AFTArrowInstructions - Training Seminar PDF

AFT Arrow Seminar
Week of 22 May, 2017

Introduction
Overview of Seminar
AFT ARROW
A1. Overview of AFT Arrow
A2. Fundamental Equations of Compressible Flow
A3. Demonstration Problem - Determining Delivery Conditions
A4. Understanding Solution Control Options
A5. AFT Arrow Hands-On Modeling
A6. Troubleshooting AFT Arrow Models
A7. The Five Primary Windows
A8. Pipe and Junction Details
A9. Special Topics
A10. Verification of Solutions
A11. Using Scenario Manager
A12. Customizing Arrow and Using Databases
A13. Introduction to AFT Arrow Modules
A14. More AFT Arrow Hands-On Modeling
About Applied Flow Technology
 Applied Flow Technology (AFT), founded in 1993, is a world

leader in providing high quality software to analyze flows,
pressures and transients in systems with pipes, pumps and
valves
 Customers in 70+ countries
 Representatives in 32 locations around the world
Intro - 1
AFT Fathom™ 9
 Models incompressible network pipe systems

– Liquid and low velocity gas systems
 Models open and closed systems
 Models systems that are pressure, gravity or pump driven
 Models heat transfer and system energy balance
 Offers broad range of innovative reporting features
– Printed output is of report quality
 Offers customizable component and property databases
– Cost calculations
– Rheological data handling to support non-Newtonian fluids
Intro - 2
AFT Fathom™ Add-On Modules
 XTS – eXtended Time Simulation

– Simulate dynamic behavior of systems over time
– Models infinite and open and closed finite tanks of constant and
varying cross section
– Supports user defined time and event transients of pumps, valves
and other components
 GSC – Goal Seek & Control
– Automatically determines input variables that will yield specified
output values
– Extends Fathom’s control simulation capabilities to include remote
sensing
 SSL – Settling Slurry simulation
– Simulates settling slurry behavior
– Simulates pump performance degradation
Intro - 3
AFT Arrow™ 6
 Models compressible network pipe systems

– High to low velocity gas systems
– High to low pressures
 Models open and closed systems
 Accurately models
– Real gases
– Heat transfer
– Highly compressible (sonic and near sonic) systems
 Balances flow and energy throughout the system
 Offers broad range of innovative reporting features
 Offers customizable component and property databases
 Includes high accuracy steam/water properties to ASME
Intro - 4
AFT Arrow™ Add-On Module
 GSC – Goal Seek & Control

– Automatically determines input variables that will yield specified
output values
– Extends Arrow’s control simulation capabilities to include remote
sensing
Intro - 5
AFT Impulse™ 6
 Models waterhammer/surge flow in pipe networks

 Models system transients caused by
– Sudden valve closures
– Pump startups and shutdowns including pump inertia effects
– Relief valve cracking
– Events defined within the system (e.g. flow, pressure, etc.)
 Includes modeling of
– Control and relief valves, vacuum breaker valves, pumps,
accumulators and surge tanks
 Includes a steady-state solver to determine initial conditions
 Calculates unbalanced transient forces
– Forces can be graphed or exported as Force/Time data files
 Can also import AFT Fathom models
Intro - 6
AFT Impulse™ Add-On Module
 SSL – Settling Slurry simulation

– Simulates settling slurry behavior
– Simulates pump performance degradation
Intro - 7
AFT Mercury™ 7
AFT Titan™ 4
 Models and designs network pipe systems
 Combines a powerful hydraulic solver and flexible graphical
interface with an advanced optimization engine
– Automatically selects best pipe and component sizes to minimize
initial or life cycle cost, size or weight using IntelliFlow®
 Ability to apply multiple constraints to pipes and junctions
 Cost optimization may include;
– non-recurring costs (materials and installation)
– recurring costs (energy and maintenance) including time varying
cost (energy costs varying with time)
 Offers customizable engineering and cost databases
 Includes powerful modeling and output capabilities
of AFT Fathom 7 and Arrow 4
Intro - 8
Additional Software Products
 Chempak™ Property Database

– Property database of ~700 fluids
– Ability to define static pre-mixtures
– Dynamic mixing capability in Arrow
 Chempak Viewer™ 2.0 & Chempak Add-in™ (for Excel)
– Viewer allows use of Chempak as a stand alone application
– Add-in makes all of the Chempak functions accessible within an
Excel spreadsheet
 SteamCalc™ 2.0
– High accuracy ASME steam/water library for Windows and Excel
Intro - 9
Product Applications
 AFT products are being successfully applied to a broad range

of industrial systems:
– Power generation systems
– Chemical and petrochemical systems
– Oil and gas production, transportation, refining and delivery
– Automotive systems
– Aerospace systems
– Air conditioning and refrigeration systems
– Pulp and paper processing
– Fire suppression
– Water and Wastewater treatment plant design
– Mining processing and support systems
– Municipal water distribution
Intro - 10
AFT Flow Expert Package™
 Provides consulting services beyond typical technical support

requests on the installation, upgrade assistance, and
functionality of AFT software.
 Access to a consulting engineer assigned as your primary
point of contact.
 Package Options: Blocks of 5 hours, 10 hours and 20 hours
 Typical ways to use your hours:
– Receive online training on specific topics of your choice
– Request help on model results interpretation
– Get a second opinion of your assumptions, modeling choices
and reports
Intro - 11
AFT Flow Expert Package™ (2)
 Additional ways to use your hours:

– Have an expert double check your modeling input and point out
common modeling mistakes or suggest better ways to model the
desired behavior
– Receive guidance in how to model pumps and pump-system
interaction, relief valves and relief systems, surge suppression
equipment, slurry pipelines, system transients, and anything
having to do with flow in pipe systems
– Discuss with an expert alternative solutions for hydraulic
problems
– Help launch AFT software within your company and reduce your
learning curve
– Help new hires get acquainted with AFT software
Intro - 12
Overview of Seminar
AFT ARROW
A9. Special Topics
Nomenclature
a sonic speed M Mach Number
A cross-sectional flow area of a pipe n constant
Cd discharge coefficient Nu Nusselt number
cp specific heat, constant pressure P pressure, static
cv specific heat, constant volume Ph heated perimeter
D diameter of a pipe Po pressure, stagnation
e internal energy Pw wetted perimeter
f friction factor Pr Prandtl number
F Force q heat rate to a pipe
Ff Parameter in Section A2 Q volumetric flow rate
Fg Parameter in Section A2 q” heat flux
F To Parameter in Section A2 r radius
Fγ Parameter in Section A2 r relaxation
g gravitational constant R gas constant
h internal convection coefficient Re Reynolds number
h enthalpy, static s fan speed
ho enthalpy, stagnation s entropy
k thermal conductivity T temperature, static
K loss factor To temperature, stagnation
L length of a pipe U overall heat transfer coefficient
m
 mass flow rate v specific volume
Nomenclature
V volume
V velocity
w work
x distance along pipe centerline
z elevation
Z compressibility factor
α, µ, θ angle
β diameter ratio
ε roughness
γ specific heat ratio
µ dynamic viscosity
τ shear stress
ω rotational velocity
Subscripts
1 location 1 in pipe
2 location 2 in pipe
i junction at which solution is sought
j junctions with pipes connecting to junction i
o stagnation
∞ infinity, far away, ambient
AFT Arrow General Description
 General purpose pipe network compressible flow analysis

 Drag-and-drop interface
 Calculates pressure drop, flow distribution and energy in pipe
networks
 Solves 5 equations for each pipe:
– Continuity (Mass) Equation
– Momentum Equation
– Energy Equation
– Equation of State
– Mach Number
A1 - 1
AFT Arrow General Description (2)
 Implements modified Newton-Raphson matrix method to

solve network
 Can model systems in any generalized configuration
– Open or closed systems
– Branching systems
– Looping systems
 Can model sonic choking and heat transfer
 English and SI units supported
A1 - 2
Components That Can Be Modeled
 Branching section (up to 25 pipes)

 Known pressure or flow boundaries
 Compressors and fans
– Compressor/fan curves follow a polynomial equation
 Pressure and flow control valves
 Relief valves and check valves
 Heat exchanger pressure drop and heat transfer
 General fittings and components where the resistance curve
follows a polynomial relationship
A1 - 3
Engineering Limitations
 No practical software limit to model size

 Flow is steady-state and one-dimensional
 No limit on number of fittings (i.e., additional losses)
 No limit on number of compressor/fans, control valves, etc.
 No limit on number of custom components, fluids or pipe
materials
A1 - 4
Arrow 6 Startup Window
A1 - 5
Primary Windows
 The AFT Arrow modeling process flows through five Primary

Windows
– Workspace
– Model Data
– Output
– Visual Report
– Graph Results
 The Primary Windows offer a mixture and graphical and text-
based features to assist in the modeling process
 Tabbed Primary Windows allow for easier navigation
 Robust usage of dual monitors is supported
– Can drag the Primary Window tabs into their own
separate window
A1 - 6
Primary Window Process Flow
Model Data
Visual Report
Workspace Output
Graph Results
A1 - 7
Workspace
 Multiple features available with Quick Access Panel

– Can pin Quick Access Panel to the Workspace or minimize with
thumbtack to allow for more Workspace area
Minimize Quick
This tool is used to Access Panel with
draw new pipes thumbtack
This tool will add annotation

to the workspace Quick
Access
Panel
These icons represent
different components
A1 - 8
Quick Access Panel – Activate Modules
 Ability to activate GSC, APS, and ANS Modules
A1 - 9
Workspace - Editing Features
 Cut, copy, paste, delete, duplicate and undo features

supported
 Workspace can be sized to fit the model
 You can zoom out to see a larger area
 Objects can be selected as a group in several ways
– Selecting the components by dragging the mouse over them
– Using the SHIFT key while clicking on the objects
– Using Select Flow Path on the Edit menu
– Using the Select Special tool on the Edit menu
– Using Groups / Select on the Edit menu
– Using the Select All feature
A1 - 10
Workspace – Editing Features (2)
 The Reference Flow Direction of a pipe can be changed

 The selected objects can be renumbered
– Manually
– Renumber Automatic
– Renumber Wizard
– Renumber Increment
 The Find tool will move the Workspace window to show a pipe
or junction
A1 - 11
Workspace - Platform for Data Entry
 All pipe and junction objects placed onto the Workspace are
interactive
 To open the Properties window for data entry, just double-click
the graphical object
– Alternatively, you can select the object by clicking on it once and
then press the Enter key
– Or you can select the object by clicking on it once and then click
on the Open Pipe/Jct Window button on the Toolbar
 The Properties windows are the primary manner in which
component data is entered
 The Global Pipe Edit and Global Junction Edit window can
speed up data entry
A1 - 12
Workspace - Reporting
 The Workspace image can be printed on printers and plotters

 Print Preview allows page customization
– The image can be sized on the page
– A company logo and custom text can be added
A1 - 13
Model Data Window
 Model Data is broken into three sections

– General Data
– Pipe Data
– Junction Data
 Each section can be re-sized or collapsed allowing the user to
focus on any of the sections
 User can select all or portions of the Model Data Window
content for printing
– Print format window allows customizing of content
– User can also select the font
A1 - 14
Model Data Window (2)
 With a Workspace printout and the complete Model Data

printout, the input can be printed in its entirety
 Properties windows for data entry can be opened by double-
clicking the far left column
A1 - 15
Output Window
 The Output window is the primary vehicle for communicating

the results of an analysis in text form
 Output Window is broken into three sections
– General Results
– Pipe Results
– Junction Results
 Each section contains tabs to permit quick viewing of output
by type
A1 - 16
Output Window (2)
 User can select all or portions of the Output Window content

for printing
– Print format window allows customizing of content
– User can also select the font
 User can sort output according to any of the columns for quick
review of data extreme maximums and minimums
 Output Window content is specified by Output Control
Window
A1 - 17
Visual Report Window
 Visual Report allows user to display input and output results

together with pipe system image
A1 - 18
Graph Results Window
 The Graph Results Window allows creation of full-featured

Windows graphs
A1 - 19
A2. Fundamental Eqns. of Compressible
Flow
Overview of Seminar
AFT ARROW
A9. Special Topics
Introduction
 AFT Arrow uses a modified Newton-Raphson Method to solve

the flow distribution in a pipe network
 This method is similar to that used in AFT Fathom, but more
difficult to implement
 There are no standard methods available to solve the full
compressible flow equations for pipe networks
A2 - 1
Basic Laws of Incompressible Pipe Flow
 Mass Conservation
m = ρAV
 Momentum Equation (Bernoulli, assuming incompressible)

1 1
P1 + ρV12 + ρgh1 = P2 + ρV22 + ρgh2 + ∆Ploss
2 2
 The velocity (dynamic) pressure and static pressure can be

combined into the total pressure, and the solution is then for
total pressure
– Therefore, the momentum equation becomes
Po ,1 + ρgh1 = Po , 2 + ρgh2 + ∆Ploss
A2 - 2
Law of Friction (Incompressible Flow)
 Traditional method of friction loss calculation uses the Darcy-

Weisbach friction factor, f
L 1 2
∆Ploss = f  ρV 
D2 
 The friction factor is not a constant, but a function of the pipe
wall characteristics and the Reynolds number
A2 - 3
Law of Friction (Incompressible Flow) (2)
 AFT Fathom uses the iterative Colebrook-White correlation for

turbulent flow and the traditional laminar flow equation when
laminar
−2
 ε 
f = 1.14 − 2 log +
9.35
 D Re f

 (Re > 4000)
  
(Re < 2300)

64
f =
Re
 Special friction models available for pulp and paper stock and
crude oil
A2 - 4
Modified Form for Law of Friction
 Basic law (incompressible flow)

L 1 2
∆Ploss = f  ρV 
D2 
 Substituting mass flow rate definition
L  1  m  
 2
∆Ploss = f ρ 
D  2  ρA  

 Defining new term, where R is a pipe resistance

∆Ploss = Rm 2 L 1 
R= f  
2 
D  2 ρA 
 Bernoulli’s equation then becomes
Po ,1 + ρgh1 = Po , 2 + ρgh2 + Rm 2 A2 - 5
Balancing Mass at Branches
 Applying law of mass conservation to a branching section

n
∑ m
j =1
ij =0
 Substituting yields the following equation to be solved for

every branch, i, (incompressible flow)
 Po , j − Po ,i + ρg (h j − hi ) 
0.5
sgn (Po , j − Po ,i + ρg (h j − hi ))

n

∑  Rij 
=0
j =1
 
where sgn = ±1 depending on flow direction
A2 - 6
Balancing Mass at Branches (2)
 Po , j − Po ,i + ρg (h j − hi ) 
0.5

n

∑  Rij 
=0
j =1
 
 The objective is to find all of the P values that satisfy the

above equation applied to every branch
 We will then have a solution for two unknowns:
– pressure at all junctions
– mass flow rate in all pipes
A2 - 7
Solving the Equations
 We need to solve as many equations as there are flow splits

 All of the equations are non-linear
 AFT Fathom uses the Newton-Raphson Method to solve the
system of equations
– Newton-Raphson is an iterative method used to solve for roots of
equations
A2 - 8
Solving the Equations (2)
 Initially the pipe flow rates are not known so an error, F, exists
at each branch (incompressible flow)
 Po , j − Po ,i + ρg (h j − hi ) 
0.5

n

∑  Rij 
= Fi
j =1
 
 The objective is to use the Newton-Raphson Method to drive

all of the F errors to zero (within some tolerance)
A2 - 9
The Newton-Raphson Method
 The procedure for applying Newton-Raphson to a single

equation is as follows:
1) Take a guess at the solution to function F
2) Calculate an improved guess using the following equation:
F ( xi )
xi +1 = xi −
F ' ( xi )
3) Substitute the improved guess back into the above equation
until the change in x is small
F(x)
F(xi)
-F'(xi)
x
xi xi+1 A2 - 10
Solving the System (Incompressible
Flow)
 When applied to a system of equations with P as the
unknown, Newton-Raphson looks as follows
→ → →
−1
P o ,new = P o ,old − J FF
where P is the vector of pressures and JF is the Jacobian matrix of

error function derivatives - both of a size, n, which is the number of
branches (i.e., equations in the system)
 ∂F1 ∂F1 ∂F1 

 ∂P ∂P 
o,1 o, 2 ∂Po,n 
 
 ∂F 2 ∂F 2 ∂F 2 
  
J F =  ∂Po,1 ∂Po,2 ∂Po,n 
 
  
 ∂F n ∂F n ∂F n 
  
∂ P
 o,1 o,2∂ P ∂ Po,n 
A2 - 11
Derivative Terms in Jacobian
 The diagonal derivative terms in the Jacobian can be

calculated analytically (incompressible flow)
 Po , j − Po ,i + ρg (h j − hi ) 
0.5
Fi = ∑ sgn (Po , j − Po ,i + ρg (h j − hi ))

n

 Rij 
j =1
 
∂Fi n 
− 
=∑ 

0 . 5
0.5 
 (Po, j − Po,i + ρg (h j − hi )) − 0.5
∂Pi j =1  Rij 
 The off-diagonal terms can also be calculated analytically

(incompressible flow)
∂Fi  0.5 
= 0.5 (Po , j − Po ,i + ρg (h j − hi ))
− 0.5
∂Pi  Rij 
A2 - 12
Solving the Matrix (Incompressible Flow)
 Rather than inverting the Jacobian matrix, it is usually faster

to solve a linear system of equations as follows
→ → →
P o ,new = P o ,old − z
→ →
−1
z=J F F
→ →
JF z = F
 We need to solve for the values in vector, z, that satisfy the
above
A2 - 13
Solving the Matrix (Incompressible Flow)
(2)
 Use Gaussian Elimination to solve for z
– By multiple substitutions, we progressively eliminate terms in JF
and eventually obtain the identity matrix, where all terms are
zero except the diagonal, which is unity
→ → →
P o ,new = P o ,old − z
– We then have the solution for z, which can be substituted back

into the original equation at the top to improve our guess for all of
the pressures in the pressure vector
A2 - 14
Test Problem #1 (Incompressible Flow)
P = 200 psia P = 175 psia
1 2
h = 0 feet h = 0 feet
pipe 1 pipe 2
4
h = 0 feet
pipe 3
pipe f L (ft) D (in) Fluid
1 0.0219 100 4 Water @ 70F
P = 160 psia 2 0.0156 75 4 Water @ 70F
h = 0 feet 3 3 0.0180 125 6 Water @ 70F
Jct P (psia)
1 200
2 175
In this test problem, pipe 3 160
resistances can be calculated
based on known friction
factor (shown in the table) A2 - 15
(2) To start the solution, we
0.5 need to guess P4, so
 Pj − Pi 
[ ]
sgn (Pj − Pi ) 
n
 guess 180 psia
F =∑
 Rij 
j =1
 
0.5 0.5 0.5
 P1 − P4   P2 − P4   P3 − P4 
F = [sgn (P1 − P4 )] 
 + [sgn (P2 − P4 )] 
 + [sgn (P3 − P4 )] 

 R1− 4   R2− 4   R3− 4 
F = −277.1489
− 0.5 − 0.5 − 0.5 − 0.5 − 0.5 − 0.5
F ' = 0.5 P1 − P4 + 0.5 P2 − P4 + 0.5 P3 − P4
R1− 4 R2− 4 R3− 4
F ' = −18.6139
F (Pold )
Pnew = Pold −
F ' (Pold )
A2 - 16
Note: All pressures here are stagnation
(3)
Iteration Pj=4 Mpipe=1 Mpipe=2 Mpipe=3 F F'

1 180.0000 115.3464 -78.9048 -313.5906 -277.1489 -18.6139
2 165.1106 152.3476 110.9691 -158.5207 104.7960 -23.3027
3 169.6078 142.1903 81.9409 -217.3503 6.7810 -21.2485
4 169.9269 141.4418 79.4792 -220.9305 -0.0095 -21.3129
5 169.9265 141.4429 79.4827 -220.9255 0.0000 -21.3128
6 169.9265 141.4429 79.4827 -220.9255 0.0000 -21.3128
7 169.9265 141.4429 79.4827 -220.9255 0.0000 -21.3128
P (psia), M (lbm/s)
A2 - 17
What’s Special About Compressible
Flow?
 Compressible flow is defined as fluid flow where density
changes are significant
 Changing density has several important ramifications
– Velocity changes in a pipe (m = ρAV )
• Velocity change is generally non-linear
– Density depends on temperature so that flow is coupled to
energy equation
– Accelerating flow is limited to sonic velocity, thus sonic choking
can become a dominant characteristic of the system
• Sonic choking may occur in multiple locations
A2 - 18
What’s Special About Compressible
Flow? (2)
 All governing equations are strongly coupled
– An accurate solution must address all aspects of the gas flow
 Pipe networks introduce an order of magnitude complexity
into compressible flow analysis
A2 - 19
Possible Methods of Analysis
 Use incompressible flow methods

– Inherently inaccurate
– Large safety margins required
– Engineer is never sure of analysis results
– Sonic choking glossed over
 Use simplified compressible flow pressure drop correlations
– Crane manual isothermal flow equation (Eqn. 1-6) , Weymouth,
Panhandle, etc.
– Thermal and real gas effects are ignored
– Cannot extend method to pipe networks
– Large safety margins required
– Engineer is never sure of analysis results
– Sonic choking glossed over
A2 - 20
Possible Methods of Analysis (2)
 Use iterative spreadsheet or in-house software

– Usually based on simplified correlations
– Usually assumes ideal gas behavior and ideal energy process
(adiabatic or isothermal)
– Time consuming to use and difficult to interpret results
– Often developed by non-specialists in compressible flow
A2 - 21
Basic Problems With Traditional Methods
 Engineer is never sure of analysis results

– Gases frequently are not ideal
– Gases frequently are not isothermal or adiabatic
 In many cases engineers believe their analysis is better than it
really is
 Sheer quantity of important variables means that important
data can be easily overlooked
 Low quality analysis leads to higher costs and reduced safety
– Over-design costs more during construction & over the life-cycle
– Safe operation of design is jeopardized if analysis is not properly
performed
 Parallel flow pipe networks cannot be properly
analyzed
A2 - 22
AFT Arrow Approach to Compressible
Flow
 Solve all governing equations simultaneously
 Include all thermal and real gas effects
 Balance mass and energy throughout the network
– Implement special flow and energy balance iterative methods
 Offer several solution methods to increase flexibility
 Encapsulate powerful solution method in an easy-to-use
graphical Windows interface
A2 - 23
Governing Equations of Compressible
Flow
 Equations for each pipe
dρ dV
[1] Mass: + =0
ρ V
1 f
[2] Momentum: dP + ρV 2 dx + ρ VdV + ρ gdz = 0
2 D
 1 
[3] Energy:  d  h + V 2 + gz = q
m
 2 
[4] Equation of State: P = Z ρ RT
V
[5] Mach Number: M =
γ ZRT
A2 - 24
Governing Equations of Compressible
Flow (2)
 Equations for each junction
[6] Balance Mass:

∑ m ij = 0 [8+] Balance Species:
j =1
n ngases npipes
1
[7] Balance Energy:
∑ m ij  hij + Vij 2  = 0
 2 
∑ ∑ m c ,ij = 0
j =1 c =1 j =1
A2 - 25
Stagnation vs. Static Properties
 The static properties are the true thermodynamic properties:

pressure, temperature, density, enthalpy, etc.
 The stagnation properties are those that combine the
thermodynamic properties with the fluid dynamic effects
 Classic example is a pitot tube that is normal to the flow or
pointed directly into flow
Static Pressure Stagnation Pressure
A2 - 26
Stagnation vs. Static Properties (2)
 Compressible flow calculations are greatly aided by using

stagnation properties
– Effects of flow area changes are inherently taken care of
 In incompressible flow, the stagnation pressure is the static
plus dynamic pressure
1
Po = P + ρV 2
2
A2 - 27
Stagnation vs. Static Properties (3)
 In compressible flow the relationship is more complicated

– It can be shown that the incompressible case is a simplification
while the compressible case is the true equation
γ (γ −1)
Po  γ − 1 2 
= 1 + M 
P  2 
To  γ − 1 2 
= 1 + M 
T  2 
V2
ho = h +
2
A2 - 28
AFT Arrow’s Solution Methods
 AFT Arrow offers six solution methods altogether

 Two methods are "lumped" methods
– Lumped Adiabatic
– Lumped Isothermal
– These are not as accurate but solve much faster
– Cannot model heat transfer
– Cannot model elevation changes (usually this is not very
important)
A2 - 29
AFT Arrow’s Solution Methods (2)
 Four methods are marching methods

– Length March
– Mach Number March
– Two hybrid methods based on these two
– These four methods are highly accurate but have longer run
times
– Can accurately model heat transfer, elevation changes and
rotating systems
A2 - 30
AFT Arrow’s Solution Methods (3)
 The two lumped methods use traditional handbook methods

to solve a single pipe
 Mach Number March method is a marching method that is
optimized for sonic and near sonic systems
 Length March method is a marching method that works well at
all velocities, but is not as accurate or reliable as Mach
Number March method at near-sonic conditions
 For many systems all six methods will work fine and will give
similar results
A2 - 31
Lumped Adiabatic & Isothermal - Single
Pipe
 These methods have closed form solutions and can be found
in textbooks
 Adiabatic flow equation and integrated solution
L f M2 1− M 2
∫0 D
dx = ∫
M1 γ 4  + γ − 1 2 
dM 2
M 1 M 
 2 
 γ −1 2
 1 + M 2 
fL 1  1 1  γ + 1  M1  2
2 
= − + ln 
D γ  2 2  γ 2  γ − 1
 M1 M2  2  M 2  1 + M12 
 2 
 Isothermal flow equation and integrated solution
LT f (
M 2 1− γ M 2 )
∫0 D
dx = ∫
M1 γM 4
dM 2
M 2
1 −  1 
fLT  M 22  M 2
= − ln  2 
D γM12  2
 M1 
A2 - 32
Length March: Single Pipe
 Using substitution and calculus, the following equation can be

derived:*
Flow
2
γM dTo fdx dZ dγ  g sin θdx
dPo 
=− + + +  −
Po 2  To D Z γ  ZRT
1 2
 Integration of the above yields:
 γM 2  To,2
  Z2 γ 2 f (x2 − x1 ) g sin θ (x2 − x1 )
Po,2 = Po,1 exp −  ln T
+ ln + ln +

−

 2  o,1 Z 1 γ 1 D  RZ T 
 In this approach, each distance step, x2, allows calculation of
a new P0,2 .
 The solution is obtained by marching down each pipe until
x2 = L.
* See AFT Arrow Help System topic “Length March Method” for A2 - 33
complete derivation
Mach Number March: Single Pipe
 Using substitution and calculus, the following equation can be

derived:*
Flow
dM 2  dT dZ  dγ fdx g sin θdx
− FT  o + − F
 γ γ − F f − F g =0
2 o T
 o Z  D ZRT
M 1 2
 where:
(1 + γM 2 ) 1 + γ 2− 1 M 2  γM 2  1 +

γ −1
2

M2 

FTo = Ff =
1− M 2 1− M 2
( )
γM 2 − 1 1 +

γ −1 2 
2
M 

 γ −1 2 
2 1 +
 2
M 

Fγ = Fg =
1− M 2 1− M 2
* See AFT Arrow Help System Topic “Mach Number March Method” for A2 - 34
complete derivation
Mach Number March: Single Pipe (2)
 Integration of the above yields:*
M 22  To Z 2   γ 
ln − 
FTo  ln 2 +
ln − Fγ  ln 2 
Flow
M12  To1 Z 1   γ1 
x2 = x1 +
 θ 
 F f f + F g g sin 
1 2
 D RZ T 
 By selecting a target Mach number M2 for each step, one can

march down a pipe to calculate the corresponding x2 distance.
* See AFT Arrow Help System Topic “Mach Number March Method” for A2 - 35
complete derivation
Tying Things Together - Solving
Networks
 To solve the network, energy and mass flow must balance at
each branching section
 AFT Arrow employs a modified Newton-Raphson method to
solve the mass flow balance
– Solves the non-linear flow equations using matrix techniques
– Similar to incompressible network solution method
 Energy equation is linear and is solved by multiple substitution
and iteration method
A2 - 36
Compressible Flow Solution Difficulties
 Not possible to analytically calculate the derivative terms

 Pressure drop also depends on energy transfer
 Velocity and friction factors vary along pipe
 “Negative” pressures cannot be allowed
 Sonic choking
 Result is that AFT Arrow has to iterate much more than AFT
Fathom, leading to significantly longer run times
A2 - 37
Taking Care of Details
 Sonic choking is accounted for by constant checking of Mach

Numbers
 Flow can choke at:
– A flow restriction (e.g., orifice)
– A flow expansion (area increase)
– The end of a pipe as it exits the system (endpoint choking)
 Sonic choking is heavily influenced by friction effects and
thermal effects
– AFT Arrow accounts for these effects when it solves the
equations simultaneously
 When flow is choked, special iterative techniques are
employed to converge on flow and pressure solutions
A2 - 38
Convergence
 When the change in pressures, flow rate and temperature

decrease to some small amount, the calculation is converged
 Different criteria can be applied for identifying convergence
– Percentage change in result
– Absolute change in result
 We will cover convergence in a later section
A2 - 39
Flow Rate and Enthalpy Updates
 After the pressure solution is obtained a new flow solution and

enthalpy are calculated
 The new flows and enthalpies are then compared against the
old flows and enthalpies
 If the flow or enthalpy change too much it is updated and the
pressure solution repeated
 This whole procedure is repeated until flow, enthalpy and
pressure updates are small
 If mixing is modeled, a concentration update is also performed
A2 - 40
Solver Flow Chart
Update Flow Losses Solve Junction
Start and Compressors Pressures
No
No Yes
Converged ? > Max Iterations ? End
Yes
Recalculate Mass Recalculate Recalculate
Flow Rates Concentrations * Enthalpies
No
No Yes
* A concentration Yes
balance is performed Recalculate
only if dynamic mixing is Concentrations *
modeled. If not, the No
Solver passes through No Yes
this block.
Yes Yes
Recalculate No No
Converged ? > Max Iterations ?
Enthalpies
Yes
Return
A2 - 41
Known Flow Vs. Known Pressure
Junctions
 At all system boundaries AFT Arrow must solve for either flow
or pressure
 User cannot specify both flow and pressure at the same point
because there would be nothing for AFT Arrow to solve
 Either the flow rate calculation or the pressure calculation
must be available to AFT Arrow
A2 - 42
A3. Demo. Problem - Delivery System
Overview of Seminar
AFT ARROW
A9. Special Topics
Pipes
 AFT Arrow uses two system constructs: pipes and junctions

 Pipes are conduits for steady-state, compressible, one-
dimensional fluid flow
 The mass flow rate through the entire length of the pipe is
always constant
– Volumetric flow rate is not constant!
 Pipes have constant diameters but the fluid velocity is not
constant
 Each pipe must be connected to a junction on each end
A3 -1
Pipes (2)
 A pipe differs from a junction in that it has a reference positive

flow direction
– To say a pipe has a flow rate of 1 lbm/sec is meaningless unless
the flow direction is specified.
 In cases where there is uncertainty about flow direction, you
do not need to specify the actual flow direction in a pipe
– AFT Arrow sorts out the true physical flow directions of the
system you define
– However, the pipe orientation is critical when using pressure-
dependent junctions like pumps and control valves
A3 -2
Junctions
 Junctions are connector points for pipes

 Junctions are elements at which flow and energy balances
are made
 Some junction types can only connect to one pipe while
others can connect with up to twenty five
 AFT Arrow provides a total of twenty standard junction types
A3 -3
Junctions (2)
 In addition to balancing flow and energy, junctions also

influence the flow or pressure behavior of the system
– A tank junction applies a constant pressure at a location, and the
flow at a tank is free to adjust in whatever manner is consistent
with the governing equations
– An assigned flow junction applies a known flow rate at its
location, allowing the pressure to adjust to that level dictated by
the governing equations
 The twenty standard junction types allow you to specify
special kinds of irrecoverable pressure losses or fluid
behavior
 Junctions communicate with each other through the pipes
connecting them
A3 -4
Creating Objects
 Pipe and junction objects are created using the Workspace

Toolbox
– New pipes and junctions can also be derived from previous ones
by duplication
 Pipes are drawn on the Workspace
 Junctions are dragged from the Toolbox
A3 -5
Creating Objects (2)
 Pipe and junctions have default numbers assigned

– Users can reassign numbers
– Pipes numbers are displayed near the pipe center preceded by a
"P"
– Junction numbers are displayed over the junction icons
preceded by a "J"
– Pipes also have a direction arrow displayed with the number to
indicate the positive flow direction
A3 -6
Moving Objects
 The objects on the Workspace can be moved individually or

as groups
 To move an object, select it, drag it within the Workspace, and
drop it in the desired location
– When an object is dragged off the existing Workspace area, the
Workspace is expanded accordingly
 The pipe object can be stretched by grabbing the handles at
the pipe endpoints and moving an endpoint to a new location
A3 -7
Moving Objects (2)
 To prevent accidental movement of objects, lock the objects

on the Workspace
– The Lock feature is accessed from the Edit menu or the lock
button on the Toolbar.
 To group multiple objects for movement or other operations,
hold down the SHIFT key when selecting the objects
 Objects can also be selected by using the Selection Tool on
the Workspace Toolbar
– Click on the Workspace and drag the mouse to draw a box
around the objects
– Holding down the SHIFT key while drawing multiple boxes
permits multiple sets of grouped selections
A3 -8
Connecting Pipes and Junctions
 Pipes and junction objects can be placed anywhere on the

Workspace
 Remember that connectivity ONLY exists between junctions
and pipes
– There are no junctions that connect to junctions, and no pipes
that connect to pipes
 The model connectivity you establish on the Workspace
remains only as long as you maintain the graphical objects in
their current visual relationship to each other
 The most certain way to maintain the connectivity of your
model is to Lock the objects to the Workspace so they cannot
be moved
A3 -9
Connecting Pipes and Junctions (2)
 To establish a connection between a junction and a pipe, the

following three steps are required:
1) Graphically connect the objects on the Workspace (the pipe
endpoint must terminate within the boundaries of a junction
icon)
2) Enter data for the pipes through the Pipe Property window or
globally
3) Enter data for the junctions through the Junction Property
window or globally
A3 -10
Editing Objects
 The objects you place on the Workspace can be edited with

the editing commands from the Edit menu or the Workspace
Toolbar
 Objects can be cut, copied, pasted, duplicated, and deleted
 These operations can be performed on individual objects or
on groups
 One level of undo is available for each editing operation
through the Edit menu
A3 -11
Lay Out the Model
 Open branching system

 Need to find the delivery conditions at J5, J6 and J7
 Model looks as below
A3 -12
Using the Checklist
 The Checklist tracks the status of your model

– Communicates what items must be completed before you can
run the model
You can open the

Checklist box from the
Toolbar, View menu, or
Quick Access Panel
A3 -13
Using the Checklist (2)
 The first item is always checked off because AFT Arrow

assigns default Solution Control parameters
– The default Solution Control parameters work satisfactorily in
most cases
 The fourth item is disabled because no costs are applied by
default
 The fifth item may not be visible or may be disabled
depending on GSC module usage
A3 -14
Checklist – Quick Access Panel
 Checklist status is available from Status Light on the Quick

Access Panel
Status Light
A3 -15
Using the Object Status Feature
 Each pipe or junction object requires some minimum input

data
 Until each object has the required input, it is "undefined"
 The Show Object Status feature checks the required data for
each object and reports to the user which objects are and are
not defined
– Undefined object numbers change color (to red by default)
– Right clicking on an object will display a listing of the input,
output, and undefined items for that object
A3 -16
Using the Object Status Feature (2)
 Show Object Status is toggled on and off from the Workspace

Toolbar (flood light) or the View Menu
 Show Object Status should be used selectively because it
slows down the Workspace graphics if left in the ON state
– For large models, users should turn it ON only when needed
A3 -17
Using Undefined Objects Window
 Opened from the View menu, undefined pipes and junctions

are displayed in lists
 Click on a pipe or junction to see undefined properties
A3 -18
Solution Control Windows
 Solution Control Window is opened from the Analysis Menu or

by clicking the Solution Control in the Checklist area of the
Quick Access Panel.
 This window gives user control of how the Solver behaves
 The default parameters are sufficient for the majority of
analyses
A3 -19
Output Control Window
 Output Control Window is opened from the Tools Menu or by

clicking the Output Control icon on the Toolbar
 Users can modify and keep Output Control formats for future
use
A3 -20
Output Control Window (2)
 Output Control offers users control over the following items:

– The pipe and junction output parameters to be included in the
output
– The engineering units in which the output parameters will be
expressed
– The order in which the output parameters will appear
– The title appearing on the output report
– Reference information to keep with model
– Special summary reports
– The minimum number of significant digits to appear in the output
parameters
– Where to direct the output once it has been obtained and
formatting
A3 -21
System Properties Window
 System Properties Window is opened from the Analysis Menu

or by clicking the Systems Properties on the Checklist in the
Quick Access Panel
 This window allows the user to select a fluid (or fluids) for use
in the model
– With Chempak, static mixtures can be created
– The AFT Standard fluid database is customizable
– ASME Steam properties can be used
 Other options include:
– Change the gravity level, atmospheric pressure, transition
Reynolds numbers, and STP conditions
– A rotational velocity can be specified here for modeling
turbomachinery
A3 -22
Cost Setting Window
 Cost Calculations are enabled on the Analysis Menu

– Pump Energy Only or Full Cost Calculations can be calculated
 Cost Settings Window is opened from the Analysis Menu or
clicking the Specify Cost Settings on the Checklist in the
Quick Access Panel when Cost Calculations are being
calculated
 Various costs can be calculated such as material, installation,
and operation/energy
A3 -23
Entering Pipe and Junction Data
 Data for pipes and junctions are entered into Properties

Windows
 Properties Windows are opened either by double-clicking or
single-click then pressing enter for the pipe or junction of
interest
– Properties windows may also be opened by double clicking an
object within the Model Data and Output windows
 Data can also be entered through Global Edit Windows
A3 -24
Input Data For Pipes
 All pipes must have data for

– Length
– Diameter
– Roughness
– Heat transfer model
 In addition, each pipe must have at least two connecting
junctions
A3 -25
Input Data For Junctions
 All junctions must have

– Elevation data
• Connecting pipes are assumed to travel linearly between junctions
– Sufficient number of connecting pipes
• Number of connecting pipes is different for each junction type
 There are twenty different junctions
A3 -26
Data For Bend Junctions
 Use standard elbow for all bend

– Bend junction K factors may depend on diameter
– Diameter is picked up from upstream pipe
 All Bend junctions must have two connecting pipes
A3 -27
Data For Tanks
 Can have 1-25 connecting pipes

 For open systems do not select balance energy option
 Tank junctions maintain a constant stagnation pressure
– Also maintain constant stagnation temperature for flow into
system
A3 -28
Data For Branches
 Branches can have from 2-25 pipes

 No additional data is needed for branches
A3 -29
Data For Assigned Flow
 Assigned Flow junctions connect to one pipe only

 Allows you to define an inflow or outflow
 Requires fluid temperature, but only uses temperature for
inflows
A3 -30
Inspecting Objects
 The data in a pipe or junction can be reviewed quickly using

the inspection feature
 Inspecting is done by pressing down the right mouse button
on the graphical pipe or junction
 Inspecting is much quicker than opening the Properties
Window
– Using the inspection window also does not clear the output
results as opening a Properties window can
A3 -31
Inspecting Objects – Quick Access Panel
 Pipe and Junction input/output data can be viewed in Quick

Access Panel
– Click the “Property” tab on Quick Access Panel
– Select a pipe or a junction on Workspace
Property Tab
A3 -32
Model Data Window
 The Model Data window is useful for reviewing the text input
for the model
– All data can be printed out for documentation
 Model Data can be accessed from the Model Data Primary
Window tab or from the Window menu
 Use the Model Data window to do a quick sanity check of the
input
– Incorrect units or a typo become more obvious in Model Data
 Double-clicking the far left column of the tables opens the
appropriate Properties Window
A3 -33
Running Models - Solution Progress
Window
 When a model is complete, the Run command is enabled
 The model can be run by choosing Run from the Analysis
Menu or clicking the appropriate toolbar icon
 When a model is running, the Solution Progress Window
displays
 The Solution Progress Window shows the status of the
Solver's progress towards convergence
A3 -34
Running Models - Solution Progress
Window (2)
 The Solution Progress Window allows you to Cancel or Pause
the run so that Solution Control parameters can be modified
– Modifying Solution Control parameters during runtime may help
for difficult models
 When the solution converges, you are notified
 When you select View Output, you are immediately taken to
the Output Window
A3 -35
Output Window
 The Output Window displays text output for your model and is
accessed from the Primary Window tabs or Window menu
 The Output Control Window allows you to customize the
content of the output
 Each section may have multiple tabs to quickly view data by
type
 Print Format allows you to select the content of the printed
report
A3 -36
Output Window (2)
 Transfer Results to Initial Guesses saves the current output

results as the initial conditions
– Transfer Results to Initial Guesses may be accessed from the
Edit menu or the Output Toolbar (push pin)
 Warnings are placed into the General Results section
– When warnings exist the text color is changed to red
 Sort allows you to sort the Output according to one the
columns
 Double-clicking the column header allows you to change the
units for that column
A3 -37
Graph Results
 Graphs are created with the Graph Results Window

– This window is one of the Primary Window tabs
– Graph Results can also be accessed from the Window menu
 Various parameters can be graphed by clicking on the Select
Graph Data button in the Graph Results window
 The graph can be printed, copied to the clipboard, or saved to
a file
 The graph x-y data can be exported to a file or copied to the
clipboard
A3 -38
Visual Report
 Visual Report allows you to see the results superimposed on

the Workspace graphic
– This is one of the Primary Window tabs
– Visual Report can also be accessed from the Window menu
 The Visual Report Control allows you to select the type of
results you want to see
 You can print the image at full size or fit it to a single page
with Print Special
 Text locations are automatically saved with the model
A3 -39
US
Input for Demo 1
All pipes are Steel - ANSI, standard schedule (STD), standard friction data
GN2, Redlich-Kwong and Generalized Enthalpy, Solution
Default Solution Control
All elevations are zero
A3 -40
US
Output for Demo 1
A3 -41
SI
Input for Demo 1
All pipes are Steel - ANSI, standard schedule (STD), standard friction data
GN2, Redlich-Kwong and Generalized Enthalpy, Solution
Default Solution Control
All elevations are zero
A3 -42
SI
Output for Demo 1
A3 -43
A4. Understanding Solution Control
Options
Overview of Seminar
AFT ARROW
A9. Special Topics
Solution Control Window Summary
 The Solution Control Window is opened from the Analysis

Menu
 Solution Control is one of the Checklist items
– Solution Control is required for every model
 AFT Arrow provides robust Solution Control defaults
 Parameters that can be modified include solution method,
solution step size, tolerance, relaxation and maximum
iterations
 You can also keep track of the iteration history
A4 - 1
Solution Control Window Summary (2)
A4 - 2
Solution Control Window Summary (3)
A4 - 3
How To Use Solution Control
 In general, the defaults provided by AFT Arrow are sufficient

to guide a model to convergence
– Care should be taken to review output to ensure operating
conditions are consistent with solution method
 It is recommended you avoid changing the Solution Control
parameters unless you understand how to use them or it is
recommended by AFT or a more experienced user
– The danger is that it is possible to modify the Solution Control
parameters in such a way that the model will converge on the
wrong answer
 We will cover different convergence strategies later in the
seminar
A4 - 4
Solution Methods
 The Length March method and Mach Number March method

have been discussed previously
 Arrow 6 offers two methods that are hybrids of the two basic
methods
– Length March with Mach Number Limits
– Mach Number March with Length Limits
 Arrow 6 also offers two lumped methods
– Lumped Adiabatic
– Lumped Isothermal
A4 - 5
Length March Method
 The Length March method takes solution steps over equal

length steps
– The user can specify steps either as number per pipe, or by
absolute length
 The Length March method solution for a single pipe looks as
follows: Note equal length steps
A4 - 6
Mach Number March Method
 The Mach Number March method takes solution steps over

equal Mach number steps
– This allows the solver to follow rapidly accelerating flow in pipes
 The Mach Number March method solution for a single pipe
looks as follows:
– Note how the distance steps shorten towards the end of the pipe
Note equal Mach number increments 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
A4 - 7
Hybrid Solution Methods
 The two hybrid methods combine the best of the two basic
solution methods
– They prevent length steps that are excessively large, as well as
Mach number increments that are excessively large
– The hybrid methods switch between the two basic methods
dynamically
A4 - 8
Hybrid Solution Methods (2)
Note how equal length
increments are used until
Point 6, then equal Mach
number increments are
used
A4 - 9
Default Solution Method
 The default solution method is the Length March method (with

two increments per pipe) with Mach Number increments limits
 Note that this method uses two pipe sections on every pipe in
the model, no matter how long
 Using more sections per pipe causes longer run times
A4 - 10
Tolerance Summary
 There are three tolerance inputs for the three variables (four if
dynamic mixing is modeled)
– Pressure (at all junctions)
– Mass Flow Rate (in all pipes)
– Enthalpy (at all junctions)
– Concentration (at all junctions if dynamic mixing)
 Each tolerance has four criteria to choose from
– Absolute
– Relative
– Either Absolute or Relative
– Both Absolute and Relative
A4 - 11
Tolerances and Convergence
 When solution iterations are performed, the values of all

junction pressures, enthalpies and pipe flow rates progress
from the initial guesses (which are incorrect) to the true
results (which satisfy the governing equations)
 The solution method needs to have a criteria to decide when
the results are good enough so it can stop iterating
– The tolerance values are the criteria the solution method
compares against to decide to stop iterating
A4 - 12
Tolerances and Convergence (2)
 The best way to determine whether results are converged is

to compare the results of the current iteration to those of the
previous iteration
– If the results do not change appreciably then the true results
have been obtained
 Each iteration AFT Arrow does this check and when the
change in results for all the pipes and junctions is less than
the specified tolerance, it considers the results converged
A4 - 13
Relative Tolerance
 The relative tolerance approach does the comparison of

current vs. previous on a relative change (i.e., percentage
change) basis
If (For All Junctions)

(P j ,new − P j ,old ) < TOL Then
P j ,new
Convergence = True
Else
Convergence = False
End If
 Relative tolerance is the AFT Arrow default because it is the

most robust
– AFT Arrow uses 0.0001 (i.e., 0.01%) as the
criteria for both pressure and flow
A4 - 14
Relative Tolerance (2)
 This method is especially good for systems with highly

different flow rates because each flow rate must converge to a
percentage value only
 One drawback of this method is if systems have zero or near
zero flow rates
If (For All Junctions)

(P j ,new − P j ,old ) < TOL Then
P j ,new
Convergence = True
Else
Convergence = False
End If
A4 - 15
Absolute Tolerance
 The absolute tolerance approach does the comparison of

current vs. previous on an absolute change basis (i.e.,
number of psi's)
If (For All Junctions) P j ,new − P j ,old < TOL Then
Convergence = True
Else
Convergence = False
End If
 Absolute tolerance has units associated with it
A4 - 16
Absolute Tolerance (2)
 This method is good for systems with flows that are all of a
similar magnitude
 Typically, both tolerance settings will give (and should give)
the same answer
– Usually relative tolerance is more efficient and reliable
If (For All Junctions) P j ,new − P j ,old < TOL Then
Convergence = True
Else
Convergence = False
End If
A4 - 17
Tolerance Application:
 Note that this convergence and tolerance is for pressure
Iter # (psia) -------------(lbm/s)------------- (lbm/s) (lbm/s/psia) --- (psia)

P4 M1 M2 M3 F F' REL CHNG ABS CHNG
1 180.0000 115.3464 -78.9048 -313.5906 -277.1489 -18.6139 --- ---
2 165.1106 152.3476 110.9691 -158.5207 104.7960 -23.3027 9.0178E-02 1.4889E+01
3 169.6078 142.1903 81.9409 -217.3503 6.7810 -21.2485 2.6515E-02 4.4972E+00
4 169.9269 141.4418 79.4792 -220.9305 -0.0095 -21.3129 1.8780E-03 3.1913E-01
5 169.9265 141.4429 79.4827 -220.9255 0.0000 -21.3128 2.6127E-06 4.4398E-04
6 169.9265 141.4429 79.4827 -220.9255 0.0000 -21.3128 6.8205E-12 1.1590E-09
7 169.9265 141.4429 79.4827 -220.9255 0.0000 -21.3128 0.0000E+00 0.0000E+00
A4 - 18
Solver Flow Chart
No
No Yes
Yes
No
No Yes
* A concentration balance is Yes
performed only if dynamic Recalculate
mixing is modeled. If not, Concentrations *
the Solver passes through
No
this block.
No Yes
Yes Yes
Recalculate No No
Enthalpies
Yes
Return
A4 - 19
Relaxation Overview
 Relaxation slows the amount of flow rate change allowed by the solution
 Relaxation is like a damping factor that smoothens the convergence
process while also slowing the process
 Relaxation is applied to the flow rate and pressure update for all pipes, i
 i ,new = r (m
m  i ,old ) + m
 i ,new − m  i ,old pi ,new = r p ( pi ,new − pi ,old ) + pi ,old
 Relaxation is always greater than zero and less than or equal to one
– Relaxation of 1 is the same as no relaxation
– Relaxation of 0 would never update the flow rates
 A relaxation of 1 is fastest
 Arrow will automatically reduce flow relaxation if dictated by the solution
progress
 Flow relaxation less than 0.01 is almost never required
 If you relaxation values -
– For flow, typical settings for highly non-linear models are 0.1 or 0.05
– For pressure, never use anything other than 0.5 or 1
A4 - 20
Relaxation Application
 Calculate the new flow rates for several values of relaxation
Old Flow Rate Ideal New Flow New Flow Rate

Relaxation
(lbm/s) Rate (lbm/s) (lbm/s)
1 10 20 20
0.5 10 20 15
0.2 10 20 12
0.1 10 20 11
0.05 10 20 10.5
0 10 20 10
A4 - 21
Completing the Picture on Tolerance
 The Solution Progress Window (which displays while the

Solver is running) communicates the maximum out of
tolerance junction pressure, junction enthalpy and pipe mass
flow rate
 Junction pressures are solved
first and the pipe flow rates
and junction enthalpies are
updated
A4 - 22
Using Transfer Results to Initial Feature
 The Output Window has a feature called Transfer Results to

Initial
 This features takes the current results and transfers them to
the initial guess for each pipe and junction
 This makes the model run much faster in the future
 Transfer Results to Initial can be always enabled with the
Output Control window
A4 - 23
Maximum Global Iterations
 The Maximum Iterations parameters restricts the total number

of iterations for the Solver to calculate
 The Maximum Global Iterations can be as high or as low as
you want - it has no effect on the behavior of the Solver
 The purpose of this parameter is to keep the Solver from
searching forever for a solution it cannot obtain
 Most models will converge within 50000 iterations, which is
the default
A4 - 24
Maximum Local Iterations
 Maximum Local Iterations should usually be left at 500

– It can be changed to as high as 2000 in certain cases
 Local Iterations are those iterations Arrow performs when it
marches down a specific pipe
 When marching down a pipe Arrow will iterate on all of the
local solution parameters to make them consistent with each
other for the step size
 In certain cases Arrow cannot drive all of the local solution
parameters to convergence within the desired local tolerance
A4 - 25
Maximum Local Iterations (2)
 If no limit is set on this process, Arrow will get stuck in an

infinite loop
– To make sure this does not happen, Arrow checks the local
iteration loop counter against the Maximum Local Iterations set
in Solution Control
– When the local counter reaches the limit, Arrow will warn the
user and offer several options
A4 - 26
Local Iteration Control
 If a local iteration problem

occurs on the final iteration,
AFT Arrow keeps a record
of the problem and
automatically retries the
iteration (up to 3 times by
default)
 If the local iteration problem
happens and it is not the
final iteration, AFT Arrow
ignores it
– It will not affect the solution because it is not the final iteration
– This happens frequently inside the Solver and the
user will never see it
A4 - 27
Local Iteration Control (2)
 If a local iteration problem

happens three times in a
row, AFT Arrow displays
convergence and then adds
a warning to the output IF
the value is more than 50
(by default) times greater
than the tolerance
 If the Error Value is far
above the Tolerance, the
answer is not reliable
– If it is only slightly out of
tolerance, this is usually
not a problem
A4 - 28
A5. AFT Arrow Example Models
Overview of Seminar
AFT ARROW
A9. Special Topics
Introduction to Scenario Manager
 The Scenario Manager allows you to keep variants of a model

all with the same model
 The types of changes that can be made are very broad
– Junctions can be turned on and off to evaluate different
operating conditions
– Pipe and junction data can be varied to parametrically evaluate
competing designs
– You can build an existing system as your base model then add to
the system to evaluate expansion possibilities on the existing
system
– You can easily evaluate different working fluids by setting them
up as different children scenarios
A5 - 1
Introduction to Scenario Manager (2)
 Scenarios are created, manipulated, and loaded using the

Scenario Manager window
 The Scenario Manager can be opened from the Tools menu in
the Workspace window, the Scenario Manager button on the
toolbar, or Quick Access Panel
From Quick
Access Panel
A5 - 2
US
Build Model of Nitrogen Transfer System
 Hands-on problem #1 (TEST1.ARO - "Length March 2

Segments" Scenario) - Find flow rate through pipe
L = 200 ft
1 pipe 1 Steel - ANSI
Po = 400 psia 3 in., STD (Sch. 40)
To = 100 F
2 Adiabatic
El = 0 Po = 225 psia
To = 100 F
El = 0
Solution Control ‐ Not Default
Length March, 2 segments
GN2
Ideal Gas
Reference Enthalpy
A5 - 3
US
Modify Test Model #1 for Real Gases
 Modify model to use real gas features, Redlich-Kwong and

Generalized Enthalpy ("Real Gas" Scenario) - Find flow rate
through pipe
L = 200 ft
1 pipe 1 Steel - ANSI
To = 100 F
2 Adiabatic
To = 100 F
El = 0
Solution Control
GN2
Redlich‐Kwong
Generalized Enthalpy A5 - 4
US
Modify Test Model #1 for More Sections
 Change number of pipe sections ("Length March 10

1 L = 200 ft
pipe 1
Steel - ANSI
2
To = 100 F Adiabatic
To = 100 F
El = 0
Solution Control
GN2
Redlich‐Kwong
US
Modify Test Model #1 Solution Method
 Change solution method to Mach March method ("Mach

March Step 0.01" Scenario) - Find flow rate through pipe
1 pipe 1 L = 200 ft
Steel - ANSI
Po = 400 psia
2 3 in., STD (Sch. 40)
To = 100 F
El = 0
Solution Control
Mach March, .01 increments
GN2
Redlich‐Kwong
US
 Change solution method to Arrow defaults (“Length March to

Mach March transition) - Find flow rate through pipe
1 pipe 1 L = 200 ft
Steel - ANSI
Po = 400 psia
2 3 in., STD (Sch. 40)
To = 100 F
Solution Control El = 0
Length March with Mach Number Limits,
2 segments & 0.01 increments
GN2
Redlich‐Kwong
Generalized Enthalpy
A5 - 7
US
Modify Test Model #1 - Add Heat Transfer
 Change model so that ambient temperature is 20F, no

insulation and external convection coefficient is 100 Btu/Hr-
ft2-R ("Heat Transfer" Scenario)
– Use Default Length March with Mach Number Limits
 How does this affect the flow rate?
 What was the flow rate prediction error from the original
calculation?
Eqn. State Enthalpy Solution Method Increment Flowrate
Ideal Reference Length March 2 20.20
R‐K General Length March 2 20.29
R‐K General Mach March 0.01 20.74
R‐K General Default 0.01 20.74
Heat/R‐K General Mach March 0.01 21.26
A5 - 8
US
Graph Results
 Use Graph Results to see how velocity changes along the

pipe for the Heat Transfer scenario
A5 - 9
US
Size Helium Storage Tank
 It is required to supply two systems with at least 2.5 lbm/s of

helium (each) at a minimum 100 psia stagnation pressure
 A single line runs from your tank for 1000 feet and then splits
into two lines each 500 feet long. These two lines supply the
two demand points. All pipe is steel - ANSI, 4 inch, schedule
40.
 The lines are well insulated and thus heat transfer can be
neglected to ambient
 Elevation changes can be neglected
A5 - 10
US
Size Helium Storage Tank (2)
 The system must function on hot and cold days, with the
design ambient temperatures at 30 F for cold days and 100 F
for hot days
 The helium supply vessel will be outside, and thus will always
be at the ambient temperature
 What minimum (stagnation) pressure must the storage
tank be designed to guarantee adequate supply year
round?
 TEST2.ARO (Hot and Cold Scenarios)
A5 - 11
US
Model Control Valve
 Model flow control valve (TEST3.ARO, Base Scenario)

– Steam flow
– Use steam properties from AFT Standard
– Use real gas and real enthalpy models
– Inlet (stagnation) pressure is 250 psia at 425 F
– Exit (stagnation) pressure is 150 psia (assume 425F - this
temperature at the discharge will not be used)
– Pipe is horizontal
– Pipe is uninsulated 450 feet long and Standard Schedule (40)
steel - ANSI
A5 - 12
US
Model Control Valve (2)
 Model flow control valve (TEST3.ARO, Base Scenario): cont’d

– Ambient temperature is 60F
– External heat transfer coefficient is 10 Btu/hr-ft2-F (same as
Btu/hr-ft2-R)
– Minimum pressure drop is 20 psid across valve
– Required flow rate is 5 lbm/s
– Assume valve is in the middle
 Find minimum pipe size if valve is in middle of pipe
 Do the results change if the valve is not in the middle?
A5 - 13
US
 Fluids in the AFT Standard database do not have saturation

line data
– It is not possible to evaluate condensation
– Chempak fluids and the ASME Steam data do have saturation
line data
 Use steam data from the Chempak database to evaluate
whether condensation will occur. Does it?
 TEST3.ARO - "Chempak - No Insulation" Scenario
A5 - 14
US
 To prevent condensation one can add insulation. The selected

insulation has a thermal conductivity of 0.1 Btu/hr-ft-R
 Insulation thickness of 0.25, 0.5 and 1.0 inch are being
considered. Will they work? If so, which is best?
 Is the control valve pressure drop still acceptable?
 TEST3.ARO - "Insulation XX inch" Scenarios
A5 - 15
US
Answers to Problems
 TEST2
– T-hot needs 265 psia (stagnation)
– T-cold needs 250 psia (stagnation)
– Requirement is thus 265 psia
 TEST3, Use 3 inch pipes, which gives a stagnation pressure

drop of 26.30 psid
– Results change if valve is not in middle (less pressure drop
available as valve is moved towards pipe inlet)
A5 - 16
US
Answers to Problems (2)
 TEST3 with Chempak

– Condensation begins in pipe 1 before the control valve
– The previous sizing calculation is thus invalid
 TEST3 with insulation
– Insulation of 0.5 or 1 inch prevents condensation. The 0.25 inch
does not.
– With 0.5 inch insulation the control valve pressure drop is 22.29
psid using 3 inch pipe
– With 1 inch insulation the control valve pressure drop is 21.67
psid using 3 inch pipe
– Use 0.5 inch insulation
A5 - 17
SI
Build Model of Nitrogen Transfer System
 Hands-on problem #1 (TEST1 (SI).ARO - "Length March 2

1 pipe 1
Po = 2800 kPa
To = 40 C
2
El = 0 meters Po = 1600 kPa L = 60 meters
To = 40 C Steel ‐ ANSI
El = 0 meters 3 in., Sch. 40.
Solution Control ‐ Not Default (7.8 cm ID)
Length March, 2 segments Adiabatic
GN2
Ideal Gas
Reference Enthalpy
A5 - 18
SI
Modify Test Model #1 for Real Gases
 Modify model to use real gas features, Redlich-Kwong and

Generalized Enthalpy ("Real Gas" Scenario) - Find flow rate
through pipe
1 pipe 1
Po = 2800 kPa
To = 40 C
2
El = 0 meters L = 60 meters
Po = 1600 kPa
Steel ‐ ANSI
To = 40 C
3 in., Sch. 40
El = 0 meters
Solution Control (7.8 cm ID)
GN2
Redlich‐Kwong
SI
Modify Test Model #1 for More Sections
 Change number of pipe sections ("Length March 10

1 pipe 1
Po = 2800 kPa
To = 40 C
2
GN2
Redlich‐Kwong
SI
 Change solution method to Mach March method ("Mach

March Step 0.01" Scenario) - Find flow rate through pipe
1 pipe 1
Po = 2800 kPa
To = 40 C
2
Mach March, .01 increments Adiabatic
GN2
Redlich‐Kwong
SI
 Change solution method to Arrow defaults (“Length March to

Mach March transition) - Find flow rate through pipe
1 pipe 1
Po = 2800 kPa
To = 40 C
2
Solution Control El = 0 meters 3 in., Sch. 40.
Length March with Mach Number Limits, (7.8 cm ID)
2 segments & 0.01 increments Adiabatic
GN2
Redlich‐Kwong
SI
Modify Test Model #1 - Add Heat Transfer
 Change model so that ambient temperature is -7.0 C, no

insulation and external convection coefficient is 570 W/m2-K
("Heat Transfer" Scenario)
– Use Default Length March with Mach Number Limits
 How does this affect the flow rate?
 What was the flow rate prediction error from the original
calculation?
Eqn. State Enthalpy Solution Method Increment Flowrate
Ideal Reference Length March 2 9.290
R‐K General Mach March 0.01 9.526
Heat/R‐K General Mach March 0.01 9.771
R‐K General Default 0.01 9.526
A5 - 23
SI
Graph Results
 Use Graph Results to see how velocity changes along the

pipe for the Heat Transfer scenario
A5 - 24
SI
Size Helium Storage Tank
 It is required to supply two systems with at least 1.1 kg/s of

helium (each) at a minimum 700 kPa stagnation pressure
 A single line runs from your tank for 300 meters and then
splits into two lines each 150 meters long. These two lines
supply the two demand points. All pipe is steel - ANSI, 4 inch
(10.2 cm ID), schedule 40.
 The lines are well insulated and thus heat transfer can be
neglected to ambient
 Elevation changes can be neglected
A5 - 25
SI
Size Helium Storage Tank (2)
 The system must function on hot and cold days, with the
design ambient temperatures at -1.0 C for cold days and 40 C
for hot days
 The helium supply vessel will be outside, and thus will always
be at the ambient temperature
 What minimum (stagnation) pressure must the storage
tank be designed to guarantee adequate supply year
round?
 TEST2 (SI).ARO (Hot and Cold Scenarios)
A5 - 26
SI
Model Control Valve
 Model flow control valve (TEST3 (SI).ARO, Base Scenario)

– Steam flow
– Use steam properties from AFT Standard
– Use real gas and real enthalpy models
– Inlet (stagnation) pressure is 1725 kPa at 220 C
– Exit (stagnation) pressure is 1050 kPa (assume 220C - this
temperature at the discharge will not be used)
– Pipe is horizontal
– Pipe is uninsulated 140 meters long and Standard Schedule (40)
steel - ANSI
A5 - 27
SI
 Model flow control valve (TEST3 (SI).ARO, Base Scenario) –

cont’d
– Ambient temperature is 16C
– External heat transfer coefficient is 57 W/m2-K
– Minimum pressure drop is 140 kPa across valve
– Required flow rate is 2.25 kg/s
– Assume valve is in the middle
 Find minimum pipe size if valve is in middle of pipe
 Do the results change if the valve is not in the middle?
A5 - 28
SI
 Fluids in the AFT Standard database do not have saturation

line data
– It is not possible to evaluate condensation
– Chempak fluids and the ASME Steam data do have saturation
line data
 Use steam data from the Chempak database to evaluate
whether condensation will occur. Does it?
 TEST3 (SI).ARO - "Chempak - No Insulation" Scenario
A5 - 29
SI
 To prevent condensation one can add insulation. The selected

insulation has a thermal conductivity of 0.2 W/m-K
 Insulation thickness of 0.5, 1.25 and 2.5 cm are being
considered. Will they work? If so, which is best?
 Is the control valve pressure drop still acceptable?
 TEST3 (SI).ARO - "Insulation XX cm" Scenarios
A5 - 30
SI
Answers to Problems
 TEST2 (SI)
– T-hot needs 1778 kPa (stagnation)
– T-cold needs 1675 kPa (stagnation)
– Requirement is thus 1778 kPa
 TEST3 (SI), Use 3 inch (7.8 cm ID) pipes, which gives a
stagnation pressure drop of 168.2 kPa
– Results change if valve is not in middle (less pressure drop
available as valve is moved towards pipe inlet)
A5 - 31
SI
Answers to Problems (2)
 TEST3 (SI) with Chempak

– Condensation begins in pipe 1 before the control valve
– The previous sizing calculation is thus invalid
 TEST3 (SI) with insulation
– Insulation of 1.25 or 2.5 cm prevents condensation. The 0.5 cm
does not.
– With 1.25 cm insulation the control valve pressure drop is 141.7
kPa using 3 inch pipe
– With 2.5 cm insulation the control valve pressure drop is 135.4
kPa using 3 inch pipe
– Use 1.25 cm insulation
A5 - 32
Overview of Seminar
AFT ARROW
A9. Special Topics
Getting the Right Results
 There are a number of modeling problems AFT sees

frequently
 This section offers numerous strategies and suggestions for
approaching modeling problems
A6 - 1
Compressor/Fan Curves
12
10
Pressure (psid)
 AFT Arrow allows you to use 8
6
compressor/fan curves up to 4
fourth order 2
 Quadratic compressor/fan 0
0 50 100 150 200
curves always reach a zero 12
Flow (ft3/sec)
head value 10
 Third or fourth order
Pressure (psid)
8
compressor/fan curves may 6
not reach the zero head axis 4
2
 This is a problem because the 0
compressor/fan curve may 0 50 100

Flow (ft3/sec)
150 200
start increasing
– This will cause problems for BAD!
the Solver A6 - 2
Resistance Curves
 AFT Arrow gives you a lot of power and flexibility in modeling

components
 There are some pitfalls when entering resistance curves (i.e.,
general polynomials) for junctions
 If you want a fixed pressure drop, be careful assigning only
the "a" constant
– If the flow is too low to get the pressure drop you want, a high "a"
constant will essentially be an infinite resistance
– This makes the flow solution essentially zero, which is a problem
for iterative Solvers like AFT Arrow
– The results will probably be incorrect anyway
 Make sure your resistance curve is realistic
– Good practice is to always include the zero
flow data point in your curve fits A6 - 3
General Input Errors
 AFT Arrow offers significant help for identifying connection

errors, but data entry errors can be hard to find
 Finding input errors in pipe and junctions can be tedious
– Each object needs to be checked individually
 The Model Data Window lets you look at all pipes and junction
data in column format
– This is much easier to check than workspace objects
 Each column should be scanned down to see if there are any
unit errors or numbers that are wildly different than the others
– Example, all pipe lengths in miles but one is in feet
A6 - 4
Use the Sort Feature
 If a big model runs but the results look incorrect, use the Sort
feature in the Output Window to look for extremes in velocity,
pressure drop or other parameters
 An input error (like incorrect diameter) may be easier to see
by its effect on the results
A6 - 5
Tee/Wye Junctions Complications
 As mentioned earlier, tee/wye junctions are frequently

misused
– In general Branch junctions are preferred or simple tee loss
models
 On some models with multiple Tee/Wye junctions the flow split
dependence causes convergence problems with the Relative
Tolerance Method
 In such cases the Absolute Tolerance method is better
A6 - 6
Using Relaxation
 Relaxation acts as a damping factor on the flow rate and

pressure updates and is helpful for highly non-linear systems
such as compressor/fan systems
 The default Automatic Relaxation attempts to make these
choices for you
Selecting Fixed
relaxation allows flow
rate and pressure
relaxation to be
individually specified
A6 - 7
Using Relaxation (2)
 Multiple parallel compressor/fans frequently require a flow

rate relaxation of 0.1 or 0.05
– We have used 0.01 is some cases
 For multiple parallel compressor/fan systems, using flow rate
relaxation in addition to a broad brush initial flow rate guess
can be helpful
 Keep the flow rate relaxation at least one or two orders of
magnitude larger that the relative tolerances
 Pressure relaxation adjustment would be used if the pressure
tolerance is oscillating around a value
– Only pressure relaxation values of 0.5 or 1.0 should be specified
A6 - 8
Try Absolute Tolerance
 Some models converge much better with absolute tolerance

than relative tolerance
 What this usually means is that there is at least one element
of the model that is close to the real answer in absolute terms
but does not lock in on a relative (percentage) basis
 Absolute Tolerance is the only change required for some
problem models
A6 - 9
More on Absolute Tolerance
 Some models converge very slowly

– You get the feedback on the Solver activity in the Solution
Progress Window
 It is often easier to see where the Solver is going in absolute
terms than it is in relative terms
 Some models that are converging slowly do not appear to be
converging on a relative tolerance basis even though they are
A6 - 10
More on Absolute Tolerance (2)
 If you choose only relative tolerance or only absolute, the

other out of tolerance value is shown on the Solution Progress
window in a gray box
– You can monitor the progress
of unused tolerance values
even though the Solver does
not use them for convergence
(unless you change the setting
in Solution Control)
A6 - 11
Use Temperature Limits
 Because of the limitations in Arrow’s physical property sets,

sometimes the path to a solution gets on a “temperature
runaway”, obtaining properties that are extrapolated and
incorrect and feed the runaway
 Such problems can be reduced by using Temperature Limits
– Temperature Limits can be specified on the Solution Control
window
 Temperature Limits cause Arrow to not recognize calculated
temperatures outside the specified range
A6 - 12
Use Pressure Limits
 Pressure Limits are similar to Temperature Limits, but are

slightly different
 Temperature Limits actually change the temperatures in the
solution to keep them within limits
 Pressure Limits do NOT change the pressures
– This could prevent convergence
 Pressure Limits affect only the physical property calculations
 When a physical property is needed which has pressure
dependence, if the pressure is outside the limit then the
limiting pressure is used
A6 - 13
Solver Flow Chart
No
No Yes
Yes
No
No Yes
* A concentration balance is Yes
performed only if dynamic Recalculate
mixing is modeled. If not, Concentrations *
the Solver passes through
No
this block.
No Yes
Yes Yes
Recalculate No No
Enthalpies
Yes
Return
A6 - 14
Break Up the Model Into Sub-Models
 AFT Arrow's Workspace makes it easy to delete (or turn off)

large sections of a model so a portion of it can be run
 At the break points you may need to add artificial pressure
junctions so the sub-model can be run
 Breaking into sub-models can help isolate the problem portion
of the model
– After all, if the sub-models won't run, neither will the complete
model
 We often break a model into sub-models so that we can
isolate the compressor/fan section from the rest of the model
– This helps pinpoint problems with compressor/fan input
A6 - 15
Break Up the Model Into Sub-Models (2)
 Once the sub-models work -

– the information may be available to immediately return to the
original model and run it
– or you can use AFT Arrow's Merge feature to reassemble the
model and then run it
• Be sure to save sub-model results as the sub-model initial
conditions
 The methods described earlier in this section can be used to
help get the sub-models to run
A6 - 16
Change Boundary Pressures and Flows
 Changing the boundary pressure and/or flow rates may help

shakeup the model
 Sometimes you can solve a model with different boundary
conditions then modify the boundary conditions gradually to
guide the model to convergence
A6 - 17
Simplify Model
 If a model is not working, try changing all pipes to adiabatic

and the equation of state to ideal and enthalpy to reference
 Disable global mass and energy balance (Solution Control /
General tab)
– After converging, save results to initial conditions then switch
back to the original settings
A6 - 18
Use Fathom
 Insight into a difficulty with Arrow can sometimes be given by

modeling the system in Fathom also
 Even though Fathom results may be off, it may give you a
gross feel for the solution
 In general, Fathom is more robust because of the simpler
form of the governing equations
 Arrow models can be imported into Fathom and vice versa
A6 - 19
Send the Model to AFT
 If all else fails you can send the model to AFT

 We need to run some models in source code to help identify
the problem
 We place a great deal of emphasis on quality technical
support
 Send model to AFT by email at support@aft.com
 Request support from our website in our Support Center
A6 - 20
Overview of Seminar
AFT ARROW
A9. Special Topics
The Five Primary Windows
 Workspace window
– Where you build the model visually and see the model layout
 Model Data window
– A text-based complement to the Workspace window
– Shows input data in text form
 Output window
– Displays the results of the analysis in text form
– Lets you produce attractive, effectively organized printed output
reports
A7 - 1
The Five Primary Windows (2)
 Visual Report window

– Merges the output data with the pipe system layout from the
Workspace
– Allows customized layout of the information for documentation
and presentation purposes
 Graph Results window
– A full-featured, customizable Windows plotting capability
– Results can be viewed in a variety of ways for evaluating system
performance or identifying important trends
A7 - 2
The Workspace Window – Editing
 You can zoom out to see a larger area

– By using the Zoom control or clicking on the + or - magnifying
glasses on the toolbar
 Objects can be selected as a group in several ways
– Using the mouse to highlight pipes and junctions
– Using the SHIFT key while clicking on the objects
– Using Select Flow Path on the Edit menu
– Using the Select Special tool on the Edit menu
– If a group or groups have been defined, by selecting Groups on
the Edit menu
A7 - 3
The Workspace Window – Selection Tool
Dragging left-to-right selects all Dragging right-to-left selects all objects

objects completely within the selection completely or partially within the selection
box box
A7 - 4
The Workspace Window – Other Features
 The Reference Flow Direction of a pipe can be changed

 The selected objects can be renumbered in three ways
– "Automatic Renumber“, "Renumber Increment" and "Renumber
Wizard"
 The Find tool will move the Workspace window to show a pipe
or junction
 Notes may be added with Annotation tool
 A background may be displayed
– Especially useful in conjunction with Snap
 A bitmap file may be displayed as a Workspace background
A7 - 5
The Workspace Window - Arranging
 The selected objects can be scaled or flipped

 The selected objects can be aligned
The assembly was duplicated and then

flipped vertically and horizontally
A7 - 6
The Workspace Window - Rotating
 A group of pipes and junctions can be rotated
A7 - 7
The Workspace Window – Zoom to Fit
 The Workspace can be "zoomed to fit" so that the entire

model is visible
Zoom to Fit
A7 - 8
Quick Access Panel – Overview Map
 Drag the View Port over large models to zoom in on the

Overview Map
View
Port
Access to Overview Map A7 - 9

Workspace – Annotation Manager
 Annotations can be hidden and displayed in scenarios of your

choice
A7 - 10
Using Select Special
 Select Special is a powerful tool which selects or deselects

objects based on certain criteria
 If accessed from the Workspace it will select objects on the
Workspace
 If accessed from other windows it will select items in a list box
 It can set the list box items based on what is selected on the
Workspace
A7 - 11
Using Select Special (2)
 Criteria options include

– What is selected on the Workspace
– Objects which are open
– Objects with the Special Conditions set
– Objects within a range of ID numbers
– Junctions of a certain type
– Pipe diameter or length
 Invert will select objects not selected and deselect objects
which are selected
 You can perform several selection operations at a time
A7 - 12
Select Special Example
 Select everything except the Tank junctions

1) Select Junction Type, Tank, then
click the Select Junctions button
2) Choose Invert to get all

3) Select all pipes of the non-Tank junctions A7 - 13
The Model Data Window
 The three areas of the Model Data window show all the
information about the model
 Detailed information about the Pipe Fittings & Losses can be
displayed in the Pipe data area
 Model Data is a valuable tool for identifying modeling errors
 Use the Model Data Control to customize what is displayed
 You can optionally show just the pipes and junctions in which
you are interested
 You can select just the data in which you are interested
A7 - 14
The Model Data Window (2)
 Arrow buttons collapse input section

 Each section can be resized manually
A7 - 15
The Output Window
 The Output window is the primary vehicle for communicating

the results of an analysis in text form
 The Output Control, on the Tools Menu, is used to customize
the Output window
– You choose the output parameters and units for the pipes and
junctions
– You set the order of the parameters in the output
– You choose what general information to display in the output
– You enter a title and reference information
– You select the number of digits and numerical display options
A7 - 16
The Output Window (2)
 You can optionally show only the pipes and junctions in which
you are interested
 Special report tables in the General Output include:
– Summary for Compressor/Fan, Valve and Heat Exchanger data
appearing the General section
– Warnings regarding solution
– Differences in parameters from one junction to another (Junction
Deltas)
 Double clicking on an item will open its Properties window in
read-only format
A7 - 17
The Output Window (3)
 Double-clicking the column header allows you to change the

units for that column
 Dragging the column can change the order displayed
 Arrow buttons collapse input section
 Each section can be resized manually
A7 - 18
Using The Output Control
 Example: Open “Compressed Air System.aro” and load the

Base Scenario
 Set the following:
– Pressure Stagnation Inlet (psia)
– Pressure Stagnation Outlet (psia)
– Velocity Inlet (feet/sec)
– Velocity Outlet (feet/sec)
– Show only junctions 2, 7, 8, 9, and 10
– Show only pipes 1, 2, and 9
A7 - 19
Using the Output Control (2)
A7 - 20
The Visual Report Window
 Integrates the pipe system layout from the Workspace window

with information in text form
 The values to be shown may come from the Model Data
values or the Output results
 Text can be moved to give the best visual presentation
 Notes may be added using the annotation button on the
toolbar
 The content is controlled using the Visual Report Control
window
– You choose the parameters to show
– You select to show the title and additional information
– You choose font, symbols and legend options
A7 - 21
Using Visual Report Control
 Choose the parameters you want to be displayed
These parameters will be

shown on the Visual Report
A7 - 22
Using Visual Report Control (2)
 Each object can be set to show any combination of object,

name, number and data Don’t show number, name or data for
the branches
Only show the data for

pipes (no name or number)
A7 - 23
Using The Color Map
 A Color Map can be used to visualize values of various

parameters by coloring the pipes, for example,
– You can show graphically where high velocities or reverse flows
are located
– You can better visualize the pipe diameters or lengths in a model
A7 - 24
Using the Color Map (2)
The Color Map

in the legend
Pipes are colored

according to inlet
velocity A7 - 25
Graph Results Window
 Generate highly interactive and quality printed graphs

 Plot multiple types of graphs:
– Compressor/fan vs. system curve
– System curve
– Profile along a flow path
– Selected solutions
 Graph x-y data can be copied directly to the clipboard
 You can graph multiple parameters on Stacked Graphs with a
common X-axis
 You can create dual Y-axis graphs
A7 - 26
Graph Control on the Quick Access Panel
 Graphs may be saved as Graph List Items in folders in the

Graph List Manager and quickly regenerated after rerunning
the model or running other scenarios
 Multiple profile plots can be cross-plotted using Workspace
Groups
 Each type of graph is defined on color-differentiated tabs
– Select the tab to view the applicable parameters for that graph
type
 Can perform extensive graph formatting from the Formatting
flyover panel
A7 - 27
Graph Control on Quick Access Panel (2)
 Graph Control is a tab on the

Quick Access Panel (QAP)
– Allows for easy graph
generation and configuring
A7 - 28
Graph List Manager
Update Current
Add Graph to List
Graph in List
 Graph folders can be created to organize your graph list items
Graph Folders
Graph List Items
A7 - 29
Graph Tabs
 Graph Tabs allow for multiple graphs

– Graph Tabs can be tiled
A7 - 30
Graph Guide
 The Graph Guide helps you build graphs using Direction

Bubbles
Graph Guide
A7 - 31
Stacked Graphs
 Stacked graphs can show different parameters using the

same X-axis for easy comparison
A7 - 32
Dual Y-Axis Graphs- Different Parameters
 Two different parameters can be shown on the same graph

using a second Y-axis
A7 - 33
Dual Y-Axis Graphs- Same Parameter,
Different Units
 Dual Y-axes can be used to show the same parameter with
different units
A7 - 34
Design Alerts on Graphs
 The Design Alerts can be cross-plotted to show, for example,

maximum operating pressure
– Design alerts are set in the Graph Control next to the parameter
A7 - 35
Cross-Plot Graphs Using Groups
 Multiple pipe sequences can be plotted as profile graphs
A7 - 36
Zoom and Pan on Graphs
 To pan, hold the left mouse key and drag the mouse
 To zoom, click on graph and scroll the mouse wheel
 To zoom on an axis, place mouse over axis and use scroll
wheel
 Can use range finder to zoom in on desired portions of the
graph
A7 - 37
Graph Formatting
 The formatting control can be accessed on a flyover panel

on the QAP
 Title and axis texts can be
changed
 The Size All - and +
buttons are convenient to
change all at once
 The axis scales and tick
marks can be set
A7 - 38
Graph Formatting (2)
 Right-clicking on the Title or an axis allows quick editing
 Right-clicking on the graph

brings up a menu of additional
functions and formatting options
- Formatting is listed at the
bottom
A7 - 39
Other Graph Functionality
 Crosshairs can be shown to callout a data point

 A range finder (shown at the bottom) can be used to zoom
into a portion of the graph
A7 - 40
Other Graph Functionality (2)
 Right-clicking on a graph list folder allows:

– Printing all graphs in the folder
– Generating all graphs in the same tab or separate tabs
– Renaming, moving and deleting
 Data points for each series are grouped together and can be
displayed in a list
– Clicking on a point on the graph with the crosshair selected will
highlight the data in the list
– Clicking on data in the list will select the point on the graph
– Can convert points of interest to annotations on the graph
A7 - 41
Create Graphs from the Workspace
 Right-click on objects on Workspace to directly generate a

graph
A7 - 42
Overview of Seminar
AFT ARROW
A9. Special Topics
Pipe and Junction Details
 Pipes and Junctions are defined using Properties windows

 The Global Edit windows allow you to change data for several
pipes or junctions at the same time
 The required data in each Property window can he highlighted
– This allows you to easily see what data is needed or missing
 A note can be saved for each pipe and junction
 Right clicking on a pipe or junction will display an input and
output summary
 The Quick Access Panel can also be used to review the input
and output of a pipe or junction
A8 - 1
The Pipe Properties Window
 Each pipe must have an ID number, length, diameter,

roughness model, and two connecting junctions
 AFT Arrow can model five different pipe geometries
– Cylindrical pipe (default)
– Cylindrical annulus
– Noncylindrical
– Rectangular duct
– Helical tube
A8 - 2
The Pipe Properties Window (2)
 AFT Arrow provides default pipe material data for eight types
of pipe
 AFT Arrow offers seven methods for specifying frictional
models
– Four methods rely on the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor method
of calculating pipe pressure drop
– Two are for natural gas (Panhandle and Weymouth)
– One is frictionless
A8 - 3
Pipe Fittings & Losses
 Multiple fittings & losses can be added to any pipe
Losses are grouped by

type
Specify the Quantity in

the list
The picture helps
describes the
loss. Double- The losses in the
click the picture pipe of this type are
to pull up loss listed here
model reference
information.
A8 - 4
Pipe Fittings & Losses (2)
 All of the losses are listed on the Summary tab
A8 - 5
Design Alerts
 Design Alerts allow you to specify maximum or minimum

parameters that if exceeded will generate special output
information
– Design Alerts can be specified in the Pipe and Junction Property
windows or the Design Alert Manager located in the Tools menu
for pipes and junctions
A8 - 6
Design Alert Manager
 Design Alert Manager accessed from Tools menu allows quick

and global Design Alert allocation to pipes and junctions
List of Existing
Design Alerts
Specify
Pipes/Junctions
Define Design to apply Design
Alert maximum Alert to
or minimum
criteria
Create/Edit
Design Alert
A8 - 7
Design Alerts Example
 Open Compressed Air System.aro from disk and load the “Hot
Case” scenario
 Specify the following Design Alerts with the Design Alert
Manager
– Design Alert Name = 20 psia Minimum Static Pressure
• Pipes P3 – P9
– Design Alert Name = 300 ft/sec Maximum Velocity
• All Pipes
– Design Alert Name = 25 psia Minimum Fan Discharge Pressure
• Compressor J2
 Run model and observe pipe output
A8 - 8
Heat Transfer In Pipes
 Heat transfer can be calculated using one of six models

– Adiabatic (default)
– Isothermal
– Convective heat transfer
– Convective heat transfer and heat flux
– Constant heat flux
– Constant heat rate
A8 - 9
Heat Transfer in Pipes (2)
 Convective heat transfer thermal model with one external

insulation layer shown below
Pipe Wall Ambient Convection
Insulation
A8 - 10
Heat Transfer in Pipes (3) – Results
Diagram
 Pipe Heat Transfer output can be viewed on the Heat Transfer
tab in the Pipes section of the Output window
– Clicking the Show box in the
Results Diagram area displays
piping heat transfer information
on an intuitive pipe diagram
A8 - 11
Insulation
 Insulation can be added to a pipe when heat transfer is

modeled and when it isn't
 Insulation can be on the outside of the pipe or inside
– Internal insulation is more common for ducts
 When internal insulation is used AFT Arrow will automatically
calculate the reduction in flow area and impact on pressure
drop
A8 - 12
Optional Pipe Information
 For each pipe you can choose to display the ID number,

name, and Pipe Size on the Workspace
 An initial guess flow rate can help the Solver
reach convergence faster
 Each pipe object can
represent multiple parallel
pipes
 Design factors add safety
margin to calculations
 Change pipe line thickness
and color
 You can close the pipe by
setting the Special Conditions
A8 - 13
The Junction Properties Window
 Each junction type uses a different Property window

 Each junction must have an elevation
 You can choose junctions from a Custom Component
database list (if you create one) to specify the junction
 Junctions which can connect to more than two pipes will show
the connected pipes in a table in which you can enter loss
factors
A8 - 14
Optional Junction Information
 For each junction you can choose to display the ID number,

name, both or neither on the Workspace
 An initial guess at pressure
and temperature can help the
Solver reach convergence
faster
 Some junctions have Special
Conditions which can be set
to override the default
behavior of the junction
– Usually this will turn off or
close the junction to flow
– Relief valve will be open when the
Special Conditions are set
A8 - 15
Global Pipe Editing
 Global Pipe Edit, on the Edit menu, assists you in making

large scale changes to your model
 To globally edit the pipe data
– Select the pipes to change from the list, or use the Select
Special tool
– Click on the Select Pipe Data button to show the Pipe Property
window
– Enter the data you want to change and click OK
– Choose the parameters to be changed and click the Apply
Selections button
– Confirm that you want to change the selected pipes by clicking
OK or Cancel the change
A8 - 16
Global Pipe Editing (2)
4) Apply the
data
1) Choose
3) Choose which
which pipes
parameters to
to edit
change
2) Select the data which

then displays at the right
A8 - 17
Global Junction Editing
 You can change the general data or junction specific data

 To globally edit the common junction data
– Select All Junctions in the drop-down list box
– Click Select Common Junction Data
– Enter the new data in the Common Junction Data Edit window
and click OK
– Check the boxes on the right to select the parameters to be
changed
– Click on the Apply Selections button.
A8 - 18
Global Junction Editing (2)
Choose which
junctions to edit
Enter the new data
Choose which parameters

to change
A8 - 19
 To globally edit specific junction data

– Select option for Specific Data For… and then the junction type
in the drop-down list box and choose the junctions to change
– Click on the Select Junction Data button to show the Properties
window for the junction type (the button will display the junction
type)
– Enter the data you want to change and click OK
– Choose the parameters to be changed and click the Change
Selections button
A8 - 20
Choose the
junction type
Choose which
junctions to edit Choose which
parameters to
change
A8 - 21
Design Factors
 Design Factors are available for pipe friction, junction friction,

fitting losses, compressor/fan curves and heat transfer
– These can be used as safety factors in the design
– They can be set for each pipe/junction or globally
A8 - 22
A9. Special Topics
Overview of Seminar
AFT ARROW
A9. Special Topics
Calculation Difficulties in Compressible
Flow
 On the path to a solution sometimes the pressure goes below
absolute zero pressure
– In Fathom this happens and it is OK, but in Arrow the pressure is
linked to temperature and density by an equation of state
– Negative pressures cannot be allowed in Arrow, and internally
Arrow tries to push negative pressures away from the zero point
– This is one of the reasons Arrow can get stuck
– Be careful assigning absolute zero pressure boundary conditions
A9 - 1
Calculation Difficulties in Compressible
Flow (2)
 If the user specifies higher than sonic flow Arrow will
frequently divide by zero
– This can happen at an internal bottleneck in the system where
various discharge flows sum up and exceed sonic flow in a
particular pipe
– It is difficult for Arrow to determine this has happened and thus
no notification is possible to the user
A9 - 2
Calculation Difficulties
 Because of the limitations in Arrow’s physical property sets,

sometimes the path to a solution gets on a “temperature
runaway”, obtaining properties that are extrapolated and
incorrect and feed the runaway
– This problem can be alleviated by using temperature limits in the
Solution Control
A9 - 3
Calculation Difficulties (2)
 AFT Standard fluids in AFT Arrow do not know where the

saturation line is and thermodynamic conditions below the
saturated vapor line can cause problems with the equation of
state and/or steam tables
– This can happen on the path to a solution, even though the final
solution is all superheated
– Isothermal pipes can help work through this problem
– Check that pressure/temperature boundary conditions are
superheated and not sub-cooled
A9 - 4
Compressor/Fans
 Compressor/Fans can be modeled with compressor curves or

assigned flows
 Compressor/Fans introduce a strong non-linearity into the
model
– Multiple Compressor/Fans in parallel frequently require lower
relaxation values
 The compressor/fan developed pressure is listed in the
General Results section of the output in the Compressor/Fan
Summary
A9 - 5
Compressor/Fans (2)
 Using undersized compressor/fans can lead to modeling

results that do not reflect reality
– The compressor/fan may not have enough capacity to supply the
system you have modeled
 Variable speed fans can be modeled by entering the speed
 Variable speed fan control to a flow rate or discharge pressure
can be performed
A9 - 6
Working with Compressor/Fan Data &
Results
The Compressor/Fan Summary is

included in the General section of
the Output window
Compressor/Fan data can

be entered for the
performance curve
A9 - 7
Compressor/Fan Summary and Results
Diagram
 Compressor/Fan Summary output parameters configured in
“Compressor/Fans” button of Output Control are displayed on
Compressor/Fan Summary tab in General section of Output
window
Results Diagram is a useful feature to

display corresponding output parameters on
a diagram of what the component looks like.
A9 - 8
Compression Heating
 With this compressor modeled as adiabatic, the temperature

rise from compression heating is as follows:
n −1
T2  P2  n
=  
T1  P1 
 For adiabatic air, the polytropic constant, n, is about 1.392
n −1 1.392 −1
 P2  n
 22.416  1.392
T2 = T1   = 528.574  = 598.25
 P1   14.440 
 This is about 598 deg. R shown, with a little round off
A9 - 9
Variable Speed Compressors/Fans
 If a speed other than 100% is entered for a fan, AFT Arrow will
modify the fan curve according to the fan affinity laws
– Pressure ratio is related to speed ratio by square law, and
2
∆P1  s1 
=  
∆P2  s2 
– Flow ratio is related to speed ratio linearly

Q1 s1
=
Q2 s2
A9 - 10
Variable Speed Compressors/Fans (2)
 The fan curve equation looks as follows, where s is the speed ratio
∆P1 = a + bQ1 + cQ12 + dQ13 + eQ14

∆P2 = s 2 ∆P1 = s 2 a + s 2bQ1 + s 2 cQ12 + s 2 dQ13 + s 2 eQ14
2 3 4
Q2 Q  Q  Q 
∆P2 = s 2 a + s 2b + s 2 c 2  + s 2 d  2  + s 2 e 2 
s  s   s   s 
Q23 Q24
∆P2 = s a + sbQ2 + cQ + d
2 2
2 +e 2
s s
A9 - 11
Variable Speed Compressors/Fans (3)
 For variable speed fans Arrow can calculate the speed

required to deliver a specified pressure or flow
– You cannot simultaneously input the speed because that is what
is being calculated
– Arrow disables the speed
input field
 The required speed is displayed
in the Compressor/Fan
Summary of the Output window
A9 - 12
Variable Speed Compressors/Fans
Example
 Open Compressed Air System.aro, set the compressor to
90% speed and run the model
 Now set the compressor to control to a discharge pressure of
28 psia static and run the model
 Compare the results with the 100% base scenario case
(answer at end of this section)
A9 - 13
Compressor/Fan Summary
 The Compressor/Fan Summary report in the output window

gathers all compressor/fan data into one location for
convenient review
– Compressor/Fan pressure rise
– Compressor/Fan power
– Compressor/Fan speed
– Compression ratio
– Best Efficiency Point information
 This report is displayed within the General section Output
window on the Compressor/Fan Summary tab
A9 - 14
Compressor/Fan Configurations
 Compressor/fan data can be entered for multiple

configurations
– The default is a single configuration.
 A compressor/fan configuration is a compressor/fan with a
specific trim and operating speed
 Multiple trims and operating speeds can be specified as part
of the compressor/fan, then a particular combination can be
chosen
A9 - 15
Compressor/Fan Configurations (2)
 Data for Efficiency (or Power) is optional

– This parameter does not affect the solution
– It is used only for diagnostics
 With Efficiency/Power data, Arrow determines the Best
Efficiency Point (BEP) and the proximity of the operating point
to BEP
– The user can manually enter the BEP
A9 - 16
 The Compressor/fan Configuration window is opened from the

Compressor/Fan Property window
– Click the Create button to input a new configuration
A9 - 17
 Multiple configurations are displayed on the Compressor/Fan

Properties window in dropdown lists for selection
A9 - 18
Compressor/Fan Configurations Example
 Open Compressed Air System.aro to the Multiple Compressor

Configurations scenario
– This scenario contains an as yet unspecified compressor
 We’ll create two configurations for 1800 RPM with 6” and 7”
impellers
– Open the compressor properties window and click
Compressor/Fan Configurations
– Under Configuration Method, select Multiple Configurations
– Under Configurations Defined click create
– Enter ‘1800’ for RPM, ‘6’ for Impeller diameter and the following
in the Raw Data table: lbm/sec dP (psid) Efficiency
0 27 0
Click Generate Curve Fit Now and, after 0.4 25 48
0.8 20 68
the compressor curves are generated,
click Update Configuration Now. Continue to next page. A9 - 19
(2)
 To create the second configuration, click on the ‘1800 RPM’ in
the Configurations Defined area then click Create (this will
create a second configuration for the 1800 RPM speed)
– Enter ‘7’ for Impeller diamter and the following in the Raw Data
table:
lbm/sec dP (psid) Efficiency
0 30 0
0.4 27 50
0.8 22 70
– Click Generate Curve Fit Now and, after the compressor curves
are generated, click Update Configuration Now
– Click OK to return to the main compressor properties window
A9 - 20
 Run the model with both the 1800RPM/6” and 1800RPM/7”

configurations and compare the results
Defined Compressor/Fan
configurations can be
selected here
A9 - 21
Control Valves
 AFT Arrow has four types of

control valves
– Flow Control
– Pressure reducing (control on downstream of valve)
– Pressure sustaining (control on upstream of valve)
– Pressure drop control (same pressure drop always)
 Control Valve junctions can be used to model actual control
valves or to size regular valves
– Required pressure drop will be identified
 FCV's, PRV's a PSV's will take as much pressure drop as is
required to control to desired conditions
 The Valve Summary in Output window shows all
relevant data for Control Valves grouped
together A9 - 22
Control Valve Can't Achieve Setpoint
 Control valves (flow or pressure) can end up in a situation

where they cannot control to the desired control points
– This indicates the desired control point cannot be obtained
unless the valve acts like a compressor or fan
 There are three actions to not achieving the setpoint:
– Always Control (Never Fail) - add pressure if required (default)
– Go to the valve’s full open state
– Close the valve
 In applications with multiple flow control valves in parallel,
multiple valves may not achieve the setpoint simultaneously
 Any control valve that cannot control to its setpoint will go to
its "action if setpoint not achievable"
– Once this action is taken, it will not return to
its control capability A9 - 23
Control Valve Can't Achieve Setpoint (2)
 When control valves fail, AFT Arrow will set failed valves to
their failure position and re-run the model to determine if the
remaining control valves can now control
 Consider a system with three FCV’s in parallel, specified to
fail open if there is insufficient upstream pressure
– With all three controlling, the system flow and corresponding
upstream pressure drop may result in insufficient pressure for
some, or all, of the valves to control.
– Arrow initially runs the model with the valves in the ‘never fail’
mode. Failed valves will have added pressure. The valve adding
the greatest magnitude of added pressure will be set to the fail
open mode specified and the model re-run.
– This process will continue until no valves are adding
pressure, thus determining the combination of
valves that may operate at their setpoint. A9 - 24
 Pressure control valves can lose control for two reasons:

– Insufficient upstream pressure
– Excessive downstream pressure
 The user can assign different actions for each of these cases
A9 - 25
 Multiple control valve failure example

 Open Valve Failure Example.aro to the ‘Always Control –
Never Fail’ scenario and run the model.
– What are the final valve states and how do their Pstatic out
values compare?
 Next, make the ‘J7 failed open’ scenario current and run the
model.
– How do the final valve states compare to the previous scenario
and why?
A9 - 26
 Multiple control valve failure example - Answers

 When all valves are set to never fail, their Pstatic out is the
setpoint value and the flow through the valve results from the
difference between this pressure and the downstream
assigned pressure junction and resistance of the connecting
pipe.
– This individual and total system flow results in insufficient
upstream pressure for PRV’s J5 & J7 so that they must add
pressure.
A9 - 27
 Multiple control valve failure example - Answers

 When Arrow first runs the fail open scenario, it automatically
sets the valves to never fail.
– The results would be as above, but since J7 has to add more
pressure than J5, Arrow sets J7 to failed open and re-runs the
model.
– With J7 failed open, its flow and the resultant system flow is
reduced, resulting in reduced upstream pressure loss and
increased available pressure to J3 and J5 so that they do not
have to add pressure – i.e. they do not fail.
– This is the steady-state condition a real system with real control
valves would achieve.
A9 - 28
Tee/Wye Junctions vs. Branches
 Tee/Wye junctions have sophisticated flow split loss

correlations to calculate losses through tees and wyes
 These junction types should be used only when required
– If required for a certain model, the engineer should take the time
to make sure they are setting up the junction properly
– The majority of models we see at AFT that use Tee /Wye
junctions use these junctions improperly
– If you do not need them they are an unnecessary complexity
 In general it is best to use Branch junctions for all flow splits
or use the "Simple" tee model
 For sophisticated tee modeling, AFT Arrow models the
negative K factors predicted by Idelchik
A9 - 29
Modeling Heat Transfer
 Different heat transfer modeling conditions can be assigned to

different pipes
 Four heat transfer models are available for pipes
– Isothermal
– Adiabatic (perfect insulation)
– Convective Heat Transfer (to an ambient temperature)
– Convective Heat Transfer with heat flux
– Constant heat flux
– Constant heat rate
 The pipe heat transfer calculations are made over each
solution section
– Sections depend on how pipes are incremented and
the solution method
A9 - 30
Modeling Heat Transfer (2)
 Heat transfer also can be entered in two junction types: heat

exchangers and compressor/fans
 Heat exchangers have twelve heat transfer models
 Compressor/Fans can model heat of compression
 AFT Arrow calculates an energy balance along all pipes and
all converging branches to obtain overall system energy
balance
A9 - 31
Heat Exchangers
 AFT Arrow uses the effectiveness -NTU method based on the

heat exchanger geometry chosen
 Alternatively, users can -
– specify a constant heat rate to or from the heat exchanger
– specify a heat rate as a function flowrate
– specify the exit temperature of the heat exchanger, and let Arrow
determine the amount of heat transfer that results
– specify a fixed enthalpy or temperature rise
 The assigned heat rate and assigned exit temperature are
useful for sizing heat exchangers
A9 - 32
Heat Exchanger Thermal Linking
 A heat exchanger can be thermally linked to another heat

exchanger
– This can represent the hot and cold side of a single heat
exchanger, with separate fluid loops
 Different fluids can be modeled for each loop using the
Chempak fluid database
A9 - 33
Heat Exchanger Thermal Linking in
Output
 Information on thermal links can be displayed in Output
A9 - 34
Orifice Junction – Sizing
 Use control valves to size orifices
A9 - 35
Changing Input Data Using Excel
 Excel can be used to change input for pipes and junctions

 Choose Import Change Data from File menu
 See Help System for more information
A9 - 36
Static vs. Stagnation Pressures
1
P + ρV 2 + ρgh = Const 1
2
}
}
Static }
Hydrostatic
Dynamic 2 3 4 5
(or Velocity)
Po,3
P3
∆Ploss
Pstagnation = Pstatic + Pdynamic
Pressure
1 ρV 2 Po,5
2 3 1 ρV 2 P5
2 5
AFT Arrow needs the pressure

specified at location 3, not location 2
Location 2 Location 4 Location 5
Location 3
Distance (x)
Discussion is for incompressible flow

because it is more straightforward. The
A9 - 37
principles apply to compressible flow.
Static vs. Stagnation Pressures (2)
 With two exceptions, all pressure-type boundary conditions in

AFT Arrow are stagnation
 This works very well for things such as:
– Large storage tanks
– Atmosphere
– Etc.
 Stagnation conditions assume the volume associated with a
pressure is large and will not change (significantly) with time
– These boundaries have no velocity associated with them, and
using stagnation pressure is thus appropriate
 These boundary conditions are most clearly rendered in AFT
Arrow by use of a Tank junction
A9 - 38
 The best example of when a static pressure boundary is

appropriate is when the boundary condition is inside a pipe
– For example, at the location of a pressure measurement
– Or at the boundary of the pipe system for which your company is
responsible, with another company responsible for what is on the
other side of that boundary
 The Assigned Pressure junction allows one to model either a
static or stagnation pressure
– Tank junctions are always stagnation

A9 - 39
 For pressure control valves (i.e., PRV’s and PSV’s) the

default control pressure is static pressure
– Typically the measured pressure that provides feedback to the
controller will be a static pressure measurement
– You have the option of modeling pressure control valves as
either static or stagnation pressure

A9 - 40
Open vs. Closed Systems - Flow
 In order to model a closed system, only one “pressure

junction” is used in the model
– Tank
– Assigned Pressure
 Tank & Assigned Pressure junctions do not balance flow
– These junctions are an infinite source of fluid
– These junctions draw whatever flow is needed to maintain the
fixed pressure
 AFT Arrow does not directly model closed systems
– It uses the fact that an overall system balance will give the
appearance of a balanced flow at the pressure junction
A9 - 41
Open vs. Closed Systems – Flow (2)
 If there is only one boundary (i.e., junction) where flow can

enter or leave the pipe system, then no flow will enter or leave
because there isn’t anywhere for it to go
– It cannot be stored in the system because it’s steady state
– If flow cannot enter the system, it cannot enter the junction and
thus its net flow rate will be zero (i.e., it will be balanced)
A9 - 42
Open vs. Closed Systems - Flow (3)
 AFT Arrow’s solver obtains an overall flow balance

 Each boundary junction does not in itself have a balanced
flow
 However, if you add up all the inflows and outflows, they will
balance to zero
Open system - Flow out of J1
equals the sum of J4 and J5
A9 - 43
 The closed system below has one pressure junction (the J1

tank)
 Once again, the J1 tank does not balance flow
 Instead, the overall pipe system is balanced by the solver
Closed system - Summed flow

out of P6 and P10 equals P1
A9 - 44
Open vs. Closed Systems – Flow (5)
 The appearance of a balance at J1 derives from the fact that it

is the only inflow/outflow junction in the system
– Flow cannot enter the system through this junction because
there isn’t anywhere for it to go
 AFT Arrow does not even know that this system is closed - it
just solves the network like any other model

A9 - 45
 The two systems shown below are equivalent as far as AFT

Arrow is concerned
Open system - Equivalent to
closed system at left if J1, J10
and J11 are the same
A9 - 46
Open vs. Closed Systems - Energy
 Even if the flows are balanced at J1, how can the energy be
balanced?
 For example, assume the user sets a temperature of 100F at
J1
– This temperature will be the inlet pipe temperature for all pipes
that flow out of J1
• This will be pipe P1 only
ho, mix is found by balancing

energy at exits from P6 and
P10
ho, mix is supplied to P1 (i.e.,

all outflowing pipes)
A9 - 47
Open vs. Closed Systems – Energy (2)
 The pipes flowing into the tank will have their own
temperatures that are obtained by balancing energy along
their individual flow paths (including heat exchanger input)
 Pipes P6 and P10 will have exit temperatures that are
different from 100F
ho, mix is found by balancing

P10

all outflowing pipes)
A9 - 48
Open vs. Closed Systems – Energy (3)
 The only way to obtain an overall system energy balance is

for the J1 tank temperature to adjust to the mixture
temperature of all inflowing pipes
 This is the function of the “Balance Energy in Tank” feature
– The junction temperature (input as 100F) is allowed to “float” and
find its own equilibrium
– Each iteration the floating temperature (i.e, enthalpy) is fed into
P1 until convergence
ho, mix is found be balancing

P10

all outflowing pipes) A9 - 49
How Pressure Junctions Work
 Pressure junctions in AFT Arrow are an infinite source or sink

of fluid
– Tanks or Assigned Pressures
– Exit Valves also act as pressure junctions
– Pressure junctions can draw or discharge as much fluid as is
necessary to maintain the specified pressure
 By example, consider the compression system below
Low Pressure High Pressure

Supply Tank (J1) Discharge Tank (J2)
Compressor (J3)
Transfer Pipeline
A9 - 50
How Pressure Junctions Work (2)
 If an engineer has an idea of the required discharge pressure,

he/she may attempt to model the system with a fixed pressure
at the compressor discharge
 However, the physical reality that

corresponds to this model looks like this
 Because the tank junction (J4) Atmospheric
Pressure (J4)
is an infinite source of fluid, it is
like placing the atmosphere Supply Low Pressure
Tank (J1) Compressor (J3)
High Pressure
Discharge Tank (J2)
between the supply and

discharge piping
– J4 will not balance mass Transfer Pipeline
A9 - 51
How Pressure Junctions Work (3)
 The proper model for this system is shown here

 If the engineer has an idea of the discharge
pressure, he/she should still model the
system like this
 The results from this model are then compared to the
engineer’s expectation
– This provides a sanity check on the results
Low Pressure High Pressure
Supply Tank (J1) Discharge Tank (J2)
Compressor (J3)
Transfer Pipeline
A9 - 52
Pressure/Flow Junction Relationship
 Pressure-type and flow-type junctions are inter-related in a

sense
 Since the same equations are being solved in either case, the
solved flow rate that results from a certain pressure boundary
should be the same solved pressure for a certain flow
boundary
 As an example, open DEMO1.ARO (on your seminar disk)
 The supply pressure is 200 psia
 Run the model and determine:
– The inflow at the supply J1
– The inlet static temperature at J1
A9 - 53
Pressure/Flow Junction Relationship (2)
 Delete J1 and add an Assigned Flow junction

 Input the flow rate and temperature obtained earlier and run
the model
 What is the (stagnation) pressure at the new Assigned Flow?
A9 - 54
Sonic Choking Overview
 Sonic choking is a phenomenon that can occur in gas piping

systems where the local gas velocity reaches sonic speed
 Since sonic speed is the maximum speed the gas can reach
(unless a diverging nozzle exists), the flow chokes
– AFT Arrow does not model supersonic flow
 When the flow chokes, a lowering of the downstream
pressure will not generate additional flow
 Flow can choke at three types of geometries
– A flow restriction (e.g., orifice)
– A flow expansion (area increase)
– The end of a pipe as it exits the system (endpoint choking)
A9 - 55
Sonic Choking Overview (2)
 Flow can choke in multiple locations in a system

 Pressure drop across shock wave is whatever it needs to be
so subsonic flow downstream of choke can meet the
downstream boundary condition
A9 - 56
Calculating Sonic Choking
 Sonic choking depends on the local velocity which in turn

depends on the local flow area
– A convenient equation for calculating mass flow rate and choked
flow rate is given below
– To calculate choked flow, M = 1 should be substituted into the
second equation
Po
=A
m f ( M)
To
γ − 1 2  −(γ + ) [ (γ − )]
1 2 1
γ 
f ( M) = M 1 + M 
ZR  2 
A9 - 57
Calculating Sonic Choking (2)
 AFT Arrow requires a choked flow area, called CdA, to be

entered for each component in which you want the choking
calculation performed
 A helpful output parameter in AFT Arrow is the sonic area,
which can be compared against actual area to determine your
margin
To
Asonic = m

Po f ( M ) M =1
A9 - 58
Three Types of Sonic Choking
 The three types of sonic choking are shown graphically

Flow chokes at exit
into atmosphere or tank
Endpoint choking
Flow chokes at
expansion in pipe area
Expansion choking
This can also occur at a flow
splitter where the sum of the
Flow chokes at
two exit pipes exceeds the
restriction in pipe
supply pipe
Restriction choking
A9 - 59
Endpoint Choking and Fanno Line
 The Fanno line shows the thermodynamic process in pipe

flow in terms of entropy and enthalpy for adiabatic flow
 In adiabatic flow, the stagnation enthalpy is constant
 As the gas accelerates, the static enthalpy decreases
h
h0 = constant
V2
2
V2
ho = h +
2
Sonic point
smax s
A9 - 60
Endpoint Choking Profiles
 Dimensionless stagnation pressure ratio profiles and Mach

number profiles for air supplied at 100 psia and 1000 deg. R
and sonically choked discharge conditions. Pipe is 2 inch
stainless steel, 100 feet long. Results shown for four different
ambient temperature conditions.
1 1
0.9
P stag / P stag inlet
0.9
Mach Number
0.8 1.0 0.8
0.7 0.8
0.7
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.5 Tambient /Tinlet = 0.4
0.5
0.4
0.3 0.4 Tambient/Tinlet = 0.4
0.3
0.6
0.2
0.8 1.0
0.1 0.2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
x/L x/L
d) h)
A9 - 61
Expansion and Restriction Choking
Profiles 1 1

0.8 0.8
Mach Number
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
Expansion Choking 0.2 0.2
0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
x/L
1 1
0.8 0.8
Mach Number
0.6 0.6
Restriction Choking 0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
x/L
A9 - 62
Sonic Flowrate for Various Pressure
Drops
 Example of flow rate vs. dimensionless pressure drop.
Parameters are adiabatic flow of air in a 2 inch steel pipe
supplied at 100 psia and 70 deg. F. Sonic choking occurs for
discharge pressures of 63.6 psia and below (i.e.,
dimensionless pressure drop of 0.364). The choked flow rate
is 4.93 lbm/s. 6
Mass Flow Rate (lbm/s)
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
dPstag / Pstag
A9 - 63
Choked Flow vs. Supply Pressure
 Example of increasing choked flow rate with supply pressure.

Parameters are adiabatic steam flow in a 20 foot long, 1 inch
steel pipe with 600 deg. F supply temperature.
 Choked flow can be increased by increasing the supply
pressure, but not by decreasing the discharge pressure
3.5
Choked Flow Rate (lbm/s)
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Supply Pressure (psia)

A9 - 64
Triple Choke Steam Flow Example
 Multiple choked system with all three choking types
First choke point Third choke point

at expansion from at exit of 18 inch pipe
6 to 18 inches into the receiver tank
Second choke point

at sonic orifice (area
ratio = 0.18)
A9 - 65
Multiple Sonic Choking Points
 Once sonic choking is determined for a flow path, the rest of

the flow path is solved as a pseudo system
Known flow rate is imposed

on pseudo system after
Known flow rate is imposed
the expansion
on pseudo system after
similar to a known
the orifice similar to a known
inflow boundary condition
inflow boundary condition
Sonic flow rate determined

by system up to expansion
A9 - 66
Multiple Sonic Choking Points Example
 Open Triple Choke.aro and run the model

– Select the Sonic Choking tab of the Output window to see where
choking has occurred
– Click the Orifice tab in the Junction area of the Output window -
what is the Mach number at this restriction? Choking at pipe exit
– Go to the Graph Results window,
Profile Along a Flow Path tab,
click Select All (pipes) and Mach
Number (under Graph Parameters)
then Show
Choking at
area change
Since graph is of pipe Mach numbers,

choking at orifice does not appear but is
shown in the Output window A9 - 67
Two Pressure Loss Mechanisms
 There are two separate pressure loss mechanisms when gas

flows through a restriction
– Subsonic losses are standard “form” losses and are dependent
on the geometry of the restriction
• This is the common “K” factor
– Sonic losses result when sonic choking occurs and a shock
wave is formed
– Sonic losses are dependent on the minimum effective flow area
and are unrelated to the K factor
• This is the CdA
 The two loss mechanisms cannot occur simultaneously
A9 - 68
K Factor Data in Compressible Flow
 Most handbook K factor data is based on incompressible flow

tests or theory
 Applying standard K factors to compressible flow components
carries some uncertainty
 There aren’t any methods available to determine K factors for
truly compressible flow
– Except in very specific situations
 Arrow offers common handbook values - be careful in how
you apply them
A9 - 69
K Factor Data in Compressible Flow (2)
 Also recognize that when you use the “Fittings & Losses” in
pipes, computationally these K factors are spread out along
the whole pipe
– In compressible flow, the location of a fitting along a pipe will
affect the actual pressure loss
– Fitting losses neglect this
A9 - 70
Heat Transfer in Gas Systems - Myth vs.
Fact
 A common belief among engineers is that the adiabatic and
isothermal boundary conditions bracket all possible conditions
– This is incorrect - depending on the system, neither adiabatic or
isothermal are maximum or minimum conditions
– It is true, however, that frequently adiabatic and isothermal
boundary conditions do bracket all possible conditions
 The effect of heat transfer on flow distribution and pressure
drop is frequently (but not always) second order
– The effect on delivery temperatures is first order
– This is why, for engineering purposes, assuming adiabatic or
isothermal flow yields acceptable predictions for flow rate in
many cases
A9 - 71
Heat Transfer in Gas Systems - Myth vs.
Fact (2)
 One strength of AFT Arrow is that rather than leaving the
effect of heat transfer as an unchecked assumption, you can
now evaluate it accurately
A9 - 72
Heat Transfer in Gas Systems
 Comparison of temperature profiles and flow rate predictions

for adiabatic, isothermal, heated and cooled air flow in a 20 ft.
long 1 inch steel pipe. Inlet conditions are 100 psia, 111 deg.
F and outlet pressure is 60 psia. Cooled flow has ambient
temperature of 30 F. Heated flow has ambient temperature of
220 F. Both heated and cooled cases have pipe wall and
insulation heat transfer coefficients which total to 100 Btu/hr-
ft2-F. Note how adiabatic and isothermal cases do not bracket
conditions. 140
Adiabatic
130
Isothermal
120 Cooled
110 Heated
Temperature (deg. F)
100
90
80 Case Mass Flow

70
(lbm/s)
Cooled 0.9192
60
Adiabatic 0.8994
50 Isothermal 0.8903
40 Heated 0.8782
0 5 10 15 20
Distance (feet)
A9 - 73
40% Pressure Drop Rule
 A common rule-of-thumb found in the literature (and among

other pipe flow software developers, believe it or not!) is the
so-called 40% pressure drop rule
 The rule states that if the end-to-end pressure drop is less
than 40% of the inlet pressure, that incompressible methods
can be safely used if the average density is used
 Cases were run using AFT Fathom and AFT Arrow for air,
steam and methane
A9 - 74
40% Pressure Drop Rule (2)
 The error in flow rate prediction using AFT Fathom is plotted

for several L/D ratios for one-inch pipe
 For larger diameter pipe, the error is even higher because of
decreasing relative pipe roughness leading to decreasing
friction factors
30
Air
Incompressible Flow Rate Error (%)
L/D = 50
25 Steam
L/D = 200 Methane

20
15
10
L/D = 1000
5
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
dPstag / Pstag, inlet
A9 - 75
40% Pressure Drop Rule (3)
 The compressible adiabatic flow closed form solution is:

 γ −1 2 
fL 1  1 1  γ +1  M 2   1+ M2 
= − +  1  2 
D γ  M12 M 2 2  2γ ln  2  γ −1 2 
  M2   1+ M1
 2 
 Using this equation and the standard Darcy-Weisbach

equation, an iterative computer program called Compressible
Flow Estimator (CFE) was developed
– CFE maps the incompressible assumption error for all pipe sizes
A9 - 76
40% Pressure Drop Rule (cont.)
 Results from CFE show conclusively that the 40% Pressure

Drop rule is invalid unless associated with a particular L/D (or
fL/D) ratio
 Of importance to pipe designers is that the error is in the
direction of unconservative design
0.1 0.25
40
Results from the CFE 0.5 Sonic Choking Above Line
30
program are shown at 1.0
Flow Rate Error (%)
right. The error using 1.5
incompressible flow 20
fL/D = 3
methods depends on the 5
L/D ratio. 10 10
15
30
50
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
dPstag / Pstag, inlet
A9 - 77
Sonic Choking at 50% Pressure Drop
Rule
 An equation sometimes used to assess the potential of sonic
choking is the 50% pressure drop rule applied to air
γ (γ −1)
p*  2 
=  
po  γ + 1 
 Using this equation with γ = 1.4 results in 47% pressure drop

to obtain choking
 This equation is applied to restrictions such as orifices and
valves
 The pressure to be used, Po, is the stagnation pressure at the
orifice/valve
A9 - 78
Sonic Choking at 50% Pressure Drop
Rule (2)
 This equation cannot be used with the supply pressure if there
is any significant pressure drop from the supply to the
orifice/valve
 In general, choking can occur at pressure drop ratios much
less that 47%, as well as much higher ratios
A9 - 79
What is γ ?
 γ , also referred to as “k”, is the isentropic expansion

coefficient
 Commonly it is defined as the ratio of specific heats:
cp
γ=
cv
 However, the conventional definition is in fact an

approximation from the complete definition*
∂  c
γ =−v P p
P  ∂v T cv
* Bejan, A., pp. 178, Advanced Engineering Thermodynamics, 1988

A9 - 80
What is γ ? (2)
 Use of the complete (and more accurate) definition can make

a significant difference in calculated results in some cases
 The System Properties window allows you to choose which
model you want to use
– The top equation above is the “Standard Accuracy”, while the
bottom equation is the “High Accuracy”
A9 - 81
Sonic Velocity Calculation
 The definition of sonic velocity is:

 ∂P 
a2 =  
 ∂ρ  s
 If entropy data exists (as in Chempak), then the preceding
equation can be used to determine the sonic velocity
– This is time consuming because the derivative must be
calculated by finite difference
 Using the equation of state, the sonic velocity can also be
estimated as follows (with no need for entropy data)
a = Z γRT
 When using Chempak, the System Properties window allows
you to choose which model you want to use
– The top equation above is the “High Accuracy”,
while the bottom equation is the
“Standard Accuracy” A9 - 82
Modeling Gas Mixtures
 AFT Arrow can model gas mixing processes using the

Chempak database
– No support exists for dynamic mixing using AFT Standard fluids
 There are two types of mixtures:
– Static mixtures
– Dynamic mixtures
 Static mixtures can be modeled with Chempak or by adding
properties of a mixture to the AFT Standard fluid database
 Dynamic mixtures involve the mixing of different composition
gas streams due to intersecting of flowpaths
– This is only supported by Chempak database
A9 - 83
Modeling Gas Mixtures (2)
 Dynamic mixing example

– Open Mix1.aro to the Base Scenario
– Open System Properties, select Chempak
– Add nitrogen and oxygen to the model
– Click Create New Mixture and Add, and create the O2 75% / H2
25% mixture
• Enter a name
• Select oxygen from the fluid list and enter 75 for the Mass Fraction
• Click Add Fluid to Mixture
• Select hydrogen from the fluid list and make sure 25 appears for the
Mass Fraction
• Click Add Fluid to Mixture
• Click OK to return to the System Properties window
• Repeat to create the H2 75% / O2 25% mixture
A9 - 84
 Add the fluids to the various tanks according to the name of

the junction
 A fluid must be select for the Gathering Tank to define it, but
since this is an outflow which fluid/mixture is selected will not
affect the results
 Run the model and review the Composition tab in the Pipe
Output section
A9 - 85
 The pure gas or gas mixture is selected in each individual

properties window
A9 - 86
 The composition by mole and mass is shown for each pipe

and junction in the Output window
– If Mole Concentration and/or Mass Concentration is selected in
Output Control for pipes and/or junctions
A9 - 87
Warnings
 All Warnings are displayed in the General Results section of

the Output Window
 When a warning exists, the General Results text is displayed
in red
 A list of all warnings is given in the help system
A9 - 88
Warnings (2)
 Junction X is downstream of a shock, stagnation properties

cannot be calculated at junction
 Junction X is downstream of a shock, static properties cannot
be calculated at junction
– Only occurs at an Assigned Pressure junction. When sonic
choking occurs at an Assigned Pressure junction, there is no
way to calculate a velocity downstream of the shock wave. This
means that it is not possible to determine static conditions if you
have specified stagnation at the junction, and vice versa. All
other results for the model should be fine except for the
static/stagnation pressure, temperature and enthalpy at the
junction.
A9 - 89
Warnings (3)
 Specified flow out of junction X is above sonic flow and cannot

be supplied. Please review results and change your model.
– This is preceded by a critical error message. This error message
means that you have specified an outflow which is physically
impossible. All other results in your model except for the
sequence of pipes leading up to the offending Assigned Flow
junction will have an acceptable solution.
A9 - 90
Warnings (4)
 Unique solution not possible - Relief valve cycles

– This warning alerts you that the Relief Valve at junction X would
cycle open and closed. During the initial solution of the model
the upstream pressure was calculated higher than the cracking
pressure of the valve and, therefore, the valve was opened. The
model was then re-run and the upstream pressure calculated
with the valve being open was now lower than the cracking
pressure which would cause the valve to close. This scenario is
an endless cycle of the valve opening to relieve the pressure, the
valve closing when the pressure decreases, and the pressure
building backup until the valve opens again.
A9 - 91
Answers to Examples
 Compressed Air System.aro -

– 100% speed compressor flow = 0.8705 lbm/sec, discharge
pressure (static) = 30.96 psia
– 90% speed compressor flow = 0.7728 lbm/sec, discharge
– Controlled speed compressor flow = 0.7715 lbm/sec, discharge
– 1800RPM/6” impeller = 0.8928 lbm/sec, discharge pressure
(static) = 31.65 psia
– 1800RPM/7” impeller = 0.9349 lbm/sec, discharge pressure
(static) = 32.99 psia
A9 - 92
Overview of Seminar
AFT ARROW
A9. Special Topics
Axial Point Solutions
 The Output Pipe Results table shows results at the inlet and
outlet of each pipe
 Since each pipe is sectioned, there are other results inside
the pipe that are not displayed in this table
 The “Axial Points” results are shown in another tab in the Pipe
results section
A10 - 1
Verify Solutions in Pipe
 Open Verify_Governing_Equations.aro ‘Length March’

scenario, and Verify_Governing_Equations_1.dat to configure
the Output Control
 Use an Excel spreadsheet
(Verify_Governing_Equations
_Length.xls) to verify the mass,
momentum and energy balance
solution
– Use Axial Points Results dρ dV
+ =0
• Select in Output window ρ V
Pipe Results area
1 f
• Copy to clipboard dP + ρV 2 dx + ρVdV + ρ gdz = 0
2 D
• Paste into Excel 1
 d  h + V 2 + gz = q
m
 2 
A10 - 2
Verify Solutions in Pipe (2)
Pasted in
from Arrow
A10 - 3
 Use Verify_Governing_Equations_2.dat to format the Output

Control and look at Axial Points table
A10 - 4
 The total properties in the Pipe Table equal the sum of the
parts in Axial Points table
And Total equals the sum of the individual parts:

10.74 = 9.476 + 1.376 – 0.113
A10 - 5
 The previous exercise can be repeated to verify the Mach

Number March Method
 Using Verify_Governing_Equations.aro ‘Mach March’
scenario, the results below can be generated
 Note how the distance steps shorten towards the end of the
pipe
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
A10 - 6
 The two hybrid solution methods can also be verified the

same way
 Using Verify_Governing_Equations.aro, the results below can
be generated
A10 - 7
Axial Points and the System
 The first and final points shown in the Axial Points table are
identical to the Inlet/Outlet properties for that pipe
A10 - 8
Axial Points Example
 Open Single Relief Valve System.aro and run the model

– Select Axial Points for P2 - where does Arrow change from
Length March to Mach March?
– Open Solution Control and change Increment Size from 20 to 2
(the default value) - run the model again and observe where the
change to Mach March occurs
A10 - 9
Printing Axial Points
 The Print Content window (available from the Output window)

provides for printing Axial Points table.
– The Axial Points table will be printed with the same rows
expanded or collapsed as displayed on the screen
 These options also apply to exporting and to saving output to
file
A10 - 10
Verifying Network Solutions
 The Solution Balance Summary can

be displayed by enabling it in the
Output Control
– It is on the General Output folder tab
 It shows the mass and energy
balances at all junctions
– Concentration balances are shown
in the pipe and junction Composition
tabs as discussed previously
 AFT Arrow automatically checks the
mass and energy balance and
warns the user if an out of balance
exists
A10 - 11
Verifying Network Solutions (2)
 Concentration balances are shown in the pipe and junction

Composition tabs as discussed previously
A10 - 12
Overview of Seminar
AFT ARROW
A9. Special Topics
Scenario Manager
 The Scenario Manager allows you to keep variants of a model

all with the same model
– When changes are made to the base model, they are
automatically passed downward
– Changes at lower levels do not pass upwards
A11 - 1
Scenario Manager (2)
Current Workspace
scenario
Notes can be
Scenario tree added for each
Scenario
Rename, delete,
clone, promote &
save scenarios by
clicking here
Create a new
scenario by clicking
here
A11 - 2
Quick Access Panel
 The Quick Access Panel provides convenient utilization of all

Scenario Manager features.
A11 - 3
Types Of Changes
 The types of changes that can be made are very broad

– Junctions can be turned on and off to evaluate different
operating conditions
– Pipe and junction data can be varied to parametrically evaluate
competing designs
– You can build an existing system as your base model then add to
the system to evaluate expansion possibilities on the existing
system
– You can easily evaluate different working fluids by setting them
up as different children scenarios
A11 - 4
Data Propagation
 Changes to ancestors propagate to all descendants if the

descendant data has not been modified
 Changes to descendants never propagates to ancestors
A11 - 5
Data Propagation (2)
 For many users, it is easiest

to grasp Scenario Manager
when it is explained how the
coding logic is actually Diameter Length
implemented Base 3 25
 Blank fields for children, Child #1 __ __
Gr. Child #1 __ __
grandchildren, etc., mean to
look to the parent for the
data
– If the parent is blank, then
look to the grandparent
 The Base Scenario never
has blank fields
A11 - 6
 Here Child #1 does not

have a blank field, so it’s
Diameter would be 2, not 3
 Gr. Child #1 would have a Diameter Length
Diameter of 2 Base 3 25
Child #1 2 __
– Both still have Lengths of
Gr. Child #1 __ __
25
A11 - 7
Diameter Length
 Changing the Base Base 3 25
Scenario Diameter from 3 to Child #1 2 __
6 would not impact Child #1 Gr. Child #1 __ __
or any descendants in that

line
Diameter Length
 Changing the Length from 6 40
Base
25 to 40 would also change Child #1 2 __
the length in Child #1, Gr. Gr. Child #1 __ __
Child #1, and any
descendants of Gr. Child #1
A11 - 8
Diameter Length
Base 3 25
 Even if the Gr. Child #1 has Child #1 2 __
the same Diameter as the Gr. Child #1 3 __
Base, it is not linked to the
Base because it and its Diameter Length
parent are not blank Base 3 25
– Any change to the Base Child #1 3 __
Diameter would not affect Gr. Child #1 3 __
any descendant because
Child #1 is not blank
 If the Diameter in Child #1 Diameter Length
is changed to be the same Base 3 25
as the Base, it will be Child #1 __ __
“blanked out” the next time Gr. Child #1 __ __
the scenario is loaded
– So will Gr. Child #1, if it’s
Diameter is also the same A11 - 9
 Here, Child #1 would have Diameter Length

the following: Base 3 25
– Diameter = 2 Child #1 2 __
– Length = 25 Gr. Child #1 __ 15
– Changes to Base
Diameter will not affect
Diameter
– Changes to Base Length
will affect Length
A11 - 10
 Here, Gr. Child #1 would Diameter Length

have the following: Base 3 25
– Diameter = 2 Child #1 2 __
– Length = 15 Gr. Child #1 __ 15
– Changes to Base
Diameter will not affect
Diameter
– Changes to Child #1
Diameter will affect
Diameter
– Changes to Base Length
or Child #1 Length will not
affect Length
A11 - 11
Ancestral Data
 Ancestral source of data can be viewed for all pipes and

junctions in Model Data
Scenario data can be
colored for easier viewing
Scenario names
shown at left
Parameters which change

are highlighted
A11 - 12
Links to Parent
 A link to a parent may be re-established by returning the

attribute to the same value as that of its parent
– This can be done manually be entering the value or selecting
Same As Parent from within a pipe or junction specifications
window, Solution Control or System Properties.
 Links are identified by comparing attribute values on a pipe or
junction number by number basis.
– This means that renumbering a scenario will break all links with
its parent (since numbers must be unique)
A11 - 13
Links to Parent (2)
 You can make a pipe have the same attribute as its parent by
choosing Copy Data From Pipe: “Parent Pipe Data”
– Junctions function similarly
A11 - 14
Using Batch Runs
 AFT Fathom has the ability to run multiple simulations

sequentially in batch mode
– The Batch Run window is opened by selecting ‘Start Batch
Run…’ from the File menu
 There are two types of batch runs
– Multiple scenarios
– Multiple model files
 Generate a list of
simulations to run in
batch mode by Once the list of scenarios or
model files to run is created,
selecting either the clicking ‘Start Run’ will load
and run the selections in
‘Add Scenarios’ or order
‘Add Model Files’ button
A11 - 15
US
Example Model
 A piping system will be used to transport gaseous methane,

propane, and ethane at ambient conditions (use Chempak if
available)
– Supply is at 70 deg. F
 The system will supply only one tank at a time
 Pipe is Steel – ANSI with standard schedule and roughness,
and is very well insulated (i.e., heat transfer can be ignored)
 Supply is pressurized to 75 psig and storage tanks to 50 psig
 Both valves have K = 5
 Using Arrow build all of these scenarios in a single model
(transfer.aro)
A11 - 16
US
Example Model (2)
A11 - 17
US
Example Model (3)
 What is the flowrate (in lbm/s) for each case?

 Does condensation occur for any of the cases?
– What is the minimum superheat temperature?
 Depending on how you arrange the scenarios, the Scenario
Manager might look like this:
A11 - 18
US
Example Model (4)
 After building all the design cases, it is discovered that pipe 1

should have been 16 inch diameter, not 12 inch
– Make this change to the model and review the effects
A11 - 19
US
Answers to Example
 Flow rates to tanks using 12 inch pipe

Flow Rate To Tank (lbm/s) Superheat at Tank (F)
A B A B
Methane 30.7 37.3 Methane 279 280
Ethane 43.0 52.1 Ethane 124 125
Propane 53.8 65.1 Propane 24 25
 Flow rates to tanks using 16 inch pipe

Flow Rate To Tank (lbm/s)
A B
Methane 31.2 38.1
Ethane 43.6 53.2
Propane 54.5 66.6
A11 - 20
SI
Example Model (2)
 A piping system will be used to transport gaseous methane,

propane, and ethane at ambient conditions (use Chempak if
available)
– Supply is at 21 deg. C
 The system will supply only one tank at a time
 Pipe is 12 inch (30.48 cm ID) Steel – ANSI with standard
schedule and roughness, and is very well insulated (i.e., heat
transfer can be ignored)
 Supply is pressurized to 520 kPa(g) and storage tanks to 340
kPa(g)
 Both valves have K = 5
 Using Arrow build all of these scenarios in a single
model (transfer (SI).aro)
A11 - 21
SI
Example Model
A11 - 22
SI
Example Model (3)
 What is the flowrate (in kg/s) for each case?

 Does condensation occur for any of the cases?
– What is the minimum superheat temperature?
 Depending on how you arrange the scenarios, the Scenario
Manager might look like this:
A11 - 23
SI
Example Model (4)
 After building all the design cases, it is discovered that pipe 1

should have been 16 inch (38.7 cm ID) diameter, not 12 inch
(30.48 cm ID)
– Make this change to the model and review the effects
A11 - 24
SI
Answers to Example
 Flow rates to tanks using 12 inch (30.48 cm ID) pipe

Flow Rate To Tank (kg/s) Superheat at Tank (C)
A B A B
Methane 14.3 17.4 Methane 155 155
Ethane 20.0 24.3 Ethane 69 69
Propane 25.1 30.3 Propane 13 14
 Flow rates to tanks using 16 inch (38.7 cm ID) pipe

Flow Rate To Tank (kg/s)
A B
Methane 14.3 17.4
Ethane 20.0 24.3
Propane 25.1 30.3
A11 - 25
View of Model Data Scenarios
A11 - 26
View of Output Scenarios
A11 - 27
A12. Customizing Arrow & Using
Databases
Overview of Seminar
AFT ARROW
A9. Special Topics
Customizing Arrow
 Your User Options can be customized

 The Toolbox tools can be customized
A12 - 1
User Options - Unit Preferences
 Here you specify the units you generally work with to be the
defaults
Select the unit

system
You can set a

preferred unit
by selecting
one of the units
and clicking
here
A12 - 2
User Options - Pipes
 The pipe thickness can be set

 The pipe thickness can be varied according to the pipe
diameter
 The line style used when a pipe is closed can be chosen
A12 - 3
User Options – Pipes (2) This pipe is
closed
The pipes thickness will vary

from 1 to 2 pixels according to These are 2 in. These are 1 in.
diameter pipes pipes
A12 - 4
User Options - Junctions
 Junction Icon Styles, Sizes, and Label Locations can be

specified
A12 - 5
User Options - Labels
 Auto Increment Labels, Display Defaults, Allow Label

Movements
A12 - 6
User Options – Colors and Fonts
 The font and colors used by AFT Arrow can be changed
Click on
the
category
Then
choose a
color
Click here to
pick a font
A12 - 7
User Options - Other
 Specify the Workspace Symbols and Background Picture

Scaling
A12 - 8
User Options – Pipes and Junctions
 Here you specify the parameters you generally work with to

be the defaults
 You can still use the other parameters as needed
You can
specify a
default pipe
material
and loss You can specify
model default Design
Factors
You can
specify a
default
elevation
A12 - 9
Customizing Graphs
 Graph colors, fonts, axes, graph types, etc., can be

customized using two windows in Graph Results
Detailed Graph
Formatting A12 - 10
Database Concept
 Internal database files -

– Internal default database - fluid properties, fittings & Losses, etc.
• This database is read only
• Arrow6.dat - located in the application folder
– Local User Database - customizable file that may contain piping,
components, fluids, insulation, formatting, report configurations,
etc.
• Aro_user6.dat - located in the \Users\UserName\AppData\Roaming
\Applied Flow Technology\AFT Arrow\6 folder
– Pipe Material Standards database - pipe materials from ANSI,
etc.
• This database is read only
• Steel - ANSI.dat - located in the Pipe Material Databases folder
below the application folder
A12 - 11
Database Concept (2)
 External database files

– Customizable files created in Database Manager - located on
any connected drive
– Read only as listed in database.lib - database.lib located in
application folder
 Custom databases are data used in the model building
process that can be saved and reused in the future
 By reusing previously entered data users can
– Save time by not re-entering data
– Control quality by using previously qualified data
A12 - 12
Custom Data Features
 AFT Arrow offers custom databases for four types of data

– Components (junctions)
– Fluid properties (Fluid Database)
– Pipe sizes (Material Database)
– Insulation properties (Insulation Database)
 Databases can be both private and shared
– Private and shared data is merged in memory together when
AFT Arrow loads
 Multiple shared databases can be created and optionally
connected into a model
A12 - 13
Component Databases
 A junction can be added to the Component Database

– Dead Ends and Tee/Wyes are included so they may be
associated with cost data, however there is no engineering data
that may be associated with a dead end or tee/wye
 To add to the component database
– Enter data for the junction
– From the Database Menu select Add Component to Database
– Enter a name for the custom component
A12 - 14
Component Databases (2)
 To use the custom component

– Add a junction to the model of the same type as the custom
component
– Open the Properties window for that junction
– Select the custom component name from the Database List
 To stop accessing the custom component choose None from
the Database List
 To edit the previous list select Component Database from the
Database Menu
A12 - 15
Fluid Databases (AFT Standard)
 A fluid and its associated properties can be added to the AFT

Standard Fluid Database
 To add to the Fluid Database
– From the Database Menu select Fluid Database
– Choose the Add New Fluid selection
– Enter a name and data for the fluid
• You can use raw data entered by hand or imported from file
• AFT Arrow will be perform a least-squares curve fit to the data
A12 - 16
Fluid Databases (AFT Standard) (2)
 AFT Arrow requires the following fluid properties:

– Dynamic Viscosity
– Specific Heat
– Enthalpy
– Critical pressure and temperature
– Molecular weight
– Optional -
• Thermal Conductivity
• Sonic Speed
• Compressibility factor
• Acentric factor
A12 - 17
Fluid Databases (AFT Standard) (3)
 To use the custom fluid

– Open the System Properties Window
– Select AFT Standard fluid name from the Fluids Available list
– Select equation of state and enthalpy model options
 To edit the previous fluid data use the Fluid Database Window
and select Change Fluid Data
– You can also delete a fluid or change the fluid name
A12 - 18
Density and the Equation of State
 AFT Arrow has four equation of state models for AFT

Standard fluids
– Ideal Gas
– Redlich-Kwong
– Three-Parameter
– Constant Z
 The ideal gas equation relates density to temperature and
pressure
P = ρ RT
 The real gas equation uses a correction factor to account for

non-ideal behavior
– The factor, Z, is called the Compressibility Factor
P = Z ρ RT
A12 - 19
Redlich-Kwong Method (AFT Standard)
 Redlich-Kwong and Three-Parameter use the critical pressure

and temperature to calculate the compressibility factor
 This is the Redlich-Kwong method
RT a
P= −
V − b T 1 2 V (V + b)
R 2Tc 2
a = 0.42748
Pc
RT c
b = 0.8664
Pc
A12 - 20
Three-Parameter Method (AFT Standard)
 The Three-Parameter Method uses an additional parameter

called the acentric factor, ω
 The Pr and Tr are known as the "reduced" pressure and
temperature and are dimensionless
P P
Z = 1 + B o r + ω B1 r
Tr Tr
P
Pr =
Pc
T
Tr =
Tc
0.422
B0 = 0.083 −
Tr 1.6
0.172
B1 = 0.139 −
Tr 4.2
A12 - 21
Table Look-Up Density (AFT Standard)
 The Table Lookup Density Method uses a two-dimensional

table format to calculate density
 Density is entered as a function of temperature for specific
pressures
 Calculated density is interpolated between pressures
– It is also extrapolated past highest pressure, of which the user
should take caution
 An example is shown below
P1 = 25 psia
ρ = a1 + b1T + c1T 2 + d1T 3 + e1T 4
P2 = 50 psia
ρ = a2 + b2 T + c2 T 2 + d 2 T 3 + e2 T 4
A12 - 22
Enthalpy Models (AFT Standard)
 AFT Arrow has three enthalpy models for AFT Standard fluids
– Reference Enthalpy
– Generalized
– Table
 In general, enthalpy depends on both temperature and
pressure
h = f (T , P )
A12 - 23
Enthalpy Models (AFT Standard) (2)
 The Reference Enthalpy is the most simple and is somewhat

analogous to the ideal gas model
– Ignores enthalpy dependence on pressure
– Suitable for low pressure drop applications
h1 − h2 = c p (T1 − T2 )
 The Generalized and Table Methods include dependence on

pressure as well as temperature
A12 - 24
Generalized Enthalpy (AFT Standard)
 The Generalized Enthalpy Model uses previously defined

parameters
– Reference Enthalpy
– Reduced pressure and temperature
– Critical temperature
– B0 and B1
( )
h = href + c p, avg T − Tref + hresidual
 dB  dB  
hresidual = RT c Pr  B 0 − Tr 0 + ω  B1 − Tr 1  
 dTr  dTr  
dB 0 0.675
=
dTr Tr 2.6
dB1 0.722
=
dTr Tr 5.2 A12 - 25
Table Look-Up Enthalpy (AFT Standard)
 The Table Lookup Enthalpy Method uses a two-dimensional

table format to calculate enthalpy
 Enthalpy is entered as a function of temperature for specific
pressures
 Calculated enthalpy is interpolated between pressures
– It is also extrapolated past highest pressure, of which the user
should take caution
 An example is shown below
P1 = 25 psia
h = a1 + b1T + c1T 2 + d1T 3 + e1T 4
P2 = 50 psia
h = a2 + b2 T + c2 T 2 + d 2 T 3 + e2 T 4
A12 - 26
Pipe Material Databases
 A pipe material and its associated sizes and schedules can be

added to the Pipe Material Database
 To add new material to the Pipe Material Database
– From the Database Menu select Pipe Material Database
– Click the New Material button
– Enter a name and data for the material entry, including the
friction data set
• You can use raw data entered by hand or imported from file
 To use the custom pipe material
– Open the Pipe Properties Window (or Global Pipe Edit)
– Select the custom material name from the Pipe Material List
– Select type and size
A12 - 27
Pipe Material Databases (2)
 To stop accessing the custom material choose (Unspecified)

 To edit the previous material data use the Pipe Material
Database Window and select the appropriate buttons
A12 - 28
Friction Data Sets
 Multiple Friction Data Sets can be associated with a pipe

material
 Friction Data Sets can also be associated with a particular
pipe size, or pipe type (e.g., schedule)
– Data Sets associated with Sizes apply to all Type sets within that
size
– Data Sets associated with a Type apply only to that type
 You can add Friction Data Sets to the default AFT Arrow pipe
materials
 Friction Data Sets are accessed in the Pipe Properties
window
A12 - 29
Insulation Databases
 Insulation types may be added to the database

 To add new material to the Insulation Database
– From the Database Menu select Insulation Database
– Click Add New Insulation
– Enter a name and data for the insulation
• Note this data is on a per unit thickness basis
A12 - 30
Insulation Databases (2)
 Insulation defined in a database may be assigned to specific

pipe materials and sizes with a specified thickness
 Insulation may be assigned to an individual pipe within its
Pipe Properties window by -
– Direct input of the insulation specification
– Selecting an insulation from the Insulation Database and
specifying a thickness
– Applying the insulation data set assigned to that material and/or
size of pipe
A12 - 31
Local and Shared Network Databases
 The custom data you enter is stored in a single text file locally
on the hard drive
– This is called a local user database
– It is possible to copy this file to another user's hard drive so they
can use it too
– If you spend a lot of time entering custom data it is advisable to
back up the file
A12 - 32
Local and Shared Network Databases (2)
 You can create a network database if the AFT Arrow software

is being run from a network
– All users who run AFT Arrow from the network automatically
access the network database
– The network database is read-only, thus users cannot edit it
– Network databases are of great help in quality control because
data only need to be verified once
– Consult the Help System for detailed information on network
database management
 You can use the Database Manager capabilities to build new
databases and connect to selected databases across a local
or wide area network
A12 - 33
Using the Database Manager
 Databases can contain components, fluids, pipe materials,

insulation materials and program settings (Output Control,
User Options, etc.)
 The Database Manager allows you to find, connect to, and
use the information in these databases
A12 - 34
Using the Database Manager (2)
 The AFT Default Internal and AFT Arrow Local User databases are
ALWAYS connected
Click here to
add another
The available
engineering
databases are
database to the
listed here
Available
Databases list
Currently
connected
databases are
listed here
A12 - 35
 Contents of a connected database may be reviewed
Choose the database

Select the sections you
want to review and
Click on Review Sections
Click here to display the

items in the selected
database section A12 - 36
 In the Edit Database tab you can -

– Create a new database
– Select and existing database to edit
– Delete a database
 Data may be copied or moved from one database to another
Select which database will be
used for the source data
Choose the section and item(s)

within that section
Click here to copy or move the

selected item(s) to the database
being edited
A12 - 37
Using Arrow for Cost Calculations
 Arrow’s modeling capabilities can be extended to include

costs
– Material Costs (non-recurring)
– Installation Costs (non-recurring)
– Maintenance Costs (recurring)
– Energy Costs (recurring)
 Cost can be applied to junctions, pipes and fittings & losses
A12 - 38
Cost and Engineering Database
Relationship
Arrow Model
Connected Databases Database

Available Databases Manager
Engineering
Engineering Database #3
Database #1
Cost Cost
Cost Cost Database Database
Database Database #3A #3C
#1A #1C Engineering
Database #2 Cost
Cost Database
Database #3B
#1B Cost Cost
Database Database
#2A #2C
Cost
Database
#2B A12 - 39
CDB Needs a Description and Monetary
Units
CDB Filename
EDB Filename
Monetary Units
Description
A12 - 40
Pipe Material Cost Example
 Different costs may be added, such as Material (i.e.,

purchase) cost and Installation cost for ANSI Steel, 1 inch,
Schedule 40 Pipe
– 5 U.S. Dollars per foot to buy, 2 U.S. Dollars per foot to install
A12 - 41
Cost Databases In The Database
Manager
Click Add Cost
Database to make
the CDB available
Click Add to
Connections to use
the CDB in this
model
Make sure the Pipe

Material Cost
section is selected
A12 - 42
Specifying the Cost Settings
 Cost calculations are activated by selecting the Calculate

option under Cost Calculations on the Analysis menu
 The cost calculations are then defined in the Cost Settings
window, which is also located on the Analysis menu
A12 - 43
Cost Application Manager
 Cost calculations can be refined using the Cost Application

Manager
 This can be accessed from the Pipe and Junction Property
windows or from the Tools menu
A12 - 44
Cost Application Manager (2)
This is the pipe or

junction
The costs can come from
all databases or from just
specific ones
Pipe or junction specific
multipliers can be applied
to each cost type
The costs for the pipe or

junction can start and/or
stop at a specified time
There are preset outline

levels and junction sorting
A12 - 45
Setting Junctions To Use Cost Data
Choose the junction
from the Database
List
Choose Include Cost in
Report on the Cost tab
of the Specification
Window
Click Cost Application to

specify databases,
multipliers, maximum
cost groups and service
duration
This can also be done

using the Global
Junction Edit feature
A12 - 46
The Cost Report
 This shows a summary of the costs for the objects in the

model
– The Grand Total is at the top
– If pipes/junctions or cost types are not shown, their total is listed
as Unshown Items
 There is a column for each cost type selected in the Output
Control
 The units are displayed in the upper-left corner of the table
A12 - 47
The Cost Report (2)
A12 - 48
Chempak Fluid Property Database
 Chempak provides thermo-physical properties for ~600 fluids

– Both pure fluids and mixtures of these fluids may be used in the
model Create a new mixture and
add it to the fluids in
Select AFT To remove a fluid,
model
Standard of select it here… then
Chempak select Remove Fluid
Select a pure fluid...

then select Add to
Model to use the fluid Set mixture fraction
on a mole or mass
basis
Multiple pre fluids
and/or fluids mixtures
can be added to a
model Set accuracy levels
here
Fluid mixtures from
other models can be
imported
A12 - 49
Chempak Fluid Property Database (2)
 Fluids are selected from within the Create Mixture window to

assemble a mixture based on mass or mole fraction
Select a fluid here
Click here to add the fluid Portion of the

to the mixture mixture
represented by a
fluid is set here
Any name may be
specified for a mixture
Current mixture Any or all

components and their components may
fraction are listed be removed
A12 - 50
A13. Introduction to AFT Arrow Module
Overview of Seminar
AFT ARROW
A9. Special Topics
Introduction to AFT Arrow Add-on
Module
 GSC - Goal Seek & Control
 System modeling with AFT Arrow provides a powerful ‘what-if’
tool
 A few of the more common examples include:
– What pressure reducing valve setting will result in some
minimum flow at a downstream location
– Determining the area/diameter of an orifice to yield a desired
flow rate
– Compressor/fan speed required to deliver a required total flow to
multiple users
A13 - 1
GSC - Goal Seek & Control (2)
 Traditionally this is handled by making iterative runs

– Often this is straightforward when there is one goal and variable,
but not always due to the interaction of system components
– If two or more variables and goals are present (pressure
reducing valve setting and compressor speed, for example),
doing this manually becomes much more difficult if not
problematic
A13 - 2
GSC Module Capabilities
 Define single or multiple variables and goals

 Automates the determination of an input value or values that
will yield desired output value or values
 Allows AFT Arrow to simulate control functions based on
remote sensing
 Goals may be:
– Single point
– Differential (difference between two locations)
– Group goal - max/min or sum
A13 - 3
US
GSC Module Hands-On Example
 Simulate heat transfer in single pipe flow

 Open Heat Transfer.aro (Heat Transfer (complete).aro
contains a pre-built example)
 Determine the flow rate such that the discharge temperature
of the pipe is 100 deg F
 On the Analysis menu, select ‘Goal Seek & Control / Use’
 From the View menu, open the Goal Seek & Control Manager
– Select the Variables tab, click ‘New Variable’ and enter the
following information
Object Type Junction Type Junction Number Variable
Apply and Name Parameter
 Junction Assigned Flow J2 (Assigned Flow) Flow
Link To Lower Bound Upper Bound
A13 - 4
(None) 0 10
US
GSC Module Hands-On Example (2)
 On the Goals tab, click ‘New Goal’, specified as follows:

Goal Type Object Type Goal Parameter Criteria
Apply
 Point Pipe Temp Stagnation =
Goal Goal Object Object

Value Units ID Location
100 deg. F P1 (Pipe) Outlet
 Click ‘OK’ to close the Goal Seek & Control Manager

– A “V” appears next to J2’s label, indicating it is a variable, while a
“G” appears next to P1’s label, indicating it is a goal
A13 - 5
US
 Run the model

– Note the ‘GSC Calls To Solver’ area that now appears in the
Solution Progress window
 Review the results
– The GSC Variables tab displays the required flow rate that will
produce the specified goal
– The GSC Goals tab displays the specified goal and the results
goal
• These may be slightly different as result of solution tolerances
A13 - 6
SI
GSC Module Hands-On Example
 Simulate heat transfer in single pipe flow

 Open Heat Transfer (SI).aro (Heat Transfer (SI)(complete).aro
contains a pre-built example)
 Determine the flow rate such that the discharge temperature
of the pipe is 40 deg C
 On the Analysis menu, select ‘Goal Seek & Control / Use’
 From the View menu, open the Goal Seek & Control Manager
– Select the Variables tab, click ‘New Variable’ and enter the
following information
Object Type Junction Type Junction Number Variable
Apply and Name Parameter
 Junction Assigned Flow J2 (Assigned Flow) Flow
Link To Lower Bound Upper Bound
A13 - 7
(None) 0 5
SI
 On the Goals tab, click ‘New Goal’, specified as follows:
Goal Type Object Type Goal Parameter Criteria

Apply
 Point Pipe Temp Stagnation =
Goal Goal Object Object

Value Units ID Location
40 deg. C P1 (Pipe) Outlet
 Click ‘OK’ to close the Goal Seek & Control Manager

– A “V” appears next to J2’s label, indicating it is a variable, while a
“G” appears next to P1’s label, indicating it is a goal
A13 - 8
SI
 Run the model

– Note the ‘GSC Calls To Solver’ area that now appears in the
Solution Progress window
 Review the results
– The GSC Variables tab displays the required flow rate that will
produce the specified goal
– The GSC Goals tab displays the specified goal and the results
goal
• These may be slightly different as result of solution tolerances
A13 - 9
Overview of Seminar
AFT ARROW
A9. Special Topics
Platinum Pipe Award
Recognizing Excellence in Piping and Ducting System Modeling

Using AFT Software
 Win AFT software for your company and iPad for you
 Enter in one of the following categories

– Use of software features and model creativity
– Correlation to test/field data
– Operational benefits and sustainability
 Review the rules and enter on our website

– http://www.aft.com/platinum-pipe-award
PPA - 1
Platinum Pipe Award
AFT FathomTM Instrumental in Chrysler Energy Savings Project:
Plant Saves $194,000 Per Year
2015 Platinum Pipe Award Winner – Operational Benefits and Sustainability
Chrysler used AFT Fathom to model four
large central coolant filter systems in the
Dundee Engine plant located in Dundee,
Michigan, USA.
The existing cooling system was energy
intensive. Chrysler wanted to develop a
model that matched existing conditions,
and then use that model to predict
energy savings for different capital
expenditure scenarios. Thirty operating
scenarios were evaluated over four
systems for the project.
PPA - 2
Platinum Pipe Award
Analysis Using AFT FathomTM Reveals Root Cause for Fire
Pump System Over-Pressurization
2015 Platinum Pipe Award Winner – Correlation to Test/Field Data
In an undisclosed facility’s fire

pump system, Charles Williamson,
P.E., Senior Engineering Analyst at
CB&I, used AFT Fathom to
determine the root cause of an
over pressurization problem during
pump starts and to make
recommendations for corrective
action.
PPA - 3
Platinum Pipe Award
AFT FathomTM Finds Optimization Opportunities in Hydrocarbon
Separation Process
2015 Platinum Pipe Award Winner – Use of Software Features and Model
Creativity
Mr. Nelius Joubert, Senior
Operations Specialist at Sasol, used
AFT Fathom to model a complicated
hydrocarbon separation plant in
South Africa. The plant utilizes liquid
extractants to separate the
components of a liquid stream into
separate pure components.
The model will be used on a
continuous basis for troubleshooting
and evaluation of the plant’s
hydraulic health.
Liquid Extraction and Distillation Portion of the AFT Fathom Model
PPA - 4
AFT Notifications & Seminar Evaluation
 Please complete the AFT Notifications form (if you would like)
and the Technical Seminar Evaluation Form, and hand to
instructor when complete.
US
Hands-on Models
 Work these models in whatever order you prefer and at your

own pace
– Do not open these from disk!
– They are intended to be built from scratch unless otherwise
noted
– All models are included on your seminar disk so you can review
them at a later date
A14 - 1
US
Hands-on Models
1. Sonic/sub-sonic steam flow through orifice, TEST6

Change orifice CdA to see where choking occurs
2. Compressed air supply to machine tools, TEST7
Heat loss due to heat transfer is modeled to determine temperature at tools
3. Natural Gas Burner, TEST8
Determine heat exchanger heating requirement to provide sufficient
discharge temperature
4. Mixing problem in refinery relief system, TEST10
Determine relief capacity, discharge mixture properties, and sensitivity of
results to input temperature and system elevation
5. Hydrocarbon process relief system, TEST11
Determine relief capacity and sonic choking point(s)
6. Size air blower, TEST12
Determine blower flow and pressure requirements to supply air to facility
7. Process steam system, TEST13
Determine minimum supply pressure of process steam
A14 - 2
US
Determine Sonic Conditions
 Test Problem #6 (TEST6.ARO)

– Fluid is steam - use AFT Standard Steam
– Pipe is steel – ANSI, schedule 40 and is very well insulated
– Orifice Type is User Specified
 What is the maximum flow through the system for given
supply pressure?
– Hint: You can check this by decreasing the discharge pressure
until choking occurs
 What is the sonic (stagnation) pressure at the exit?
A14 - 3
US
Determine Sonic Conditions (2)
 At the maximum flow, what is the sonic area at the orifice? At

the discharge tank?
 Set the orifice CdA to 20% higher than the sonic area and
rerun the model
– How do the results change?
 Set the orifice CdA to 20% less than the sonic area and rerun
the model
A14 - 4
US
Model a Compressed Air System
 Four machine tools are supplied air for operations

(TEST7.ARO)
 The air is taken from outside the building (P = 14.7 psia), and
design conditions are that air temperature can vary from 0
deg. F to 110 deg. F.
 The compressor has the following data for stagnation
pressure: 12 psid at 0 lbm/s, 10 psid at 0.5 lbm/s, and 6 psid
at 1 lbm/s
– Efficiency is not known with certainty, but is expected to be about
80% to 90% - use the ‘Determine From Efficiency Data’ option
for the Compression Process Thermodynamics
A14 - 5
US
Model a Compressed Air System (2)
 The nozzles at the tools (modeled as valves) have a pressure

drop of 8 psid at 0.2 lbm/s
– Discharge is to atmospheric pressure (make them exit valves)
– Hint: Use "Fill as Quadratic" feature to create a curve
 The pipes are uninsulated, steel – ANSI sch40 with external
heat transfer coefficients that vary from 1-10 Btu/hr-ft2-R,
exchanging heat with the internal building ambient which can
range from 70 to 75 degrees.
– The pipe at the compressor inlet is heavily insulated (consider it
adiabatic)
A14 - 6
US
 The branches can be modeled as lossless

 Use ‘Redlich-Kwong’ and ‘Generalized’ for the equation of
state and enthalpy model
 Neglect elevation changes
 The machine tools are sensitive to temperature, but the
manufacturer says they can compensate for this if they know
the extremes of delivery temperature the tools will see. What
are the (static) temperature extremes at the tools?
– Hint: Compressor temperature rise increases with decreasing
efficiency
– Hint : Look at pipes P6-9 outlet temperatures for tool supply
temperatures
A14 - 7
US
A14 - 8
US
Natural Gas Burner System
 TEST8.ARO - There is an underground storage reservoir of

natural gas made up mostly of methane. Neglect elevation
changes.
– You can assume the gas is 100% methane for modeling
purposes, using ‘Redlich-Kwong’ and ‘Generalized’ for the
equation of state and enthalpy model
– The gas is at 500 psia and 50 deg. F
 The gas is supplied to 5 burners at 100 psia each
 To assure equal flow, the burners have control valves which
control to 5 lbm/s each
A14 - 9
US
Natural Gas Burner System (2)
 The gas flows through a heat exchanger with 10 psi drop at

25 lbm/sec
– Hint: Use "Fill as Quadratic" feature to create a curve for each
one
 The pipes are uninsulated steel – ANSI, schedule 40, with
standard roughness and exchange heat to ambient 75 deg.
with an external heat transfer coefficient of 10 Btu/hr-ft2-R
 For best efficiency, the gas at the burners should deliver at a
minimum of 100 deg. F stagnation temperature
A14 - 10
US
 How much heat must be added to the heat exchanger to

ensure that all burners will receive gas at this temperature?
– You can use the specified heat rate model in the heat exchanger
A14 - 11
US
A14 - 12
US
Refinery Relief System
 A new emergency relief system at an oil refinery is being

considered and you have been called as a consultant to
evaluate the process calculations (model TEST10.ARO)
 The system provides relief to processes for methane, propane
and ethane (use Chempak to specify three fluids at the same
time)
 Each process is at 200 psia when the relief event occurs
 The process engineer has evaluated the relief capacity at the
minimum process temperature of 300 F
 The elbow is a standard elbow, and model the tees as
simplified
A14 - 13
US
Refinery Relief System (2)
 The relief valve CdA is 15 sq. inches (assume K = 0 since this

will choke)
 Discharge pressure is 1 standard atmosphere
 All pipe is steel – ANSI
 Assume adiabatic flow
 Determine the following:
– Relief capacity (i.e., flow rate) of each process
– Mass and mole fraction of the discharge mixture for
environmental impact assessment
– Hint: in Output Control, use Concentration Mass and Mole
Fraction
A14 - 14
US
 Depending on the properties of the crude oil, all three

processes can operate at up to 600 deg. F
– The process engineer did not look at this case because of
budget constraints, but thinks the relief capacity will not be
affected by higher temperatures
 To simplify the calculation, the process engineer neglected
elevation changes, although the relief point is 120 feet above
the discharge header
 Determine if neglecting the high temperature case and
elevation effects is acceptable
A14 - 15
US
A14 - 16
US
Relief Stack for Mixture
 A mixture of 89% methane and 11% hydrogen (by mass)

exists at a process facility - use Standard Accuracy settings
(TEST11.ARO)
 It is planned to increase the process conditions to 935 psia at
100 F
 The relief system requires re-evaluation to determine if it is
still adequate
 Assume all pipes are well insulated (i.e., adiabatic)
 What is the relief capacity of the system?
 Where does sonic choking occur and why?
 What is the pressure drop across the shock wave(s)?
A14 - 17
US
Relief Stack for Mixture (2)
A14 - 18
US
Size Blower
 An air distribution system requires a new blower

(TEST12.ARO)
 Assume all flow is adiabatic, use ‘Redlich-Kwong’ and
‘Generalized’ for the equation of state and enthalpy model
 Use a design factor of 1.1 on all pipe losses
 Neglect elevation changes and losses at branches
 Select ‘Determine From Efficiency Data’ for the Compression
Process
A14 - 19
US
Size Blower (2)
 For the blower, look at the following three cases:

– Adiabatic
– Efficiency = 0.8 (set as Nominal Efficiency)
 Size the blower for both flow and pressure rise to deliver a
minimum of 250 scfm to each room
 How do the different compression process models for the
blower affect the blower sizing? How about the discharge
temperatures?
A14 - 20
US
Size Blower (3)
A14 - 21
US
Modify Blower Model (4)
 On the previous model it is realized that the pipes are not

insulated and that the adiabatic assumption may be overly
conservative
– One engineer expressed concern that the discharge air could be
too hot
 For the limiting case of 60% efficient compression, add heat
transfer to the model on all pipes assuming:
– Ambient is 80 degrees
– External convection coefficient is 5 Btu/hr-ft2-R
 Do the compressor size requirements change significantly?
 How much do the discharge temperatures decrease?
A14 - 22
US
Process Steam Supply System
 A process steam supply system has two boilers at 300 psia,

800F (TEST13.ARO)
– Use Steam (AFT Standard) and ‘Redlich-Kwong’ and
 All pipe has two inches of insulation with a thermal
conductivity of 0.02 Btu/hr-ft-R and an external convection
coefficient of 5 Btu/hr-ft2-R
– Ambient temperature is 75F
 All pipe is steel – ANSI, schedule 40
A14 - 23
US
Process Steam Supply System (2)
 Elbows are Smooth, r/D = 1.5

 All tees should use the detailed loss model, with sharp edges
 Six users have peak flow demands as shown
 What is the minimum delivery (stagnation) pressure of the
system and at which user?
A14 - 24
US
A14 - 25
US
Answers to Hands-On Models
 TEST6.ARO:
– Maximum flow occurs at sonic flow conditions and is 4.38
lbm/sec
– Choking pressure is 97.2 psia
– Sonic area at the orifice is 1.376 square inches
– Sonic area at the tank discharge is 3.354 square inches (the
same as the pipe area)
– Setting the orifice CdA higher than the sonic area has no effect
on the model
– Setting it 20% lower (to 1.1 sq. inches) makes the flow rate
decrease to 3.55 lbm/s, the sonic discharge pressure decreases
to 78.8 psia
– Note that there are now two choking points
instead of one
A14 - 26
US
Answers to Hands-On Models (2)
 TEST7.ARO
– Maximum valve inlet static temperature is 202 deg. F (range is
176-202 F)
• Assumes 110 F inlet, 75 F ambient, compressor is 80% efficient,
and external convection is 1 Btu/hr-ft2-R
– Minimum valve inlet static temperature is 65.6 deg. F (range is
65.6-68.5 F)
• Assumes 0 F inlet, 70 F ambient, compressor is 90% efficient, and
external convection is 10 Btu/hr-ft2-R
• Note: Tstag > 70 F so needed higher convection to cool down even
though Tstatic < 70 F
 TEST8.ARO
– About 1005 Btu/s
A14 - 27
US
 TEST10.ARO
– Total relief capacity is 35.0 lbm/sec (6.7 methane, 11.7 ethane,
16.7 propane)
– At discharge by mass, 19.0% methane, 33.4% ethane, 47.6%
propane
– At discharge by mole, 35.1% methane, 32.9% ethane, 32.0%
propane
– At 600 F, relief capacity is reduced to 29.1 lbm/sec, a 17%
reduction, which is significant. The original calculation was thus
not conservative.
– The effect of the 120 foot elevation is negligible
A14 - 28
US
 TEST11.ARO, Capacity is 348,012 lbm/hr

– Chokes at J4 because of relief valve restriction and at J5
because of endpoint choking
– 192 psi drop at J4, 29 psi drop at J5
 TEST12.ARO, blower size is about 1336 scfm, 8.3 stagnation
pressure rise (this is for the 60% efficient case, the worst case
of the three)
– Adiabatic case, same flow requirement, DP = 7.7 psid
– 80% efficient case, same flow requirement, DP = 7.9 psid
– For the three cases, discharge stagnation temperatures are
about 138F (adiabatic), 157F (80% efficient), 191F (60%
efficient)
A14 - 29
US
 TEST12.ARO (modified for heat transfer in a child scenario)

– The blower pressure requirements decrease from 8.3 to 7.2 psid,
a 13% reduction
– The discharge temperatures approach the ambient of 80 F
 TEST13.ARO, with default Solution Control, minimum delivery
stagnation pressure is 101.9 psia at J108, User #3
– With 10 segments per pipe, min. pressure is 104.1 psia at J108
– With 20 segments per pipe, min. pressure is 104.5 psia at J108
A14 - 30
SI
Hands-on Models
 Work these models in whatever order you prefer and at your

own pace
– Do not open these from disk!
– They are intended to be built from scratch unless otherwise
noted
– All models are included on your seminar disk so you can review
them at a later date
A14 - 31
SI
Hands-on Models (2)
1. Sonic/sub-sonic steam flow through orifice, TEST6 (SI)

Change orifice CdA to see where choking occurs
2. Compressed air supply to machine tools, TEST7 (SI)
Heat loss due to heat transfer is modeled to determine temperature at tools
3. Natural Gas Burner, TEST8 (SI)
Determine heat exchanger heating requirement to provide sufficient
discharge temperature
4. Mixing problem in refinery relief system, TEST10 (SI)
Determine relief capacity, discharge mixture properties, and sensitivity of
results to input temperature and system elevation
5. Hydrocarbon process relief system, TEST11 (SI)
Determine relief capacity and sonic choking point(s)
6. Size air blower, TEST12 (SI)
Determine blower flow and pressure requirements to supply air to facility
7. Process steam system, TEST13 (SI)
Determine minimum supply pressure of process steam
A14 - 32
SI
Determine Sonic Conditions
 Test Problem #6 (TEST6 (SI).ARO)

– Fluid is steam - use AFT Standard Steam
– Pipe is steel – ANSI, schedule 40 and is very well insulated
– Orifice Type is User Specified
 What is the maximum flow through the system for given
supply pressure?
– Hint: You can check this by decreasing the discharge pressure
until choking occurs
A14 - 33
SI
Determine Sonic Conditions (2)
 What is the sonic (stagnation) pressure at the exit?

 At the maximum flow, what is the sonic area at the orifice? At
the discharge tank?
 Set the orifice CdA to 20% higher than the sonic area and
rerun the model
 Set the orifice CdA to 20% less than the sonic area and rerun
the model
A14 - 34
SI
Model a Compressed Air System
 Four machine tools are supplied air for operations (TEST7

(SI).ARO)
 The air is taken from outside the building (P = 1 atm), and
design conditions are that air temperature can vary from -18
deg. C to 45 deg. C.
 The compressor has the following data for stagnation
pressure: 83 kPa at 0 kg/s, 69 kPa at 0.25 kg/s, and 41 kPa at
0.5 kg/s
– Efficiency is not known with certainty, but is expected to be about
80% to 90% - use the ‘Determine From Efficiency Data’ option
for the Compression Process Thermodynamics
A14 - 35
SI
 The nozzles at the tools (modeled as valves) have a pressure

drop of 55 kPa at 0.1 kg/s
– Discharge is to atmospheric pressure (make them exit valves)
– Hint: Use "Fill as Quadratic" feature to create a curve
 The pipes are uninsulated, sch40 steel – ANSI with external
heat transfer coefficients that vary from 5.7-57 W/m2-K,
exchanging heat with the internal building ambient which can
range from 21 to 24 degrees C.
– The pipe at the compressor inlet is heavily insulated (consider it
adiabatic)
A14 - 36
SI
 The branches can be modeled as lossless

 Use ‘Redlich-Kwong’ and ‘Generalized’ for the equation of
state and enthalpy model
 Neglect elevation changes
 The machine tools are sensitive to temperature, but the
manufacturer says they can compensate for this if they know
the extremes of delivery temperature the tools will see. What
are the (static) temperature extremes at the tools?
– Hint: Compressor temperature rise increases with decreasing
efficiency
– Hint : Look at pipes P6-9 outlet temperatures for tool supply
temperatures
A14 - 37
SI
A14 - 38
SI
Natural Gas Burner System
 TEST8 (SI).ARO - There is an underground storage reservoir

of natural gas made up mostly of methane. Neglect elevation
changes.
– You can assume the gas is 100% methane for modeling
purposes, using ‘Redlich-Kwong’ and ‘Generalized’ for the
equation of state and enthalpy model
– The gas is at 3450 kPa and 10 deg. C
 The gas is supplied to 5 burners at 690 kPa each
 To assure equal flow, the burners have control valves which
control to 2.25 kg/s each
A14 - 39
SI
 The gas flows through a heat exchanger with 70 kPa drop at

11 kg/sec
– Hint: Use "Fill as Quadratic" feature to create a curve for each
one
 The pipes are uninsulated steel – ANSI, schedule 40, with
standard roughness and exchange heat to ambient 24 deg. C
with an external heat transfer coefficient of 57 W/m2-K
 For best efficiency, the gas at the burners should deliver at a
minimum of 38 deg. C stagnation temperature
A14 - 40
SI
 How much heat must be added to the heat exchanger to

ensure that all burners will receive gas at this temperature?
– You can use the specified heat rate model in the heat exchanger
A14 - 41
SI
A14 - 42
SI
Refinery Relief System
 A new emergency relief system at an oil refinery is being

considered and you have been called as a consultant to
evaluate the process calculations (model TEST10 (SI).ARO)
 The system provides relief to processes for methane, propane
and ethane (use Chempak to specify three fluids at the same
time)
 Each process is at 1350 kPa when the relief event occurs
 The process engineer has evaluated the relief capacity at the
minimum process temperature of 150 C
 The elbow is a standard elbow, and model the tees as
simplified
A14 - 43
SI
 The relief valve CdA is 90 cm2 (assume K = 0 since this will

choke)
 Discharge pressure is 1 standard atmosphere
 Assume adiabatic flow
 Determine the following:
– Relief capacity (i.e., flow rate) of each process
– Mass and mole fraction of the discharge mixture for
environmental impact assessment
– Hint: in Output Control, use Concentration Mass and Mole
Fraction
A14 - 44
SI
 Depending on the properties of the crude oil, all three

processes can operate at up to 315 deg. C
– The process engineer did not look at this case because of
budget constraints, but thinks the relief capacity will not be
affected by higher temperatures
 To simplify the calculation, the process engineer neglected
elevation changes, although the relief point is 35 meters
above the discharge header
 Determine if neglecting the high temperature case and
elevation effects is acceptable
A14 - 45
SI
A14 - 46
SI
Relief Stack for Mixture
 A mixture of 89% methane and 11% hydrogen (by mass)

exists at a process facility - use Standard Accuracy settings
(TEST11 (SI).ARO)
 It is planned to increase the process conditions to 6450 kPa at
38 C
 The relief system requires re-evaluation to determine if it is
still adequate
 Assume all pipes are well insulated (i.e., adiabatic)
 What is the relief capacity of the system?
 Where does sonic choking occur and why?
 What is the pressure drop across the shock wave(s)?
A14 - 47
SI
Relief Stack for Mixture (2)
A14 - 48
SI
Size Blower
 An air distribution system requires a new blower (TEST12

(SI).ARO)
 Assume all flow is adiabatic, use ‘Redlich-Kwong’ and
 Use a design factor of 1.1 on all pipe losses
 Neglect elevation changes and losses at branches
 Select ‘Determine From Efficiency Data’ for the Compression
Process
A14 - 49
SI
Size Blower (2)
 For the blower, look at the following three cases:

– Adiabatic
 Size the blower for both flow and pressure rise to deliver a
minimum of 9 kg/min to each room
 How do the different compression process models for the
blower affect the blower sizing? How about the discharge
temperatures?
A14 - 50
SI
Size Blower (3)
A14 - 51
SI
Modify Blower Model
 On the previous model it is realized that the pipes are not

insulated and that the adiabatic assumption may be overly
conservative
– One engineer expressed concern that the discharge air could be
too hot
 For the limiting case of 60% efficient compression, add heat
transfer to the model on all pipes assuming:
– Ambient is 27 degrees C
– External convection coefficient is 28 W/m2-K
 Do the compressor size requirements change significantly?
 How much do the discharge temperatures decrease?
A14 - 52
SI
Process Steam Supply System
 A process steam supply system has two boilers at 2070 kPa,

430C (TEST13 (SI).ARO)
– Use Steam (AFT Standard) and ‘Redlich-Kwong’ and
 All pipe has 5 cm of insulation with a thermal conductivity of
0.03 W/m-K and an external convection coefficient of 28
W/m2-K
– Ambient temperature is 24C
 All steel is schedule 40
 Elbows are Smooth, r/D = 1.5
A14 - 53
SI
 All tees should use the detailed loss model, with sharp edges
 Six users have peak flow demands as shown
 What is the minimum delivery (stagnation) pressure of the
system and at which user?
A14 - 54
SI
A14 - 55
SI
Answers to Hands-On Models
 TEST6 (SI).ARO:
– Maximum flow occurs at sonic flow conditions and is 1.99 kg/sec
– Choking pressure is 672.4 kPa
– Sonic area at the orifice is 8.892 cm2
– Sonic area at the tank discharge is 21.64 cm2 (the same as the
pipe area)
– Setting the orifice CdA higher than the sonic area has no effect
on the model
– Setting it 20% lower (to 7.11 cm2) makes the flow rate decrease
to 1.616 kg/s, the sonic discharge pressure decreases to 544.7
kPa
– Note that there are now two choking points instead of one
A14 - 56
SI
 TEST7 (SI).ARO
– Maximum valve inlet static temperature is 96.6 deg. C (range is
81.5-96.6 C)
• Assumes 45 C inlet, 24 C ambient, compressor is 80% efficient, and
external convection is 5.7 W/m2-K
– Minimum valve inlet static temperature is 18.2 deg. C (range is
18.2-20.0 C)
• Assumes -18 C inlet, 21 C ambient, compressor is 90% efficient,
and external convection is 57 W/m2-K
 TEST8 (SI).ARO
– About 1065 kW
A14 - 57
SI
 TEST10 (SI).ARO
– Total relief capacity is 15.1 kg/sec (2.8 methane, 5.0 ethane, 7.2
propane)
– At discharge by mass, 18.8% methane, 33.3% ethane, 47.9%
propane
– At discharge by mole, 34.8% methane, 32.9% ethane, 32.3%
propane
– At 315 C, relief capacity is reduced to 12.6 kg/sec, a 16.6%
reduction, which is significant. The original calculation was thus
not conservative.
– The effect of the 35 meter elevation is negligible
A14 - 58
SI
 TEST11 (SI).ARO, Capacity is 157,654 kg/hr

– Chokes at J4 because of relief valve restriction and at J5
because of endpoint choking
– 1343 kPa drop at J4, 199 kPa drop at J5
 TEST12 (SI).ARO, blower size is about 48.1 kg/min, 60.8 kPa
stagnation pressure rise (this is for the 60% efficient case, the
worst case of the three)
– Adiabatic case, same flow requirement, DP = 56.3 kPa
– 80% efficient case, same flow requirement, DP = 57.9 kPa
– For the three cases, discharge stagnation temperatures are
about 60.8C (adiabatic), 72C (80% efficient), 91.7C (60%
efficient)
A14 - 59
SI
 TEST12 (SI).ARO (modified for heat transfer in a child

scenario)
– The blower pressure requirements decrease from 60.8 kPa to
52.5 kPa, a 13.5% reduction
– The discharge temperatures approach the ambient of 27 C
 TEST13 (SI).ARO, with default Solution Control, minimum
delivery stagnation pressure is 686.8 kPa at J108, User #3
– With 10 segments per pipe, min. pressure is 700.9 kPa at J108
– With 20 segments per pipe, min. pressure is 704.4 kPa at J108
A14 - 60

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AFT Arrow Seminar

Week of 22 May, 2017

 Applied Flow Technology (AFT), founded in 1993, is a world

 Models incompressible network pipe systems

 XTS – eXtended Time Simulation

 Models compressible network pipe systems

 GSC – Goal Seek & Control

 Models waterhammer/surge flow in pipe networks

 SSL – Settling Slurry simulation

 Chempak™ Property Database

 AFT products are being successfully applied to a broad range

 Provides consulting services beyond typical technical support

 Additional ways to use your hours:

 General purpose pipe network compressible flow analysis

 Implements modified Newton-Raphson matrix method to

 Branching section (up to 25 pipes)

 No practical software limit to model size

 The AFT Arrow modeling process flows through five Primary

 Multiple features available with Quick Access Panel

This tool will add annotation

 Ability to activate GSC, APS, and ANS Modules

 Cut, copy, paste, delete, duplicate and undo features

 The Reference Flow Direction of a pipe can be changed

 The Workspace image can be printed on printers and plotters

 Model Data is broken into three sections

 With a Workspace printout and the complete Model Data

 The Output window is the primary vehicle for communicating

 User can select all or portions of the Output Window content

 Visual Report allows user to display input and output results

 The Graph Results Window allows creation of full-featured

 AFT Arrow uses a modified Newton-Raphson Method to solve

 Momentum Equation (Bernoulli, assuming incompressible)

 The velocity (dynamic) pressure and static pressure can be

Po ,1 + ρgh1 = Po , 2 + ρgh2 + ∆Ploss

 Traditional method of friction loss calculation uses the Darcy-

 AFT Fathom uses the iterative Colebrook-White correlation for

(Re < 2300)

 Basic law (incompressible flow)

 Defining new term, where R is a pipe resistance

 Applying law of mass conservation to a branching section

 Substituting yields the following equation to be solved for

sgn (Po , j − Po ,i + ρg (h j − hi ))

sgn (Po , j − Po ,i + ρg (h j − hi ))

 The objective is to find all of the P values that satisfy the

 We need to solve as many equations as there are flow splits

sgn (Po , j − Po ,i + ρg (h j − hi ))

 The objective is to use the Newton-Raphson Method to drive

 The procedure for applying Newton-Raphson to a single

where P is the vector of pressures and JF is the Jacobian matrix of

 ∂F1 ∂F1 ∂F1 

 The diagonal derivative terms in the Jacobian can be

Fi = ∑ sgn (Po , j − Po ,i + ρg (h j − hi ))

 The off-diagonal terms can also be calculated analytically

 Rather than inverting the Jacobian matrix, it is usually faster

– We then have the solution for z, which can be substituted back

Iteration Pj=4 Mpipe=1 Mpipe=2 Mpipe=3 F F'

 Use incompressible flow methods

 Use iterative spreadsheet or in-house software

 Engineer is never sure of analysis results

[6] Balance Mass:

 The static properties are the true thermodynamic properties:

Static Pressure Stagnation Pressure

 Compressible flow calculations are greatly aided by using