e-..—__- A 1ko 2) mFIGURE 10.7 ‘CHAPTER 10 SINUSOIDAL STEADY-STATE ANALYSIS. 103 Let», = 40c0s800 abe ‘Thévenin’s ‘en re jo the most good, and find the value 1 =O for (@ i is Dive Ans: 18.71 mA; 15,97 V;532 mA; 240m. 10.3 , THE COMPLEX FORCING FUNCTION ‘The method by which we found the sinusoidal steady-state response for the general series RL circuit was not a trivial problem. We might think of the analytical complications as arising through the presence of the inductor; if both the passive elements had been resistors, the analysis would have been ridiculously easy, even with the sinusoidal forcing function present. The rea son the analysis would be so easy results from the simple voltage-current relationship specified by Ohm’s law. The voltage-current relationship for an inductor is not as simple, however; instead of solving an algebraic equation, we were faced with a nonhomogeneous differential equation. It would be rather impractical to analyze every circuit by the method described in the example, and so we plan to develop a method to simplify the analysis. Our result will be an algebraic relationship between sinusoidal current and sinu- soidal voltage for inductors and capacitors as well as resistors, and we will be able t0 produce a set of algebraic equations for a circuit of any com- plexity. The constants and the variables in the equations will be complex numbers rather than real numbers, but the analysis of any circuit in the sinusoidal steady state becomes almost as easy as the analysis of a similar resistive circuit. We are now ready to think about applying a complex forcing function (that is, one that has both a real and an imaginary part) to an electrical net- work. This may seem like a strange idea, but we will find that the use of complex quantities in sinusoidal steady-state analysis leads to methods that are much simpler than those involving purely real quantities. We expect a complex forcing function to produce a complex response; the real part of the forcing function will produce the real part of the response, while the imaginary portion of the forcing function will result in the imaginary por- tion of the response. Hopefully this seems reasonable: it would be difficult to think of an example of a real voltage source leading to an imaginary response, and, by extension, the same is true for the reverse situatio In Fig. 10.8, a sinusoidal source Vp cos(cot +0) 15] Vy COS (a+ £08 (nr +.) Vind (ox +0) [is08 FIGURE 10.8 The sinusoidal ordng tuncion V, costot + 0) produces the stead state sinusoidal response i oslut + 6)SECTION 13 THE COMPLEXFORCING FUNCTION ws @ is connected to a general network, which we will assume to contain only passive elements (i.e., no independent sources) in order to avoid having to invoke the superposition principle. A current response in some other branch of the network is to be determined, and the parameters appearing in Eq. [5] are all real quantities. We have shown that we may represent the response by the general co- sine function In cos(cot +) (6) ay ‘A sinusoidal forcing funetion always produces a sinusoidal forced response of the same frequency in a linear circuit. Now let us change our time reference by shifting the phase of the fore ing function by 90°, or changing the instant that we call f= 0. Thus, the foreing function Vp» cos(wt +6 — 90°) = Vq sin(ot +0) 7 ‘when applied to the same network will produce a comesponding response Tn co8Koot +4 — 90) = In sinieat +4), we We next depart from physical reality by applying an imaginary forcing function, one that cannot be applied in the laboratory but can be applied mathematically. Imaginary Sources Lead to . .. Imaginary Responses tiply Eq. [7] by j, the imaginary operator, We thus apply Se ws We construct an imaginary source very simply; it is only necessary to mul- ES EEE or Vm Sin(oot +8) 91 What is the response? If we had doubled the source, then the principle of linearity would require that we double the response; multiplication of the forcing function by a constant & would result in the multiplication of the response by the same constant k. The fact that our constant is /—T does not destroy this relationship. The response to the imaginary source of Eq. [9] is thus Jlm sin(wot +9) [10] ‘The imaginary source and response are indicated in Fig. 10.9. Wy sin (on +0) asin (r+ 6) FIGURE 10.9 The imaginary sinusoidal forcing function Vy sin(nt + ) produces the imaginary sinusoidal response jy sin(t + #) nthe network ot Fig. 108. Applying a Complex Forcing Function We have applied a real source and obtained a real response; we have also applied an imaginary source and obtained an imaginary response. Since we are dealing with a linear circuit, we may use the superposition theorem to‘npn defines the complex number an related tems eves compe athe nd ees cent andthe rettionp between erent and polos. na Vqcoean(S L FIGURE 10.11 A simple ccutinthe sinusoidal sendy stati tobe analyzed by the applicaon ofa complex forcing function, (CHAPTER 10 SINUSOIDAL STEADY-STATE ANALYSIS find the response to a complex forcing function which is the sum of the real and imaginary forcing functions. Thus, the sum of the forcing functions of Eqs. [5] and [9], Von cos(cot +6) + 7 Vm sin(oot +8) (uy must therefore produce a response that is the sum of Eqs. [6] and [10], In costot + $) + ln Sin(oot + 9) 02] ‘The complex source and response may be represented more simply by ap- plying Euler’s identity, which states that cos(ot +0) + jsin(wt +8 ei Thus, the source of Eq. [11] may be written as Vmelort®) U3] and the response of Eq, [12] is Inelont) U4) The complex source and response are illustrated in Fig. 10.10. eee [taeltors BLFIGURE 10.10 The complex forcing function Vine!) produces the comple response ne! in the network of Fig. 103. Areal, an imaginary, or a complex forcing function will produce a real, an imaginary, or a complex response, respectively. Furthermore, through Euler's identity and the superposition theorem, a complex forcing function may be considered as the sum of a real and an imaginary forcing function; the real part of the complex response is produced by the real part of the complex forcing function, while the imaginary part of the response is caused by the imaginary part of the complex forcing function. ur plan is that instead of applying a real forcing function to obtain the desired real response, we will substitute a complex forcing function whose real part is the given real forcing function; we expect to obtain a complex response whose real partis the desired real response, The advantage of this procedure is that the integrodifferemtial equations describing the steady- state response of a circuit will now become simple algebraic equations. An Algebraic Alternative to Differential Equations Let us try out this idea on the simple RL series circuit shown in Fig. 10.11 ‘The real source Vp cos ot is applied; the real response f(t) is desired. Since coswt = Refe!*"} the necessary complex source is Vmeim ‘We express the complex response that results in terms of an unknown, amplitude I, and an unknown phase angle $: Ineltott®)SECTION 103 THE COMPLEX FORCING FUNCTION wr) Writing the differential equation for this particular circuit, di Ri+Le=y at we insert our complex expressions for v, and &: iy chai pe dt take the indicated derivative Rigel) + job ge® = Vmei™ and obtain an algebraic equation. In order to determine the value of fy and @, we divide throughout by the common factor e/* Rine!* + jal Ine! = Vm factor the left side: Ine!®(R + j@L) = Vn rearrange: a Ha R+ jol and identify Jy, and @ by expressing the ri nential or polar form: t side of the equation in expo- Ine? = (tan Hwt Ry 15) ‘Thus, VR +07 L? and ~tan~' In polar notation, this may be written as In, Vou/ VR + @L2 /—tan~! wL/R ‘The complex response is given by Eq, [15]. Since J, and @ are readily iden- tified, we can write the expression for /(t) immediately. However, if we feel like using a more rigorous approach, we may obtain the real response i(r) by reinserting the e/® factor on both sides of Eq. [15] and taking the real part. Either way, we find that ia) Vn ok sncont +6) os (1 =a 2) which agrees with the response obtained in Eq, [4] for the same circuit