws of impressionism. This eventually led to the development of individual
style that gave emphasis to defining from with the use of broken colors and short brush stroke. Some of
the famous post-impressionism artists include Paul Cezanne, Georges Seurat, Paul Gauguin, and Vincent
van Gogh, among others. Most of the works of the said painters became the framework of the
contemporary techniques and trends during the twentieth century.

Neo-Impressionism

As an art movement, neo-impressionism is considered as a response to empirical realism of

impressionism. Most painters who subscribe to such movement rely on a systematic and scientific
techniques that have a predetermined visual effects not only on the art work itself but also how the
audience perceive the art. The leading figure in neo-impressionism was Georges Seurat who recorded
optical sensations on a more scientific manner. His color theories paved the way for,the technique called
pointillism, This art technique basically utilizes discrete dots and dashes of pure color. These elements
are believed to blend with the viewer's perspective. Aside from Seurat, other neo-impressionist artists
include Henri-Edmond Cross, Maximilien Luce, and Camille Pissarro, among others.

Art Nouveau

Between 1890 and 1910, countries from Europe and the United States witnessed the emergence and
flourishing Of a new art style. This ornamental style Of art was a break from the conservative
historicism, which was the prevailing and dominant theme of most Western artworks. This ornamental
style uses long and organic lines that are concretely manifested in architecture, jewelry and glass design,
among others. In most works, the defining characteristic of Art Nouveau is the asymmetrical line that
usually is in the form of insect wings or flower stalks. The line is done in such a graceful and elegant
manner that somehow evokes a certain power to it.

Fauvism

This is a style of painting that emerged in France around the turn of the twentieth century. What makes
fauvists revolutionary is that they used pure and vibrant colors by applying straight from the paint tubes
directly to the canvas. This is done to produce a sense of explosion of colors in the canvas. The fauves,
just like the impressionists, painted directly from nature. The difference lies with how the fauves have
this strong and expressive reaction to how they portray their subjects. Most fauvist works reject the
conservative and traditional renderings of three-dimensional space. What artists did was they
introduced and promoted a picture space that is defined by the movement of color.

Cubism

BetWeen 1907 and 1914, French artists Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque introduced a new visual arts
style called cubism. This style would later on have a huge influence on artists during the twentieth
century. Cubists highlighted the two-dimensional surface of the picture plane. Focusing on a flat surface
was a rejection of the dominant techniques like the use of perspective, foreshortening, and modeling. In
addition, one of the things that cubism rejected was the existing and prevailing notion that art should
imitate nature. Cubists emphasized that they are not in any way obliged to copy texture, form, color,
and space. They presented a new depiction of reality that may appear fragmented objects for viewers.

Futurism

It is an early twentieth century art movement that started in Italy, which highlighted the speed, energy,
dynamism, and power of machines. In addition, common themes for works in this movement are
restlessness and the fast-pace of modern life. Later On, the movement's influence branched out not only
in Europe but also in Russia. The greatest impact of futurism is evident in poetry and visual arts.