Fractura y análisis de falla

en elementos de máquinas

FRACTURA DÚCTIL
Brittle versus ductile fracture Brittle versus ductile
fracture in two 1038 steel
bolts deliberately heat
treated to have greatly
different properties when
pulled in tension. The
brittle bolt (left) was
water quenched with a
hardness of 47 HRC, but
had no obvious
deformation. The ductile
bolt (right) was annealed
to a hardness of 95 HRB
(equivalent to 15 HRC)
and shows tremendous
permanent deformation
Fractura Dúctil: aspectos macroscópicos
• Deformación plástica macroscópica
apreciable.
• Disipación lenta de energía antes de la
fractura final del componente.
• La superficie de fractura puede ser plana
(asociada a un estado triaxial de esfuerzo) o
inclinada 45° (asociada a cizallamiento o
esfuerzo plano). Bordes de cizallamiento
(labios de corte).
• Fractura fibrosa y opaca.
Orientation of normal (tensile and compressive) and shear
stress components

La fractura
dúctil se
presenta a
lo largo del
plano de
máximo
esfuerzo
cortante
 Ductile metals are those that deform because the shear stress
exceeds the shear strength before any other type of damage can
occur. Under a tensile force, the internal crystal structure of the metal
deforms, or slips, permanently on the millions of microshear planes in
the metal, resulting in lateral deformation— commonly called
"necking"—prior to final fracture.

This necking
phenomenon occurs in
the plastic region, which
means that the
deformation is
irreversible. Of course,
plastic—or permanent—
deformation is
characteristic of any
Fractura dúctil a lo largo del plano de máximo single-load fracture of a
esfuerzo cortante (a) tracción (b) torsión ductile metal
Type 302 stainless steel tensile specimen with the typical cup-and-cone
fracture characteristic of ductile metals fractured in tension. In this case
the slant fracture at the surface of the test specimen was in both
directions; in other instances it may be in only one direction, forming a
perfect cup and cone (right figure)
Low-carbon cast steel
test specimen
emphasizing 45°
shear aspect of
tensile fracture of a
ductile metal.

Diagonal ridges are

"Luders lines" or
"stretcher strains";
porosity in steel
shows many localized
fractures
Typical stress-strain diagram showing different regions of
elastic and plastic behavior

(a) Elastic region in which original size and shape will be restored after release of
load, (b) Region of permanent deformation but without localized necking, (c)
Region of permanent deformation with localized necking prior to fracture at X
Fractures of ductile metals stressed in pure tension originate near
the center (by nucleation at grain boundaries or inclusions)

Toward the latter stages of the

fracture process, many tiny
internal voids, or cracks,
develop and join to form a
rough, jagged fracture surface.

As these joining cracks progress

outward, they eventually reach
a region near the surface where
the state of stress changes from
tension to macroshear, forming
a fracture at approximately 45°
to the plane of the major
fracture. This is the familiar
"shear lip" (or "slant fracture")
around the periphery
Photographs at three different magnifications of longitudinal section
of tensile test specimen of hot-rolled 1020 steel

Test was stopped immediately prior to

fracture. (a) At 6x magnification, shows
internal cracking, reduced section, and
severely deformed grain structure, (b) At
50x magnification, shows one large crack
and several smaller cracks, (c) At 250x
magnification, shows lack of fit due to
distortion; also elongated ferrite (light)
and pearlite (dark) areas
 Mecanismos de
deformación plástica

• Deslizamiento

• Maclado o maclaje
 Estructuras cristalinas

BCC FCC HCP

Deslizamiento
Orientación de planos de
deslizamiento en un
cristal, a) Previo a la
deformación; b) Después
de la deformación sin
restricción de mordaza,
donde los planos se
mueven relativos unos a
otros sin rotación; c)
Después de la
deformación con
restricción de mordaza,
revelando rotación de los
planos de deslizamiento
en la zona calibrada
Monocristales de cobre puro fracturado en corte
o cizallamiento puro
Deslizamiento
 Bandas de deslizamiento

Planar glide in low stacking Wavy glide in high stacking

fault energy material fault energy material
 Con base en el modelo de
deslizamiento de los planos
atómicos, la resistencia de los
cristales metálicos debería ser de
1.000 a 10.000 veces mayor que las
observadas ¿?
 Dislocations (Dislocaciones)
A dislocation is linear defect around which some of the atoms are misaligned
Screw dislocation AB resulting from
Edge dislocation, note that dislocation line is displacement of one part of crystal relative to
normal to Burgers vector, b. the other. Note that AB (screw dislocation ) is
parallel to b.

The Burgers circuit about the screw dislocation

assumes the shape of a helix
If the dislocation at point A moves to the left, it is blocked by the point
defect (Solid-Solution Strengthening). If the dislocation moves to the
right, it interacts with the disturbed lattice near the second dislocation
at point B (Strain Hardening). If the dislocation moves farther to the
right, it is blocked by a grain boundary (Grain-Size Strengthening)
 Strain Hardening
Mechanism: the Frank-
Read source can
generate dislocations

(a) A dislocation is pinned at its ends by lattice defects. (b) As

the dislocation continues to move, the dislocation bows, (c)
eventually bending back on itself. (d) Finally the dislocation
loop forms, and a new dislocation is created. (e) Electron
micrograph of a Frank-Read source
 Deformación por maclado

Application of stress to the (a) perfect crystal may cause a

displacement of the atoms, (b) resulting in the formation of a
twin. Note that the crystal has deformed as a result of twinning
 Deformación por maclado

A micrograph of annealing twins (FCC) Microstructure of plastically deformed

within a grain of brass magnesium showing mechanical twins
(HCP, BCC, FCC)
HCP: pocos S.D / deformación
BCC: grandes deformac. y/o bajas temp.
FCC: deformación + recocido (growth of recrystallized grains from
previously deformed material possessing a high density of stacking faults)
 Deformation
twins

Annealing
twins

Surface markings resulting from plastic deformation. (a) Prepolished and deformed zinc revealing slip
lines (upper left to lower right markings) and twin bands (large horizontal band); (b) same as (a) but
repolished and etched to show only twin bands; (c) prepolished and deformed brass revealing straight
slip lines (reflecting low stacking fault energy) and preexisting annealing twins; (d) same as (c) but
repolished and etched to show only annealing twins.
Deslizamiento vs Maclado
Shape change in a solid
cube caused by plastic
deformation. (a)
Undistorted cube; (b)
slipped cube with offsets
nb; (c) twinned cube
revealing reorientation
within twin.

Displacements are
proportional to the
distance from the twin
plane.
Deslizamiento vs Maclado
Fractura dúctil: aspectos microscópicos

• Proceso de separación micro estructural del material

ocurre debido a la formación, crecimiento y
coalescencia de microcavidades (Dimples). Partículas
de segunda fase y/o inclusiones son las precursoras
de la formación de microcavidades.

– Descohesión partícula/ interface

– Ruptura de la partícula

• Evidencia de dislocaciones, planos de deslizamiento o

maclaje.
Mecanismo de fractura dúctil
Fracture by void coalescence
Dimples (SEM)
Influence of direction of principal normal stress on the shape of dimples
 Fourteen
probable
combinations
of mating
dimple shapes,
resulting from
different stress
states that
caused metal
at the crack tip
to deform by
various modes
 Bending fracture, (a)
Equiaxed, dimples near
origin; 600x. (b)
Transition 600x. (c)
Elongated, dimples
near finish; 600x
Micro-hoyuelos
Micro-hoyuelos
Hierro fundido moteado
 Comparación entre fractura dúctil y la
fractura frágil (resumen)
Tipos de falla
Método
Dúctil Frágil
 Estricción o deformación en
la dirección de la aplicación  Poca o sin deformación
Visual de la carga  Fractura plana
Macro  Fractura fibrosa y opaca.  Textura brillante y cristalina
 Bordes de cizallamiento  Marcas de sargento/radiales
(labios de corte)
 Microcavidades (dimples)
Nivel  Evidencia de líneas de  Fractura por clivaje (marcas de
Micro deslizamiento, maclado y rio) o intergranular
dislocaciones
 Propiedades o
 Procesamiento o propiedades
procesamiento
Factores inadecuados
inadecuados
 Bajas temperaturas
 Altas temperaturas
Mechanical properties of steel 1: introduction https://doi.org/10.5446
Mechanical properties of steel 1: introduction https://doi.org/10.5446
Mechanical properties of steel 1: introduction https://doi.org/10.5446/
Curvas de esfuerzo-deformación unitaria ¿Módulo de
del acero recocido, templado y revenido elasticidad?
Típica falla dúctil

Usually the fibrous zone

contains a series of
circumferential ridges
reflecting slight
undulations in the stable
crack propagation
direction.
The crack continues to
grow on the same plane
but in unstable fashion
at a much faster rate.
This new region, defined
as the radial zone
 Tensión

La extensión de cada
zona depende de:
– Condiciones de
prueba
• Temperatura
• Condiciones de borde
– Material
• Resistencia
Temperatura
Effect of test temperature on relative size of fracture
zones for AISI 4340 steel heat treated to HRC 46
Condiciones de borde
R
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i
s
t
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n
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Concentradores de esfuerzo
Concentradores de esfuerzo

Tension-overload
fracture in a notched
specimen tested at -155
°C (-245 °F). Even at this
very low temperature, a
small annular zone of
fibrous fracture was
formed next to the
notch. Final fast
fracture produced the
radial marks in the
central region. 17×
Concentradores de esfuerzo

Surface of a tension-
overload fracture in a
notched specimen of
AISI 4340 steel tested at
80 °C (-110 °F). A
fibrous zone, which
originated at the notch,
surrounds a radial zone,
which is off-center
because of
nonsymmetrical crack
propagation. 17×
Concentradores de esfuerzo
 REFERENCES
Wulpi, Donald J. Understanding How
Components Fail. ASM. 1999. Second Edition.
Chapter 9. Ductile Fracture.

Brooks, Charlie R. Metallurgical Failure Analysis.

Ed. Mc Graw Hill. 1993.

Hertzberg, Richard W., Vinci, Richard P., Hertzberg

Jason L. Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of
Engineering Materials, 5th Edition, 2012.
 Próxima clase:

FRACTURA POR FATIGA

Lecturas:
CHAPTER 10: Fatigue Fracture, Wulpi, Donald J.
Understanding How Components Fail. ASM.
1999. Second Edition.