1

Jordan Academy for Maritime

Studies

PHYSICS II- ENGINEERING

Course Material

Prepared by

Dr. Saad Megdadi

Edition 2, 2019

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Chapter I

Ideal Gas
An ideal gas is a theoretical gas composed of many randomly moving point
particles that do not interact except when they collide elastically. The ideal
gas concept is useful because it obeys the ideal gas law, a simplified equation
of state, and is amenable to analysis under statistical mechanics.

The similarities and differences between the Ideal gas & the Real gas are listed
in the figure below and the table in the next page.

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Boyle’s Law
The law itself can be stated as follows:
For a fixed amount of an ideal gas kept at a fixed temperature, pressure and
volume are inversely proportional.
Or Boyle's law is a gas law, stating that the pressure and volume of a gas have
an inverse relationship, when temperature is held constant. If volume increases,
then pressure decreases and vice versa, when temperature is held constant.
Therefore, when the volume is halved, the pressure is doubled; and if the volume
is doubled, the pressure is halved.

Mathematically, Boyle's law can be stated as:

or

Where P is the pressure of the gas, V is the volume of the gas, and k is a
constant.

The equation states that product of pressure and volume is a constant for a given
mass of confined gas as long as the temperature is constant. For comparing the
same substance under two different sets of condition, the law can be usefully
expressed as

The equation shows that, as volume increases, the pressure of the gas
decreases in proportion. Similarly, as volume decreases, the pressure of the gas
increases.

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Useful information:

At STP (Standard Temperature & Pressure):

pressure = 1 atm. = 760 mm Hg, temperature = 0 °C = 273 K

At STP: 1 mole of gas occupies 22.4 L

1 atm = 101325 Pa = 760 torr. torr - another name for mm Hg

Ex. 1

A balloon with a volume of 2.0 L is filled with a gas at 3 atmospheres. If the

pressure is reduced to 0.5 atmospheres without a change in temperature, what
would be the volume of the balloon?

Solution:

Since the temperature does not change, Boyle's law can be used. Boyle's gas
law can be expressed as:

P1V1 = P2V2

V2 = P1V1/P2

V1 = 2.0 L, P1 = 3 atm, P2 = 0.5 atm

V2 = (2.0 L)(3 atm)/(0.5 atm)

V2 = 12 L

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Ex. 2

A 4.35 L of a gas is at 1.16 atm. What pressure is obtained when the volume is
9.3 L? 0.542 atm.

Ex. 3
A 3.68 L of a gas was at an unknown pressure. However, at standard pressure, its
volume was determined to be 9.20 L. We need to solve for the unknown pressure? Hint:
Use the atm. as the unit for pressure 2.5 atm.

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Solutions to the first 3 problems

1) P1 = 742 torr P2 = 795 torr

V1 = 500 mL, V2 = ?

T1 = 20.° C + 273 = 293 K, T2 = 20.° C + 273 = 293 K

P1V1 = P2V2

V2 = (P1V1)/P2

V2 = (742 torr x 500 mL)/795 torr = 467 mL CO2

2) P1 = 830 mm Hg, P2 = 760 mm Hg

V1 = 2785 L, V2 =?

P1V1 = P2V2

V2 = (P1V1)/P2

V2 = (830 mm x 2785 L)/760 mm = 3040 L C3H8

3) P1 =?, P2 = 2.00 atm.

V1 = 7.2 L, V2 = 25.1 L

P1V1 = P2V2

P1 = (P2V2)/V1

P1 = (2.00 atm x 25.1 L)/ 7.2 L = 7.0 atm.

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Charles' law

Charles's law (also known as the law of volumes) is an experimental gas

law that describes how gases tend to expand when heated. A modern statement
of Charles's law is:
When the pressure on a sample of a dry gas is held constant, the Kelvin
temperature and the volume will be directly related (proportional).
This directly proportional relationship can be written as:

where:
V is the volume of the gas
T is the temperature of the gas (measured in Kelvin). Tk = 273 + °C
k is a constant.

This law describes how a gas expands as the temperature increases; conversely,
a decrease in temperature will lead to a decrease in volume. For comparing the
same substance under two different sets of conditions, the law can be written as:

The equation shows that, as absolute temperature increases, the volume of the
gas also increases in proportion.

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Charles‘s Law Problems with answers

1) A container holds 50.0 mL of nitrogen at 25° C and a pressure of 736 mm

Hg. What will be its volume if the temperature increases to 35° C? ans. 51.6

2) A sample of oxygen occupies a volume of 160 dm3 at 91° C. What will be

volume of oxygen when the temperature drops to 0.00° C? ans. 120

3) A sample of hydrogen has an initial temperature of 50.° C. When the

temperature is lowered to -5.0° C, the volume of hydrogen becomes 212
dm3. What was the initial volume of the hydrogen in dm3? ans. 256

4) 568 cm3 of chlorine at 25° C will occupy what volume at -25° C while the
pressure remains constant? ans. 473

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5) A sample of helium has a volume of 521 dm3 at a pressure of 75 cm Hg and a

temperature of 18° C. When the temperature is increased to 23° C, what is the
volume of the helium? ans. 530

Charles‘s Law Problems

1. Calculate the decrease in temperature when 2.00 L at 20.0 °C of a gas is

compressed to 1.00 L.

2. 600.0 mL of air is at 20.0 °C. What is the volume at 60.0 °C?

3. A gas occupies 900.0 mL at a temperature of 27.0 °C. What is the volume

at 132.0 °C?

4. What change in volume results if 60.0 mL of gas is cooled from 33.0 °C to

5.00 °C?

5. A gas occupies 1.00 L at standard temperature. What is the volume at

333.0 °C?

6. At 27 °C a gas has a volume of 6L. What will the volume be at 150 °C?

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Gay-Lussac’s Law
Pressure Temperature Law
The pressure of a gas of fixed mass and fixed volume is directly
proportional to the gas's Kelvin temperature.
If a gas's temperature increases, then so does its pressure if the mass and
volume of the gas are held constant. The law has a particularly simple
mathematical form if the temperature is measured on an absolute scale, such as
in kelvins. The law can then be expressed mathematically as:

Where:
P is the pressure of the gas
T is the temperature of the gas (measured in kelvin).
k is a constant.
This law holds true because temperature is a measure of the average kinetic
energy of a substance; as the kinetic energy of a gas increases, its particles
collide with the container walls more rapidly, thereby exerting increased
pressure.
For comparing the same substance under two different sets of conditions, the law
can be written as:

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Ex.1) A gas has a pressure of 699.0 mm Hg at 40.0 °C. What is the temperature
at a pressure of 760.0 mm Hg?

Answer: For this problem the Initial Pressure is P1 = 699.0 mmHg. The Initial
Temperature is T1 = 40.0 + 273 = 313K. The Final Pressure is P2 =

760.0 mmHg and the Final Temperature (T2 ) is to solve for.

T2 = 340.3 K

Ex.2) Determine the pressure change when a constant volume of gas at 1.00 atm
is heated from 20.0 °C to 30.0 °C.
Answer: The Initial Pressure is P1 = 1.00 atm. The Initial Temperature is T1 =
20.00 + 273 = 293 K. The Final Temperature is T2 = 30.0 + 273 = 303 K. The
Final Pressure (P2) is what we are trying to find in the problem.

P2 = 1.03 atm.

Gay-Lussac’s Law Problems

1. A gas has a pressure of 0.370 atm. at 50.0 °C. What is the pressure at
standard temperature?

2. A gas has a pressure of 699.0 mm Hg at 40.0 °C. What is the temperature at

standard pressure?

3. If a gas is cooled from 323.0 K to 273.15 K and the volume is kept constant
what final pressure would result if the original pressure was 750.0 mm Hg?

4. If a gas in a closed container is pressurized from 15.0 atmospheres to 16.0

atmospheres and its original temperature was 25.0 °C, what would the final
temperature of the gas be?

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5. A 30.0 L sample of nitrogen inside a rigid, metal container at 20.0 °C is placed

inside an oven whose temperature is 50.0 °C. The pressure inside the container
at 20.0 °C was at 3.00 atm. What is the pressure of the nitrogen after its
temperature is increased?

6. A sample of gas at 3.00 x 103 mm Hg inside a steel tank is cooled from 500.0
°C to 0.00 °C. What is the final pressure of the gas in the steel tank?

7. The temperature of a sample of gas in a steel container at 30.0 kPa is

increased from -100.0 °C to 1.00 x 103 °C. What is the final pressure inside the
tank?

8. Calculate the final pressure inside a scuba tank after it cools from 1.00 x
103 °C to 25.0 °C. The initial pressure in the tank is 130.0 atm.

Gay-Lussac’s Law Problems Solutions?

1) 0.370 atm / 323 K = x / 273 K; x = 0.313 atm.

Find x for the following:

2) 699.0 mm Hg / 313 K = 760 mm Hg / x

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3) 750.0 mm Hg / 323.0 K = x / 273.15 K

4) 15.0 atm / 298 K = 16.0 atm / x

5) 3.00 atm. / 293 K = x / 323

6) 3.00 x 103 mm Hg / 773 K = x / 273

7) 30.0 kPa / 173 K = x / 1273

8) 130.0 atm. /1273 K = x / 298 K

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Combined Gas Law

The combined gas law is a gas law that combines Charles's law, Boyle's law,
and Gay-Lussac's law. There is no official founder for this law; it is merely a
combination of the three previously discussed laws. These laws each relate
one thermodynamic variable to another mathematically while holding everything
else constant. The inter-dependence of these variables is shown in the combined
gas law, which clearly states that:

The ratio between the pressure-volume product and the temperature of a

system remains constant.

This can be stated mathematically as:

Where:
P is the pressure
V is the volume
T is the temperature measured in kelvins
k is a constant (with units of energy divided by temperature).

For comparing the same substance under two different sets of conditions, the law
can be written as:

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Problems – Combined Gas Law

1) A sample of sulfur dioxide occupies a volume of 652 mL at 40° C and 720 mm

Hg. What volume will the sulfur dioxide occupy at STP?

2) 322 L of hydrogen occupies a volume of 197 L at STP. If the initial

temperature of the hydrogen was 37° C, what was its initial pressure?

3) The initial temperature of a 1.00 liter sample of argon is 20° C. The pressure is
decreased from 720 mm Hg to 360 mm Hg and the volume increases to 2.14
liters. What was the change in temperature of the argon?

4) A sample of nitrogen gas occupies a volume of 2.00 L at 756 mm Hg and

0.00° C. The volume increases by 2.00 L and the temperature decreases to 137
K. What is the final pressure exerted on the gas?

5) A 20. L container is filled with helium and the pressure is 150 atm. and the
temperature is 30° C. How many 5.0 L balloons can be filled when the
temperature is 22° C and the atmospheric pressure is 755 mm?

Solutions:
1) P1 = 720 mm, P2 = 760 mm, V1 = 652 mL, V2 = ? T1 = 40° C + 273 = 313 K, T2 = 0° C
+ 273 = 273 K, P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2, V2 =( P1V1/T1) x (T2/P2),
V2 = (720 mm x 652 mL x 273 K)/(313 K x 760 mm) = 540 mL SO2

2) P1 = ? P2 = 1.00 atm., V1 = 322 L, V2 = 197 L, T1 = 37° C + 273 = 310 K, T2 = 0° C +

273 = 273 K, P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2, P1 =( P2V2/T2) x(T1/V1),
P1 = 1.00 atm. x 197 L x 310 K/(273 K x 322 L) = 0.69 atm.

3) P1 = 720 mm, P2 = 360 mm, V1 = 1.00 L, V2 = 2.14 L, T1 = 20.° C + 273 = 293 K, T2

= ? P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2, T2 = P2V2/P1 x T1/V1,
T2 = 360 mm x 2.14 L x 293 K/(720 mm x 1.0 L) = 313 K = 40.° C

4) P1 = 756 mm, P2 = ?, V1 = 2.00 L, V2 = 4.00 L T1 = 0.0° C + 273 = 273 K, T2 = 137 K,

P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2, P2 =( P1V1/T1) x (T2/V2),
P2 = (756 mm x 2.00 L x 137) K/(273 K x 4.00 L) = 190. mm Hg

5) P1 = 150 atm., P2 = 755 mm, V1 = 20. L, V2 =? T1 = 30° C + 273 = 303 K, T2 = 22° C +

273 = 295 K, P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2, V2 = (P1V1/T1) x (T2/P2), V2 = 150 atm. x 20. L x
295 K/(303 K x 755 mm x 1 atm./760 mm) = 2940 L # balloons =1 balloon/5.0 L) x 2940 L
= 588 balloons

End of Chapter I

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Chapter II

Temperature

The temperature is a monotonic function of the average molecular kinetic energy of a

substance, also is one of the most difficult concepts to define. The following are 5
ways of defining temperature:

1. The degree of hotness or coldness of a body or environment.

2. A measure of the warmth or coldness of an object or substance with

reference to some standard value.

3. A measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a sample of

matter, expressed in terms of units or degrees designated on a standard
scale.

4. A measure of the ability of a substance, or more generally of any physical

system, to transfer heat energy to another physical system.

5. Any of various standardized numerical measures of this ability, such as the

Kelvin, Fahrenheit, and Celsius scale.

Certainly, we are comfortable with the first two definitions - the degree or
measure of how hot or cold an object is. But our understanding of temperature is
not enriched by such definitions. The third and the fourth definitions that
reference the kinetic energy of particles and the ability of a substance to transfer
heat are scientifically accurate.

Calibration of a Thermometer

A thermometer is calibrated by using two objects of known temperatures. The

typical process involves using the freezing point and the boiling point of pure
water. Water is known to freeze at 0°C and to boil at 100°C at an atmospheric
pressure of 1 atm. By placing a thermometer in mixture of ice water and allowing
the thermometer liquid to reach a stable height, the 0-degree mark can be placed
upon the thermometer. Similarly, by placing the thermometer in boiling water (at
1 atm. of pressure) and allowing the liquid level to reach a stable height, the 100-
degree mark can be placed upon the thermometer. With these two markings

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placed upon the thermometer, 100 equally spaced divisions can be placed
between them to represent the 1-degree marks. Since there is a linear
relationship between the temperature and the height of the liquid, the divisions
between 0 degree and 100 degree can be equally spaced. With a calibrated
thermometer, accurate measurements can be made of the temperature of any
object within the temperature range for which it has been calibrated.

Temperature Scales
The thermometer calibration process described above results in what is known
as a centigrade thermometer. A centigrade thermometer has 100 divisions or
intervals between the normal freezing point and the normal boiling point of water.
Today, the centigrade scale is known as the Celsius scale, named after the
Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius who is credited with its development. The
Celsius scale is the most widely accepted temperature scale used throughout the
world. It is the standard unit of temperature measurement in nearly all countries,
the most notable exception being the United States. Using this scale, a
temperature of 28 degrees Celsius is abbreviated as 28°C.
Traditionally slow to adopt the metric system and other accepted units of
measurements, the United States more commonly uses the Fahrenheit
temperature scale. A thermometer can be calibrated using the Fahrenheit
scale in a similar manner as was described above. The difference is that the
normal freezing point of water is designated as 32 degrees and the normal
boiling point of water is designated as 212 degrees in the Fahrenheit scale. As
such, there are 180 divisions or intervals between these two temperatures when
using the Fahrenheit scale. The Fahrenheit scale is named in honor of German
physicist Daniel Fahrenheit. A temperature of 76 degree Fahrenheit is
abbreviated as 76°F. In most countries throughout the world, the Fahrenheit
scale has been replaced by the use of the Celsius scale.
Temperatures expressed by the Fahrenheit scale can be converted to the
Celsius scale equivalent using the equation below:
°C = (°F - 32°)/1.8

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Similarly, temperatures expressed by the Celsius scale can be converted to the

Fahrenheit scale equivalent using the equation below:
°F= (1.8 °C) + 32°

The Kelvin Temperature Scale

While the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales are the most widely used temperature
scales, there are several other scales that have been used throughout history.
For example, there is the Rankine scale, the Newton scale and the Romer scale,
all of which are rarely used. Finally, there is the Kelvin temperature scale, which
is the standard metric system of temperature measurement and perhaps the
most widely used temperature scale among scientists. The Kelvin temperature
scale is similar to the Celsius temperature scale in the sense that there are 100
equal degree increments between the normal freezing point and the normal
boiling point of water. However, the zero-degree mark on the Kelvin temperature
scale is 273.15 units cooler than it is on the Celsius scale. So a temperature of 0
Kelvin is equivalent to a temperature of -273.15 °C. Observe that the degree
symbol is not used with this system. So a temperature of 300 units above 0
Kelvin is referred to as 300 Kelvin and not 300 degree Kelvin; such a
temperature is abbreviated as 300 K. Conversions between Celsius
temperatures and Kelvin temperatures (and vice versa) can be performed using
one of the two equations below.
°C = K - 273.15°
K = °C + 273.15

The zero point on the Kelvin scale is known as absolute zero. It is the lowest
temperature that can be achieved. The concept of an absolute temperature
minimum was promoted by Scottish physicist William Thomson (a.k.a. Lord
Kelvin) in 1848. Thomson theorized based on thermodynamic principles that the
lowest temperature which could be achieved was -273°C. Prior to Thomson,

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experimentalists such as Robert Boyle (late 17th century) were well aware of the
observation that the volume (and even the pressure) of a sample of gas was
dependent upon its temperature. Measurements of the variations of pressure and
volume with changes in the temperature could be made and plotted. Plots of
volume vs. temperature (at constant pressure) and pressure vs. temperature (at
constant volume) reflected the same conclusion - the volume and the pressure of
a gas reduces to zero at a temperature of -273°C. Since these are the lowest
values of volume and pressure that are possible, it is reasonable to conclude that
-273°C was the lowest temperature that was possible.

Thomson referred to this minimum lowest temperature as absolute zero and

argued that a temperature scale be adopted that had absolute zero as the lowest
value on the scale. Today, that temperature scale bears his name. Scientists and
engineers have been able to cool matter down to temperatures close to -
273.15°C, but never below it. In the process of cooling matter to temperatures
close to absolute zero, a variety of unusual properties have been observed.
These properties include superconductivity, superfluidity and a state of matter
known as a Bose-Einstein condensate.

Comparing the three scales

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Example Problems:

1) Liquid oxygen boils at normal pressure at -182.96 °C. What is this temperature
in Kelvin?

K = ºC + 273.15
K = -182.96 + 273.15
K = 90.19 K

2) In many ideal gas problems, room temperature is considered to be at 300 K.

What is this temperature in Celsius?

°C = K – 273.15
°C = 300 – 273.15
°C = 26.85 °C

3) Dry ice, or frozen carbon dioxide sublimes (phase change between solid to
gas) at -78.5 °C under normal atmospheric pressures. What is this temperature
in Fahrenheit?

°F = 1.8 °C + 32

where °F and °C are the temperatures in Fahrenheit and Celsius respectively.

To solve this, plug the celsius temperature, -78.5 °C into the formula.

°F = 1.8 (-78.5) + 32
°F = -141.3 + 32
°F = -109.3 °F

Note: To convert from Kelvin to Fahrenheit or from Fahrenheit to Kelvin,

you will have to go through the Celsius scale.

When does Celsius equal Fahrenheit?

Start with one of the two conversion factors between °C and °F.

The two conversion formulas are:

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°C = 5⁄9(°F – 32)
and
°F = 9⁄5°C + 32

It doesn‘t matter which one you use since they are the same equation. Let‘s use
the second one. We want to know when °C = °F, so the equation becomes:

°C = 9⁄5°C + 32

Solve for °C

°C – 9⁄5°C = 32
Factor out the °C

(1 – 9⁄5)°C = 32

Solve the fraction

(5⁄5 – 9⁄5)°C = 32
–4⁄5°C = 32

Multiply both sides by 5

-4°C = 160

Divide both sides by -4

°C = -40

°C = °F = -40.

Celsius equals Fahrenheit at -40°

Temperature Conversion Problems

1) Express normal body temperature, 98.6°F, in °C and K.

Ans. 98.6 °F is equal to 37.0°C and 310 K

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2) Convert 25.0 °C to Kelvin. Ans. 298.k

3) Convert 375 K to degrees Celsius. Answer: 102 °C

4) Convert −50 °C to Kelvin. Ans. K=223

5) A general rule used by pilots is for every 1000 feet of altitude, the temperature
falls 3.5 °F. If the temperature at sea level is 78°F, what would you expect the
temperature to be at 10,000 feet in °C?

For every 1000 temperature falls = 3.5 °F

For 10,000 temperature falls = 3.5 °F *10 = 35

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°F at 10,000 feet is 78°F -35°F = 43 °F

Now convert it into °C

°C = 0.56( F – 32)

= .56(43 – 32)

= 6.1 °C

6) Which temperature is hotter: 17 °C or 58 °F? Ans. hotter temperature is 17 °C

(62.6 °F).

7) If Celsius thermometer shows the temperature of air 30 0C, find the

temperature of air in Fahrenheit thermometer. Ans. F = 860F

End of Chapter II

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Chapter III

Thermal Expansion

Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change in shape, area, and

volume in response to a change in temperature, through heat transfer.

When a material is heated, the kinetic energy of that material increases and it's
atoms and molecules move about more. This means that each atom will take up
more space due to it's movement so the material will expand.

Factors affecting thermal expansion

Unlike gases or liquids, solid materials tend to keep their shape when undergoing
thermal expansion.
Thermal expansion generally decreases with increasing bond energy, which also
has an effect on the melting point of solids, so, high melting point materials are
more likely to have lower thermal expansion. In general, liquids expand slightly
more than solids

The coefficient of thermal expansion describes how the size of an object

changes with a change in temperature. Specifically, it measures the fractional
change in size per degree change in temperature at a constant pressure. Several
types of coefficients have been developed: volumetric, area, and linear.

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Linear expansion

Linear expansion means change in one dimension (length) as opposed to

change in volume (volumetric expansion). To a first approximation, the change in
length measurements of an object due to thermal expansion is related to
temperature change by a "linear expansion coefficient ". It is the fractional
change in length per degree of temperature change.

The fractional change in length , is proportional to the amount of change in

temperature ( ).

We can write: and

Note: is positive when T increases & is negative when T decreases

Table of Linear Thermal Expansion Coefficients for Different metals at 20o

C

Fractional Fractional
Material expansion expansion
per oC x10^-6 per oF x10^-6
Glass, ordinary 9 5
Glass, pyrex 4 2.2
Quartz, fused 0.59 0.33
Aluminum 24 13
Brass 19 11
Copper 17 9.4
Iron 12 6.7
Steel 13 7.2
Platinum 9 5
Tungsten 4.3 2.4
Gold 14 7.8
Silver 18 10

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Concrete 12x10-5

Problems on linear Expansion

1) A concrete railroad tie has a length 2.45 meters on a hot, sunny, 35°C
day. What is the length of the railroad tie in the winter when the
temperature dips to -25°C?

= - 0.0176 m
Then, you can find the railroad tie‘s final length using the tie‘s initial length and its
change in length.

= 2.4324 m

2) An aluminum rod has a length of exactly one meter at 300K. How much longer
is it when placed in a 400°C oven?

Answer: Since the temperatures are given in two different sets of units, you first
need to find the total temperature shift in consistent units (for example, Kelvins).

The shift in temperature, therefore, must be 673.15K-300K, or 373.15K. Next,

you can use the equation for linear expansion to find the shift in the rod‘s length.

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3) A vertical steel antenna tower is 200 m high. Calculate the change in height of
the tower that takes place when the temperature changes from -20 C on a winter
day to 30 C on a summer day. alpha (steel) = 0.000011/C, Ans. 0.11 m

4) A metal rod 800 mm long expands 1.36 mm when heated from 15 oC to

100oC. Calculate the coefficient of linear expansion of the rod. 0.00002

5) A metal rod has a length of 100 cm at 200oC. At what temperature will its
length be 99.4 cm if its coefficient of expansion is 0.00002/ oC? -100

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6) A concrete slabs each is 20 m long are laid end to end to form a roadway.
How large a gap should be allowed between adjacent slabs so that slabs do
not buckle up. The temperature range in the area is -20oC to 50oC and
 conc.  10 5 / oC. 0.014 m

7) A metal rod is 200.00 cm long at 0C and 200.18 cm long at 60C. What is its
coefficient of linear expansion? Ans. alpha = 0.000015 /oC

8) A steel bridge is built in several segments, each 20 m long. The gap between
segments is 4 cm at 18 ℃. What is the maximum temperature that the bridge can
manage before buckling? 171.8 0C

9) A circular hole of diameter 2.00 cm is made in an aluminum plate at 0 0 C.

What will be the diameter at 1000 C?
Linear expansion for aluminum = 2.3 * 10 -3 / 0 C, Ans. 2.46 cm

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Area expansion

The area thermal expansion coefficient relates the change in a material's area
dimensions to a change in temperature. It is the fractional change in area per
degree of temperature change. Ignoring pressure, we may write:

The fractional change in area is proportional to the temperature change

Consider what happens to a square surface with an initial area . An increase in

temperature of results in each side increasing in length to .

The new area is then:

In general is very small compared to L, so we can neglect

Example:
A circular steel disk has a circular hole through its center. If the disk is heated
from 10o C to 100o C, what is the fractional increase in the area of the hole?

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Problems
1. By how much does the area of a rectangular steel plate 0.5 m by 2.5 m
change when it is heated from 0oC to 40oC? 1.27x10-3 m2

2. A silver plate has an area of 800 mm2 at 15°C. Determine the increase in
the area of the plate when the temperature is raised to 100°C. Assume the
coefficient of linear expansion of silver to be 19 × 10 –6 K–1. [2.584 mm2]

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Volume expansion

When all of the dimensions of an object increase, the volume also increases.
This change in volume is written as:

Here is the coefficient of volume expansion which can be shown to be:

Special Case of Water:

The value of is negative from 0o C to 3.98o C, the density of water is greatest at

3.98o C. This characteristic of water is extremely important for aquatic life? Why

Example
A glass of water with volume 1 liter is completely filled at 5°C. How much water
will spill out of the glass when the temperature is raised to 85°C?
Answer: In this situation, both the glass and the water within will expand as the
temperature rises. You can treat both the glass and the water as a volume
expansion. Start by finding the expansion of the water.

In a similar fashion, you can find the expansion of the glass.

The amount of spill = 0.017 – 0.002 = 0.015 L

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Problems

1. At 283 K a thermometer contains 440 mm3 of alcohol. Determine the

temperature at which the volume is 480 mm3 assuming that the
coefficient of cubic expansion of the alcohol is 12 × 10 –4 K–1. [358.8 K]

= 480 – 440 = 40 mm3 = 12x10-4 x 440 x (T – 283)

T = 358.8 K

2. A zinc sphere has a radius of 30.0 mm at a temperature of 20°C. If the

temperature of the sphere is raised to 420°C, determine the increase in:
(a) the radius, (b) the surface area, (c) the volume of the sphere. Assume
the coefficient of linear expansion for zinc to be 31 × 10–6 K–1.
Ans. [(a) 0.372 mm (b) 70.12 mm2 (c) 4207 mm3]

3. A block of cast iron has dimensions of 50 mm by 30 mm by 10 mm at

15°C. Determine the increase in volume when the temperature of the
block is raised to 75°C. Assume the coefficient of linear expansion of cast
iron to be 11 × 10–6 K–1. [29.7 mm3]

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4. Two liters of water, initially at 20°C, is heated to 40°C. Determine the

volume of water at 40°C if the coefficient of volumetric expansion of water
within this range is 30 × 10–5 K–1. [2.012 litres]

5. Determine the increase in volume, in litres, of 3 m3 of water when heated

from 293 K to boiling point if the coefficient of cubic expansion is 2.1 ×
10–4 K–1 (1 liter ≈ 10–3 m3).[50.4 liters]

6. Determine the reduction in volume when the temperature of 0.5 litre of

ethyl alcohol is reduced from 40°C to –15°C. Take the coefficient of cubic
expansion for ethyl alcohol as 1.1 × 10 –3 K–1. [0.03025 liters]

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Coefficients of cubical or volumetric thermal expansion of some

common liquids:

Linear Volumetric
coefficient α coefficient αV
Material Notes
at 20 °C at 20 °C
(10−6 K−1) (10−6 K−1)

Aluminium 23.1 69

Aluminium nitride 5.3 14.2

Benzocyclobutene 42 126

Brass 19 57

Carbon steel 10.8 32.4

Concrete 12 36

Copper 17 51

Diamond 1 3

Ethanol 250 750[13]

Gallium(III)
5.8 17.4
arsenide

Gasoline 317 950[11]

Glass 8.5 25.5

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Linear Volumetric
coefficient α coefficient αV
Material Notes
at 20 °C at 20 °C
(10−6 K−1) (10−6 K−1)

matched sealing partner

Glass, borosilicate 3.3 [14] 9.9
for tungsten, molybdenum and kovar.

Glass (Pyrex) 3.2[15]

Glycerine 485[15]

Gold 14 42

Helium 36.65[15]

Invar 1.2 3.6

Iron 11.8 33.3

Lead 29 87

Magnesium 26 78

Mercury 61 182[15][18]

Molybdenum 4.8 14.4

Nickel 13 39

Oak 54[19] Perpendicular to the grain

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Linear Volumetric
coefficient α coefficient αV
Material Notes
at 20 °C at 20 °C
(10−6 K−1) (10−6 K−1)

Platinum 9 27

PVC 52 156

Quartz (fused) 0.59 1.77

Quartz 0.33 1

Rubber disputed disputed see Talk

Sapphire 5.3[21] Parallel to C axis, or [001]

Silicon Carbide 2.77[22] 8.31

Silicon 2.56[23] 9

Silver 18[24] 54

Stainless steel 10.1 ~ 17.3 30.3 ~ 51.9

Steel 11.0 ~ 13.0 33.0 ~ 39.0 Depends on composition

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Linear Volumetric
coefficient α coefficient αV
Material Notes
at 20 °C at 20 °C
(10−6 K−1) (10−6 K−1)

Titanium 8.6 26

Tungsten 4.5 13.5

Turpentine 90

Water 69 207[18]

Volumetric Temperature Coefficients - β - for some Fluids

 water at 0oC: -0.000050 (1/oC)

 water at 4oC: 0 (1/oC)
 water at 10oC: 0.000088 (1/oC)
 water at 20oC: 0.000207 (1/oC)
 water at 30oC: 0.000303 (1/oC)
 water at 40oC: 0.000385 (1/oC)
 water at 50oC: 0.000457 (1/oC)
 water at 60oC: 0.000522 (1/oC)
 water at 70oC: 0.000582 (1/oC)
 water at 80oC: 0.000640 (1/oC)
 water at 90oC: 0.000695 (1/oC)

 ethyl alcohol: 0.00109 (1/ oC), 0.00061 (1/oF)
 oil: 0.00070 (1/oC), 0.00039 (1/oF)

End of Chapter III

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Chapter IV

Heat Energy

Heat energy is the result of the movement of tiny particles called atoms,
molecules or ions in solids, liquids and gases. Heat energy can be transferred
from one object to another, and the transfer or flow is due to the difference in
temperature between the two objects is called heat.

For example, an ice cube has heat energy and so does a glass of lemonade. If
you put the ice in the lemonade, the lemonade (which is warmer) will transfer
some of its heat energy to the ice. In other words, it will heat up the ice.
Eventually, the ice will melt and the lemonade and water from the ice will be the
same temperature. This is known as reaching a state of thermal equilibrium.

Moving particles
Matter is all around you. It is everything in the universe – anything that has both
mass and volume and takes up space is matter. Matter exists in different physical
forms – solids, liquids and gases.
All matter is made of tiny particles called atoms, molecules and ions. These tiny
particles are always in motion – either bumping into each other or vibrating back
and forth. It is the motion of particles that creates a form of energy called heat (or
thermal) energy that is present in all matter.

Particles in collision
The particles in solids are tightly packed and can only vibrate. The particles in
liquids also vibrate but are able to move around by rolling over each other and
sliding around. In gases, the particles move freely with rapid, random motion.

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Transferring heat energy – particles in collision

At higher temperatures, particles have more energy. Some of this energy can be
transmitted to other particles that are at a lower temperature. For example, in the
gas state, when a fast moving particle collides with a slower moving particle, it
transfers some of its energy to the slower moving particle, increasing the speed
of that particle.
With billions of moving particles colliding into each other, an area of high energy
will slowly transfer across the material until thermal equilibrium is reached (the
temperature is the same across the material).

Changing states by heat transfer

Faster moving particles ‗excite‘ nearby particles. If heated sufficiently, the
movement of particles in a solid increases and overcomes the bonds that hold
the particles together. The substance changes its state from a solid to a liquid. If
the movement of the particles increases further in the liquid, then a stage is
reached where the substance changes into a gas.

Temperature and Heat

These are two different quantities, Temperature of a substance is very much

related to heat but it is not the same as heat. Temperature is the measure of the
average kinetic energy of the particles (atoms, ions, or molecules) of a
substance. Heat, on the other hand is, is the total kinetic energy of the particles.
A small cup of water and a large cup of water at the same temperature contain
different amounts of heat energy, the large cup contains much more heat energy
because it contains much more particles.

A substance may absorb heat and retain it as potential energy rather than as
kinetic energy, in this case there is no increase in temperature. However, there is
a large increase in its internal energy which may result in change of state.

Heat units

The quantity of heat is either given or absorbed. Heat is another form of energy
which can be measured by the effect it produces. The SI unit of heat energy is
the Joule, other units used earlier are Calorie, Kilocalorie, the British thermal
unit, and the therm. All heat units can be converted to joules, see table in the
next page.

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Heat Unit Equivalent Value Uses

Joule (J) 1 kg . (m2/s2) SI unit of energy

Calorie (cal) 4.186 J Used in older works of

physics and chemistry
Kilocalorie (Kcal) 4186 J A multiple of the calorie

Dietary Calorie 4186 J = 1 Kcal Food & nutritional

science

British thermal unit (Btu) 1055 J Air-conditioning &

refrigeration
Therm 1.055 x 108 J = 100000 Used in natural gas
Btu

Examples:

200
1. How many calories are equivalent to 200 joules?  47.78 cal
4.186
2. How many Btu‘s are equivalent to 15 Kcal?
15000x 4.186
 59.516 Btu ' s
1055

3. If one pound of coal releases 13000 Btu‘s when completely burned. How
many Joules are equivalent to this heat?

(13000)(1055)  13.7 x 106 J

Problems

1) How many joules are equivalent to: 40 cal, 5 Btu‘s, 7 Kcal?

2. How many Btu‘s are equivalent to: 0.5 therm, 1000 cal, 10 KJ

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Three ways of transferring heat energy

All heat energy, including heat generated by fire, is transferred in different ways:
Convection:

The transfers heat energy through the air (and liquids). As the air heats up, the
particles move further apart and become less dense, which causes the air to rise,
cooler air below moves in and heats up, creating a circular motion. The warm air
circles and heats the room.

Thermal convection is a method of heat transfer by the movement of the fluid

itself from one place to another.

In cold climates, many houses are heated by convection through hot air or hot
water, where a furnace provides hot air or a boiler provides hot water to the
house.

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Other examples, natural ones, on convection are the see-breeze and the land-
breeze.

During summer, in the morning when the sun starts rising, the land gets warm
much quicker than sea water, the air near the land gets warm and starts rising
and the cooler air above sea start moving towards the land. The air convicted
from sea to the land is called the sea-breeze.

In the evening when the sunset starts, the land loses heat quicker than sea
water, the air above sea starts rising, and the air above land starts moving
towards the sea to replace the rising air. The convicted air from land to the sea is
called the land-breeze.

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Conduction:

The transfers of heat energy through one substance to another when they are in
direct contact. The moving molecules of a warm material can increase the energy
of the molecules in a cooler material. Since particles are closer together, solids
conduct heat better than liquids or gases.

Thermal conduction is a method of heat transfer through a material by the

collisions of adjacent atoms or molecules.

Metals like silver, copper, aluminium, and brass are considered as good heat
conductors. Materials like concrete, Glass, asbestos, and rubber are considered
as very bad conductors. Wood, bone, fibreglass, plastic foam, wool, and air are
considered as insulators.

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Radiation:
Is the heat that we feel coming from a hot object. It warms the air using heat
waves (infrared waves) that radiate out from the hot object in all directions until it
is absorbed by other objects. Transfer of heat by radiation travels at the speed of
light and goes great distances.
With a log fire, the air in the room above the fire is heated and rises to
create convection currents. The heat felt directly from the fire is transmitted to us
through radiation. Conduction helps to keep a fire going by transferring heat
energy directly from the wood to neighboring wood in the fire

Radiation is a method of energy transfer by emitting electromagnetic waves. It

ranges from gamma rays, of very short wavelength, to radio and radar waves, of
very long wavelength.
All materials at a temperature above the absolute zero emit radiant energy, the
rate of emission, at low temperature is small and mainly of long wavelength, and
as the temperature increases, the rate of emission increases rapidly and mainly
of short wavelength.

At ordinary temperatures, most of the radiations are infrared radiation which is

strongly absorbed by water molecules, including those in our body

Experimentation with radiating objects proved that the rate at which thermal
energy is radiated is directly proportional to the fourth power of the absolute
temperature of the radiating object.

Assume that the absolute temperature of the radiating object is doubled, the
radiated thermal energy will be 16 times as much. The rate depends also on the
nature of the material of which the radiating or the absorbing object is made of.

The following examples shed a light on radiation energy.

1. Light waves bring thermal energy from the sun to the earth, without which life
on earth becomes impossible.

2. In cold areas, the fireplace makes you feel warm because of radiation energy
from the red hot burning wood.

3. The heat radiator in a house or in a car radiates thermal energy to keep the
house warm in cold weather or to avoid extra heating of the car engine.

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4. The green house effect shows how a thermal radiation of shorter

wavelength penetrates the glass, while the thermal radiation of longer
wavelength emitted by the plants or the car interior is trapped inside. This
will lead to a temperature rise inside the car or inside the house.

An effect of heat – expansion

When gases, liquids and solids are heated, they expand. As they cool, they
contract or get smaller. The expansion of the gases and liquids is because the
particles are moving around very fast when they are heated and are able to move
further apart so they take up more room. If the gas or liquid is heated in a closed
container, the particles collide with the sides of the container, and this
causes pressure, the greater the number of collisions, the greater the pressure.
Sometimes when a house is on fire, the windows will explode outwards. This is
because the air in the house has been heated and the excited molecules are
moving at high speed around the room. They are pushing against the walls,
ceiling, floor and windows. Because the windows are the weakest part of the
house structure, they break and burst open, releasing the increased pressure.

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Measurement of heat

Specific heat capacity

To increase the temperature of a substance, thermal energy must be added to its

molecules from a hotter substance, to decrease the temperature of a substance,
thermal energy must be removed from its molecules to a cooler substance.

Specific heat capacity (c): is the quantity of heat (Q) that must flow into or out
of a unit mass (1 kg) of a substance to change its temperature by one degree.

The quantity of heat Q varies directly with the mass of the substance and with
amount of change in temperature.

Q
c
m T

The unit of Q is Joule, and the unit of T is oC, and the unit of mass is kg, the

J cal
unit of c will be , although the unit is still in use.
kg . C o g .C o

cal J
1 o
= 4184
g .C kg . C o

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The table below lists some typical values of c near room temperature.

Substance J cal
c in c in
kg . C o g .C o

Water 4184 1.0

Human body 3470 0.83
Ethanol 2300 0.55
Paraffin 2100 0.51
o
Ice at (0 C) 2100 0.5
o
Steam at (100 C) 1920 0.46
Aluminium 880 0.21
Glass 600 0.15
Iron 460 0.11
Copper 390 0.093
Mercury 140 0.033
Lead 130 0.031

Examples:

1. How much heat is needed to increase the temperature of 0.5 kg of water

From 10o C to 95o C?

Q  m c T = (0.5) (4184) (95-10) = 177820 J

2. How many calories are needed to increase the temperature of 250 g of ice
from -25oC to -5oC?

Q  m c T = (250) (0.5) (-5 – (-25)) = 2500 cal

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Exercise

1. A 38 kg block of lead is heated from -26oC to 180oC. How much heat does it
absorb during the heating?

2. A 400 g glass cup at 20oC is placed in a hot dishwasher of 80oC. How many
calories the cup absorbs when its temperature reaches 80 oC?

3. How much heat in joules is required to raise the temperature of 50 kg of water

from 4.5oC to 83oC?

4. How much heat in joules must be added to 50 g of aluminium at 20 oC to raise

its temperature to 120oC?

5. A copper wire has a mass of 165 g. An electric current runs through the wire
for a short time and its temperature rises from 20oC to 38oC. What minimum
quantity of heat is generated by the electric current?

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6. A 500 g block of metal absorbs 5016 joules of heat when its temperature
changes from 20 oC to 30oC. Calculate the specific heat of the metal.

Conservation in heat transfer

When mixing cold water with hot water in an well insulated container, the hot
water gives up heat to the cold water. The same thing happens if you place hot
metal block in a cold liquid, in both cases and as per the first law of
thermodynamics, the amount of heat lost by the hot substance is equal to the
amount of heat gained by the cold substance.

Heat lost = Heat gained

( m c T ) L = (m c T ) G
Example:

A 0.5 kg block 0f iron at 100oC is in 0.5 kg of water at 20 oC. What is the final
temperature of the mixture?

( m c T ) L = (m c T ) G

(0.5) (460) (100 – Tf) = (0.5) (4184) (Tf – 20)

Tf = 27.9 oC

Exercise

1. A 100 g mass of brass at 90oC is placed in 200 g of water at 20oC.

Assume no heat loss to surroundings. What is the final temperature of the
mixture? Sp. Heat of brass=0 .092 cal/g. 0C 23.07 oC

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2. A 0.75 kg cup at 36.5 oC is made of material that can hold hot liquids without
significantly increasing its own temperature. The cup is submerged in 1.25 kg
of water at 20 oC. What is the cup‘s specific heat capacity if the final
temperature is 24.4oC ? 2535.5 J/kg.C

3. A 100 g sample of tungsten at 100oC is placed in 200 g of water at 20oC. The

mixture reaches equilibrium at 21.6oC. Calculate the specific heat of tungsten.

0.04 cal/g.C

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Chapter V

Phase change and Latent heat

The particle nature of matter implies that some force holds the particles together.
Otherwise, particles would drift apart and object would not be able to retain its
shape. These forces are called cohesive forces, they help explain how a
substance can absorb heat without an increase in temperature.

For example, the specific heat of ice is 2.1 J/goC. If a gram of ice at -10oC
absorbs 21 joules of heat, the temperature rises to 0 oC. This temperature is the
melting point of ice. At the melting point, the ice continues to absorb heat and
shows no increase in temperature. The gram of ice at 0oC will absorb 334 joules
in becoming water at 0oC. The 334 joules of heat cause the change in state but
no change in temperature.

The amount of heat (joules) needed to bring about a change from solid to liquid
state of a substance is called the latent heat of fusion. Q  mL f

The amount of heat (joules) needed to bring about a change from liquid to gas
state of a substance is called the latent heat of vaporisation. Q  mLv

Latent heat increases the potential energy between the molecules of a substance

The two horizontal intervals in figure represent the phase change intervals. The
first one (melting ice) represents the phase change of ice at 0oC to water at 0oC.
The second one (vaporizing water) represents the phase change of water at
100oC to steam at 100oC.

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The other three intervals (heating ice, heating water, and heating steam)
represent the increase in temperature stages.

This table lists latent heat of fusion (Lf) and vaporization (Lv)of some substances.

Material Lf in J/g Lv in J/g

Alcohol 109 878
Copper 205 4820
Gold 63 1640
Iron 276 6290
Lead 23 864
Mercury 11.5 306
Silver 105 2360
Ice/water/steam 334 2260

Example

How much thermal energy in joules must be absorbed by 50 g of ice at 0 oC to

melt completely?

Q  mL f = (50) (334) = 16700 J

Exercises:

1. How much heat energy in joules will be released when 50 g of water at 0 oC

freezes?

Answer. 16700 J

2. How much heat must be added to 20 g of water at 100 oC to convert it to

steam at 100oC?

Q  mLv = (20) (2260) = 45200 J

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Exercise

1. Compute the amount of heat required to convert 36 g of water at 80 oC to

steam at 100 oC.

2. How much heat is absorbed in converting 100 g of ice at 0 oC to water at

20 oC?

3. A 500 g of water at 90oC is mixed with 500 g of water at 30 oC. Assume no

heat loss to surroundings. What is the final temperature of the mixture?

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4. A 40 g sample of chloroform is condensed from a vapour at 61.6 oC to a

liquid at 61.6oC. It liberates 9870 joules of heat. What is the latent heat of
vaporization of chloroform?

5. How much heat is added to 10 g of ice at -20oC to convert it to steam at

120oC? Hint: 5 stages are needed here.

6. A 110 g cube of ice at 0oC is added to 450 g of soup at 80oC. Assume the
soup has the same specific heat as the water, find the final temperature of the
mixture. Hint: There is a temperature change after the ice melts.
Ans. 48.6

Chapter V End

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Chapter VI

Fluid Mechanics

Matter is normally classified as being solid, liquid, gas, or plasma. Because liquid
and gas can flow, they are called fluids. A fluid is a nonsolid state of matter in
which the atoms or molecules are free to move past each other. In the plasma
state, the particles have charges. Atoms have lost one or more of their electrons,
and become positively charged or become positive ions. Very little plasma exists
on earth, however, more than 99 percent of the universe is made up of plasma.

Both gases and liquids are fluids, however, there is a difference between them:
liquid has a definite volume while gas does not.

Pressure is a word we use from day to day without worrying too much as to its
exact meaning. In physics, pressure P is defined as: the force “F” acting
normally per unit area “A”.
F
P
A

The SI unit of pressure is N/m2 and is called pascal ―Pa‖. Since the Pa is
relatively a small unit. The kilopascal is often used.

1 kPa = 1000 Pa

Example:

A 25 N box of 1.5 m sides is resting on a floor, calculate the pressure the box
exerts on the floor.

25 25
P 2
  11.11 Pa
(1.5) 2.25

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Exercise 4-1

A 15 N cylinder of radius 1 m is resting on a table, calculate the pressure the

cylinder exerts on the table.

Atmospheric Pressure

Air has weight, because of its weight the atmosphere exerts pressure on the
earth‘s surface of approximately 100000 Pa or 100 KPa. This pressure affects all
objects on earth including us. An average-sized man of 2 m2 surface area will
experience 2 KN force approximately. Pat .  100 kPa = 1 atm = 76 cm mercury

The absolute air pressure inside a typical car tire is about 3 x 105 Pa, or 3 atm.

Table shows some pressures

Location P in (Pa)
Centre of the sun 2 x 1016
Centre of earth 4 x 1011
Bottom of the pacific ocean 6 x 107
Atmosphere at sea level 1.01 x 105
Atmosphere at 10 km above sea level 2.8 x 104
Vest vacuum in laboratory 10-12

Pressure in Fluid

The volume ―V‖ of a fluid column of a cross sectional area ―A‖ acting at a depth
―h‖ equal to Ah. Hence, the mass of the column m = density x volume =  V = 
Ah.

F mg Vg Ahg
And the pressure P is: P     gh
A A A A

 Pgauge   g h

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The pressure in the equation above is referred to as ―gauge pressure”

which is due to the weight of the fluid column. It is clear that, gauge pressure is
directly proportional with depth and density of the fluid.

The gauge pressure is not the total (absolute) pressure at this depth because the
atmospheric pressure also exerts a pressure at the surface.

Total pressure = Atmospheric pressure + Gauge pressure

Ptot.  Patm.  Pgauge

Example:

Calculate the gauge pressure and the total pressure at an ocean depth of 1000
m. The density of sea water is 1.025 x 10 3 kg/m3 and the atmospheric pressure =
1.01 x 105 Pa.

 Pgauge   g h = (1.025 x 103) (9.8)(1000) = 10045000 Pa = 10 MPa

Ptot.  Patm.  Pgauge = 10000 KPa + 100 KPa = 10100 KPa = 10.1 MP

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Exercise

A container is filled with water to a depth of 20 cm. On top of the water floats a 30
cm thick layer of oil with density 0.7 x 103 kg/m3. g = 9.8 m/s2

a. What is the pressure at the surface of the water?

b. What is the absolute pressure at the bottom of the container? Density of

water is 103 kg/m3 and the atmospheric pressure is 105 Pa.

Pascal’s Law

If the pressure in a fluid is increased at any point in a container, such as the

valve of a tire, the pressure increases at all points inside the container by exactly
the same amount.

Pascal’s Law states that: Pressure applied to a fluid in a closed container is

transmitted equally to every point of the fluid and to the walls of the
container.

The force exerted by such fluid is normal to all the surfaces (walls) of the
container.
Several applications to Pascal‘s law exist in our daily life, here are some
examples:

Hydraulic Press

The most famous application of Pascal‘s law is the hydraulic press,. The input
pressure applied to liquid in the small cylinder will be transmitted equally to the
liquid and the large cylinder.

Input pressure = Output pressure

Fi Fo

Ai Ao

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The ideal mechanical advantage of the machine IMA is:

Fo Ao
IMA  
Fi Ai

If the small piston moves a distance si and the large piston moves a distance so,
then:

Input work = Output work

Fi S i  Fo S o

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Fo S i
The IMA will be IMA  
Fi S o

Example:

A force of 500 N is applied to the small piston of a hydraulic press with diameter
of 5 cm. What is the diameter of the large piston if it is to lift a 250 kg load? What
is the ideal mechanical advantage of the machine? A =  r2

Fo Ai (250x9.8)(3.14x 2.5 2 )
Ao  =  96.2 cm2 = 3.14xro2
Fi 500

ro  5.5 cm, diameter  11cm

Fo (250)(9.8)
IMA  =  4. 9
Fi 500

Exercise

The large piston of a small hydraulic press has a diameter of 0.64 cm and the
small piston has a diameter of 0.38 cm. Determine the force needed to support a
500 N weight placed on the large piston.

Hydraulic brakes

Figure shows a second very famous application of Pascal‘s law, this is an

explanation to what happens when you press the brake pedal in your car. Note
the difference in size of the two cylinders, and how the large one acts as a
double hydraulic press.

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Air mattress and water mattress

Figure shows a third simple application of Pascal‘s law, whether it is an air or

water mattress.

Buoyancy and buoyant Force

We know that any material of density greater than that of water, will sink, and that
of density less than that of water, will float.

Have you ever questioned why things feel lighter in water than they do in air?
The reason is that fluid exerts an upward force on objects that are partially or
completely submerged in it, this force is called buoyant force.

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To understand the origin of the buoyancy, let us consider a small sheet of a

metal of thickness ―t‖ is submerged under water. The pressure acting on the
lower surface of the sheet is greater than the pressure acting on the upper
surface, as pressure increases with depth, hence, according to the gauge
pressure formula a pressure gradient results in a force pushing upward on the
sheet, and hence feels lighter than it would in air.

In general, we can say that buoyant force arise from the differences in fluid
pressure between the top and the bottom of the immersed object

Did you know?

Human brain has a density of 1040 kg/m3 and is immersed in a fluid of density
1007 kg/m3. Hence, most of the weight of the brain is supported by the buoyant
force of the surrounding fluid. This fluid also serves to absorb shocks to the brain
during sudden movements of the head.

Archimedes’ Principle

If an object is completely or partly submerged in a fluid, it will experience

an upward force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.

A floating object can displace its own weight of a fluid, or we say that the
buoyant force of a fluid equals the weight of a floating object.
The buoyant force depends on the density and the volume of the displaced fluid.

Figure below tells the story of Archimedes with the king and his suspected-gold
crown.

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Examples:

1. A piece of cork has a volume of 8 cm3 with density of 208 kg/m3. If the cork is
floating on water, calculate the buoyant force acting on the cork.

Buoyant force = the weight of the floating object

Fb  m g   V g  (208)(8x106 )(9.8)  0.0163N

2. A 2.8 kg rectangular air-mattress is 2 m long, 0.5 m wide, and 0.1 m thick.

What mass (load) can it support in water before sinking?

Volume of mattress = volume of air = volume of displaced water = (2)(0.5)(0.1) =

0.1 m3 .

Buoyant force = weight of mattress + weight of air + weight of load

Fb  Wmattress  Wair  Wload

 wVw g  2.8 g  Va  a g  mL g g cancels out from both sides of equation

(1000)(0.1)  2.8  (0.1)(1.29)  mL

mL  100  2.80  0.129  97 kg

Exercise

1. A metal cube is 2 cm a side. What is the buoyant force on it when it is

completely submerged in oil of density 864 kg/m3?

2. A 2.4 g object has an apparent mass of 1.62 g when it is completely

submerged in water of density 1000 kg/ m3. What is (a) the volume of the object
and (b) its density?

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Fluid in motion

So far in this chapter, our study was restricted to a fluid at rest, which is much
easier than the study of fluid in motion. When studying fluid in motion, the rate of
flow seems to be an important quantity to be examined and calculated. The rate
of flow is defined as the volume of fluid that passes a certain area per unit
of time.

To make our life easier in studying the motion of fluid, we will consider that:

1. The fluid is incompressible, this means that the density remains always
constant.

2. The fluid is non-viscous, no friction between fluid layers when in motion.

3. The fluid in motion exhibits streamline flow, not a turbulent one.

Laminar (streamline) flow: is the fluid motion in which every particle in the fluid
follows the same path, past a particular point, as the path followed by previous
particles. Streamlining is highly considered when designing cars, airplanes, and
trains.

Turbulent flow: is the irregular fluid flow at a certain velocity or under conditions
that cause abrupt changes in velocity due to obstacles or sharp turns. Examples
of turbulent flow are found in water behind a ship or in the air currents of a severe
thunderstorm.

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Bernoulli’s principle

If a fluid is incompressible, non-viscous or has a small viscosity, the friction

between its layers will be negligible, then, Bernoulli‘s equation can be applied for
the pressure in a moving fluid.

According to Bernoulli‘s principle, when a fluid is moving in a pipe of different

cross-sectional areas, as the area decreases, the speed of fluid flow
increases and its pressure decreases.

Rate of flow = Velocity x cross-sectional areas = constant

A1v1  A2 v2

As shown in figure below, the Bernoulli‘s equation takes care of the conservation
of all energies, pressure energy, kinetic energy, and potential energy.

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Note: The potential energy term ( gh) should be omitted when working with
horizontal pipes.

Bernoulli‘s equation for horizontal pipe will be reduced to:

1 1
P1   v12  P2   v 22
2 2

Where: P1 & P2 are the two pressures at A1 & A2 respectively.

: v1 & v2 are the two velocities of flow at A1 & A2 respectively.
:  is the fluid density.

Example:

Water (density 1000 kg/m3) is flowing in a horizontal pipe. At point one, the
speed of flow is 2.8 m/s and the pressure is 84 kPa, and at point two the speed is
4.2 m/s. What is the pressure at point two?

1 1
P1   v12  P2   v 22
2 2

(84 x 103) + (1/2) (1000) (2.8)2 = (P2) + (1/2) (1000) (4.2)2

P2 = 79100 Pa = 79.1 kPa

Exercise

Water at a pressure of 3 x 105 Pa flows through a horizontal pipe at a speed of 1

m/s. The pipe narrows to one fourth (1/4) its original diameter. Find the flow
speed and the pressure in the narrow section. V2=16 m/s, P2=1.725x105 Pa

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Another application to Bernoulli‘s principle which is extremely important in our life

is the airplane wing.

As shown in figures below, the streamline design of the wing forces the air above
the wing to travel a longer distance than the distance the air below the wing
travels at the same time. This means that the speed of air below the wing is less
than that above the wing, this makes the pressure below the wing greater than
the pressure above the wing, which in turn produces an upward lift-force, the lift
force is the one that causes an airplane to fly.

Example:

An airplane wing of area 20 m2 is designed so that the speed of the air below the
wing is 300 m/s when the speed above the wing is 360 m/s. What is the pressure
difference between the bottom and the top of the wing and what is the net
upward force on the wing? Density of air = 1.29 kg/m3.

Let the pressure below the wing be P1 and above the wing be P2

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1 1
P1   v12  P2   v 22
2 2

1
Or P1  P2  (  )(v 22  v12 ) = (1/2) (1.29){(360)2 – (300)2 }= 25542 Pa
2

F  P A  (25542)(20) = 510840 N

Exercise

1. An aircraft wing 8 m long and 2.5 m wide experiences a lifting force of 6 x 10 5

N. What is the difference in pressure between the lower and the upper surfaces
of the wing?

Problems

1. Which dam must be stronger, one that holds back 105 m3 of water 10 m deep
or one that holds back 1000 m3 of water 20 m deep?

2. Why do underwater air bubbles grow as they rise?

3. The 4 tires of a car are inflated to an absolute pressure 2 x 10 5 Pa. Each tire
has an area of 0.025 m2 in contact with the ground. Determine the weight of the
car.

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4. A 70 kg man sits in a 5 kg chair so that his weight is evenly distributed on the

4 legs of the chair. If each leg makes contact with the floor over a circular area of
radius 1 cm, what is the pressure exerted on the floor by each leg?

5. A circular swimming pool at sea level has a flat bottom and a 6 m diameter. It
is filled with water to a depth of 1.5 m. What is the absolute pressure at the
bottom?
The density of water is 1000 kg/m3.

6. When a load of 106 N is placed on a ship, the ship sinks 2.5 cm only in the
water. Estimate the cross-sectional area of the ship at water level.

7. The small piston of a hydraulic lift has an area 0.2 m2. A car weighing 1.2 x 104
N sits on a rack mounted on the large piston. The large piston has an area 0.9
m2. How large a force must be applied to the small piston to support the car?

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8. In a car lift, compressed air exerts a force on a piston with a radius of 5 cm.
this pressure is transmitted to a second piston with a radius of 15 cm.

a) How large a force must the compressed air exert to lift a 1.33 x 10 4 N car?

b) What pressure produces this force? Neglect the weight of the pistons.

9. A piece of metal weighs 50 N in air, 36 N in water, and 41 N in a liquid. Find

the densities of the metal and the liquid if the density of water is 1000 kg/m3.

10. A ferry boat is 4 m wide and 6 m long. When a truck is placed on top of it,
the boat sinks 4 cm in the water. What is the combined weight of the truck and
the ferry? The density of water is 1000 kg/m3. Fb= = 9408 N

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11. The rate of flow in a natural gas pipeline of diameter 0.25 m is 1.55 m3/s.
What is the flow speed of the gas?

12. The wind blows with a speed of 30 m/s over the roof of a house.
 air  1.29 kg / m3
a) Assuming the air inside the house is stagnant (not moving), what is the
pressure difference at the roof between the inside and the outside air?

b) What net force does this pressure difference produce on a roof of area
175 m2.

13. A farmer at a ranch fills a water trough1.5 m long, 0.65 m wide, and 0.45 m
deep. He uses a hose having a diameter of 2 cm, and the water emerges from
the hose at 1.5 m/s. How long does it take the farmer to fill the trough? 936.2 s

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14. Water flows through a 0.3 m radius pipe at the rate of 0.2 m3/s. The pressure
in the pipe is 1 atm. The pipe slants downhill and feeds into a second pipe with a
radius of 0.15 m, positioned 0.6 m lower. What is the gauge pressure in the lower
pipe?

15. Assume that air (density = 1.29 kg/m3 ) flows past the top surface of an
airplane wing at 36 m/s. The air moving past the lower surface of the wing has a
speed of 27 m/s. If the wing has a weight of 2700 N and an area of 3.5 m2, what
is the buoyant force on the wing?

Chapter VI End

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Chapter VII

Light

Visible light waves have wavelengths that range from 3.8 x 10 -7 m (violet region)
to 7.6 x 10-7 m (red region). Although visible light is only a small portion of the
electromagnetic array of waves, see figure 6-1, there are many good reasons for
us to study optical effects. Light is perhaps the most important means of learning
about microscopes, telescopes, and human eye. The study of light is, in many
ways, a study of all electromagnetic radiation.

The sun is a source of huge amounts of electromagnetic radiation. Such radiation

is also emitted from incandescent lamps, fluorescent lamps, and flames. Some of
this electromagnetic radiation can stimulate the retina of the human eye and is
called light.
The rest of the radiation spectrum, infrared, ultraviolet, and radio waves are
detected by other means. All electromagnetic waves consist of an oscillating
electric and magnetic fields that are in phase and perpendicular to each
other.

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Light waves, like electromagnetic waves, require no medium to travel through.

In the visible spectrum, red light is the longest in wavelength (  ) and the
smallest in frequency (f), the violet light is the shortest in wavelength (  ) and the
largest in frequency (f).

Speed of light

The first rough measurement of the speed of light was made by the Danish
astronomer Olaf Roemer in 1676 using data from astronomical observations.

The first accurate land measurement of the speed of light was made by the
American scientist Albert Michelson (1652-1931). He timed the light traveling
between two mirrors place on top of two opposite mountains, then he calculated
the speed of light in air 3 x 108 m/s. This is the same as the speed of light in
vacuum.

A small beam of light consists of a very large number of individual waves of many
different wavelengths. The waves travel together in a straight line, hence, lines

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can be used to represent the direction of the light waves. These lines are called
rays.
The speed of light can be calculated by the following formula:

Speed (m/s) = frequency (1/sec) x wavelength (m) Note: (1/sec) = 1 Hz

v f

The table lists the speed of light in different media.

Material Speed (x 108 m/s)

Vacuum 2.99792
Air 2.9970
Water 2.25
Ethanol 2.20
Benzene 2.00
Crown glass 1.97
Polystyrene 1.89
Flint glass 1.81
Diamond 1.24

Examples:

1. Assume that the sun is 1.5 x 108 km from the earth. Calculate the time
required for light to travel from the sun to the earth.

t = d/v = (1.5 x 108)x (103) / 3 x 108 = 500 s = 8 min., 20 s

2. A radio wave has a frequency of 108 Hz. Calculate its wavelength.

  v / f  (3 x 108) / (108) = 3 m

Exercise

1. A radar signal is reflected from the moon. It is detected after a 2.58 s time
lapse between sending and receiving. How far away is the moon?

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2. The light-year is the distance traveled by light in one year. Calculate this
distance in meters and in km.

3. A gamma ray has a frequency of 1020 Hz. Calculate its wavelength.

-9
4. The wavelength of yellow light from sodium light is 6 x 10 m. Calculate its
frequency.

The Dual Nature of Light

There are many evidences such as interference, diffraction, and polarization

that demonstrate the wave nature of light.

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The photoelectric effect is large evidence that the light has a particle nature too.
When light falls on a metal surface, such as zinc or cesium, it ejects electrons
from the metal. This process is called the photoelectric effect.

The kinetic energy of the ejected electrons depend s on the frequency of the
incident light, not its intensity. This means that light energy is not distributed
evenly. Instead, it is concentrated in small packages or bundles of energy. These
Packages are called photons. This effect is not a property of waves but is a
property of particles.

To answer the question about the nature of light, let us say that ―light behaves as
both waves and particles‖

According to the quantum theory, light is emitted from a source in discrete

packages (photons). Each photon is related to a specific frequency and its
energy is proportional to its wave frequency. The photon energy equation
introduced by Max Planck:

Energy = Planck‘s constant x frequency

Ehf

Where E is the energy in joules

h is Planck‘s constant = 6.6 x 10-34 J/Hz

f is the frequency of the photon.

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Examples:

1. A photon of red light with frequency 5 x 10 15 Hz. How much energy does the
photon have?

E  h f = (6.6 x 10-34 ) (5 x 1015 ) = 3.3 x 10-19 J

2. What is the frequency of light that has energy of 5 x 10 -19 J?

E 5 x10 19
f    7.57 x1014 Hz
h 6.6 x10 34

Exercise

1. Which has more energy, the radio wave or the gamma ray?

2. Light from an infrared heat lamp has a wave length of 10 -5 m, calculate the
energy of its photon.

3. Light from ultraviolet sun lamp has a wave length of 10 -8 m, calculate the
energy of its photon.

4. Why is overexposure to ultraviolet radiation more harmful than

overexposure to infrared radiation?

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Reflection

When light strikes the boundary between two media, such as air and glass, some
of the light is reflected and some passes into glass. The light that enters the
glass (transmitted) undergoes a change in its direction, called refraction.

We see objects either because they emit light or because they reflect light. The
representation of light waves by rays is the base of geometrical optics. The
rays are imaginary lines drawn perpendicular to advancing wave fronts in the
direction of propagation of light.

A very smooth surface reflects parallel rays, called regular reflection. A rough or
irregular surface reflects rays in different directions, called diffuse reflection.
The diffuse reflection enables us to see surfaces like floor, door, wall, and a brick
surface.

The Laws of Reflection

- The angle of incidence (  i ) is equal to the angle of reflection (  r ).

- The incident ray, the reflected ray, and the line normal to the surface all lie in
the same plane.

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The above two rules allow us to understand the formation of images in plane,
concave, and convex mirrors.

Plane Mirrors

A plane mirror is a mirror with a flat (planar) reflective surface. For light rays
striking a plane mirror, the angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence. The
angle of incidence is the angle between the incident ray and the surface normal
(an imaginary line perpendicular to the surface).

Properties of image formed by a plane mirror:

1. Virtual (meaning that the light rays do not actually come from the image)

2. Upright (erect)

3. The same shape and size as the object it is reflecting.

4. At the same distance behind the mirror as in front.

A virtual image is a copy of an object formed at the location from which the light
rays appear to come.

The magnification produced by a plane mirror is +1.

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Examples on ray diagram

Spherical Mirrors

A spherical mirror is a mirror which has the shape of a piece cut out of
a spherical surface. There are two types of spherical mirrors: concave,
and convex.

The most commonly occurring examples of concave mirrors are shaving mirrors
and makeup mirrors. As is well-known, these types of mirrors magnify objects
placed close to them. The most commonly occurring examples of convex mirrors
are the passenger-side wing mirrors of cars. These type of mirrors have wider
fields of view than equivalent flat mirrors, but objects which appear in them
generally look smaller (and, therefore, farther away) than they actually are.

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Figure: A concave (left) and a convex (right) mirror

Let us now introduce a few key concepts which are needed to study image
formation by a concave spherical mirror. As illustrated in Fig. below, the
normal to the centre of the mirror is called the principal axis. The point at which
the principal axis touches the surface of the mirror is called the vertex. The
point on the principal axis, which is equidistant from all points on the reflecting
surface of the mirror, is called the centre of curvature. The distance along the
principal axis from point C to point V is called the radius of curvature of the
mirror, and is denoted R. It is found experimentally that rays striking a concave
mirror parallel to its principal axis, and not too far away from this axis, are
reflected by the mirror such that they all pass through the same point F on the
principal axis. This point, which is lies between the centre of curvature and the
vertex, is called the focal point, or focus, of the mirror. The distance along the
principal axis from the focus to the vertex is called the focal length of the mirror,
and is denoted f.

Figure: Image formation by a concave mirror.

In our study of concave mirrors, we are going to assume that all light-rays which
strike a mirror parallel to its principal axis (e.g., all rays emanating from a distant
object) are brought to a focus at the same point F. Of course, as mentioned
above, this is only an approximation. It turns out that as rays from a distant object
depart further from the principal axis of a concave mirror they are brought to a
focus ever closer to the mirror, as shown in Fig. below. This lack of perfect
focusing of a spherical mirror is called spherical aberration. The approximation
in which we neglect spherical aberration is called the paraxial

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approximation. Likewise, the study of image formation under this approximation

is known as paraxial optics. This field of optics was first investigated
systematically by the famous German mathematician Karl Friedrich Gauss in
1841.

Spherical aberration in a concave mirror.

It can be demonstrated, by geometry, that the only type of mirror which does not
suffer from spherical aberration is a parabolic mirror (i.e., a mirror whose
reflecting surface is the surface of revolution of a parabola). Thus, a ray traveling
parallel to the principal axis of a parabolic mirror is brought to a focus at the
same point , no matter how far the ray is from the axis. Since the path of a
light-ray is completely reversible, it follows that a light source placed at the
focus of a parabolic mirror yields a perfectly parallel beam of light, after the
light has reflected off the surface of the mirror. Parabolic mirrors are more
difficult, and, therefore, more expensive, to make than spherical mirrors. Thus,
parabolic mirrors are only used in situations where the spherical aberration of a
conventional spherical mirror would be a serious problem. The receiving dishes
of radio telescopes are generally parabolic. They reflect the incoming radio
waves from (very) distant astronomical sources, and bring them to a focus at a
single point, where a detector is placed. In this case, since the sources are
extremely faint, it is imperative to avoid the signal losses which would be
associated with spherical aberration. A car headlight consists of a light-bulb
placed at the focus of a parabolic reflector. The use of a parabolic reflector
enables the headlight to cast a very straight beam of light ahead of the car. The
beam would be nowhere near as well-focused were a spherical reflector used
instead.

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Image Formation by Concave Mirrors

There are two alternative methods of locating the image formed by a concave
mirror. The first is purely graphical, and the second uses simple algebraic
analysis.

The graphical method of locating the image produced by a concave mirror

consists of drawing light-rays emanating from key points on the object, and
finding where these rays are brought to a focus by the mirror. This task can be
accomplished using just four simple rules:

1. An incident ray which is parallel to the principal axis is reflected through

the focus of the mirror.
2. An incident ray which passes through the focus of the mirror is
reflected parallel to the principal axis.
3. An incident ray which passes through the centre of curvature of the
mirror is reflected back along its own path (since it is normally incident on
the mirror).
4. An incident ray which strikes the mirror at its vertex is reflected such
that its angle of incidence with respect to the principal axis is equal to its
angle of reflection.

Effect on image of object's position relative to mirror focal point (concave)

Object's
position (S),
Image Diagram
focal point
(F)

 Virtual
(Object
 Upright
between
focal point  Magnified (larger)
and mirror)

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 Reflected rays are parallel

and never meet, so no image
is formed.
 In the limit where S
approaches F, the image
distance approaches infinity,
(Object at and the image can be either
focal point) real or virtual and either
upright or inverted
depending on whether S
approaches F from above or
below.

(Object  Real image

between  Inverted (vertically)
focus and  Magnified (larger)
centre of
curvature)

 Real image
 Inverted (vertically)
(Object at  Same size
centre of  Image formed at centre of
curvature) curvature

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 Real image
 Inverted (vertically)
 Reduced
(diminished/smaller)
 As the distance of the object
(Object increases, the
beyond image asymptotically
centre of approaches the focal point
curvature)  In the limit where S
approaches infinity, the
image size approaches zero
as the image approaches F

Mirror equation, magnification, and focal length

The Gaussian mirror equation, also known as the mirror and lens equation,
relates the object distance do and image distance di to the focal length f.

The sign convention used here is that the focal length is positive for concave
mirrors and negative for convex ones, and do and di are positive when the
object and image are in front of the mirror, respectively. (They are positive
when the object or image is real.)
For convex mirrors, if one moves the term to the right side of the equation
to solve for , the result is always a negative number, meaning that the
image distance is negative, virtual, located "behind" the mirror. This is
consistent with the behavior described above.
For concave mirrors, whether the image is virtual or real depends on how
large the object distance is compared to the focal length. If the term is larger
than the term, is positive and the image is real. Otherwise, the term is
negative and the image is virtual. Again, this validates the behavior
described above.
The magnification of a mirror is defined as the height of the image divided by
the height of the object:

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By convention, if the resulting magnification is positive, the image is

upright. If the magnification is negative, the image is inverted (upside
down).

Effect on image of object's position relative to mirror focal point (convex)

Object's position
(S), Image Diagram
focal point (F)

 Virtual
 Upright
 Reduced
(diminished/smaller)

Variable Sign Convention

do For our purposes, the object distance (d o) will always be positive.
ho For our purposes, the object height (h o) will always be positive.
A positive image distance (di) corresponds to an image location on
the same side of the mirror as the object. A negative image
di distance (di) corresponds to an image located behind the mirror.
As such, real images will always be characterized by positive
di values; virtual images will have negative d i values
A positive image height (hi) corresponds to an upright image. A
negative image height (hi) corresponds to an inverted image. Since
all upright images (positive hi values) are virtual images located
hi
behind the mirror; upright images will thus be virtual images with
negative di values. Similarly, inverted images with their negative hi
values are real images that have positive d i values.
A concave mirror will have a positive focal length (f) and a convex
f
mirror will have a negative focal length (f).
M Magnification values are positive whenever image heights (hi) are

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positive. Thus, positive M values correspond to upright, virtual

images located behind the mirror surface. And negative M values
correspond to inverted, real images located on the object's side of
the mirror.

Problems, Plane Mirrors

1) A light ray approaches a mirror at an angle of incidence of 25°. What is the

angle of reflection? 25°

2) A light ray approaches a mirror at an angle of 22° with the mirror surface.
What is the angle of reflection of this light ray? 68°

3) In the figure below, two mirrors with a right angle orientation as shown.
Ray then directs a laser line at one of the mirrors. The light reflects off
both mirrors as shown. If angle A is 38°,

Find the angles B,C, and D

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Problems, Spherical Mirrors

1. A spherical concave mirror has a radius of curvature of +62 cm. What is

the focal length of the mirror? +31 cm

2. A decorative garden sphere has a diameter of 44 cm. The reflecting

surface of the shiny sphere makes a great convex mirror. What is the focal
point of the convex surface? -11 cm

3. In a physics demonstration, a concave mirror having a 50.0 cm focal

length is used to create images of a candle located at various locations
along its principal axis. Determine the image distances for object
distances of …
a. … 125.0 cm
b. … 100.0 cm
c. … 75.0 cm
d. … 50.0 cm (Be careful with your math; the result is surprising.)
e. … 25.0 cm

Answers:

a. 83.3 cm
b. 100.0 cm
c. 150.0 cm
d. No image. A solution to the mirror equation does not exist for this object
distance.
e. -50.0 cm

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4. Every morning Adel uses a shaving mirror with a focal length of 72 cm to

view the image of his face. Supposing his face is 18 cm from the mirror,
determine the image distance and the magnification of his face. di = -24
cm, mag. = 1.33

5. A store mounts a convex mirror in the corner of the store to serve as a

security mirror. When an object is positioned a distance of 4.8 m from the
mirror, its image is magnified by a factor of one-half. Determine the focal
length of the mirror. -4.8 m

6. Samir is studying the convex side of his soup spoon. He notices that his
3.8-cm tall nose appears to be 1.2 cm tall when positioned a distance of
2.4 cm from the spoon.

a. Determine the image distance for this particular object distance.

di = -0.76 cm

b. Determine the focal length of the convex side of the spoon. f = -1.1 cm

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Refraction

Light travels at different speeds in different media, hence, the wavelength will
change. For this reason, light bends as it moves from one medium to another.
The bending of light at the boundary between two media is called refraction.

The optical density is the property of a medium that determines the speed of
light in that medium. An optically dense medium slows light more than an
optically less dense medium.

In passing from air (less dense) to glass (more dense) the light ray will bend
toward the normal. On the contrary, if light passes from more-dense medium to a
less-dense medium, it will bend away from the normal.

Light bends toward the normal if its speed is reduced as it enters the new
medium, and bends away from the normal if its speed increases as it enters the
new medium.

Note: If the angle of incidence is zero (the ray is normal to the surface), no
refraction occurs and ray passes straight into the new medium.

Snell’s Law

When light travels from air into glass, or any other medium more optically dense,
light rays bend toward the normal. As the angle of incidence increases, the angle
of refraction increases, however, the two angles do not vary directly. The real
relation between the two angles was discovered by the Dutch scientist Willebrord
Snell (1591-1626).

Snell’s law states that a ray of light bends such that the ratio of the sine of the
angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is constant.

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For a light ray passing from air into a given medium, this constant is called the
index of refraction  for that medium. Snell‘s law can be written as:

sin 1

sin  2

The table lists indices of refraction of different media

Medium  Medium 
Vacuum 1.00 Polyethylene 1.52
Air 1.00 Crown glass 1.52
water 1.33 Flint glass 1.61
Alcohol 1.36 Diamond 2.42
quartz 1.46

In general, for any ray travelling from any medium to another medium, Snell‘s law
can be written as:

1 sin1   2 sin 2

Where: 1 is the index of refraction of the incident medium and  2 is the index of
refraction of the second medium.

Examples:

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1. A ray of light is incident from air upon a sheet of crown glass at an angle of
30o. What is the angle of refraction?

sin 1

sin  2
sin  1 sin 30
sin  2    0.32
 1.52

 = shift sin .32 = 19o

2. A ray of light passes from air into a liquid at an angle of 30 o. The angle of
refraction is 22 o. What is the index of refraction of the liquid and what might the
liquid be?

sin 1 sin 30 0
 = = 1.33 (water)
sin  2 sin 22 0

Exercise

1. Light is incident upon a piece of crown glass at an angle of 45 o. What is

the angle of refraction to the nearest degree?

2. Light is incident upon a piece of quartz at an angle of 45 o. What is the

angle of refraction to the nearest degree?

3. A diver beneath water shines a laser beam at an angle of 37 o to the

vertical. At what angle does the light emerge into air?

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Index of refraction and the speed of light

The index of refraction is a measure of the amount of bending (refraction). Note

that the index of refraction is a unit-less quantity. The relationship between
the index of refraction and the speed of light in a medium is given by:

speed of light in vacuum

Index of refractionof a medium 
speed of light in the medium

c

v

Where: c is the speed of light in vacuum = 3 x 108 m.

v is the speed of light in the medium.

v1 sin1
This equation leads to another one: 
v 2 sin 2
Example

1. The index of refraction of water is 1.33. Calculate the speed of light in water.

c

v

c
v  (3 x 108) / (1.33) = 2.25 x 108 m/s


2. The speed of light in plastic is 2 x 10 8 m/s. What is the index of refraction of

plastic?

c
 = (3 x 108) / (2 x 108) = 1.5
v

Exercise

1. Use table to find the speed of light in a) diamond, b) flint glass,

c) Polyethylene.

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2. Yellow light from sodium lamp has a wavelength of 5.89 x 10 -7 m travels

through alcohol. What will be its a) speed, b) wavelength, c) frequency?

Total Internal Reflection

When a ray of light passes from a dense medium into air, it is bent away from the
normal. This implies that the angle of refraction is always larger than the angle of
incidence. This leads to an interesting physical phenomenon called total internal
reflection.

As the angle of incidence increases, the angle of refraction increases, till the
critical angle (  c ) of incidence is reached, at which the refracted ray is parallel
to the surface, or the angle of refraction is 90 o. Any increase in the angle of
incidence, beyond  c , cause the ray to be reflected back to the dense medium

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Fibre optics is an example of the practical application of total internal reflection

of light rays travelling through tiny optical fibres.

The fibres are so small that once the light is entered into the fibre at an angle, it
will continue to reflect almost without any loss to the walls of the fibre and thus
can travel long distances in the fibre.

Dispersion of light

When a beam of light from the sun or from a light bulb strikes the surface of glass
prism, the light disperses (spreads) into an array of coloured light. This array of
coloured light is called the visible spectrum ( red, orange, yellow, green, blue,
indigo, and violet).

Red light has the longest wavelength and the highest speed in a given medium.
Violet light has the shortest wavelength and the lowest speed in a given medium.

The formation of the primary or the secondary rainbow is an example of

refraction, dispersion, and total internal reflection of white light by water droplets.

In the primary rainbow the violet colour is on top and the violet colour at the
bottom of the rainbow and vice versa in the secondary rainbow.

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Exercise

1. A ray of light incident upon a mirror makes an angle of 36 o with the mirror.
What is the angle between the incident ray and the reflected ray?

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2. A ray of light is incident at an angle of 60 o upon the surface of glass ( = 1.5).

What is the angle of refraction?

3. A light is incident at an angle of 60 o on the surface of a diamond. Find the

angle of refraction.

4. The speed of light in a clear plastic is 1.9 x 10 8 m/s. A ray of light enters the
plastic at an angle of 22 o. At what angle is the ray refracted?

5. A light ray is incident at an angle 45 o on a surface of a 10-cm glass cube ( =

1.5). At what angle with the normal does the ray emerge from the other side of
the cube?

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6. Find the critical angle for a water-air boundary if the index of refraction of
water is 1.333.

7. Calculate the critical angle for light travelling from glycerine ( = 1.473) into
water (  = 1.333).

8. Calculate the critical angle for light travelling from ice (  = 1.309) into air.

9. Calculate the critical angle for light travelling from water (  = 1.333) into ice
( = 1.309).

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10. The angle of incidence and the angle of refraction for light going from air into
a material of higher index of refraction are 63.5 o and 42.9 o , respectively. What is
the index of refraction of this material?

11. Light moves from flint glass into water at an angle of incidence 28.7 o .

a) What is the angle of refraction?

b) At what angle would the light have to be incident to give an angle of

refraction of 90o ?

Lenses

Convex lenses are thicker at the middle. Rays of light that pass through the lens
are brought closer together (they converge). A convex lens is a converging
lens.
When parallel rays of light pass through a convex lens the refracted rays
converge at one point called the principal focus.
The distance between the principal focus and the centre of the lens is called
the focal length.

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. Concave lenses are thinner at the middle. Rays of light that pass through the
lens are spread out (they diverge). A concave lens is a diverging lens.
When parallel rays of light pass through a concave lens the refracted rays
diverge so that they appear to come from one point called the principal focus.
The distance between the principal focus and the centre of the lens is called
the focal length.
The image formed is virtual and diminished (smaller)

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Differences between Convex & Concave Lenses

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Image Formations in Convex Lens

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Image Formations in Concave Lens

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Lens Equation & Magnification

We define do as the object distance—the distance of an object from the center of

a lens. Image distance di s defined as the distance of the image from the center
of a lens. The height of the object and height of the image are given the
symbols ho and hi, respectively. Images that appear upright relative to the object
have heights that are positive and those that are inverted have negative heights.
Using the rules of ray tracing and making a scale drawing with paper and pencil,
we can accurately describe the location and size of an image. But the real benefit
of ray tracing is in visualizing how images are formed in a variety of situations. To
obtain numerical information, we use a pair of equations that can be derived from
a geometric analysis of ray tracing for thin lenses. The thin lens equation is:

We define the ratio of image height to object height (hi/ho) as the magnification m.
The magnification is related to do, di, ho, and hi by the following relation:

In many cases both of these equations are referred to together as the thin lens
equations. The thin lens equations are broadly applicable to all situations
involving thin lenses (and "thin" mirrors).

As magnification is a ratio between heights it has no units. A magnification of 2

means the image is twice the size of the object and a magnification of 1 indicates
an image size being the same as the object size.

The sign conventions for the given quantities in the lens equation and
magnification equations are as follows:
 f is + if the lens is a double convex lens (converging lens)
 f is - if the lens is a double concave lens (diverging lens)
 di is + if the image is a real image and located on the opposite side of the
lens.
 di is - if the image is a virtual image and located on the object's side of the
lens.
 hi is + if the image is an upright image (and therefore, also virtual)
 hi is - if the image an inverted image (and therefore, also real)

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Example 1: A 4.00-cm tall light bulb is placed a distance of 45.7 cm from a

double convex lens having a focal length of 15.2 cm. Determine the image
distance and the image size.

ho = 4.00 cm do = 45.7 cm f = 15.2 cm

di = ??? hi = ???
.
1/f = 1/do + 1/di
1/(15.2 cm) = 1/(45.7 cm) + 1/di
0.0658 cm-1 = 0.0219 cm-1 + 1/di
0.0439 cm-1 = 1/di , di = 22.8 cm
hi/ho = - di/do
hi /(4.00 cm) = - (22.8 cm)/(45.7 cm)
hi = - (4.00 cm) • (22.8 cm)/(45.7 cm)
hi = -1.99 cm
The negative values for image height indicate that the image is an inverted
Example 2:

A 4.00-cm tall light bulb is placed a distance of 35.5 cm from a diverging lens
having a focal length of -12.2 cm. Determine the image distance and the image
size.
ho = 4.00 cm do = 35.5 cm f = -12.2 cm

di = ??? hi = ???

1/f = 1/do + 1/di

1/(-12.2 cm) = 1/(35.5 cm) + 1/di
-0.0820 cm-1 = 0.0282 cm-1 + 1/di
-0.110 cm-1 = 1/di
di = -9.08 cm

hi/ho = - di/do
hi /(4.00 cm) = - (-9.08 cm)/(35.5 cm)
hi = - (4.00 cm) * (-9.08 cm)/(35.5 cm)
hi = 1.02 cm
The negative values for image distance indicate that the image is located on the
object's side of the lens.

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Problems, Convex & Concave Lenses

1. Determine the image distance and image height for a 5-cm tall object
placed 45.0 cm from a double convex lens having a focal length of 15.0
cm. di = 22.5 cm and hi = -2.5 cm

2. Determine the image distance and image height for a 5-cm tall object
placed 30.0 cm from a double convex lens having a focal length of 15.0
cm. di = 30.0 cm and hi = -5.0 cm

3. Determine the image distance and image height for a 5-cm tall object
placed 20.0 cm from a double convex lens having a focal length of 15.0
cm. di = 60.0 cm and hi = -15.0 cm

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4. . Determine the image distance and image height for a 5-cm tall object
placed 10.0 cm from a double convex lens having a focal length of 15.0
cm. di = - 30.0 cm and hi = +15.0 cm

5. A double concave lens has a focal length of -10.8 cm. An object is placed
32.7 cm from the lens's surface. Determine the image distance.
di = -8.12 cm

6. Determine the focal length of a double concave lens that produces an

image that is 16.0 cm behind the lens when the object is 28.5 cm from the
lens. f = -36.5 cm

7. A 2.8-cm diameter coin is placed a distance of 25.0 cm from a double

concave lens that has a focal length of -12.0 cm. Determine the image
distance and the diameter of the image. di = -8.11 cm and hi = 0.908 cm

8. The focal point is located 20.0 cm from a double concave lens. An object
is placed 12 cm from the lens. Determine the image distance. di = -7.5 cm

END

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