20 Low-Thrust Trajectories ‘All current space transportation stems ase chemical rooket engines. In ‘ese propubon systems, the propulsive coeay source contained inthe propellant sel. Avery important performance parameter ofthese systems the ellecive exhaust solo, @ whch even for the most energetic ropllnt combinations limited to about 5 to Gk. Thete ar, however, ther ‘ype of propalson systems feasible. One of them ithe slic [popula utem, where lecuially charged parls are accelerated by les magnet els. survey o the various types of elects trates Se pen by Aa [I] and Chk [2] A number of clavre truer concepts ave been developed during the lt twenty ear tos level where they can ‘eapplied toa vrety of space isons [3 Many trsters have alread Bown Sicewsfuly lo space. Though, atl now, eleceie moto bave bees ‘nly used for ate contol of satelite and orbit corestionpurpores, they win the fture andosbtedybe wed a primary propa stem for Spuceaalt Unlie the chemical stems, an lecne propulsion system Includes a separate power source abd power conversion unt t impart the [tie energy fo the propellant ‘Tht pom pun, which may compre Soli-core nbsen-ision reactor or alte sole ara, ads considera) 10 the buroout mas of the spacer, reducing the pasloa capably of the ‘re superior othe chem ones, duet the fac that the exaust veloc of lec ystems x much higher than shat of chemical motors Te ths chapter we il del with th aplication af elec thrsters 0 the propubion of interplanetary spacecraft. We wil restct ourselves, ad Isl dias the eae gh fromthe Earth's pravtatonsl el. Reshouid Te resized, however, ta the sme ethos can be apled to he comput tion ofesape fights rom ater planets. For nda discus on many ‘Spe of ow tht jects the reader refered Yo Eick’ standard won (4, "When desianing sn cece spaccraft for a pariardnterpanetary ‘mission, @mnimom payload capably wally equred for speciied ‘it time, We ths want Yo minimize the combed mas of propellant ane ‘powerplant An extesie dacuaton on te dela of sock an option ‘rocest igen by Stubliager [5], Here, we only meation that for each Ison snd fight tne, an optimum history forthe thst sd the exbaae ‘elo results It then appears 5,6] that for elec propulsion stems, “he opium values of sre, F per inal mas, My abd elective exhaust ‘elocty, 6 usualy He within the rage: 10 10-2mi, = 501504 “The clectreat power sequremeat may vary fom IOKW to 10MW. The propellant mse om wil be inthe range m= O.01~5 gf. We ate, thatthe Iapntader of specie thst, efletive exhaust veloc and mass ow ae tly ifleent fom thos forte chemical propsion stems "Ae 3 direct contaguence ofthe low thrs-to-mass rt, elec propul- sion eangot be usd Io lnunch a yehie tom the Ears siface, nr wil be ‘fu if appreciable atmorpheie dag encnunlered. Bat san cally propelled sage Inenched ino a parking ort about the Earth, even & Inte thrust wil ores the vehi o resde pada fom the parking ‘orbit Because the low tra can be msintined for s considerable peviod of Time, lectcally propelled vehicles ate capable of ating very high ‘eos 20:1. Equations of motion Cie te mot os pas ev 0» nnsaingpneati Se tae ane We acne te at i oe See ere re tec ta akeatt t Pores acaba Sa"h be aay fe ng Se Sry deinen ans ous pean el Be Trace er beaten fra Shh wer» he pan pune fhe Earth sd he potion wan 5 he cn Tr econ of £9, 0:1 yw ed wu Seton 361) P Box ae e014) 012) where His the (rtita) angular momentum per unit mas, and a the ‘nat aceleration, defined 38 ae ee) See pon of 001-1 9 ee 018) rm464 oct Puen & neta Oyaes Where 8 & the total energy per unit mas, sive ans We rer ss th te thst acting continous io oa ae ‘noo at coy he nm nl ng te ih ath ing a8 no 04) can be wens 088, 016) V 0s(6-1) (01.65) ‘We note that the instantaneous ate of change of nergy a maxima she rat ting tangential tothe trajectory. Tho tine-deriatve Of the Angular momentum a masimum i the thrust i dieted perpen 0 the rade vector "We now arsome th the vehicle's motor starts thrusting when the vei isi eccuar parking orbit Then, the ntl condition ae gien by 10: rm 0=0, where @ isthe polar engl, describing the angular postion ofthe spacerst (Fig 20.1). When a() and 30) are speed, the ntepraton of, (20.11) yes the uajetory Nowa bythe spacer In general, we ae sommiied {0 mumerieal integration tecaigue, but n some spoil cases an analyte tna a the moto pry posible Two aah css wl Be ig. 204 Tejecory parameters Lo ae Tats 5 202 Constant radial thrust acceleration “The motion ofa spacecraft in an inverve-sguare gravitational el witha thst acting continuous in radial dietion, was ret tied by Tsien (7) Ii we sume thi the thar ected radially outwards, Eqs. (20.16) epi © a 20.240) = Vin. 02.15) co “Ths, the angular momentum per unit muss i constant daving the powered Tipht, jst a8 for Keplesantajeces,Interaton of Bq. (202-18) vies ie cn. ar staal slag Bq, 201-5, we can write Eg (202-1) inthe form alla) “(Gly A) 20a? Substation of Ba, (20.22) ito Eq (202-9) iets 2023) For constant thrst-tomas ratio, Le @ otis equation can be integ- (Cf tase-noal a2 “The radial ely of he power equ 21 | Gbna-ale 0 tet opt 1 =a) — | | | SG) | | i65 Heetat Poon & Sono Dyas, “The ist oot, of course, presents the inl paklag obit. Real aes for ‘and rn exist i ays ipl Denoting te pavtaton acelration in the parking OPS by we may wie (2026) nd the condion for rea valus form snd ry becomes Bet 029 The reser should note tat ia this chapter, sands for a rferene aviation! ‘sosleation and does not desipsie the standard surace fay, >, the radial velocity wi oly be zero inthe packing orbit and ‘he vehicle wil continuo reco frm the Earth, This ans thet espe from the Earth's gravitational eld wll be acoomplated, it leat te thrust canbe mantined long eng Ht the rot 7 corresponds the pas spn in Eq (202-30) and 7,19 the minis ign we note thn for alee snc Asondiag B02: (2)-<0 er merc, iho couse i physically not pose. We alo find that if y n(n sso tae (22) >0an (2 rota =H the dstanes rand are equal, and © at at <0, we may concde ‘he spacer dance wil continuously vary between Alstanc is zero. In that case, the vehicle wil ssrmpotclly apposch 0 Sheu ori wth radios In this orbit, the trast acceleration equlsone-al the Joel gravitons acceleration’ For the voc ofthe che i ti ing neal oe find with Ey, (2022) ‘Ths, the velocity is one-half is orga value in the parking obit snd 17 {ies the local rl velocity Some results of te omer iteration of the equations of motion ae shown in Fig. 202. The te scale in. thi. fpure hasbeen now ‘imensionsized by dividing tby the deel perid inthe pasting ois Ty “The variation of velocity with datance canbe obtained a follows. Fist, we Gi) +e (G)- sot hn Ey 202-2) nd 20.28, ih ee a2) a diate for constant radial tt462 ocat Popo & Ssctgh mame se curves forthe lea ccala velocity, Vand the local escape velo, Vee We note that ay, the velo fit dereses to 8 minut vale and for ayy>t incoass again a ager stances. ale,>h the ‘hice reaches the local escape veloc ata distance ) erat Oats 0230 Fora ami of he vat of ane, & wh de ‘ucts ee 0 Copan Ther et ay ame rt or rain al mee catsup uit che opt ane tap 15 mon hc heel ese Cele fe E's pe ‘Sha wth ntl ets muh ora nba rome cnr 203 Constant tangontial thrust ‘The problem of programming the thst dizetin of ow tht spacecraft to permit is escape from 8 low-altide cela parking orbit with the rinimam expendtere of propellant he been studios by many autor, “Among the vasoussnalyea solution avaible, both for constant thst nd constant thrust acceleration, in particular the publications of Lamden {9}, Breakwell and Rasch [10] and Reiélhuber and Schwensteger [11] ould be mesioned. These sine reves! thatthe cial optimal trot ‘retion varies with nein quite sonplx way They, bowery so show ‘hata tangent thrust very coset the optimum thst deco. Ins tection, we wil onider the cae of constant tangential trast, Teshould be vealed that the tangential thr stecring i only neat ‘optimal ifthe tristseseleration is Yery anal ative to the lal gat ‘onal aceraon. Ifthe vee moves on a interplanetary tajecoey bout the Sua, te situation quite diferent AS at the distance ofthe Earth from the Sun, the gravitational accleration of the solar ld i about 50x10 mit, 2 thrust soaleration of 10"? mls cores to about ‘one-sinth local gravitational aeceleration just ouside the Earth's sphere of {nace Fo ths relatively high vale, the angel steering not neces Ay spproxiats th el optimum thas rogram anymore, The deter ‘on of optimal interplanetary vajectores furthermore hampered i the ‘hice hao encounter anoter cles body, leading to two Pat bound fn ae oben Metin [12,15] rae amp ch ep nT own Tac 203.1 Characteristics of the motion For tangential thrst, Eq, (20.6 simply Sar cos 20310) a m aa (203-16) ant 1 both the thst and the elective exhaust velocity are constant, the Hrtentaneous tra aezleration i en by 3.2) ad we note thot th trast scleration slowly inreses wih ine, Usiog By. @0.1 5), we can write Eq, (203-1) inthe frm av mdr gy, ara BY a Hsin 03.) ae For the variation of distinc, , and anglar poston, 8, wih ime, we may (03-4) LY, 035) Equation (203-48) can aio be writen a8 Sven y)=arcorn Substttion of Bas. 203-3) and (203-4) into this relation, fay yes aes 2036) The Hg. (203-3) to (202.6) consuteaset of fou fst onder dierent Tato, desing the varon of, Vandy with te ing 20 permet representing tater pa ane, vst and seat esi ae eds ano tn fr abot one evoltn Se Canon's stants or the deren betwee the acual vse of 8 Frome andis ve a 0, Besse he il parking bt, Petal nares inesy wth one, forthe Frain of # Ae 1 heFp. 204 Varistion of sajctoryparamatara dung the Sat revolution in on ‘ape baectary with sonean tangent thst Fig. 205 Parameters feecope ttre with onatant tangent! rust ° - | " sir iY |} | eps i i : i — ee Tad ae al P “eT Ee) LY ik afr Tse a | 4 | LANNE wet aes | ee ee thrst only the quant ¢- no hs been pote, where ne the (mes) ngs moden inthe perkng orb. We Se tn inte fst pre of ttajesy he veloty ieee After bouton thi of revel, he ‘elif below the ear velocity depart, ad here un of Potent encry athe expen of ict oery The vl) oss ‘tout a dereting mean sue We ths bate the sparen conadion thera ts acing inthe diecton o matin yells a decreasing wee ie lnteresting to mendon in tht Contet tat for adap ont til we ‘ave the opps statin. The dap, opposing ti dton of noon ‘esto a destesing eta sto td me nctesng velo “The qunnty or fst pres, ber Seren ter bout ones of revlon, The gh path ange slate an reaches 4 ‘maximum ater abot bf 4 revein. Afr one complete relate, it Sha anal pve vee “The poston and veloc of he sass oer 1 long prado ie 2 ston ni 205 Instn of the por ae hemunbero evolu Nidebocd 203.) Is ploied. Aso indicated in ths Spare ithe point where the esape velocity is reached, shouldbe reli that on the scale wd, te osciltons thown in ig 204 ae oot ble: Aue rm the olen, mente at dhe vei ects st only jt before excape take ace The expe ‘eioiy is eached aa lrg dane aod ser he pcs a compte ‘in lis Artin oven Pe 208 tt he Tinh path sl omar sory dwt eo for long perio of tine. Sie {Gate or uny ctor yl of tra cect ad eka last re presented by Moock! [14 Table 204, the eae te, tu, being the time thes to seach the Tale 201 Trajectory dee at excpe for constant ‘gent hr (al wo wh, S001 1138 oe 9366s BSL Riley spoe 92a vor ise “aan aes wtas) 382 ska172 act Papion& Speci Dyami scape velocity, and the valet of distance, number of revolutions, velocity gt path angle ao re marin for ths vals of ten thrust acceleration and for ¥, = 10 “The spiral trajectory own y's spaccrft wth constant tangent trast Isshown in Fip 206, Bocuse th inner winding ofthe spl ae vey lose together aly the lat few revolution are shown Fa 208 An escape tojctory with constant tangential tut 203.2 Linearization of the equations of motion For the very fst part of the ecape trajectory, the deviations of distance, ‘angular postion, velocity and Hight pate angle fom thes respective vals inthe cular parking orbit wil be very soll We then tay apply the small: pertrbation theory and deine (203.8) Yona Substitution ofthese relation into Eg, (203-3 to (20-6), an subeguent Unesraton ike s 0309 v 203-9 Sana by 203.99 anaa eT Tctrn 7 For simply, we will ow change from the dependent variable & 10 the independent variable ¢ defined 8 eno rnne 203.10) “This angle thus inde the gular position ofthe spacecratt at ine if the vehide were sll to move in the inital parking evi. So. can be Fepsnded asthe analog of the uapertrbed {rue anomaly, introduced In Seeton 186. “With Bay (202-6 and (203-10), we can write Es. (20:3. in he form oni cana 03.0 eosnng inion of tom Bo 203419 md 203-119 ghee ay 1 dV ay ae Vode hhc bento 0 2 Vatey cos. Difereaiton of a, (203-118) with respect to 6, and subsequent subsite ‘ion of Ege (203-1) and (203-12) ys ae “The general oltion of hie ferential equation, withthe contions 2M oe Subsitaion of Eq (203-13) into Bg, (20.312) leads to ¥.-8(9-2sing) 03.414)4 Roaiet Papuan & Speight yraee Substitution of Eqs. (20-13) and (20:-14) ito the Bas, (202-118) and (203-118) and sobeeqacnt intgrion its =-Biae two ais y'=228(1 008 6) (20.3.1 Sono. 316 Remembering that ¢ and # are rested by Eq, (203-10), we pote by comparison with Fig. 204, thatthe approinte expresons ay, (20.-19) fhrough (203-16) quite accurately Weserbe the Ast pet of the actual For the general case fan lic parking omit, asc the same method ‘an be apled [15]. though, generally, we wl hea apply the method of ‘ation of obi clement as neue in Seton 18 20.33. Performance analysis In Fig, 202, the velocity of apacerft with constant tangent thr Shown versus the ditance, for some valves of way Cares forthe lal Sieslarvelociy, Vi and the fsa scape veloc Vg ae ls dope. ‘We noe that fr low thrust sorsterations, he veloc Goring he laren pat of the escape tnjectory & very near to the los crear wclocly Only ‘uring the Ist couple of rveutions before escape, the veloc apy deviates from the cclar veloc, Foran spprovimate. performance nai, we therefore may asume that nthe escape fight the veloute fiver by vous cass F207 Veloce: ou Tt Tetons 75 ‘This approximate relationship enables us to Gnd approximate expressions for th dependence of rad distance on tne abd of angus poston on radial dance, ap well ab for the exape tine and forthe propellant asumplion daring the esape ight. By substidon of Eq 203-17) ito Eg, (201-5) and (203-40), we s--#, czns.te) aay. 203.19) imino 0 fom Bp. 203-18 and (203-19) ade Borah, or it Ba 203-2, ear 2 raat te 203-0) Integration lade wits the int conditions ¢ * [Fuca] “This equation leat shows thatthe tance wil nly increase only very ow “An approximate relation for the escape tie, fan an be obtained from (20.821) Realizing that escape wil ake pee ata faite distance, we obtala| e, real that we dea wih 4 terial volume. Thee Integrals represent the contribution ofthe vale CP. Fg. A241 The contol sutsses apd contol volumes forthe drietion of eynol’aneport thorn 4.25 oy § mt tne nay pts Joie Be Hl 8S yas ot, Meat Bl nora are | acveaas ‘With the help of Gaus’ theorem (Append 2), the right-hand sie of Ea (42-2) canbe writen a 2 vame intpral It sel point uncon, ne finds 023) Bf aeref seaman, aay sad A ea tr pt econ it BL aor-[ Pea: new-ma}an (aa) The Eas. (A23) are known a5 Reynolds" emp dhere ad slate the ‘materia time cate of change of a volume integral of 5 function tthe ‘lume integral of the spall time rate of change ofthat function, Tis convenient to derive a slr elation forthe ose that we deal witha volume of fted shape. Considers von ealsed bys conto surface Sof fixed shipe and moving with velosty V, trough the Buk. We may apply ‘he foregoing agtment, only the selon ofthe sutae clement dS i now V, instead ot V Thus we replace V by ¥, al the foregoing equtins main valid. We now let A~pP, where p i the density sid Pt vector funtion defined inthe continuum, thea Bd. (AZ) beoomes BL wrere{ Sumars[ one: 1 ith vey fe lle oo ic 5 we ve wav va 2) r)as 24) where V 6 the asoite velocity of the Aid Substation of Bq (A25) ito Ba (A2-4 lds Bf opar=[ Zaman | orn-as- [arava ‘Apsin using aus theorem, the st surface integral o the slgh-hnd side ‘ofthis equation may be writen ae volun itege and we find Bl oror=[ Soncane-wvoe-myner -[otevaas aro{00 fait Popuon 8 Soni Dyas BL opera | [Busnsone-v]or-[ ame-vanes Bes gee 1=0, 2 mer F av. [orm vanas. won Appendix 3 The First Law of Ther- modynamics When we speak ofa themodynamie sytem, we mean swell defined amount of matter contained within material or hypothetical wall trough which there fa contllabie energy exchange with he suroundngs The fst lw of themsiynamics is nothing but the experience that energy costed a Sch stems d-ae+aw, (as) {an inftly small amount of heat 40 (or other form of energy cde. {0 the system, cases an initly sil increment GE ofthe interna entsy F of the system, and am inntly small amor! of work dW done by the ‘system onthe surounding. We ca ao write OnE B.+W, 032) we only consider expansion and compression work, the work being done by te sstem, AW= pa =alpr)—¥ a, 033) where stands forthe molar solar So, Eq (AZ-I) can lo be writen es vp, 034 ‘The combiaaton E+ pY & called the heat function, or enthalpy H: pr. ass Wis astomary to we Gy, C,H, E ee. for molar quan, Le. quai based om the mola bs unit and yy By tea specie quan, ‘ynntes based on te eit of mas or tues we hare h=etnle 3.6) and 40~dh— Aap. as) By definition, the heat capacy at constant wane G,=(8Q18Dr and the heat apa at constant presse = (@OF0T),. Ts =e oe 6-F 38)