The psychological effects of pre-competitive stress on elite divers - a review

Heather McGregor *
12 Roos Street, Beverley Gardens, Randburg, 2194
e-mail: heathmcg@yahoo.com

Earle Abrahamson
36 Marion Place, Glendower, Edenvale, 1610

Stress occurs when appraisal of the demands of a situation exceed the available resources under conditions
where failure to meet the demand is perceived as having negative consequences. Stress is neither considered to
be merely an event or response but rather a complex interaction of interrelated constructs and processes
reflecting the relationship between intrapersonal and stituational variables. Although, the identification of general
categories of stress is possible; it is important to acknowledge the significance of individual differences, especially
with respect to cognitive evaluation procedures. The concurrent responses considered in this paper are self-
confidence and state anxiety; both of which are related to potential pre-competitive performance stress.
Antecedents and consequences are examined with respect to elite competitive springboard divers.
Recommendations for future research propose continuous assessment strategies.

"To whom correspondence should be addressed

Introduction transitory emotional response; operationally defined

Stress occurs when an individuals appraises the demands of a
situation to exceed his/her available resources under conditions
where failure to meet demand is perceived as having negative
consequences (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Competitive stress,
can be experienced prior to competition if the athlete anticipates
an inadequate performance; during competition if the ongoing
performance is perceived to be inadequate and following
competition if the performance is interpreted as inadequate
(Scanlan & Passer, 1979). Stress is neither considered to be
merely an event or response but rather a complex system of
interdependent constructs and interrelated processes (Gill,1994).
Of importance is the individual's perceptions and cognitions
which function to mediate the relationship between the stressor
and subsequent "frequency, intensity, duration and type of
psychological and somatic response" (DeLongis, 1988, pp
486). Consequently, any stimulus which causes either
physiological or psychological arousal beyond what is
necessary to either accomplish the activity or deal with the
situation, is regarded as the initial source of stress or stressor
(Franks, 1994).
Subsequent to presentation of the stressor, is the individual's
appraisal (Gill,1994). To date, two categories of evaluative and
reciprocal variables, namely: Primary and secondary appraisal,
have been identified. Primary appraisal, or situational variables
(Lazarus & Folkman, 1984); concerns the characteristic
environmental attributes experienced by the individual
(Horowitz, 1990). Secondary appraisal of the intrapersonal
variables comprises perception of the individual's potential
resources and abilities to overcome the stressors (Lazarus &
Folkman, 1984).
Anxiety is the individual's response to threat and is adaptive to
the extent in which it assists the individual in coping with
perceived threat (Wachtel, 1968). Spielbgerger (1966)
partitioned this expansive construct into the refmed
subcomponents of trait and state anxiety. Competitive trait
anxiety is the relatively stable personality disposition reflective
of an individual's tendency to perceive competitive sport
situations as threatening (Martens, 1977). Trait anxiety in turn
elicits state anxiety, the immediate and acute response to
perceived stress (Scanlan & Lewthwaite, 1984).
State anxiety is deemed to be a negative and
as consciously perceivedfeelings ofapprehension and
tension accompanied by or associated with activation
or elevated arousal ofthe autonomic nervous system
(Spielberger, 1966 pp 17).
The study of pre-competitive state anxiety in sport has been
extensive with the majority of the fmdings being equivocal
(Gould, Petlichkoff, Weinberg, 1984; Martens, Vealey, &
Burton, 1990). It is proposed that the existing discrepancies and
ambiguities may in part be due to the application of a
unidimensional model of anxiety. Consequently, many
researchers advocate a multidimensional model of state anxiety
which functions to differentiate between the mental and
physical components of this psychological construct (Davidson
& Schwartz, 1967; Liebert & Morris, 1967; Morris, Davis &
Hutchings, 1981). The physical or somatic subcomponent
incorporates perception of the bodily symptoms of autonomic
arousal, whereas the cognitive component is characterised by
negative performance concerns, inability to concentrate and
disrupted attention (Davidson & Schwartz, 1967; Liebert &
Morris, 1967).
Diving is a dynamic, artistic sport that requires a high
proficiency of ability in performing certain skills. Since the
pertinent environmental stimuli remain relatively constant,
springboard diving is classified as a closed skill sport (Magill,
1993).
In spite of these consistent variables however, divers are
required to contend with a relatively high degree of incertitude.
Performance in sports such as figure skating, gymnastics and
diving presently rely upon the expertise of judges to asses both
the quality and difficulty of a given routine or dive (Bruno,
1986). Since judges seldom evaluate performance in a similar
manner; the significance of issues such as interjudge reliability
and bias substantially accrue. In contrast to other sporting
events which exercise absolute performance measures; the sport
of springboard diving elects to rely on subjective evaluation
criteria to assess the aesthetic and technical quality of a diver's
performance (Bruno, 1986).
This literature review aims to discuss the dimensionality of the
antecedent stressors, their consequential stress responses; and
the intrapersonal and situational variables which function to

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mediate the nature of these responses as related to springboard
diving. Finally, it is important to note that while there is
considerable research in other related closed skill sports such as
gymnastics and figure skating; there is only minimal research
available in the sport specific area of springboard diving.
Consequently, these associated fmdings are discussed and
where possible attempts made to apply them.
Sources of stress
Individual differences refer to the individual and idiosyncratic
characteristics of behaviour, a fundamental concept within the
interactional model (Fisher & Zwart, 1982). Gould, Hom and
Spreeman (1983a), identified that while some athletes
experienced a particular source of stress, by contrast, others
negated the importance of these factors. While various fmdings
provide valuable information regarding the most frequently
experienced sources of stress, it is important to acknowledge the
existence of significant individual differences between elite
athletes' specific stressors (Scanlan, Stein & Ravizza, 1991).
Whether a stressor elicits a stress response is largely dependent
on subjective factors located within the individual (Franks,
1994).
Negative Aspects of Competition (NAOC) broadly
encompasses four themes that collectively depict the experience
of either negative thoughts or events as associated with the
competitive process. Worries about competition concerns the
mental distress regarding competition in terms of preparedness,
potential for poor performance, fear of failure and programme
content (Eklund, 1996; Scanlan & Lewthwaite, 1984; Scanlan et
al., 1991). Which encompasses either a dive with an extremely
high degree of difficulty or a recently learnt dive being
competed for the first time.
The second theme is identified in terms of preparation ideals for
competition and incorporates the requirement to improve when
training for competition, while simultaneously attempting to
fulfil personal criteria within the constraints of
uncompromisable objective deadlines (Eklund, 1996; Gould et
al., 1983a; Gould, Jackson & Finch 1993a; Scanlan et al.,
1991).
Competitive hurdles pertains to both the subjective and
objective impediments which may function to hinder
performance. These may refer to performance at a "jinxed
venue", in front oflarge crowds, a weak inconsistent dive in the
competitive list or the loss of control over mental preparation
skills (Scanlan et al., 1991). Which is closely related to the
final theme that refers to the perceived importance of
competition. This latter theme which is defmed as the
recognition in magnitude of significance of both the event and
its outcome; may be either self-imposed and/or related to
significant others (Gould et al., 1993a; Scanlan et al., 1991).
Hence the diver attempting to earn a place on an international
team is far more likely to respond with anxiety, than is the diver
just happy to be representing his/her provincial side.
The stress-source dimension, demands or costs of diving, refers
in particular to the immense time commitment required to
achieve and maintain elite athlete status. In addition, the
distress associated with attempts to balance various life
commitments while concurrently tending to forfeit social
opportunities and maturational experiences; is incorporated.
Similarly, it is necessary to acknowledge the related theme of
personal costs in which athlete's perceive to experience a loss in
either self-worth or identity (Gould et al., 1993a; Scanlan et al.,
1991).
Stressors involving interactions with significant others (IWSO);
pertain to the experience of difficult or unpleasant interactions
39 S. Afr. J. Psychol. 2000,30 (3)
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with either peer or adult significant others. Typically, within
diving, an individual sport, this interpersonal discord involves
either parents or coaches (Scanlan et al., 1991). Performance
expectations allude to an individual's effort to achieve a level of
performance as determined by significant others and also
concerns related to apprehension regarding the consequences of
failing to perform up to the these expectations (Eklund, 1996).
With respect to subjectively evaluated sports, this dimension is
accentuated by pre-competitive criticism received from judges
and officials (Eklund, 1996; Gould et al., I993a; Gould,
Jackson &Finch, 1993b; Gould & Weinberg, 1985; Scanlan et
al., 1991). Politics refers to the' characteristically underhand
practices and potentially biased judging which can greatly
prejudice performance outcome due to the subjective nature of
springboard diving (Gould et al., I993a; Scanlan et al., 1991).
Finally, personal struggles are noncompetition stressors,
internally located and incorporating both the physical and/or
mental difficulties addressed by the athlete. This may be
associated with pressure to maintain optimal performance
weight and appearance; a theme particularly prevalent amongst
female athletes (Gould et al., 1993a). This is especially relevant
given that most divers are subjected to a daily reminder either
from coaches or parents (or both) of the need to maintain their
weight in order to ensure for both faster rotation, and thus the
achievement of more difficult dives and cleaner entries. This
continual struggle with dieting can act as a chronic source of
stress. The stress may be as a result of self doubts regarding
perceived physical and/or mental ability or inadequacy to
compete and succeed (Eklund, 1996; Gould et al., 1983a; Gould
et al., 1993a; Scanlan et al., 1991).
Appraisal I perception of threat
Investigations show that a number of situational and personal
variables influence the degree of pre-competitive stress
experienced by an athlete (Gould et al., 1983a).
Competitive stress findings indicate that the intrapersonal
factors of competitive trait anxiety and self-esteem are
predominantly related to pre-competitive stress (Gill & Martens,
1977; Scanlan, 1978; Scanlan & Passer, 1978). Specifically,
higher levels of basal state anxiety, trait anxiety and lower
levels of self-esteem are associated with higher levels of pre-
competitive state anxiety (Scanlan & Passer, 1978).
Individual differences in competitive trait anxiety are assumed
to develop from the cumulative effect of both positive and
negative consequences acquired over the individual's
competition history (Martens, 1977). High competitive trait
anxious individuals appear to have experienced a history of
failure and/or negative evaluation.
The importance of the competitive trait anxiety of an individual
is however, tempered by the fmding that with a few exceptions
(Sanderson & Reilly, 1983), this variable carmot significantly be
related to performance (Cooley, 1987). It is proposed that the
significance of this variable lies within its mediational role
between the effect of a competitive stressor on an athlete's state
anxiety (Martens, 1977). This submission is verified through
research which indicates trait anxiety to be a powerful predictor
of subsequent levels of state anxiety experienced (Cooley, 1987;
Gill & Martens, 1977; Scanlan, 1978; Scanlan & Passer, 1979)
which is particularly important in light of the potential influence
of state anxiety on performance (Sonstroem & Bernardo, 1982).
Considering the global and transitory nature of self-esteem, it
should be expected to be only moderately associated with sport-
specific stress (Scanlan & Lewthwaite, 1984). Nevertheless, it
is likely that trait self-esteem, characterised as the average level
of self-esteem with respect to a specific activity, will indirectly
affect performance in an individual competitive event since
changes in the level of state self-confidence will fluctuate
depending upon and according to its trait counterpart (Taylor,
1987).
While there are many situational variables such as perceived
importance, presence of an audience, knowledge of opponent's
ability and parental pressure which may have an impact on the
magnitude of pre-competitive stress (Cooley, 1987); only the
two interrelated variables of outcome expectancy and
experience will be discussed. These aforementioned
constituents are selected in light of their relevance to the
antecedent stressors previously discussed.
Athletes' perceptions of potentially anxiety-eliciting sport
situations are likely to be influenced by self expectations of
their performances (Scanlan & Lewthwaite, 1984) and is
indicated to be an influential predictor of pre-competitive stress.
Consequently, an athletes' perceptions of their potential success
and ability in a specific sport environment (personal struggles
stressor) will subsequently lead them to expect certain outcomes
as a result of their perceived competence (Fisher & Zwart,
1982). It follows that the provincial champion who may
realistically expect to medal or at least [mal at a national diving
event, is less likely to develop precompetitive stress than the
diver who expects to be knocked out in the first preliminary
round.
With respect to nature of the sport, the experience of the
individual athlete needs to be examined. Diving as an individual
sport inherently possesses an increased potential for greater
social evaluation in that the focus tends to be more strongly on
the individual's performance; which significantly influences the
subjective perception of both the NAOC and IWSO categories
of stressors. In support of this proposal, research by Simon and
Martens (1979) indicate pre-competitive state anxiety levels to
be dependent on the sport played; with individual sport
participants demonstrating higher levels than their team
counterparts (Scanlan & Lewthwaite, 1984).
Gould et al. (1983a), indicated a significant relationship
between experience, trait anxiety and the feelings of
inadequacy. In other words, experience can be regarded as a
powerful predictor in the likelihood of sources of stress such as
personal struggles. In addition, in one of the few studies
involving divers (Highlen & Bennett, 1983), subjects
acknowledged a lack of experience as significantly related to
poor performances; thereby indicating increased levels of
national and international experience as important in
performance enhancement of elite divers. It follows that
increased opportunities to perform under stressful competitive
situations are likely to assist in coping with the negative
performance effects of stress.
Stress response
What athletes extract from sport situations would appear to be a
function of their general disposition to be anxious in
competitive sport settings plus their perceptions and
expectations of themselves in specific situations (Fisher &
Zwart, 1982). Stress responses are mediated by more than one's
immediate perception of the situation, in that information is
stored from past experiences in similar situations. An
individual's response to a current situation will be affected by
the degree to which the stored information is brought into action
(Fisher & Zwart, 1982).
Although evidence is accumulating indicating that high levels of
competitive trait anxiety may be linked with heightened pre-
competitive state anxiety; research suggests that the majority of
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athletes do not experience extreme levels of pre-competitive
state anxiety (Martens et al., 1990). The relative disposition of
this construct with respect to the individual nature of
springboard diving is however significant. In particular, divers
are likely to display significantly heightened cognitive and
somatic state anxiety (Simon & Martens, 1979; Martens et al.,
1990) with depressed state self-confidence than their team
counterparts (Hammermeister & Burton, 1995; Wong, Lox, &
Clarke, 1993).
Due to participation motives and adoption of less ego
threatening goals; cognitive state anxiety has been identified as
decreasing with age (Hammermeister & Burton, 1995; Martens
et al., 1990). In contrast, cognitive anxiety increases for elite
athletes. Similarly, athletes participating in subjectively scored
sports (lWSO stressor), as opposed to events with objective
evaluation criteria, given the uncertainty and lack of participant
control over outcome (Lox, 1992; Matheson & Mathes, 1991),
indicate increased levels of cognitive state anxiety and
decreased levels of self-confidence (Hammermeister & Burton,
1995; Krane & Williams, 1987; Martens et al., 1990).
In addition, concern over perceived ability (personal struggles
stressor) in conjunction with greater uncertainty regarding
personal performance (NAOC stressor), both of which are
related to outcome expectancy and decreased self-esteem, is
positively correlated with heightened cognitive state anxiety
(Gould et al., 1984; Lox, 1992). The extent to which these
stressors are perceived as threatening, is mediated by both the
variables of trait anxiety and experience. An increased level of
experience is negatively related to heightened cognitive anxiety;
while high trait anxiety is positively correlated.
Perceived importance regarding personal performance (NAOC
stressor); with the mediating intrapersonal variable of trait
anxiety (Gould et al., 1984) is positively correlated with
somatic anxiety (Lox, 1992). Somatic state anxiety transpires
as a reflexive response to various environmental stimuli, for
example nature of the venue, and is associated with the
inception of competition stressors (Gould et al., 1984).
Temporal patterning of pre-competitive anxiety levels is
indicated as a significant differentiating constituent. Elite divers
were found to experience increased anticipatory anxiety which
reached its peak one day prior to the competition (Highlen &
Bennett, 1983), with an acute decrease immediately prior to
competing (Highlen & Bennett, 1983; Mahoney & Avener,
1977). By comparison, their less successful counterparts
continued to experience these increasing levels with a peaking
and subsequent levelling; only one hour prior to performance
(Highlen & Bennett, 1983).
Although these divergent anxiety patterns may be associated
with the differential requirements associated with open- and
closed-skill sport types, there are other equally feasible
explanations such as the muscular movements required
(Highlen & Bennett, 1983). Similarly, the discrepancies in the
literature may in part be due to the utilisation of nonvalidated
unidimensional measures of state anxiety; as opposed to
validated multidimensional measures. The literature indicates
somatic anxiety to steadily increase prior to competition,
reaching its peak and subsequent dissipation at competition
onset; whereas cognitive anxiety and confidence show little
temporal fluctuation (Gould et aI., 1984).
Another potentially significant determinant is the interpretation
of the anxiety response. Jones, Hanton and Swain (1994),
indicated no difference in intensity of cognitive and somatic
state anxiety amongst elite and non-elite swimmers. Their
interpretations of these responses with respect to the potential
40
consequences for subsequent performance, differed markedly.
The elite group reported significantly higher levels of self-
confidence and ascribed both their responses as potentially
facilitative to performance (Jones et al., 1994), consequently
attesting to the decreased likelihood of an athlete to describe
this experience as anxiety. Similarly, those athletes
experiencing decreased confidence in their ability are
predisposed to experiencing anxiety as debilitative (Jones et al.,
1994).
Perceived ability (personal struggles stressor), which
subsequently relates to both self-esteem and outcome
expectancies are significantly related to antecedents of state
self-confidence (Gould et al., 1984; Lox, 1992). Specifically
where athletes question their ability, subsequent threat
perceptions result in lower proportions of experienced state self-
confidence (Lox, 1992). It follows therefore, that athletes
participating in subjectively scored sports (IWSO stressor), as
opposed to events with objective evaluation criteria, indicate
relatively decreased levels of self-confidence (Krane &
Williams, 1987; Martens et al., 1990).
Performance effects
State anxiety and self-confidence are able to exert considerable
influence on performance (Taylor, 1987). Both research and
anecdotal evidence propose that self-confidence functions to
enhance performance whereas cognitive anxiety registers a
subsequential performance impairment (Martens, Burton,
Vealey, Smith & Bump, 1983). Cognitive state anxiety and state
self-confidence have been linked to outcome expectancy and
therefore continue to affect performance throughout the
competitive event. Consistent with the multidimensional anxiety
model; it is proposed that cognitive state anxiety is likely to
have a greater and more consistent impact on performance than
somatic state anxiety (Gould et al., 1984; Martens et al., 1983)
provided the latter doesn't become so great as to divert attention
from the task.
Gould, Petlichkoff Simons and Vevera (1987) devised an
appropriate investigation of the interdependence between CSAl-
2 subscales and pistol-shooting performance. No correlation
between cognitive state anxiety and performance was indicated.
Somatic state anxiety was found to exhibit a curvilinear
performance relation (Gould et at 1987) while a concurrent
negative linear trend for self-confidence was demonstrated
(Gould et al., 1987; Karteroliotis & Gill, 1987). By contrast,
conflicting results with professional soccer teams indicated
cognitive worry as consistently and inversely related to
performance (Rodrigo, Lusiardo & Pereira, 1990). Finally,
using the CSAI-2 and intraindividual performance measures,
Burton (1988) found cognitive anxiety to be more strongly and
consistently related in terms of a negative linear relationship to
swimming performance than is somatic anxiety. This latter
study indicated a positive linear trend for self-confidence. This
is especially applicable to springboard diving which requires the
diver to compete a list of 10 or 11 dives for females and males
respectively. Given that the diver has considerable time to
evaluate the performance of each dive prior to the following
round, the potential influence of cognitive state anxiety in this
sport is immense. For example too many negative thoughts
following the unsuccessful execution of a dive and the athlete is
unlikely to be at an optimal anxiety level by the time it is his/her
tum to perform again. By contrast, a successfully executed dive
in turn increases self-confidence for the remaining dives and
hence stimulates an enhanced performance.
The only consistent finding is the significant curvilinear trend
between somatic state anxiety and performance (Karteroliotis &
Gill, 1987; Landers, 1994). The extent to which somatic anxiety
is associated with improved performance is dependent upon the
41 S. Afr. J. Psychol. 2000,30 (3)
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motor and physiological requirements of the sport (Taylor,
1987). With respect to diving, a sport requiring fine
neuromuscular control, lower levels of somatic anxiety are
associated with increased individual performance (Gould et al.,
1987; Taylor, 1987).
Ineffective cognitive patterns are represented by too many, too
few thoughts, task irrelevant thoughts and negative thoughts.
These negative thoughts typically emanate from the personal
struggles source of stress and characteristically incorporate self-
doubts regarding personal ability. For divers, these typically
take the form of either praying that they don't miss their take-
off or negative imagery whereby a diver may visualise
themselves landing right over or even failing a dive. Self-
defeating thoughts as a consequence of perceived negative
situational variables such as failure expectancies are also
manifested (Eklund, 1996; Gould, Eklund, & Jackson, 1992). A
strong correlation between these negative thoughts and low-
levels of performance is attested (Eklund, 1996). Some pre-
competitive self-doubt within the context of positive
performance expectancies may still allow for optimal
performance (Eklund, 1996; Gould et al., 1993b).
There are a number of situational and task variables that have
been demonstrated to be related to both level of arousal and
performance. Considering that as arousal increases, there is a
concurrent reduction of task relevant cues used by an
individual; complexity of the task is of fundamental importance
(Wachtel, 1968; Walker, Nideffer & Boomer, 1977). Thus the
more complex second set or optional dives are at a greater risk
for increased interference. Interacting with task complexity is
the level of skill of the individual athlete. As a function of both
a high level of skill and considerable practice, tasks are
simplified. Consequently, motor responses become more
automatic, requiring less conscious effort and attention. In
addition, through a reduction in the number of cues they
respond to, the athlete becomes more efficient; thereby
decreasing the likelihood of becoming overloaded and confused
as arousal levels increase(Walker et al., 1977). For example,
following years of practice the elite diver is able to isolate a
single crucial detail in an otherwise complex hurdle movement.
Despite increasing arousal these divers are then still able to
correctly achieve this action, thereby enhancing the likelihood
of executing a successful dive.
Elite athletes indicated the ability to utilise their anxiety as a
stimulant to increase performance levels as opposed to over
arousing themselves into panic states through either self-
verbalisations and/or images which function to reinforce self-
doubts and negative performance expectancies (Mahoney &
Avener, 1977). Thus, a negative correlation between self-doubt
as a source of stress and optimal performance becomes evident.
The applicability of these results must however be interpreted
with caution in that only a small samples population and
unidimensional operationalization of anxiety was utilised (Jones
et al., 1994).
Diving can be particularly sensitive to the influence of arousal.
Researchers have noted that increasing arousal results in
internal noise in the form of increased muscle tension and
autonomic activity (Wine, 1971). This interference makes
subsequent concentration difficult. Concentration is vital to
success given that the entire dive is completed within seconds of
its initiation. This highlights the importance of being able to
focus attention on only a few key aspects such as the take-off or
hurdle and spotting of the break and entry. Similarly, increasing
levels of tension act to interfere with co-ordination, mobility
and timing (Walker et al., 1977), the latter being perhaps one of
the most crucial elements of springboard diving. Without
successful rhythm and timing of the board, the diver is
prevented from achieving maximum height and lift. Incorrect
timing in the hurdle also results in a non-ideal movement away
from the board, in addition to hampering the diver's resulting
rotation. Thus in the absence of a consistent and well-timed take
off; the diver is unlikely to successfully execute their dive.
Initially, as arousal begins to increase, muscles begin to tense
and attention narrows, a process that often transpires in the
absence of the diver's cognitive awareness. It is likely that at
this point, these low levels of arousal actually assist the diver to
block out all other potentially distracting stimuli and focus only
on the relevant and key elements necessary to perform. This is
why elite divers are seldom even aware of external annoyances
such as people walking in front of the board, cell phones
ringing, flash photography etc.
With additional arousal increments, the diver begins to become
cognitively aware and construes the experience as anxiety. At
this time excessive muscle tension is keeping the individual
from relaxing and from feeling solid on the board. With further
narrowing of attention, concentration time increases as does
muscle tension which results in a loss of cognisance of some of
the external environmental cues that help the diver estimate
time; thereby creating accelerated sensations (Walker et al..
1977). The diver begins to experience considerable impairments
in a number of factors necessary to successfully complete a dive
(Walker et al., 1977). These include co-ordination, speed,
timing, strength of push out the board, balance and ability to
stretch. Consequently, this results in the diver generally rushing
to complete the dive. While this may take the form of walking
down the board too fast or pushing into the last step too early;
the net result is the prevention of maximum lift and rotation
from the board, both of which function to hinder performance.
Even these slight misjudgements in timing often result in a dive
that normally lands upright, to be either too short or too over.
It is important to point out that diving is a complex task and that
as the complexity increases the negative effects of arousal on
performance increase. Emphasis on the mastery of fundamentals
accordingly results in greater resistance to the negative
influence of stress and a subsequent greater consistency in
performance (Walker et al., 1977).
The complex interaction between the various tress components
is depicted in fig I., and serves as a functional illustration of the
pre-competitive stress process.
Competition Intrapersonal Variables
- negative aspects - trait anxiety
- costs of skating - self esteem
Noncompetition Situational Variables
- interactions with - outcome expectancy
significant others - experience
-personal
Figure 1. Schematic Representation of Pre-competitive Stress
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Conclusions
The colIective literature indicates that successful elite athletes
are more self-confident, better able to concentrate and less
likely to experience preoccupation with failure or outcome
expectancy thoughts. In addition, these athletes exhibit more
positive thoughts and possess an increased capacity to cope with
their anxiety (Gould et al., 1992; Gould, Weiss & Weinberg,
1981; Highlen & Bennett, 1979, 1983; Mahoney & Avener,
1977; Meyers, Cooke, Cullen & Liles, 1979). It nevertheless
remains difficult to establish conclusions with respect to the
possibility of sport-specific characteristics. Consequently,
while the open- and closed-skill typology approach warrants
further investigation; a greater diversity of sports which
integrates type of motor activity; contact vs. non-contact and
individual vs. teams needs to be considered (Highlen & Bennett,
1983).
With respect to perception of threat, the literature (Scanlan &
Lewthwaite, 1984; Scanlan & Passer, 1978, 1979) indicates that
performance expectancies and competitive trait anxiety are
operational in both the diverse contexts of individual as well as
team sports; retain this influence over a broad setting and are
fundamental yet stable predictors of pre-competitive stress
(Scanlan & Lewthwaite, 1984). In order to begin to seriously
understand athletes' anxiety patterns, and in an attempt to
improve or predict performance outcomes; both an
understanding of the determinants of competitive anxiety
(Cooley, 1987) in association with the reciprocal interaction
between athletes and their specific sport environments must be
considered (Fisher & Zwart, 1982). This necessitates a theory
of the process of stress reactions, their antecedents and of the
dispositions related to this process be elaborated (Krohne,
1990).
Relatively few studies involving elite springboard divers, with
none examining antecedents and consequences of pre-
competitive stress, can be located. Research which accounts for
the nature of the sport, experience and skill level while utilising
competitive events of equal importance needs to be addressed
(Mahoney & Avener, 1977). Most of the elite-athlete sport
psychological performance research has been conducted with
self-report instruments and is of a retrospective nature.
Although this provides valuable information, this form of
research has several important limitations; indicating a need to
move away from the identification of general factors toward a
more in-depth, qualitative examination.
Stress
Response
State Anxiety
- cognitive Attention
- sematic
Self Confidence
42
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