2 Basic Concepts in Astronom and Geophysics 24. The universe ‘According to our present view, 10 to 20 billion year ago thee wasn but an exploding, enormously hoc tnd dense Primeval Pleball het {ined al the matter and energy of the present wnivere, In this rap xpnnding and cols gs of elementary prise, ssh se potons, net fn electrons, parties gradually combed and nearly all ater tok form of hydrogen stone, Ia Int stapes clumps ot pas were formed ‘Looking atthe universe now, we get 2 pleure of 8 nearly compl emptiness the mean mass density i extremely low, corespoading to a 8 Tew hydrogen atoms pe ten cubic meters. We ober tat mater Universe is mainly concerted in object with extcnely lng dmeas Sand of complex strucnse: the glares. ilione of these gasaies are Surned tobe present inthe universe The mean dite between thet {he omer of 10° to 10" km. To express thee large dstanes we tl take the light year athe unit of longth The light yer is dein as stance traversed by lpi ia vacuum daring one year, which cotesponts Shout 9.4650" Fn, ‘Our Sun belong to one of those galas, ned the Milky We, Milky Way, whic comprises about 100 blon srs, has the appearance of larg, relatinely fat stocte wth spizalarmr and diameter of a 100,60 ht sears. Our Suni located at a ditance of sbowt 30,00 fi years rom the eater of tis platy andr moving wth a veloc of roo 250 km/s abou this center, completing one revotton in abot 250 sl yous. The galtny earest to the Milky Way ts the Creat Magellanic 21 dtanceof about 160,000 fight year trom the Soa. Light emited Stas in this glory takes 160,000 year to reach. Consoquecty al observation of thee aintant object ae slated to condos in th {lnscs of many thousands or even milion of yey a0" Tn the nelghborbood of our Sun there ir abovt one star pr thoisand ight yess and quantity of intstllr gas and dst with a nes dts ceual to hat of 2103 hydrogen atoms per cab entinete, 22. The solar system ‘The volume of space very cose othe Sun, wp to a distance of aout 1 yelled the solar tam 1 th ay pat ofthe universe tat Sue Cancet in Atroomy and Gupte 7 spice tel wl ke place in he frenauble fare. I thi aor system the ‘Mints and 3 gzeat many otber bodes move in exis about the Sun. 221 The Sun ‘The San comprises 9.86% ofall mater inthe oar system. es ene ‘hun roughly 49°10! W. At Earthedstance rom the Sua the ‘power ‘ote about 1400 Win. The energy eeited by the Sun generated ‘by mucerreactons which take pce in the interior of the Sun, There ata \emperatr of aboot 10° and a presure of about 10°° MPa, hydrogen onvred ing helium whereby lrbe amounts of energy ae released. The ‘ite ight ofthe Sune emitad from the plotaspher, a rlavely hin yee inthe teagerstre of about 6000 K. Thi photorhere forme the vibe ‘ixac or ih of the Sam hs radia 4 about C10" kn, The outermost fepon ofthe Suni called the corona This como, whith is visible from rth ding solar espe, extends up to many photorpheic rad. Tae ‘corona comtinousty emit mater, mainly im the orm of protons and flestoas At essing the Ears ov, he salar wind has 2 velocity of ‘M0500 kms tnd contains about 10 protons pe cubic centimeter ‘Some temporary phenomens on the San, ke sunpts and cla flares are sociated with an TI-jear solr actly ee. Ata rst of large Solr fares oceuring at a oly activity mamsn, high-oergy solr pats nd "sronply enhanced UV and X-ray radon are emied. When this Fada neracs wih the Ears stmogpher,itmay use auroral ees, ‘tnaubanees of the goomagntc Held and radionterereoe. The solr ‘ctvty dha strongly relsted Yo many physi conditions on Earth 222 The planets ‘The main bodies orbiting about the Sun ae the nine plonets: Merry, ‘eau, Earth Mar, pier, Satur, Uranus, Neptane and Pt, in der of incising dance fom te Sun. Ualte the Sun, these bodes hardly emit ‘dation inthe vie part ofthe spectrum; the only reson tnt they ae Vile because oftheir teGeeon of ole Hight. The fst sx planes enoned were liedy known in cient times Urtase was dactnered Sccetally in 1781 by Herschel who was maliog 2 routlne telescopic Sure ofthe ky. From iol inthe orbit of Uren, it 200m became ‘Str tha ssl another planet hd tbe presen. Using the pertubaton theory of celestt mechanics (Chater 18), Adams und Lever, depen Senty ofeach other, predic the mass and positon ofthis eighth planet ‘rom the data of Leverer, Neptune was sacovered im 1846 by Calle Following the dicovery of Neptune, twas observed that sal diczepances ‘exited between the predicted and observed postion of Uranos and Neptune. Asin the protable poison of ninth planet war calealted, Ia1 ace ropuan 8 Spi Dyn ‘ate concepts in Aevonemy and Geophysics 9 ‘hs cae by Lowell In 1930 Tombaogh ented Phto on photerptidmhousands have beeo Wetiled end only few hundred are over 25m ‘ae made fom the region of the shy where Pit was pede. fon; mont of the steroids ae very sal Bess he asters nthe bel Js Tobie T., some relevant data onthe panes ate gen. We note th eave steroids which pevodcaly pst the Earth quite cose the plas Meicry, Ves, Earth, Mas end Plt se relatey sald “Comen ato mony rater sell jc, composed ‘of foes ces and compared to the gant planes Joie, Stun and oa leserenten, ao wl particles, coming rom he ouerper of he solr ttm wher they 8 ‘Sompired to Urine and Nepute. Compared to te Su, even the larga sumed to hive besa produced asa byproduct inte formation of the Plaats snl: the Jovian dameter shout one tent of the slr rtm. Ong te traction a he ares ses, sme comets re Snmetr All planet expt Mereary ad probably Pio, ae srrovnde esd ino the inet prc of he sole sytem, Wien = comet moves 2 ty an sopresiabe gatos atmosphere. Mercury td Vents we csr arto the Seay ems ap tod the clus rls gues aad dt Sun thas the Earth od ae oad the ner ones Th tfc per parler forming + hege cloud mound the neous the coma Some of he tors ae hier. The ighed side of Mercury assumed to have sso tsetse expelled mae or ess rally fom the Sun bythe slr ‘emperatre of bout 620K. The planet Urnus, on the other hand ree wad and the redaton presstre of solar ligt to form the charac ‘er ie solar epery so that ts ac empertre may bw 5 0] omer a Ths cae became a oupas T" bn tnd sbstancs ike methane, ammonia and carbon dioxide could be prsed Nfarrlds ato tal fo be obaered in heir obit sbout the Sop 8s iu o sl The ow mean density of Satu remade Tar prance besomes aown only when they enter the Ears seme i len thao tht of water. This may Todt the preeece of 2 land pice mere toy ar het by ton wn fey met apie Tae undue of hyogen andi EStsom phenomenon crned way led ter Rarely does sich ‘Al planes move in nearly ear obs about the Sun. The ots «erties ent) int he kmonpere and upet on fe Eats ‘Mery and Fut ae the most elite; the minim dane of Pf sce. The mueller caled« maeorte, Though the vst majority of suo the Sen i even ee than te distance between Neptune and the Su] metas are o Inger than gre, coool ery ge meteors ‘The ori panes ofthe plant ace nearly oie, Agia Mercury abl hve ck the Earthy producing mercer The lrgentErowa meter. to af ekeptions; the otal planes are inined boot 7 and 19] herve mass of about 30 to. Sometinen gest number of eveorole ‘especie, othe oil plane of te arth. A lets ett inthe sine found to have he same orb they const a mee eae ‘icection about the Sun; counterclockwise viewed fom the orth Th thoapht that such streams of meteors ave te deb emining fom the Inc dane rom he Son ranges fom about Sh 10k for Mere af beakyp of shucy oucss. Waen the Ear ie pang thoogh a ‘owt 59.10" im for Muto; he period needed 0 compile one revolt] teri etieam ange monber of eon ne we or some dye thee varies from 85 dos for Mereryt soot 248 yet for Pato & meer shawer ‘prs ihe disanes inthe solar tn ve Sony tote Aston ‘ra (AG) wich sou he mean dar of te ach ote Sf 23. Rarence frames and coordinate systems bie 132. Esch pave, xcept Mercury, Venus and pethps Pio, is asompani Ale part of his book dest withthe computation ofthe letras of ty ane or more natural sates or moons The Earth bas one naar teckel, lites and intiplanciayspucxaf We descbe the motion of ‘et, the Moon, Mars has wo, and Joptrevea fourteen tnown stl] these voices in eras of a tine-raying postion ver and se Ines (ie 5S ofthe 34 awn etelites are about le a, of raves. Tis reqeo soune, a elerene me wi apes 0 wach Inger than our Moon, One of the Join atts, Ganymede, ef usin, you sad sclevaon ae measured Inner than the pant Merury eo tht some the ger noone Super and Sati posses stnospheres Ser isthe only plant which a ringsterm conning of billows pases of mate oiingsfud planet To deaote poston sting to the Earthy one wuly tbe rferene fone wich ud on he ar a of aon Te pat ee py ee ee {cre the Earth erase ar aed the ar pol onthe sou oe — For simpy, we wil suum temporary tat the spe ofthe Earth is Betmeen the obits of Mats end Jpiter thee exit sla whic inf sty Spero. Then, th gest cle onthe ath sore allay of smal bodies, clasts tht shot te Sn. The larga asterop. Hevea fhe ple i the Earth's ents The great elspa ough Ceres, which was dacovered in 1801, messes abou 750k a dnmetof 8 Poles re calad'mendlony; hey tract egos st igh sop. By 231 Position on the Earth's surface1 eck Popo 8 Sputitt Dyas onvestion we tke s meridian to be bisected by the Earth's rotation into an upper and lower brane the upper bandh costing the abe Henceforth wth « meridian we wil sways mean its uper branch, Thos ‘ny poi P ig. 21) on the Eat surface, the ples excepted, we c fagioejost one meridian. The geographic lngine, A, of that point defined asthe ae Tengih in degrees measured along the equator Kom ‘etl pasag though the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, Engle indieued in Fp. 21 by G, to the meridian pang through point, LLongteder are menared itr fo tho east of mest of the Grocn ‘met from to 180 indicted To meaureslnptude posite tothe es of Greenwich and negtve 0 ‘wet Jo thi care the Lndeaton W or E can be dropped. Toe geen Tas, ©, of Pi given by the gooceatrc angle in depress mesared a ite merida, from the eqtator 9 P.Lattdes are messared eter 10d north oF to the sou ofthe equator lrom 0° 1 80% poive north a negative south ofthe eqiaton 2.8.2. The coleatial ephare Js denoting ange postions of clei objects, i convenient to mal te of the sneopt oft ettous ele! sphere This sa spre wih Infley large radius, centred at an observer on Barth or atthe ‘ter of he Earth, The remote star appear to bese onthe lane su fot ti phere. Iwi be cles tat ony for nearby objects, spacer ‘iereotangia posion wil be mctsued on the oberve-centted cl ‘il sphere ond the Eartincentered celestial sphere. For asymm Fig. 2:1 The valous concep ura to upoves we will we the later type. The clea poles are defined asthe fina where the Earths rotation si nterecte the eles sphere; the ‘hth celestial pole corresponds tothe Earth's north pole. This ele] forth pole presently es very aca to 2 soderaaly bright star, « Ussae ‘Gar, called the pole sar ot Polar, The Intersection of the Bar's atrial plane with the ele sphere s the exe! equator rest ls pasig through the celestial poles are called hour cles. Again, we ‘Sader an hoor cle tobe inte to supper Branch, ‘When the meridian of am observer on Earth is project ono the elestiat sphere, we speak of the ober’ celetal meridian. This celestial erin, 3 course, pases trough the celestial poles and through «point det ove the observer: his zenith, Owing to the Ent’ coation, the observer fell meridian continuously sweeps around the celestial epee. To pat it frotier way, the obeerver washer th clei epher rotating about the Eau spin atria wertvard direton; essa objects thereby passing the oberersstuionay coletal mere. Tht the so-aled diumal 233. The ecliptic 1 the Sun observed trom the Earth found to posses second motion ia sion tothe dural motion. The San mover estward among the tars arate bout por ay retring oe ign poon oy te sea ‘phere in oe yest The pth ofthe Sun over the cesta sere called the elit portant to reali that ren fom the Son ihe elt is oting but he neeston of he pan ofthe Era oot aboot he San ‘ih the eles sphere. ‘The ete ple sinned to the equstola {Hee at ane e rele too he ogy of tr epte.St the present fine ©= 25°27 The aus ofthe elit beog te line through he centr of the cols! sphere perpendicular to the epi, intersects the eset ‘pee inte eels The angle atanc betmeen the slr! north lead the etc north ol egal te snglee. reat te hough he Seip ae ced cle feel gids As we id witha Sits ad hour csi, we wl only conier he upper banc of tes erent Stele The intersecting ine ofthe equatorial pane and the ecipi plane Dias fmdaentl rol the toon of stron lems This Ie Call the enna eben hen, fo 20 bier co Earthy he Suh toe this ine day and night have eqeal length Tiss the case n 21 Much and 25 September exch yen. Thee Cg pointe ae led the mel equlnor and the cutunnal equinox, respectively. They ae aho Sled fo ot Fit Pa of es ad Libre, especie, The oaion is known rite fo the sta. Te shouldbe cepa tat the iguton vernal an sume! equi somewhat sed, sts for ‘a obser inthe southern hemisphere torn arts when the Sun costs he vera equine. ee1 octet Pode Spot Dyas 24 Goocentric reference fram For describing the motion of small rockets with respect 10 the Ean surface, usualy 2 geacenie rang reference frame is used. In his fa the Zan i ducted slong the Earth's spn axe twas the noth poe the Xan i inthe Ears equator pine, crowing the upper branch the Greeowih meridian. The Yai es i the equator plane oxen ‘ach aro make the rlerece frame right-handed. In spbevia coordina postion caa be expressed bythe length ofthe geocentric raioe veto, nd the geocentric latitude, 9, a0d gograpic loge, or the trajectories of intercontinental ballistic mises (ICBM), lau vehicles and Earth suas, usualy 4 no-fotating felerence fave W ripest the Ears center of mals chosen Ie postive Zax exc with the rotation fai of the Earth and points a he nor pole: th psi [aes le in the equator plane and points lowacts the veal equ ‘The Yana completes a vght-handod Cartesian fame of reteroee. Ti frame i ealed the gecentic nonroating equatorial reference frame ( 21). As thie reference frame f not Totaing with respect to the eel ‘phere, the poston of stars in ths frame wil temalp fsed rather ‘hanging repli asi he goocentscrotsting frame mentioned befor. soceatic angle in degrees messed along the bow cite tough eles object, inctes by in Fig 21, rm the celestial equator tot object called the destination, 6 of that objec It measured fom 50% postive when north of the equator, ogative when south a Dec ‘on io thi reference tame ranaiogos to geoceti latitude on the ofthe Earth. The geocentric angle in degrees measured along the cet ‘aust, rota the plat tothe fot of te hour ele throwgh $i cl the ph ascension of the object. Right ascension s measured fom 0" 360" fom the point" eanward. The desiaaton, Gght-ascemion a Gintance rom the Ea ctater describe the postion of # vehicle Sphesia cordate "Fors dlousion of planetary motion and other phenomens in the 0 system, it often more convenient to se We eitie pane a the fund ‘ent plane for a selerene fame. Ties, We speak of 2 goceic ‘otatng elie reference frame (2.2), in whic te XY-plane cline tit the etipi plane The Kare point the ver! equinox. The Za slong the att ofthe elie and points tothe eae north ple ‘Yeas somal 10 the X- and Zeans soc that the frame i igh ‘Tae angular posion ofthe celestial object § in Fig 22, can be speci ‘vo quanien, the cee! loge, 2, ad the cles aide, g Celestial latte defined asthe geocentric angular distance in dope ‘ocsruod long the cre of ele longitude passing throu the ob ftom the ecliptic to that objet. ken posve for objects north ‘agave for object south ofthe ecliptic. The celestial onsite deine the angular distance in depose measred slong the eat from the uk Canepa Aevonomy sd Geophys 13 ig. 22 The geocentic equatorial end elie systems of enordinates “the foot of the cule of cletl longi through that object. This nde measure from U1 360" eat slong the epic 235 Heliocentrc roference frames For deserting planetary positions, or the motion of interplanetary space- Gt the Suns more convenient as orig of reference tame Ta met cases th epic plane i taken asthe XY-plae in a heliocentric ference frame ‘Sie the clea sphere was considered t have on infinite rads, very ‘ot inthe solr stm can be pared as boing the ceter ofthis celestial Sphere. Consequently, paral Hoes through the Sun and trough the Earth ‘rliatnct the cea sphere atx common point. Ths, the point "can stv asthe dzecsonlrelerence for the X-axis i 2 Hellceane reference Fame to. In the elsconie mon-rottng eli frame, «postion can be ‘described by a helocenie rads, rand bythe elocnpie longiade 2nd ‘aide, defined snaiogosy to clesil longitede and Intitede in the ‘rocentc ecliptic frame Besides the reference frames meatond, in astodynamics still other reference frames rein use. Discssons on these other frames, wed for Specie appitons are beyond the tape of hit intoducory hapter 236 Motion ofthe verns squinox Upto nom, we have taclyasumed that he point, ing fandamentl to the sonsotatng reference fumes, red betwee the mart onthe eles ‘phere Infact, however, thse eat. Fly, the mata dsubuton of ‘he Each sot pheilysynmtr. Aas conegucoe, he seviaional tact of Se and Moon atts pracosion td metadon ofthe Earth's {pion ax; L. the eventaon ol te eeatoral pane vue. Sooo the oa arson betwee the Earth sd the eter place roa ‘alto ae rent of he ee pane ay he a sony 14 fite distance, showing some of thei own motion on the eles thee case of en fy, the plat" over on th elt phere arate of about 08° year, while the obliquty decency With abou "=14 ose Popuion 8 Speci Dymo | year. The First Point of Aries, as its name suggests, was some 2000 sea {poled inh comtelation of Ar, the Ram Mote rss ha ‘ee in Pn, Fay and prea movig it the onsen ‘Art he Wier Ci nore o aot octane nella ‘tchuve to sei which oretason fb squat plane andthe xp line, ad the location ofthe point ar taken forthe reference frame ‘Usaly the mean vere! equinor and equator (or edi) of velerone epoch ace tslesed, whereby mean roles to the Tact thatthe relate ‘hor-perod ntstion motion fered out. Ta axtrodypamis, two choi forthe relerene epoch are commonly wed: the binning of he yea 1950 find the date for which the competatons are peslred. We thea speak cl et ur of 190 wfc ane a he mec pes of 23.7. The velocity vector | “The veo vector of rocket, satelite or spcterat can be described by ‘he magoitade ofthe veosey and by tw angles determining the dtecton a this wll yest To this end, we fat define loa! horton coordina ‘som. The local heron plone canbe defined a the pane oem to {dius vector (ig. 2.3)- In the goocetse equatorial reference fame, the othsouth destin s defined bythe intersection of he plane though Tocal our srl withthe loc orignal plane The fight path ange the age between the velocity vector, ¥, andthe horizontal ple This ng varios beoneen DOr and 230% 90 corresponding with radiny outa] Virested yelocty. The angle between the Toca north direction snd the} Projection ofthe veloc restr onthe Rorzotl plane ie ealled the fh Path azinash, This szimath i measured om the north in a cockwi ‘heen from 0 1 360 Fig. 23 THe focal horizontal plane an the anges and ‘ei Canepa Aevonomy tad Geogr 8 24 Time and colendar Man bas long beld «belt that there isa “uniform time’. The concept of Uinormiy, however, fens oot to lack meaning. We have no ister rand {dol which we tre sure that iran wiformly. All we really ped tha ter ehvonowetric variable, If igeted into our physi lav, furasbes fepoducbiepredieons that are in agreement seth oar observations. It ttle, me tke a ull repetve physi phenomenon and define sucoes fre ptids of repetition oe equal in egth, Nowadays, cs fl thatthe tine proided by cesium cock shoeld correlate to the highest sosricy bith oor pial ws, and we take by defnion tht this tne propemer orm. We call his Atomle Tine (A:T). Though ia ths way we eat Aetne tit of time, forthe Biting of time in our conventional ele we ate fortine reckoning ens a stonomy the meseurement of tne intervals based onthe rotation tthe Earth The oberers ine i daied the anlar distance eonered Iy reference object on the clea sphere after Ie last cosiog of the ‘pps branch of the observe’ celestial eran, The te interval between Iwo sce comings called day. Thowph the actual length of sy ‘le oneal depend onthe relerence abject chosen, each Ope of day Sivided into 24 equal pats, ello hows, These Dours agua are subi Ins 60 mate ad etch mite ita 0 seconds "The our angles H, of am objet defined as the angular distance in degrees measured long the elestal equator from the observer's median tolbe fot of the object's hove ce. Beenie fran observer on Earth, the ‘patent motion of clea objects onthe celestial phere iin a westward econ, the hour angle measured postive to the west so hat the hour ‘ale increases with tine. For a celestial object, this hour angle is indicated in Fig. 2.1. AS a increment inthe hour angle of 30% eoresponds "0 tine increment of exaly one day, ime can be delice ss the hour ingle of the selerence abject. Ae rleence object» prtclar sar ean e ‘eked, eg, Antres, When Antares crores the eres meridian we can Speak of GM Antarr-tine. Intend of selecting pst ay tas att be more convenient ows tho vernal equaox orth Sun as erence Obie, resulting in slderal tine or solar sme, respectively AS the Door "eal of ven point on the celestial sphere dere ata satin epoch lor ‘heres ih 2 iferengeograptical longing, bot types of tine are local and we speak of local skereal time ap lea solr te. ‘The siereat day ie desind a the interval between tno suceaine passages ofthe vernal equinoraeoss the observer's meri. From the definitions of16 oct Popo & Spee Byam: hour angle and right aseasion, iwi be lear that a celestial obj sia i taste the observers meridian at a loa sidere! fine equal fo the 7 Aseeasion of that object The sdereal tine at Greeawih i called ‘Grenwichsderal tine From our definition, we concle tat te wick siderel tine is obtained by adding the west longitde of an o Toh loa sderea ime. AS the plat is moving slowly tx non-unto sats on the eesti! sphere the sidreal ay wl ot have conta fe ‘when compared io ao atomic cock, but wil vary aly. The sidered however, sto within one hundredth of» second elt the ue petod| ‘otaion ofthe Earth with respect to a fed point onthe exes 242 Solar time Sidereal ime is very wef to astronomy; ou les and working dx however, af wo large extent reqssted bythe Sun, Thertoe, ts fs esa to use solar te. A'solar day & defined ts the petod ot Earth's rotation with respect othe Sun. As the San moves, for an ob (Earth at about I” por day slong the esp In an eastward direction Wl be ceer fom inspection of Fg. 24 that soar day He louger tha exe dy. Alter one revolution o the Earth slave fo te point lbserver Pas alt cover the angle PP’ before hs sole tne nce by 24 hous. Ast thes the Earth aboot # minutes t rotate through Spparent solar ime, the Sum pases the upper reid, Tis convedieat aot ast a ole day a the Sun's cog of Upper branch ofthe observer's mv (noo), bat tthe crowing of lower branch (aidnigh). Consequently, the clapied apparent soir sinc the beginning fa solar day ithe how angle ofthe Sun pas 12 Fig. 24 Diferenes between a sfares day an a aolar day A Bau Canepa Acton and Gaps 17 ‘Op September 2, te Sun passes through the autumnal equaox. The vernal ‘nor then pases the meridian ofan obnerver foe whom iis midnight. At tht moment, lel spparet solar Une and local sigcel tie se eal fr ‘id owerver mentioned. With each svceeding day trom then, siereal time ‘Biss same nutes on solar tie, wl jest one year ltr the dierence fetesn them i 24 bout. 243 Me ‘ig to the etipciy ofthe Earth's orbit about the Sun, and the fat that ‘Se-oqatrial plane 20d the ecliptic plane do aot conc, the apparent ‘ion of the Sus onthe eles! sphere ie oot "uform” For tht reason ‘Be colar day has nota constant length. Therefore, che concep ofa Stious Fea Sen har bee intodace, whch i asume Yo move at woform ate ‘Gituad long the clea equator, with a sderea! motion equa tthe {ea ster! motion ofthe tr Sun at Janey 0. (a. December 3112 our ET", 1900 This period i the so-called repeal ear of Famuy 0.5, {1900 to be dxamed in Seton 2.46, A meon solar day eel! day, the ineral between two succes crosingr of the mean Son throwgh the Sherer’ meridian od mean solar time defined a the hour ange ofthe ‘ngas Sun por 12 hours, The maximum diferene between both kinds of {iar ime can be as char 17 minste, In atrodyoamis, we often se 8 audardied mean solar ies the Greenwich mean sla one of Univers Tine U7) 244 Standard time ech ho 1864 an tration arent wa ech io eseblih ‘snl 25 inc soe ound te vr Alt wocoveralogtae itera {415 Te Greerich sone, Zones bowing ands? 3° 7 ‘A rreones are member th Greet sae, postnely ot wet ‘he Sunda Tie or Zoe Tone (2) of any pls on ach pen ye ‘eens ect teen ugar leona he {iain madi Zone io 72 5W wo NOW Zane 2 he {09m 1725 to LSP Zane ~12. The mein separating ee to ‘SA hc ncmatona at Lne Gog sso tm Grecichon fa, ih me atoeDattine te 2 hula eines Grea gg “saron in ine 2 hour carer thn Greenwich Conquest § Seidnofti Date Lnerelinndconnayof2ehours Wether ont {8 romonrclenar when crning the DteLine ins wentvard dein 8 otadyrwice whencrsnginbeoppone deo Forgoepial Enola runny vs Deine leone untaescrtte, ‘Be St dasisrion sen above245 Ephomoris time and atomic time ecavse of iene in the Bart's maton rats, even the mean soi fay varies sgh as compared to AT. over the yea For very pi ‘etrminnons of tine therefore a aw kind of time was intoduced a 195 ‘Ephores Time (1) This the ine which i content with the ns ‘yaumicy, end eauses the positon of etl odes, a predicted fom ‘ynamical equations of matin, co gfe with observation. The fundamen Suit of Eis the ephemeris second which ie 1/91,386 9259787 trope {at of 1900, January Oat Greenwich mean 0000, and chosen such tha une the leagth of & mean soar second at that epoch, In 1978 UT. aa ETT, dered by about 45 seconds owing to change inthe Earth's ota rate sine nur 0, 1900 ‘Werhive ten that, formally, cro defitons of wlform une ae ia we. astronomy, IT. wat devised from the ler of dynamin phys, A vrs introduced. The big advantage of 7. that it can be measured in [iborstory envionment ip contrast lo ET. The epoch st which AT. 15 usally st at 1956, January 1,0 hous U-T. The stom scond ia lied fo that the frequency eoesponing to actin resonance of ‘esi stamis 9,192, 61,770 eyes per second Thi oun vl is ‘hat the ATT. second is equal tothe observational determined value of ET, second over the period 1956 to 1965. At19S8, anury 1, A. an ELT. dered by bot 32 seconde and asoming that AT 3 ET ra an equal rte, preset the ievence i sl about 32 secon "in Jarry 1972, the store second wes adopted forall ining, repac 246 The yeor | In adhion to th day a unit of time, we are accustomed in i He ther eatral unit: the ear, the month andthe week. Here we wil discal ‘nly the year. The year defined atthe orbital period of the Earth in ‘notion about he Sun. Various types of years can be distinguished. The {porta ete topial year he Dllan ear and the col ealendar ear, “The topical jours defined as che dine Interval betwoen two suc pasapes ofthe Sun through the yeralequion. Tt equss about 65 2 ‘ean solr day. the Jullan calendar, every year counts 365 mean sola day, ex ‘hore years dive by four: the leap yen whien have 366 menn ‘age Soy the average length f the Juiz yer fe 365.25 mean solar dy To approximate the topical year more closely, the Gregorian ca sea troduced. The dferenceYotwoen the Both lends bing thet in [Gregerin cleadr those century years not dlisble by #00 ae ord ears. Tod, the Gregorian calendar the cil elendar inate over {tthe gobeThe average length oa Gregorian yar 365.2405 ea se Comat aroma sd Gonhies 19 ays mich & so close to the tropical year thatthe eror in wing the Giegrian calendar eal the day in 10,000 yes. 247 The Julian date Fn, the concep of Julian Date (.D) bas to be mentioned. This is & ‘ype of Jolin day oumbers which involves « coming coust of mean folie day rather thta year sod 0 provides» snpler way of determining the inurval of ime between two datas than use of the conventional ‘andar The epoch at which the Joan Date war exaly aero was stat 413 BC, Isnany 1, Greenwich noon, onthe Jan enlenda. This epoch ‘doe tothe one tht in medieval ace was believed to have matied the ‘ceaton of the Earth. Asan example: he Julian Date for 1975 Aupist 1,18 our U'T jr 2,442, 62625 In order to oid thore Inge mimbers for Jndeaog dats ia our times, ite convenient Yo expres epoca fa Modified “Iuan Das (MID. which are related to Jaan Dates by: MaD.=1.~7,400,0005, ‘shouldbe recognized tat wile a Juan Date taste at Groenvich mean ‘toon, « Modi Jalan Date starsat Greenwich minh 25 The Earth (ur planet Earth ao, ina fist approximation, be consisered sphere with 4 fade of 371k. As is mas equle about 598% 10"hg, ts mean The ered ls te produced mally by the arorpton of soar adaton, Borst the very low parte essity in hs repon the ee electro a the shine ons do ot recombine qucty and he fonepere continues to ext ‘Fen at igh when te lonzng slr raion fn longer preset. “he sein between about 90km and SOO km aboe the Earths surface i Gil the themorpher Inthe Tower thermapher, the temperate i {tess rpily ih tnctesing situde unt a about 300-500 kn the fe-iled expr emperatur (Ts each From thi ato Upwates {Ge inc) temperate resi constant. The Hetng of this tmongberie ‘exon is manly due to sla adation up o-0.2 a, While below about 0k he mean sect weight nary constant, above 120k there is { gadal decrease of molecular weight wih increasing iad, The cond- tes inthe thermorphere are sgl laueced by the solar cy. Dating eid of soar dba he ses er oie a ‘rps reiton cause aon eating ofthe Earth’ upper ator hee Te increased Heating produ: 20 outard expansion of the ator. be resign ante of dent” At an sine of 60m for Jt, the a of ese at high and ow ray cn ea ‘Therein ofthe atmosphere above about S00 km ical th exzrphere Some the lighter atoms are 0 st andthe dean hee 0 Tow, tat thie stom can zap ino outer space, Tone species and lero, ‘owever,caanotexeape because thelr movon is rested bythe Ears [BSP fl. Ths region up tothe tamsfon of te geomagnetic eld to {Bs ierplaneary magnate Hele thercore ao called the magnerphere. Howe 2.8 gives an indian ofthe dependence of pressure, Sensi andEP Te ee Fg. 28 Variation of press, dena and mean malacler weight inthe Ci ‘a Reorene Atmosphere sean molecular weight on alode inthe epper atrogpbece. At an ai ‘ot more than 1000 Km, te dosti less dan 10™" ga”. Because of low density, aerodynamic forces on space vehicles can mostly be nek St slstuder above 1000 em. Therefore, we wll omit 8 ization of ‘utemost selon of the atmosphere. or rocket voice, the aunospbere ceases to have any measurable fl st mach lower ait,