EBML2103 Engineering Materials - Caug18 (Bookmark) PDF

EBML2103
Engineering Materials
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

EBML2103
ENGINEERING
MATERIALS
Prof Dr Hamidah Mohd Saman @ Haji Mohamed

Project Directors: Prof Dato’ Dr Mansor Fadzil
Prof Dr Siti Aishah Hashim Ali
Open University Malaysia
Module Writer: Prof Dr Hamidah Mohd Saman @ Haji Mohamed

Universiti Teknologi MARA
Moderator: Ir Dr Jansen Luis
Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

Open University Malaysia
First Edition, August 2018
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), August 2018, EBML2103

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means
without the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM).

Table of Contents
Course Guide xiiiăxvii
Topic 1 Introduction to Materials 1

1.1 Types of Materials 2
1.1.1 Metallic Materials 3
1.1.2 Polymer Materials 4
1.1.3 Ceramic Materials 6
1.1.4 Composite Materials 7
1.2 Materials in Construction 7
1.3 Advanced and Green Materials in Construction 8
1.4 Design and Selection 9
Summary 11
Key Terms 13
References 13
Topic 2 The Structure of Materials 14

2.1 Basic Structure of Materials 15
2.2 Structure of Metals 20
2.2.1 Body-Centred Cubic 20
2.2.2 Face-Centred Cubic (FCC) 21
2.2.3 Hexagonal Close-Packed (HCP) 22
2.3 Structure of Alloys 22
2.3.1 Substitutional Solid Solutions 23
2.3.2 Interstitial Solid Solutions 24
2.4 Structure of Polymers 24
2.5 Structure of Ceramics 29
2.5.1 Cesium Chloride (CsCl) Crystal Structure 30
2.5.2 Sodium Chloride (NaCl) Crystal Structure 31
2.5.3 Zinc Blende (ZnS) Crystal Structure 32
2.5.4 Calcium Fluoride (CaF2) Crystal Structure 32
2.5.5 Other Ceramic Crystal Structures 33
2.6 Atomic and Molecular Bonding 35
2.6.1 Ionic Bonding 35
2.6.2 Covalent Bonding 35
2.6.3 Metallic Bonding 36
2.6.4 Mixed Bonding 37

iv  TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.7 Structure of Electric and Magnetic Materials 38

2.7.1 OhmÊs Law 38
2.7.2 Electrical Conductivity 39
2.7.3 Electronic and Ionic Conduction 39
2.7.4 Energy Band Structures in Solids 39
2.7.5 Electrical Resistivity of Metals and Alloys 40
2.7.6 Magnetic Properties 41
Summary 43
Key Terms 47
References 48
Topic 3 Alloys 49
3.1 Ferrous Alloys 50
3.1.1 Low-Carbon Steels 52
3.1.2 Medium-Carbon Steels 53
3.1.3 High Carbon Steels 54
3.2 Stainless Steel 55
3.2.1 Martensitic Stainless Steels 55
3.2.2 Ferritic Stainless Steels 56
3.2.3 Austenitic Stainless Steels 56
3.3 Cast Iron 57
3.3.1 Gray Iron 57
3.3.2 Ductile (Nodular) Iron 58
3.3.3 White and Malleable Iron 58
3.4 Iron-Carbon Alloy System 59
3.5 Nonferrous Alloys 61
3.5.1 Aluminium Alloys 61
3.5.2 Magnesium Alloys 62
3.5.3 Nickel Alloys 62
3.5.4 Titanium Alloys 63
3.5.5 Copper Alloys 63
3.6 Special Alloys and Applications 65
Summary 66
Key Terms 68
References 69

TABLE OF CONTENTS  v
Topic 4 Polymers, Ceramics and Composites 70

4.1 Polymers 71
4.2 Polymerisation 72
4.3 Common Polymers and Applications 75
4.3.1 Polymer Emulsions 76
4.3.2 Inorganic Polymer 76
4.3.3 Reactive Polymer 77
4.4 Ceramics 77
4.4.1 Traditional Ceramics 78
4.4.2 Engineering Ceramics 79
4.5 Processing of Ceramics 80
4.5.1 Materials Preparation 81
4.5.2 Forming 81
4.5.3 Thermal Treatments 82
4.6 Mechanical Properties of Ceramic 83
4.7 Composites 84
4.7.1 Glass Fibres Reinforced Plastics (GFRP) 85
4.7.2 Carbon Fibres Reinforced Plastics (CFRP) 86
4.7.3 Aramid Fibres Reinforced Plastics (AFRP) 87
4.8 Matrix Materials For FRP 88
4.9 Mechanical Properties of Fibres for Reinforced Plastic
Composite 89
4.10 Processing of FRP 91
4.10.1 Hand Lay-Up Process 91
4.10.2 Spray Lay-Up Process 91
4.10.3 Vacuum Bag-Autoclave Process 91
4.10.4 Filament Winding 92
4.10.5 Pultrusion 92
4.10.6 Compression and Injection Moulding 93
4.10.7 Sheet Moulding Compound (SMC) 93
4.11 Application of FRP in Construction 94
Summary 97
Key Terms 99
References 100

vi  TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 5 Plastic, Glass and Rubber 101

5.1 Plastic 102
5.1.1 Thermoplastics 102
5.1.2 Thermosets 103
5.2 Processing Plastic Materials 104
5.2.1 Injection Moulding 104
5.2.2 Extrusion 105
5.2.3 Blow Moulding and Thermoforming 105
5.2.4 Compression Moulding 106
5.2.5 Transfer Moulding 106
5.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Plastics 107
5.4 Properties of Plastic Materials 108
5.5 Uses of Plastic Materials in Construction 112
5.6 Glass 113
5.6.1 Ingredients of Glass 114
5.6.2 Glass Forming 114
5.6.3 Heat Treating Glass 115
5.6.4 Properties of Glass 116
5.6.5 Uses of Glass in Construction 119
5.7 Elastomers 119
5.7.1 Natural Rubber 120
5.7.2 Synthetic Rubber 122
5.7.3 Properties of Rubber 124
5.7.4 Uses of Rubber 125
Summary 126
Key Terms 128
References 128
Topic 6 Timber 129

6.1 Macrostructure of Wood 130
6.2 Classification of Timber 132
6.2.1 Visual Stress Grading 133
6.2.2 Machine Stress Grading 133
6.3 Properties of Timber 135
6.3.1 Density 135
6.3.2 Thermal Insulation 137
6.3.3 Thermal Movement 137
6.3.4 Behaviour in Fire 137
6.3.5 Strength 137

TABLE OF CONTENTS  vii
6.4 Moisture in Timber 138

6.4.1 Hygroscopic Nature of Timber 138
6.4.2 Water in Wood 139
6.4.3 Fibre Saturation Point 139
6.4.4 Equilibrium Moisture Content 140
6.4.5 Shrinkage 140
6.4.6 Determination of Moisture Content 141
6.5 Timber Defects 142
6.5.1 Knots 142
6.5.2 Slope of Grain 142
6.5.3 Seasoning Defects 143
6.5.4 Fungal Decay 143
6.5.5 Reaction Wood 143
6.5.6 Wane 144
6.5.7 Distortions 144
6.5.8 Insect Damage 144
6.5.9 Cracks, Fissures, Resin Pockets and Bark Pockets 145
6.6 Timber Preservation 146
6.6.1 Tar Oil Preservatives 146
6.6.2 Organic Solvents 146
6.6.3 Water Borne Preservatives 147
6.7 Application of Timber in Construction 147
Summary 149
Key Terms 150
References 150
Topic 7 Bricks and Blocks 151

7.1 Raw Materials and Manufacturing Processes 152
7.1.1 Clay 152
7.1.2 Calcium Silicate 154
7.1.3 Sand-Cement and Concrete 154
7.2 Classification and Types of Bricks and Blocks 155
7.2.1 Damp-Proof-Course (DPC) Bricks 157
7.2.2 Classification by BS EN 771 157
7.3 Properties of Bricks 159
7.3.1 Size Tolerances and Dimensional Deviations 159
7.3.2 Water Absorption 161
7.3.3 Compressive Strength 161
7.3.4 Soluble Salt Content 162
7.3.5 Freeze/Thaw Resistance 163
7.3.6 Efflorescence 163
7.3.7 Thermal Movement 163
7.3.8 Moisture Movement 164

viii  TABLE OF CONTENTS
7.4 Testing of Bricks and Blocks 165

7.4.1 Compressive Strength 165
7.4.2 Water Absorption 166
7.5 Types of Bonding 166
7.6 Mortars for jointing 169
7.6.1 Constituents 170
7.6.2 Mortar Mixes 171
7.7 Brickwork and Blockwork 173
Summary 176
Key Terms 178
References 178
Topic 8 Concrete 180

8.1 Importance of Concrete 182
8.2 Types of Concrete 183
8.3 Components of Concrete 184
8.3.1 Cement 185
8.3.2 Aggregate 188
8.3.3 Water 193
8.3.4 Admixtures 194
8.4 Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete 196
Summary 199
Key Terms 200
References 201
Topic 9 Green Materials 202

9.1 Sustainable Green Materials 203
9.2 Green Material Selection 204
9.2.1 Resource Efficiency 204
9.2.2 Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) 205
9.2.3 Energy Efficiency, Water Conservation and
Affordability 206
9.3 Advantages of Using Green Materials 206
9.4 Green Material Products 207
9.4.1 Absence of Hazardous Ingredients 207
9.4.2 Durable or Low Maintenance 207
9.4.3 Reduces Material Use 208
9.4.4 Reusable, Recyclable or Compostable 208
9.4.5 Improves Air Quality 208

TABLE OF CONTENTS  ix
9.5 Recycling Waste in Construction 208

9.5.1 Industrial Waste 209
9.5.2 Agricultural Waste 210
9.5.3 Construction Waste 212
9.5.4 Wastewater Sludge 212
Summary 213
Key Terms 215
References 215
Topic 10 Selection of Materials and Test Methods 218

10.1 Process of Selecting Materials 219
10.2 Identifying Potential Materials 221
10.3 Test Methods 223
10.3.1 Bending (Flexural) 223
10.3.2 Creep 224
10.3.3 Fatigue 225
10.3.4 Hardness 227
10.3.5 Toughness and Impact 228
10.3.6 Tensile Strength 229
Summary 235
Key Terms 236
References 236

x  TABLE OF CONTENTS

COURSE GUIDE

COURSE GUIDE  xiii
COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells
you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through
the course material. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend in
order to complete the course successfully. Please keep on referring to the Course
Guide as you go through the course material as it will help you to clarify
important study components or points that you might miss or overlook.
INTRODUCTION
EBML2103 Engineering Materials is one of the courses offered at Open
University Malaysia (OUM). This course is worth 3 credit hours and should be
covered over 8 to 15 weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This course is a core subject for learners undertaking the Bachelor of Science in
Project and Facility Management (Honours) programme. Engineering Materials
is an important course which will help learners identify and classify materials. It
introduces the properties, characteristics, selection, specification, assembly and
interrelationship of materials, focusing on construction materials. This course
is important for this programme as learners need to understand the basic
properties of materials related to facility and project management.
As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning

independently, and being able to optimise the learning modes and environment
available to you. Before you begin this course, please ensure that you have the
right course material, and understand the course requirements as well as how the
course is conducted.
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend
120 study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be
accumulated.

xiv  COURSE GUIDE
Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours
Study
Study Activities
Hours
Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial discussion 4
Study the module 62
Attend 3 to 5 tutorial sessions 8
Online participation 15
Revision 16
Assignment(s), Test(s) and Examination(s) 15
TOTAL STUDY HOURS ACCUMULATED 120
COURSE OUTCOMES
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Discuss the application of engineering materials to suit the modern

construction industryÊs drive towards sustainability;
2. Identify the types and properties of engineering materials described in the

course;
3. Describe the structure of engineering materials;
4. Select and evaluate the range of materials that can be used appropriately in
the construction industry; and
5. Discuss the appropriate test methods for engineering materials.
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into 10 topics. The synopsis for each topic can be listed as
follows:
Topic 1 is an introduction to the materials engineering perspective. The topic

gives an overview of materials and their properties.
Topic 2 investigates the structure of materials such as metals, alloys, polymers

and ceramics. It then discusses the electrical and magnetic properties of
materials.

COURSE GUIDE  xv
Topic 3 moves on to discuss the characteristics and properties of ferrous and

non-ferrous alloys, their uses and applications.
In Topic 4, the focus shifts to polymers, ceramics and composites. Discussions are
based on each category of these materials, their properties, uses and applications,
as well as their comparative advantages and disadvantages.
Topic 5 takes a look at the uses and applications of plastic, glass and rubber as
materials for construction.
Topic 6 looks at timber as a source material for construction. The classification of

timber based on visual and machine stress grading is discussed as well as
properties of timber, methods to preserve it and the identification of defects.
Topic 7 discusses at length about the manufacture, classification and use of bricks
and blocks in construction.
Topic 8 is about concrete. Here, we will be able to appreciate the importance of

this material, discover the components of concrete and the different applications
of different types of concrete.
Topic 9 discusses sustainability and green materials. It covers how to select

materials that are environmentally friendly, discusses recycling and works out
the advantages of using green materials.
Topic 10 covers the processes and methods involved in the selection and testing
of materials for strength, flexibility and stress tolerance.
TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement will help you to organise your
study of this course in a more objective and effective way. Generally, the text
arrangement for each topic is as follows:
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you
have completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously
gauge your understanding of the topic.
Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

throughout the module. It may be inserted after one sub-section or a few sub-
sections. It usually comes in the form of a question. When you come across this

xvi  COURSE GUIDE
component, try to reflect on what you have already learnt thus far. By attempting
to answer the question, you should be able to gauge how well you have
understood the sub-section(s). Most of the time, the answers to the questions can
be found directly from the module itself.
Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

locations or junctures throughout the module. This component may require you
to solve questions, explore short case studies, or conduct an observation or
research. It may even require you to evaluate a given scenario. When you come
across an Activity, you should try to reflect on what you have gathered from the
module and apply it to real situations. You should, at the same time, engage
yourself in higher order thinking where you might be required to analyse,
synthesise and evaluate instead of only having to recall and define.
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This component
helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should
be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the
summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details in the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.
References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

textbooks, journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. The list
can appear in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at the References
section), at the end of every topic or at the back of the module. You are
encouraged to read or refer to the suggested sources to obtain the additional
information needed and to enhance your overall understanding of the course.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
No prior knowledge required.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myINSPIRE.

COURSE GUIDE  xvii
TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS)

DIGITAL LIBRARY
The TSDAS Digital Library has a wide range of print and online resources for
the use of its learners. This comprehensive digital library, which is accessible
through the OUM portal, provides access to more than 30 online databases
comprising e-journals, e-theses, e-books and more. Examples of databases
available are EBSCOhost, ProQuest, SpringerLink, Books247, InfoSci Books,
Emerald Management Plus and Ebrary Electronic Books. As an OUM learner,
you are encouraged to make full use of the resources available through this
library.

Topic  Introduction to
Materials
1
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Define the scope of study of engineering materials;
2. Describe the types of engineering materials;
3. Discuss the use of advanced and green materials in construction;
and
4. Discuss the criteria in material selection.
 INTRODUCTION
Materials are an essential part of the engineering industry and make modern life
possible. Material science is primarily associated with the search and discovery
of basic knowledge about the atomic structure, properties, processing and
production of materials. Material engineering mainly involves the study of how
the materials can be converted into products needed or desired by society.
Engineering materials is a study covering both material science and material
engineering. This knowledge is important for an engineer to give shape to his
concept and design.
This topic introduces four major groups of materials, namely metallics, polymers,
ceramics and composites. In particular, composite advanced materials, smart
materials and nano materials are becoming popular in todayÊs construction
industry. Nevertheless, traditional construction materials such as timber, bricks
and concrete are also discussed in brief. In addition, due to environmental
concerns and awareness on issues of sustainability, green materials have been of
interest to construction industry players and are therefore introduced in this topic.

2  TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO MATERIALS
Further details for each group of materials are elaborated in subsequent topics.
Let us now first learn about the types of materials.
ACTIVITY 1.1
How many categories of materials do you think is used to produce a

bicycle as shown in Figure 1.1. What criteria will be considered to give
comfort to riders? Discuss with your coursemates.
Figure 1.1: A bicycle that is rideable and comfortable requires materials that are
not only strong but light for easy manoeuvring
1.1 TYPES OF MATERIALS

There is nearly a limitless variety of materials for communication, transportation,
construction, biomedics, automotive, aerospace, semiconductor and electronic
applications. Each group of materials has unique properties, structure and
requires different manufacturing processes. In the following subsections, four
groups of materials which are metallic, polymers, ceramics and composites are
discussed.

TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO MATERIALS  3
1.1.1 Metallic Materials

Metallic materials are inorganic substances that are composed of one or more
metallic elements and may also contain some non-metallic elements. Examples
of metallics are iron, copper, aluminium, nickel and titanium. Non-metallic
elements such as carbon, nitrogen and oxygen may also be contained in metallic
materials. Metals have a crystalline structure in which the atoms are arranged in
an orderly manner.
Metals are good as thermal and electrical conductors. Metals are strong, hard and
can be formed into many complex shapes by plastic deformation, machining,
casting and powder metallurgy methods. Many metals are ductile at room
temperature, and many maintain good strength even at high temperatures.
Metals and alloys are commonly divided into two classes: ferrous metals and
non-ferrous metals. Ferrous metals are those contain a large percentage of iron
such as steel, wrought and cast irons. Non-ferrous metals do not contain iron or
contain only a relatively small amount of iron. Examples of non-ferrous metals
are aluminium, copper, zinc, titanium and nickel. Metals in alloyed and pure
forms are commonly used in industries including aerospace, biomedics,
semiconductor, electronic, energy, civil and structure application.
Many metal alloys such as titanium alloys, stainless steel and cobalt-base alloys
are also used in biomedical applications including orthopaedic implants, heart
valves, fixation devices and screws. Engineering alloys, its properties and use are
explained further in Topic 3.
Powdered metals are metals that include the alloying process which involves
melting the main ingredients together so that on cooling, the metal alloy is
generally a non-porous solid. Powdered metal is often used instead of solid metal
because it is undesirable and impractical to join the elements through alloying or
to produce parts by casting or other forming processes. Powdered metal is
sometimes called sintered metal. The process consists of producing small
particles, compacting and sintering by applying heat below the melting point of
the main component. The squeezing pressure with added heat bonds the metal
powder into a strong solid.

The application of ferrous metals and its alloy in construction is vast from roof
truss, reinforcement, structural sections, bolt and nuts, pipes, sanitary fittings,
railings, staircases, nails, fire gratings, brackets, motors and engines, etc. Non-
ferrous metals also have a wide range of uses in construction, for example,
aluminium is used for window frames, wires, rods, cables and copper is used for
wires, cladding and lighting protective devices.
SELF-CHECK 1.1
1. When a metal contains a large percentage of iron, what is its

classification?
2. Give three examples of non-ferrous metals consisting of metal

elements and its alloys.
1.1.2 Polymer Materials

Polymeric materials are materials that contain many. Poly means „many‰ and
mer comes from meros, which means „parts‰. A polymer is a chainlike molecule
made up of smaller molecular units (monomers). The monomers, made up of
atoms, bond together covalently to form a polymer that usually has a carbon
backbone. Figure 1.2 shows a simple sketch of methane, ethane and propane
monomer hydrocarbons.
Figure 1.2: Simple molecular models of hydrocarbons and their respective chemical
formulae

Most polymeric materials consist of long molecular chains or networks that are
usually based on organics (carbon-containing precursors). Structurally, most
polymeric materials are non-crystalline, but some consist of mixtures of
crystalline and non-crystalline regions. The strength and ductility of polymeric
materials vary greatly. Because of the nature of their internal structure, most
polymeric materials are poor conductors of electricity. Polymers typically have
low densities and may be extremely flexible.
Polymers can be classified into three categories; thermoplastic, thermosets and

elastomers or better known as rubbers. Thermoplastics are long chain molecules
that can be easily formed by heat and pressure at temperatures above a glass
temperature. The glass temperature is usually below room temperature and
hence these polymers are brittle at room temperature.
Thermosets are polymers that take on a permanent shape or set when heated
although some will set at room temperature. An example is epoxy resin that
results from combining an epoxy polymer with a curing agent or catalyst at room
temperature. Thermosets consist of three-dimensional network atoms rather than
being a long-chain molecule. They decompose on heating and, thus, cannot be
reformed or recycled by melting.
Figure 1.3: A familiar item that is fabricated from thermoplastic that can be reformed and
reshaped by melting

Polymers are used extensively in construction for gutter, water-proofing

material, thermal insulation, sheating, window sills louvers, sign panels, sizing
boards, spraying materials, ventilation fans, ducts, bath tubs, septic tanks,
flushing cisterns, hot water pipes, door pulls, hinges, knobs, door rollers, blind
screens, covering for handrails, etc.
1.1.3 Ceramic Materials

Ceramics are crystalline compounds combining metallic and non-metallic
elements. Glass is grouped with ceramics because it has similar properties, but
most glass is amorphous. Included in ceramics are porcelain such as pottery;
abrasives such as emery used on sandpaper; refractories (materials with good
resistance to heat) such as tantalum carbide with a melting temperature of about
3,870C; and structural clay such as brick.
Ceramics, including glass, are hard, brittle (no internal slip), stiff and have high
melting points. Glass has many uses in construction such as; windows and
partitions; in lantern and fan lights; as well as wall and ceiling lining; glass
window sills; and as a heat and sound insulation medium.
Silica is a basic unit in many ceramics. The internal structure of the silica unit is
drawn in Figure 1.4 and will be elaborated in Topic 2.
Figure 1.4: Simplified atomic structure of (a) silicate, and (b) single chain of silicate

1.1.4 Composite Materials

A composite is a material containing two or more integrated materials with each
material keeping its own identity. Usually, combining the materials serves to
rectify weaknesses possessed by each constituent when it exists alone. Most
composite materials consist of a selected filler or reinforcing material and a
compatible resin binder to obtain the specific characteristics and properties
desired.
Fibreglass is a familiar example of a human-made composite, in which glass

fibres are embedded within a polymeric material. Fibreglass acquires strength
from the glass and flexibility from the polymer. Wood is an example of natural
composite because it is made by combination of cellulose and lignin.
The composite materials are developed to meet the demands in buildings as well
as in electronic, aerospace and auto industries. Composites are the material of
today because it can be designed to be stronger, lighter, stiffer, and more heat
resistant than natural materials or to possess properties required by technology
that are not available in a single material.
Composite materials have replaced numerous metallic components especially in

aerospace, avionics, automobile, sports equipment industries and even in civil
and structural applications. Nowadays, buildings constructed with fibre
reinforced glass (FRP) are not uncommon. FRP is also widely used for
rehabilitation works due to its non-corrosive and non-magnetic characteristics.
1.2 MATERIALS IN CONSTRUCTION

Timber, bricks, blocks and concrete are materials that have been utilised in
construction since the era of the Roman Empire. These materials have advantages
and disadvantages that make one more popular than the others. Timber, for
instance, possesses relatively high compressive and tensile strength and is high
in aesthetic value making it one of the popular option materials for construction.
Thousands of available timber species vary widely in their properties and
appearances. Bricks and blocks can be used for load and non-load bearing
application; they are one of the famous traditional materials in construction due
to its flexibility.

Bricks can be classified into three depending on what ingredients it is composed

of, that is, clay brick, calcium silicate brick or sand cement brick. It is well-known
that bricks and blocks form an attractive cladding for a building. Bricks and
blocks possess good thermal and acoustic insulation and excellent fire resistance
characteristics. Meanwhile, concrete comprising cement as a binder, aggregate as
a filler and water is an admixture which has gone through many evolutions to be
used in the construction industry to date.
Concrete is the most economical construction material and also the most
important and common one. Concrete is widely used for the construction of
buildings, dams, railroad ties, foundations, pavement, walkways, storage tanks
and many other structures.
1.3 ADVANCED AND GREEN MATERIALS IN

CONSTRUCTION
In these modern times, a number of advanced materials have been
revolutionalised. Smart materials, nano materials and green materials are the
new evolution of materials that aim for cost-efficient, sustainable, durable and
adaptive features fulfilling design requirements.
Smart materials have the ability to respond to external environment stimuli such
as temperature, stress, light, humidity, and electric and magnetic fields. They
respond by changing their properties mechanically, electrically, or in appearance,
structure or functions. Smart materials or systems consist of sensors and
actuators. The sensory component detects a change in the environment, and
some smart materials change or produce colour when exposed to changes in
temperature, light intensity or an electric current.
For example, nitinol, an alloy of nickel and titanium is an illustration of a shape

memory alloy (SMA) that has unique properties. SMAs can be changed from a
new shape back to its designed shape with application of temperature. SMAs
have high operating temperature, abrasion and corrosion resistance and high
tensile strength that make it attractive for construction application.
Nano technology or nanotech is another advanced material that has been

introduced for construction. Nano material is a material with at least one
dimension sized from 1 to 100 nanometres (nm). It has a characteristic length
scale that is, particle diameter, grain size, layer thickness, etc. smaller than 100nm
(1nm = 10ă9m).

Nano materials can be metallic, polymeric, ceramic, electronic or composite.

Nano silica and nano clay have been introduced as a binder to produce high
performance concrete. The early application of nano materials are as pigments
and chemical catalysts. Now their application has extended to being used for
medical purposes such as orthopaedic and dental implants due to better
biocompatibility characteristics, better strength and better wear characteristic
than metals. One such material is nanocrystalline zirconia (zirconium oxide), a
hard and wear resistant ceramic that is chemically stable and biocompatible.
Nanomaterials may also be used in producing paint or coating materials that are
significantly more resistant to scratching and environmental damage.
1.4 DESIGN AND SELECTION

It is estimated that currently about 85,000 materials are available for industrial
applications (Murray, White & Weise, 2008). The search for the best materials in
specific applications is a challenging task. The following list can be the criteria for
selection:
(a) Available source of supply;
(b) Economic in production;
(c) Energy efficient;
(d) Strong, stiff and dimensionally stable at all temperatures;
(e) Lightweight;
(f) Corrosion and weathering resistant;
(g) No harmful effects on the environment or people; and
(h) Renewable and sustainable.
Recycling and green materials are part of the strategy devised in material
selection. Many materials are derived from resources that are renewable. These
include polymers for which the prime raw material is oil. These non-renewable
resources are gradually becoming depleted, which necessitates the discovery of
additional reserves; the development of new materials having comparable
properties with less adverse environmental impact; and increased recycling
efforts and the development of new recycling technologies.
As a consequence, besides the economics of production, environmental

sustainability impact and ecological considerations are increasingly being
factored into material design and selection.

ACTIVITY 1.2
Discuss in class, what are the most suitable materials to construct a

highrise as shown in Figure 1.5. Divide them into many components
and for each component suggest one or more material that can be used.
Explain the reason for the selection.
Figure 1.5: A modern highrise building

SELF-CHECK 1.2
1. What is the purpose of selecting a composite material over

material from other groups?
2. List three materials that were grouped in „advanced materials‰

and explain their application in the construction industry.
3. Give examples of „green materials‰ that have been used in

construction.
 Materials science is primarily concerned with basic knowledge about the

internal structure, properties and processing of material whereas material
engineering is mainly involved with the application of material sciences for
practical purposes.
 There are four major groups of materials: metallic, polymeric, ceramic

and composite. All the groups of materials play important roles in the
construction industry.
 Metallic materials are composed of one or more metallic element and also
contain non-metallic elements. Metals can be classified into three: ferrous,
non-ferrous and powdered metals. Ferrous metals and alloys are those
containing a large percentage of iron such as steel and cast irons. Non-ferrous
metals and alloys do not contain iron or contain only a relatively small
amount of iron. Examples of non-ferrous metals are aluminium, copper, zinc,
titanium and nickel. Powdered metals are produced when the alloying or
casting or other forming processes are impractical.
 Polymeric materials are materials that contain many. Poly- means „many‰
and -mer comes from meros, which means „parts‰. A polymer is a chainlike
molecule made up of smaller molecular units (monomers). The term „mer‰
refers to the repeating unit and often it is a single hydrocarbon molecule.

 Polymers are classified into three categories: thermoplastic, thermosets and

elastomers or better known as rubbers. Thermoplastics are long chain
molecules that can be easily formed by heat and pressure at temperatures
above a glass temperature. Thermosets are polymers that take on a
permanent shape or set when heated. They decompose on heating and, thus,
cannot be reformed or recycled by melting.
 Ceramics are crystalline compounds combining metallic and non-metallic

elements. Traditional ceramic materials include clay, porcelain such as
pottery; abrasives such as emery used on sandpaper and refractories.
Ceramics, including glass are hard, brittle, stiff and have high melting points.
Silica is a basic unit in many ceramics.
 Composite materials are materials formed by integrating two or more

materials. Composites are stronger, lighter, stiffer and more heat resistant
than natural materials and possess properties required that are not available
in a single material. An example of a natural composite material is timber
(wood) and many other different types of human-made materials.
Applications of composite materials are becoming popular in construction
and also in rehabilitation works.
 Traditional construction materials are timber, bricks, blocks and concrete and
these materials are still used as construction materials. These materials have
unique properties that make one more popular than the other for specific
applications in construction.
 The trend in material engineering has also shifted towards smart, nano and
green materials. Smart materials respond to external environmental stimuli
by changing their properties. Nano materials are materials with at least one
dimension sized from 1 to 100 nanometers (nm). Green materials are
becoming important to address issues of depletion and non-renewable
resources for future generations.

Advanced materials Metallic materials

Ceramic materials Nano materials
Composite materials Polymeric materials
Construction Properties
Electronic materials Recycling
Green materials Smart materials
Material selection Shape memory alloy
Callister, W. D. (2005). Fundamentals of materials and engineering. Hoboken, NJ:

John Wiley & Sons.
Jacobs, J. A., & Kilduff, T. F. (2001). Engineering materials technology (4th ed.).
New York, NY: Prentice Hall
Murray, G., White, C. V., & Weise, W. (2008). Introduction to engineering

materials (2nd ed.). Boca Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis Group.
Smith, W. F., & Hashemi, J. (2011). Foundations of materials science and

engineering (5th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

T op i c  The Structure of
Materials
2
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe the atomic and crystal structures of each type of material;
2. List the different types of bonding between atoms;
3. Explain the relationship between type of bond and material
property; and
4. Discuss the structure of electric and magnetic materials.
 INTRODUCTION
This topic provides an introduction to the basic structure of materials. The basic
structure of materials mainly concerns the arrangement of atoms, ions or
molecules that make up the solid and bonding forces between them. This topic
covers the basic structure of four groups of materials which are metals, alloys,
polymers and ceramics. Solid materials are composed of many atoms, ions or
molecules that are bonded. An atom consists of a nucleus containing neutrons
and protons around an electron orbit. All the solid material consists of a chain of
many atoms either in a pattern of long-range or short-range order.

TOPIC 2 THE STRUCTURE OF MATERIALS  15
In this topic, the principle of crystal structure for metals, alloys, polymers and
ceramics will also be discussed, for example, metals have body-centred cubic
(BCC), face-centred cubic (FCC) and hexagonal close-packed (HCP) crystal
structures. Atoms are bonded with other atoms via the driving force that create
the potential energy of each bonding resulting in the more stable state. This topic
also provides descriptions on the structure of electric and magnetic materials,
and the parameters that explain the electric and magnetic properties of material.
ACTIVITY 2.1
How were the existence of electrons and protons, and of an atom first
verified? Describe the characteristics of both electrons and protons.
Discuss with your coursemates.
2.1 BASIC STRUCTURE OF MATERIALS

In the early nineteenth century, the English chemist John Dalton (1766ă1844)
found that matter was made up of small particles called atoms. The atoms were
identical having same size, shape, mass and chemical properties in a pure
substance. He also proposed that a chemical reaction is explained by separation,
combination, or rearrangement of atoms and that a chemical reaction does not
lead to creation or destruction of matter ă law of mass conservation.
An atom consists of a nucleus containing neutrons and protons around which

electrons orbit (Figure 2.1). The electrons in the outer orbits are bound less
tightly. They are valence electrons and are involved in the bonding together with
other atoms, hence, they strongly affect all physical, mechanical and chemical
properties of materials.

16  TOPIC 2 THE STRUCTURE OF MATERIALS
Figure 2.1: The relative size of an atom and its nucleus that is made up of protons and
neutrons
Source: Smith & Hashemi (2011)

Solids are categorised broadly into crystalline and amorphous. Crystalline solids
are made of long range order of atoms in a pattern that repeats itself in three-
dimension. Meanwhile, a material in which atoms and ions are arranged in short-
range order and not in a repeatable manner is called amorphous. Atomic
arrangements in crystalline solids can be described by referring the atoms to the
point of intersection of a network of lines in three-dimension. Such a network is
called a space lattice.
Atoms can be referred to the three points of intersection of a network of lines

(space lattice) in three-dimension and it can be described as an infinite three-
dimensional array of points (lattice points). In an ideal crystal, the grouping of
lattice points about any given point is identical with the grouping about any
other lattice point in the crystal lattice. Each space lattice can, thus, be described
by specifying the atom positions in a repeating unit cell as illustrated in
Figure 2.2.
Figure 2.2: Space lattice of ideal crystalline solid


A. J. Bravais, a French crystallographer (1811ă1863) derived the fourteen

arrangements of points in space as listed in Figure 2.3. Crystallographers have
shown that only seven different types of unit cells are necessary to create all
space lattices. These crystal systems are listed in Table 2.1.
Figure 2.3: The fourteen Bravais unit cells grouped according to crystal systems
Source: Smith & Javad Hashemi (2011)
Table 2.1: Classification of Space Lattice by Crystal System
Crystal System Space Lattice

Cubic Simple cubic
Body-centred cubic
Face-centred cubic
Tetragonal Simple tetragonal
Body-centred tetragonal
Orthorhombic Simple orthorhombic
Body-centred orthorhombic
Face-centred orthorhombic
Base-centred orthorhombic
Rhombohedral Simple rhombohedral
Hexagonal Simple hexagonal
Monoclinic Simple monoclinic
Base-centred monoclinic
Triclinic Simple triclinic
ACTIVITY 2.2
1. What is the difference between atomic structure and crystal

structure?
2. Why study atomic structure and the interactions that exist among
constituent atoms or molecules?

2.2 STRUCTURE OF METALS

Most metals are packed in the three forms of crystal structures; body-centred
cubic (BCC), face-centred cubic (FCC) and hexagonal close-packed (HCP). The
following subsections elaborate each crystal structure.
2.2.1 Body-Centred Cubic

An example of the atomic-site cell for the BCC crystal structure is shown in
Figure 2.4(a). In this unit cell, the solid spheres represent the centres where atoms
are located and clearly indicate their relative positions. If the atoms in this cell are
represented as hard-spheres, then the unit cell appears as shown in Figure 2.4(b).
In this unit cell, it can be seen that the central atom is surrounded by eight
nearest neighbours and is said to have a coordination number of „8‰.
Figure 2.4: BCC unit cells modelled as: (a) atomic-site unit cell;
(b) hard-sphere unit cell; and (c) isolated unit cell
If a single hard-sphere unit cell is isolated, the model as shown in Figure 2.4(c) is
obtained. Each of these cells has the equivalent of two atoms per unit cell. One
complete atom is located at the centre of the unit cell, and an eighth (⅛) of a
sphere is located at each corner of the cell, making the equivalent of another
atom. Thus, there are a total of two atoms per unit cell.

2.2.2 Face-Centred Cubic (FCC)

In this unit cell, there is one lattice point at each corner of the cube and one at the
centre of each cube face as shown in Figure 2.5(a). The hard-sphere model of
Figure 2.5(b) indicates that the atoms in the FCC crystal structure are packed as
close together as possible. The atomic packing factor (APF) for this close-packed
structure is higher that the BCC structure which is not close-packed. The FCC
unit cell as shown in Figure 2.5(c) has the equivalent of four atoms per unit cell.
Figure 2.5: FCC unit cells modelled as: (a) atomic-site unit cell;
(b) hard sphere unit cell; and (c) isolated unit cell
ACTIVITY 2.3
Calculate the atomic packing factor (APF) for the BCC and FCC unit
cell, assuming the atoms to be hard-spheres. Compare and discuss the
APF between BCC and FCC unit cells.

2.2.3 Hexagonal Close-Packed (HCP)

The third common metallic crystal structure is the HCP structure shown in
Figure 2.6. Metals do not crystallise into the simple hexagonal crystal structure
because the APF is too low. The atoms can attain a lower energy and a more
stable condition by forming the HCP structure of Figure 2.6(b). The APF of the
HCP crystal structure is 0.74, the same as that for the FCC crystal structure since
in both structures, the atoms are packed as tightly as possible. From Figure 2.6(c),
the total number of atoms inside an HCP unit cell is two (one at corners and
another at centre).
Figure 2.6: HCP unit cells modelled as: (a) atomic-site unit cell;
(b) hard-sphere unit cell: and (c) isolated unit cell.
2.3 STRUCTURE OF ALLOYS

Very few metals are used in the pure or nearly pure state. For example, high-
purity copper of 99.99 per cent purity is used for electronic wires because of its
very high electrical conductivity. High purity aluminium (99.99 per cent Al) is
used for decorative purposes because it can be finished with a very bright
metallic surface. Most engineering metals are combined with other metals or
non-metals to provide increased strength, higher corrosion resistance or other
desired properties; these are called alloys.
An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals, and it can also be between one or
more metals with one or more non-metals. Alloys can have structures that are
relatively simple, such as that of cartridge brass, which is essentially a binary
alloy (two metals) comprising 70wt% copper and 30wt% zinc.

The simplest type of alloy is that of the solid solution. A solid solution is a solid
that consists of two or more elements automatically dispersed in a single-phase
structure. In general, there are two types of solid solutions, substitutional and
interstitial. The following subsections explain both these solid solutions in the
alloying process.
2.3.1 Substitutional Solid Solutions

Substitutional solid solutions are formed by two elements where solute atoms
substitute for parent solvent atoms in a crystal lattice. Figure 2.7 shows an FCC
crystal lattice in which some salute atoms of one element have substituted for
solvent atoms of the parent element.
Figure 2.7: Schematic illustration of substitutional solid solution of

one atom (the dark) with another (the light)
If the solute and solvent atoms have the same crystal structure, then extensive
solid solubility is favourable. If the atomic diameters of the two elements that
form a solid solution differ, there will be a distortion of the crystal lattice.

2.3.2 Interstitial Solid Solutions

In interstitial solutions, the solute atoms fit into the spaces between the solvent or
parent atoms. These spaces or voids are called interstices. Interstitial solid
solutions can form when an atom is much larger than another. Examples of
atoms that can form interstitial solid solutions due to their small size are
hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen and oxygen.
Figure 2.8: Schematic illustration of an interstitial

solid solution of carbon in iron
2.4 STRUCTURE OF POLYMERS

Common polymers are long chain molecules based on carbon. A single polymer
molecule contains millions of individual atoms, all bonded together. Most
polymers compose of carbon (C) and hydrogen (H). For example, carbon and
hydrogen are linked together in a single molecule of polyethylene ([CH2CH2]nă).
For instance, if the average molecular weight is on the order of 100,000 or more,
this indicates that there are approximately 8,000 carbon atoms and 16,000
hydrogen atoms in a single molecule of polyethylene.
These long molecules are composed of structural entities called „mer‰ units
which are successively repeated along the chain. „Mer‰ originates from the
Greek word meros, which means „part‰. The term polymer was coined to mean
many mers. Sometimes the term monomer is used where it refers to a stable
molecule from which a polymer is synthesised.

Properties of polymers are, therefore, related to the average molecular weight

and vary from the one with the short chain to the one with the long chain. It is
the chemistry of carbon that is responsible for polymers. Carbon has four
unpacked electrons. Carbon can, therefore, form four single-bonds, two double-
bonds or a single and a triple-bond. Hydrogen can only form one covalent bond,
meaning that hydrogen can only bond to one other atom.
A single covalent bond exists when each of the two bonding atoms contributes
one electron, for a molecule of methane (CH4). Double and triple bonds between
two carbon atoms involve the sharing of two and three pairs of electrons,
respectively, for example, in ethylene, which has the chemical formula C2H4, the
two carbon atoms are doubly bonded together and each is also singly bonded to
two hydrogen atoms, as represented by the following structural formula:
Where and denote single and double covalent bonds, respectively.

An example of a triple bond is found in acetylene, C2H2 as follows:
Molecules that have double and triple covalent bonds are termed unsaturated.
For a saturated hydrocarbon, all bonds are single ones and no new atoms may be
joined without the removal of others that are already bonded. The molecules in
polymers are in the form of long chains, the backbone of which is a string of
carbon atoms. Many times each carbon atom singly bonds to two adjacent carbon
atoms on either side (Callister, 2005).
Polymerisation is the process of linking together of smaller units (monomers)

into long chains. The repeating units (mers) of some polymer chains are identical,
as in polyethylene (Figure 2.9), polystyrene, and poly(vinyl chloride); these are
labelled homopolymers (Figure 2.10). Copolymers contain two different types of
monomers, such as poly(vinyl chloride) mixed with vinyl acetate to produce
poly(vinyl acetate) (Figure 2.11), and terpolymers such as ABS (acrylonitrile-
butadiene-styrene) contain three types of monomers. Isomers (Figure 2.12) are
variations in the molecular structure of the same composition.

Figure 2.9: Simple polymers

Source: Jacobs & Kilduff (2001)
Figure 2.10: Homopolymers


Figure 2.11: Copolymers


Figure 2.12: Isomers

SELF-CHECK 2.1
1. Sketch the „mer‰ structure for 10 of the common polymeric

materials.
2. Sketch the „mer‰ structure for each of the following alternating

copolymers: (i) poly (ethylene-propylene); (ii) poly(butadiene-
styrene; and (iii) poly(isobutylene-isoprene).

2.5 STRUCTURE OF CERAMICS

Ceramics are crystalline compounds combining metallic and non-metallic
elements. Glass is grouped with ceramics because it has similar properties, but
most glass is amorphous. Silica is the basic unit in many ceramics. The silica
structure is the basic structure for glass and many ceramics. It has an internal
arrangement consisting of pyramid (tetrahedral or four sided) units as shown in
Figure 2.13. Four large oxygen atoms (O) surround each smaller silicon (Si) atom.
The silicon atoms occupy the openings (interstitials) between the oxygen atoms
and share four valence electrons with the O atoms through covaleny bonding.
One of the strongest single bonds is the Si ă O bond.
Chains such as shown in Figure 2.13(b) are extremely long and join together in
three dimensions. The chains are held together by ionic bonds whereas
individual silica tetrahedral bond together covalently. Silica is combined with
metals such as aluminium, magnesium and other elements to form a wide
variety of ceramics.
Figure 2.13: Ceramic structure of (a) silicate tetrahedron, and (b) single chain of silicate
The structure of most ceramics varies from relatively simple to highly complex.
Being compounds, ceramics are made of different types of atoms of varying
sizes. Clay is a complex mixture of silicates. Silicates include sand, clay, feldspar
(K.Al.SiO2), quartz (SiO2) and the semiprecious stone, garnet. Some ceramic
compounds with relatively simple crystal structures are listed in Table 2.2 with
their melting points. In the ceramic compounds listed, the atomic bonding is a
mixture of ionic and covalent types.

Table 2.2: Some Simple Ceramic Compound with their Melting Points
Ceramic Melting Ceramic Melting

Formula Formula
Compound Point (C) Compound Point (C)
Hafnium HfC 4150 Boron carbide B4C3 2450
carbide
Titanium TiC 3120 Aluminum Al2O3 2050
carbide oxide
Tungsten WC 2850 Silicon dioxide SiO2 1715
carbide
Magnesium MgO 2798 Silicon nitride Si3N4 1700
oxide
Zirconium ZrO2* 2750 Titanium TiO2 1605
dioxide dioxide
Silicon carbide SiC 2500 ă ă ă
The following subsections discusses the structures of some ceramic crystals.
2.5.1 Cesium Chloride (CsCl) Crystal Structure

The chemical formula for solid Cesium Chloride is CsCl as shown in Figure 2.14.
The structure is principally ionically bonded, therefore, there are equal numbers
of Cs+ and Clă ions. Ionic compounds that also have the CsCl crystal structure are
CsBr, TlCl, and TlBr. The intermetallic compounds AgMg, LiMg, AlNi, and β-Cu-
Zn also have this structure.
Figure 2.14: Cesium Chloride (CsCl) crystal structure modelled as:

(a) ion-site unit cell; and (b) hard-sphere unit cell

2.5.2 Sodium Chloride (NaCl) Crystal Structure

The sodium chloride or rock salt crystal structure is highly ionically bonded and
has the chemical formula NaCl. Thus, there are an equal number of Na+ and Clă
ions to maintain charge neutrality. Figure 2.15(a) shows a lattice-site NaCl unit
cell and Figure 2.15(b) depicts a hard-sphere model of the NaCl unit cell. Other
examples of ceramic compounds that have the NaCl structure incude MgO, CaO,
NiO and FeO.
Figure 2.15: (a) NaCl lattice-point unit cell; and (b) octahedron showing octahedral
coordination of six Clă anions around a central Na+ cation

2.5.3 Zinc Blende (ZnS) Crystal Structure

The zinc blende structure has the chemical structure ZnS and the unit cell shown
in Figure 2.16 has the equivalent of four zinc and four sulphur atoms. One type
of atom (either S or Zn) occupies the lattice points of an FCC unit cell, and the
other type (either S or Zn) occupies half the tetrahedral interstitial sites of the
FCC unit cell. The Zn-S bond has 87 per cent covalent character, and so the ZnS
crystal structure is essentially covalently bonded.
Figure 2.16: Zinc Blende crystal structure

2.5.4 Calcium Fluoride (CaF2) Crystal Structure

The calcium fluoride structure has the chemical formula CaF2 and the unit cell is
shown in Figure 2.17. In this unit cell, the Ca2+ ions occupy the FCC lattice sites,
while the Fă ions are located at the eight tetrahedral sites. The four remaining
octahedral sites in the FCC lattice remain vacant. Thus, there are four Ca2+ ions
and eight Fă ions per unit cell. Examples of compounds that have this structure
are UO2, BaF2, AuAl2, and PbMg2.

Figure 2.17: Calcium fluoride (CaF2) Blende crystal structure

2.5.5 Other Ceramic Crystal Structures

Other ceramic crystal structures are antifluorite structure, corundum (Al2O3),
spinel (MgAl2O4) and perovskite (CaTiO3). Antifluorite crystal structure consists
of an FCC unit cell with anions (for example, O2 ions) occupying the FCC lattice
points. Cations (for example, Li+) occupy the eight tetrahedral sites in the FCC
lattice. Examples of compounds with this structure are Li2O, Na2O, K2O, and
Mg2Si.
In the corundum (Al2O3) structure, the oxygen ions are located at the lattice sites
of a hexagonal close-packed unit cell. In the HCP crystal structure, as in the FCC
structure, there are many octahedral interstitial sites as there are atoms in the
unit cell. However, since aluminum has a valence of +3 and oxygen a valence of
ă2, there can be only two Al3+ ions for every three O2ă ions to maintain electrical
neutrality. Thus, the aluminum ions can only occupy two-thirds of the octahedral
sites of the HCP Al2O3 lattice, which leads to some distortion of this structure.

Meanwhile, a number of oxides have the MgAl2O4 or spinel structure, which has
the general formula AB2O4, where A is a metal ion with a +2 valence and B is a
metal ion with a +3 valence. In the spinel structure, the oxygen ions form an FCC
lattice, and the A and B ions occupy tetrahedral and octahedral interstitial sites,
depending on the particular type of spinel. Compounds with the spinel structure
are widely used for non-metallic magnetic materials for electronic applications.
In the Perovskite (CaTiO3) structure, the Ca2+ and O2ă ions form an FCC unit cell
with the Ca2+ ions at the corners of the unit cell and the O2ă ions in the centres of
the faces of the unit cell as shown in Figure 2.18. BaTiO3 has the perovskite
structure above 120C. This structure is important for piezoelectric materials.
Figure 2.18: Perovskite (CaTiO3) crystal structure


2.6 ATOMIC AND MOLECULAR BONDING

An understanding of many of the physical properties of materials is predicated
on the knowledge of the interatomic forces that bind the atoms together. The
principles of atomic bonding are best illustrated by considering the interaction
between two isolated atoms as they are brought into close proximity from an
infinite separation. Atoms are bonded with other atoms via the driving force that
create the potential energy of each bonding resulting in the more stable state.
There are three possible bonding between the two types of atoms: (1) metal-
non-metal; (2) non-metal-non-metal; and (3) metal-metal. The following sub-
sections elaborate different types of bonding of atoms which are ionic, covalent,
metallic and mixed bondings.
2.6.1 Ionic Bonding

Ionic bonding is the easiest to describe and visualise. It is always found in
compounds that are composed of both metallic and non-metallic elements that
are situated horizontally in the periodic table. Atoms of a metallic element easily
give their valence electrons to the non-metallic atoms. Ionic bonding is observed
between atoms with large differences in their electronegativities.
A good example of ionic bonding is sodium chloride (NaCl), a common

ingredient of table salt. The electronic configuration of sodium is: (1s)2 (2s)2 (2p)6
(3s)1. The outermost 3s electron is loosely bound. The electronic configuration of
chlorine is: (1s)2 (2s)2 (2p)6 (3s)2 (3p)5. Example given:
Na + Cl Na+ + Clă
Ionic solids generally have high melting temperatures. The solids that are
bonded ionically do not conduct electricity well and are excellent insulators.
2.6.2 Covalent Bonding

One example of covalent bonding is the hydrogen molecule. Consider bringing
two hydrogen atoms together, each with one electron in the 1s orbital. When the
two atoms are close enough, the two electrons begin to interact or „couple‰.
Consider the covalent bond between two hydrogen atoms. At first, the nucleus of
one H atom attracts the electron cloud of the other; the atoms get closer to each
other. As they get close, the two electron clouds interact and both atoms start to
take ownership of both electrons (share electrons).

Covalent bonding is observed between atoms with small differences in their

electronegativities and mostly between non-metals.
2.6.3 Metallic Bonding

Metallic bonding is found in metals and their alloys. Splitting of electron energy
levels occurs similar to that observed in covalent bonding. For example, when N
sodium atoms are brought together, N 3s valence electrons and N closely spaced
3s levels form an energy band. Since each level can hold two electrons of
opposite spin, the band is only half full, resulting in lower total energy for the
system. This drives the formation of metallic bonds.
Metallic materials have one, two, or at most three valence electrons. These
valence electrons are not bound to any particular atom in the solid and are more
or less free to drift throughout the entire metal, forming a „sea of electrons‰ or
and „electron cloud‰. These free electrons shield the positively ion cores from
mutually repulsive electrostatic forces, which they would otherwise exert upon
one another. These free electrons act as „glue‰ to hold ion cores together as
illustrated in Figure 2.19.
Figure 2.19: Schematic illustration of metallic bonding

Source: Callister (2005)

Metallic bonding is found for group IA and IIA elements in the periodic table,
and, in fact, for all elemental metals. Metals are good conductors of both
electricity and heat, as a consequence of their free electrons.
2.6.4 Mixed Bonding

The chemical bonding of atoms or ions can involve more than one type of
primary bond. For primary bonding there can be the following combinations of
mixed-bond types: (1) ionic-covalent; (2) metallic-covalent; (3) metallic-ionic; and
(4) ionic-covalent-metallic.
In ionic-covalent mixed bonding, most covalent-bonded molecules have some

ionic binding, and vice versa. The partial ionic character of covalent bonds can be
interpreted in terms of the electronegativity scale as shown in the periodic table.
The greater the difference in the electronegativities of the elements involved in a
mixed ionic-covalent bond, the greater the degree of ionic character of the bond.
Mixed metallic-covalent bonding occurs commonly, for example, the transition of

metals that involve dsp bonding orbitals. Metals that are bonded by mixed
metallic-covalent bonding have high melting points. Also in group 4A of the
periodic table, there is a gradual transition from pure covalent bonding in carbon
(diamond) to some metallic character in silicon and germanium. Tin and lead are
primarily metallically bonded.
Metallic-ionic mixed bonding occurs if there is a significant difference in

electronegativity in the elements that form an intermetallic compound. There
may be a significant amount of electron transfer (ionic binding) in the compound.
ACTIVITY 2.4
Referring to the periodic table, give examples of metals and non-metals

that can be ionic bonded or covalently bonded.

2.7 STRUCTURE OF ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC

MATERIALS
Electronic materials are an important type of material for advanced engineering
technology. The most important electronic material is pure silicon that is
modified in various ways to change its electrical characteristics. Through the
development of electronic materials, micro-electronic devices have made possible
new products such as communication satellites, advanced computers, handheld
calculators, digital watches and robots.
Semiconductor materials have an electrical conductivity which are usually

characteristic of metals and insulators, primarily including ceramics and
polymers as insulators. Semiconductors can be pure materials such as
germanium, silicon, boron, grey tin, carbon, selenium and tellurium, or
compounds such as gallium arsenide, gallium phosphide and a multitude of
other compounds.
Electrical behaviour is affected by the structure of material, how it is processed

and the environment that the material is exposed to. The electrical characteristics
of materials include current flow, resistance to the flow of current, voltage drop,
potential difference across a resistance as well as dielectric and magnetic
properties. Their responses to an applied electric field, electrical conduction,
parameters by which it is expressed, conduction by electrons, electron energy
and band structure of a material influencing its ability to conduct are explained
in the following subsections.
2.7.1 Ohm’s Law

OhmÊs Law relates mathematically to the electrical properties of current flow,
resistance to the flow of current, and the voltage drop or potential differences
across the resistance. One of the most important electrical characteristics of a
solid material is the ease with which it transmits an electric current. OhmÊs Law
states that the current flow (I), measured in amperes (A), is directly proportional
to the applied voltage (E), measured in volts (V), and is inversely proportional to
the resistance (R) or , to the current flow, measured in ohms () as follows:
V = IR

If the potential drop across a resistance is one volt, when the current in it is one
ampere, then the resistance must have unit value. This unit is called the ohm. The
ohm is a resistance, across which is a potential drop of one volt when the current
in it is one ampere. This mathematical relationship known as OhmÊs Law applies
only to metal conductors.
The units for V, I and R, are respectively, volts (J/C), amperes (C/s), and ohms
(V/A).
2.7.2 Electrical Conductivity

Electrical conductivity  is used to specify the electrical character of a material. It
is simply the reciprocal of the resistivity (R), or  and is expressed as follows:
1


It is indicative of the ease with which a material is capable of conducting an

electric current. The units for  are reciprocal ohm-meters [( = m)ă1].
2.7.3 Electronic and Ionic Conduction

An electric current results from the motion of electrically charged particles in
response to forces that act on them from an externally applied electric field.
Positively charged particles are accelerated in the field direction, negatively
charged particles in the direction opposite. Within most solid materials, a current
arises from the flow of electrons that is termed electronic conduction. For ionic
materials, a net motion of charged ions is possible that produces a current; such
is termed ionic conduction.
2.7.4 Energy Band Structures in Solids

In all conductors, semiconductors and many insulating materials, only electronic
conduction exits and the magnitude of the electrical conductivity is strongly
dependent on the number of electrons available to participate in the conduction
process. The concepts relate to electron energy that states their occupancy and
the resulting electron configuration for isolated atoms. A solid consists of a large
number of atoms initially separated from one another, which are subsequently
bonded to form the ordered atomic arrangement found in the crystalline material.

At relatively large separation distances, each atom is independent of all the

others and will have the atomic energy levels and electron configuration as if
isolated. However, as the atoms come within close proximity of one another,
electrons are acted upon, or perturbed by the electrons and nuclei of adjacent
atoms. This influence is such that each distinct atomic state may split into a series
of closely spaced electron states in the solid, to form what is termed an electron
energy band.
2.7.5 Electrical Resistivity of Metals and Alloys

Resistivity is the term used to describe the relationship between electric current
and the applied electric field. It is a measure of the resistance to the flow of
current from a microscopic level, in terms of basic building blocks of all solid
materials. The resistivity,  depends on the behaviour and number of free or
conducting electrons and not on the shape of conductors. It depends on the
charge carriers, electrons in metalic conductors, or ions in ionic materials.
Electrical resistivity is reciprocal of electrical conductivity, . The resistance
varies directly with the length, l, and directly with the uniform cross sectional
area A of a conductor. Thus,
l
R 
A
where  is the proportionally constant or resistivity in ohm-centimetres assuming

that l and A are expressed in centimetres. Microstructure gain plays a large role
in these properties. Any imperfections in the crystalline structure, whether they
are atoms out of their normal positions, dislocations, or grain boundaries
increase coalitions between electrons prevents the transfer of energy in the form
of electron flow to some intended user.
SELF-CHECK 2.2
1. In designing an electrical circuit, if the resistance is 16, the

current is 7.5A and the resistivity is 5.6  10-6.cm, what is the
conductivity?
2. Would a material that has an electrical resistivity of 1012.cm

make a good conductor or a good insulator? Sketch the „mer‰.

2.7.6 Magnetic Properties

Magnetic materials are necessary for many engineering designs, particularly in
the area of electrical engineering. In general, there are two main types: soft and
hard magnetic materials. Soft magnetic materials are used for applications in
which the materials are easily magnetised and demagnetised such as a core for
distribution power transformers, small electronic transformer and rotor materials
for motors and generators. On the other hand, hard magnetic materials are used
for applications requiring permanent magnets that do not demagnetise easily
such as permanent magnets in loud speakers, telephone receivers as well as
brushless motors and automotive starting motors.
The presence of a magnetic field surrounding a magnetised iron bar can be

revealed by scattering small iron particles on a sheet of paper placed just above
the bar (Figure 2.20). Figure 2.20 shows that the bar magnet has two magnetic
poles and magnetic field lines appear to leave one pole and enter the other. There
are always two magnetic poles or centres of a magnetic field. Separated by a
definite distance and by the poleÊs behaviour there is an extension to the small
magnetic dipoles found in some atoms.
Figure 2.20: (a) A magnetic field created around a coil of copper wire, called a solenoid.
(b) Increase in magnetic field around the solenoid when an iron bar is placed inside the
solenoid and current is passed through wire.

The metals iron, cobalt and nickel are the metals that when magnetised at room
temperature, can produce a strong magnetic field around themselves and they
are said to be ferromagnetic.
Fundamentals of magnetic materials include magnetic induction, magnetic

permeability and magnetic susceptibility.
Magnetic induction is the new additive magnetic field which is derived from
enhanced magnetic field outside the solenoid. For example, a demagnetised iron
bar is placed inside the solenoid, as in Figure 2.20(b), and a magnetising current
is applied to the solenoid. The enhanced magnetic field is due to the sum of the
solenoid field itself and the external magnetic field of the magnetised bar.
Magnetic induction is also known as flux density and is given the symbol B. The
magnetic induction B is the sum of the applied field H and the external field that
arises from the magnetism of the bar inside the solenoid. The induced magnetic
moment per unit volume due to the bar is called magnetisation and is given the
symbol, M.
When a ferromagnetic material is placed in an applied magnetic field, the

intensity of the magnetic field increases. This increase in magnetisation is
measured by a quantity called magnetic permeability, , which is defined as the
ratio of the magnetic induction B to the applied field H, or
  B /H
The relative permeability, r is dimensionless and is a measure of the intensity of

the induced magnetic field.
Magnetic susceptibility, m is proportional to the applied field during the

magnetisation of a magnetic material and is defined as
m  M / H
which is a dimensionless quantity. Weak magnetic responses of materials are

often measured in terms of magnetic susceptibility.
ACTIVITY 2.5
In terms of electron energy band structure, discuss reasons for the

difference in electrical conductivity between metals and insulators.

 Matter is made up of small particles called atoms. The basic structure of

material mainly concerns the arrangement of atoms, ions or molecules that
make up the solid and bonding forces between them. An atom consists of a
nucleus containing neutrons and protons around an electron orbit. The Law
of mass conservation explains that separation, combination or rearrangement
of atoms do not lead to creation or destruction of matter.
Ć Solids are categorised broadly into crystalline and amorphous solids.

Crystalline solids are made of long-range order of atoms in a pattern that
repeats itself in three-dimension. Meanwhile, materials in which atoms and
ions are arranged in short-range order and do not repeat is called amorphous.
 A three dimensional network of atomic arrangements in crystalline solids is

called a space lattice. An infinite three-dimensional array of points is referred
as lattice points.
 A. J. Bravais, a French crystallographer (1811ă1863) derived the fourteen (14)

arrangement of points in space crystal structures which are grouped into
simple cubic, body-centred cubic, face-centred cubic, orthrhombic system,
tetragonal, monoclinic, rhombohedral, hexagonal, and triclinic systems.
 Most metals are packed in the form of three crystal structures; body-centred
cubic (BCC), face-centred cubic (FCC), hexagonal close-packed (HCP). The
atomic packing factor (APF) for FCC and HCP is higher than that of BCC
which is not close-packed.
 Solid solution is the simplest type of alloy. A solid solution is a solid that
consists of two or more elements dispersed in a single-phase structure. There
are two types of solid solutions in which alloy is produced which are
substitutional and interstitial.
 Polymers are commonly made of long chain molecules based on carbon.

These long molecules are composed of structural entities called „mer‰ units
which are successively repeated along the chain. A single polymer molecule
contains millions of individual atoms, all bonded together. Most polymers
composed of carbon (C) and hydrogen (H).

 Molecules that have double and triple covalent bonds are termed
unsaturated. For a saturated hydrocarbon, all bonds are single ones and no
new atoms may be joined without the removal of others that are already
bonded. The molecules in polymers are in the form of long chains, the
backbone of which is a string of carbon atoms where each carbon atom singly
bonds to two adjacent carbon atoms on either.
 Polymerisation is the process of linking together smaller units (monomers)

into long chains. There are many types of polymers which include
homopolymers, copolymers, and terpolymers such as ABS (acrylonitrile-
butadiene-styrene) and isomers.
 Ceramics are crystalline compounds combining metallic and non-metallic

elements. Silica is a basic unit in many ceramics. The internal structure of
silica has a pyramid (tetrahedron) unit. These silicate tetrahedrons join into
chains. The chains are extremely long and join together in three dimensions.
The chains are held together by ionic bonds whereas individual silica
tetrahedral bonds together covalently.
 Four large oxygen (O) atoms surround each smaller silicon (Si) atom. The
silicon atoms occupy the openings (interstitials) between the oxygen atoms
and share four valence electrons with the O atoms through covalent bonding.
One of the strongest single bonds is the Si ă O bond.
 Ceramic crystal structures are Cesium Chloride (CsCl), Sodium Chloride

(NaCl), Zinc Blende (ZnS), Calcium Fluoride (CaF2) Crystal Structures,
antifluorite, corundum (Al2O3), spinel (MgAl2O4) and perovskite (CatiO3)
structures.
 Atoms are bonded with other atoms via the driving force that creates the
potential energy of each bonding resulting in the more stable state. There are
three types of bonding between the two atoms: (1) metal-non-metal, (2) non-
metal-non-metal, and (3) metal-metal. The different types of bonding of
atoms are ionic, covalent, metallic and mixed bondings.
 Ionic bonding is bonding observed between atoms with large differences in

their electronegativities. Covalent bonding is observed between atoms with
small differences in their electronegativities and mostly between non-metals.

 Metallic bonding occurs during solidification from a molten state where the
atoms of a metal pack tightly together, in an organised and repeating manner
to lower their energy and achieve a more stable state. Mixed bonding
involves more than one type of primary bonding, which are ionic-covalent,
metallic-covalent, metallic-ionic and ionic-covalent-metallic.
 The electrical characteristics of materials include current flow, resistance to

the flow of current, voltage drop, potential difference across a resistance,
dielectric and magnetic properties. Their responses to an applied electric
field, electrical conduction, electron energy band structure influences the
ability of a material to conduct.
 OhmÊs Law states that the current flow (I), measured in amperes (A), is
directly proportional to the applied voltage (E), measured in volts (V), and is
inversely proportional to the resistance (R) to the current flow, measured in
ohms ().
 Electrical conductivity  is used to specify the electrical character of a

material. It is simply the reciprocal of the resistivity and is indicative of the
ease with which a material is capable of conducting an electric current. The
units for  are reciprocal ohm-meters [( = m)ă1].
 An electric current results from the motion of electrically charged particles in

response to forces that act on them from an externally applied electric field. A
current arises from the flow of electrons that is termed electronic conduction.
For ionic materials, a net motion of charged ions produces a current; such is
termed ionic conduction.
 The electrical conductivity is strongly dependent on the number of electrons

available to participate in the conduction process. At relatively large separation
distances, each atom will have the atomic energy levels and electron
configuration as if isolated. As the atoms come within close proximity of one
another, electrons are acted upon, such that each distinct atomic state may
split into a series of closely spaced electrons to form what is termed an
electron energy band.

 There are two main types of magnetic materials: soft and hard. Soft magnetic
materials are used for applications in which the materials are easily magnetised
and demagnetised such as a core for distribution power transformers, small
electronic transformer and rotor materials for motors and generators. On the
other hand, hard magnetic materials are used for applications requiring
permanent magnets that do not demagnetise easily such as permanent
magnets in loud speakers, telephone receivers and brushless motors and
automotive starting motors.
 There are always two magnetic poles or centres of a magnetic field. Separated
by a definite distance and this poleÊs behaviour, they extend to the small
magnetic dipoles found in some atoms. The metals iron, cobalt and nickel are
the metals that when magnetised at room temperature, can produce a strong
magnetic field around themselves and they are said to be ferromagnetic.
 Fundamentals of magnetic materials include magnetic induction, magnetic

permeability and magnetic susceptibility.
 Magnetic induction is the new additive magnetic field which is derived from
enhanced magnetic field outside the solenoid. The induced magnetic moment
per unit volume due to the bar is called magnetisation and is given the
symbol, M.
 When a ferromagnetic material is placed in an applied magnetic field, the

intensity of the magnetic field increases. This increase in magnetisation is
measured by a quantity called magnetic permeability, , which is defined as
the ratio of the magnetic induction B to the applied field H.
 Magnetic susceptibility m is proportional to the applied field during the

magnetisation of a magnetic material and is defined as, m = M/H which is a
dimensionless quantity. Weak magnetic responses of materials are often
measured in terms of magnetic susceptibility.

Amorphous Law of mass conservation

Alloy Lattice point
Atom Magnetic
Atomic bonding Magnetic field
Ceramic crystal structure Magnetic induction
Covalent bonding Magnetic permeability
Crystalline Magnetic susceptibility
Crystal structure Magnetism
Current flow Metallic bonding
Electrical conductivity Mixed bonding
Electronic materials Monomer
Electrical resistivity Ohms law
Electron energy band Periodic table
Ferromagnetic Polymerisation
Hydrocarbon Polymer structure
Ionic bonding Space lattice
Ionic conduction Silicates
Interstitial Structure materials
Isomer Substitutional

Callister, W. D. (2005). Fundamentals of materials and engineering. Hoboken, NJ:

John Wiley & Sons.
Chung, Y. W. (2007). Introduction to materials science and engineering. Boca

Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Jacobs, J. A., & Kilduff, T. F. (2001). Engineering materials technology (4th ed.).
New York, NY: Prentice Hall


Topic  Alloys
3
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Identify the types and properties of ferrous and non-ferrous alloys;
2. Discuss factors that influence microstructure and properties of
ferrous and non-ferrous alloys;
3. Describe the uses and applications of alloys; and
4. Determine the criteria for selecting suitable alloys to be used in
modern construction.
 INTRODUCTION
This topic deals with types, compositions, microstructures and properties for
some of the important ferrous and non-ferrous alloys. Metal alloys are grouped
into two classes which are ferrous and non-ferrous. Firstly, the topic discusses
the various types of ferrous alloys, their characteristics and their uses. Ferrous
alloys emphasised include different types of steel which are low-carbon,
medium-carbon and high-carbon steels and those types of steel that can be
distinguished by its carbon content. Other types of ferrous alloys namely
stainless steels and cast iron are also covered. Three types of stainless steel and
three types of cast iron, their differences in composition and their properties that
influence the applicability of these alloys are also highlighted.
Alloying elements are often added to steels such as carbon, chromium (Cr),
tungsten, manganese (Mn) and silicon (Si) to improve chemical and physical
properties. The topic also covers the iron-carbon system, the main binary system
for alloying to enhance understanding in metal alloying processes. This includes
the description of the microstructure due to different content of carbon (alloying

50  TOPIC 3 ALLOYS
elements) and temperature of heat treatment. The non-ferrous alloys namely

aluminium, magnesium, titanium, nickel and copper alloys, its uses and
limitations are also elaborated. Advanced alloys and their applications in
construction and various other fields are also included in this topic.
3.1 FERROUS ALLOYS

Ferrous alloys, those in which iron is the principal constituent, include steel
and cast irons. These are important engineering construction materials. Alloying
elements are often added to steel to improve chemical and physical properties.
An alloying element can be incorporated via a solid solution strengthening
process as discussed in section 2.3 (Topic 2) to form a solid solution within the steel
matrix. Figure 3.1 depicts the classification of ferrous alloys.
Figure 3.1: Classification scheme for various ferrous alloys


TOPIC 3 ALLOYS  51
Some of the low-alloy steels, its composition and mechanical properties are listed
in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1: Typical Mechanical Properties and Applications of Low-Alloy Steels
Alloy
Number Chemical Tensile Yield
Elongation Typical
(According Composition Strength Strength
(%) Applications
to AISI ă (wt%) (MPa) (MPa)
SAF)
Manganese steels
1340 0.40 C, 704 435 20 High-strength bolts
1.75 Mn 1587 1421 12
Nickel-molybdenum steels
4620 0.20 C, Transmission gears,
1.83 Ni, chain pins, shafts,
0.55 Mn roller bearings
0.25 Mo
4820 0.20 C, Gears for steel mill
3.50 Ni equipment paper
0.60 Mn machinery, mining
0.25 Mo machinery, earth
moving equipment
Nickel (1,83%) ă chromium-molybdenum steels
4340 (E) 0.40 C, 745 469 22 Heavy sections,
1.83 Ni, 1735 1587 10 landing gears and
0.90 Mn truck parts
0.80 Cr
0.20 Mo
Nickel (0.55%) ă chromium-molybdenum steels
8620 0.20 C, 531 407 31 Transmission gears
0.55 Ni, 635 359 26
0.50 Cr
0.80 Mn
0.20 Mo
8650 0.50 C, 710 386 22 Small machine
0.55 Ni, 1725 1552 10 axles, shafts
0.5 Cr
0.80 Mn
0.20 Mo

Low-alloy steels have better combinations of strength, toughness, and ductility

than plain-carbon steels. Plain carbon steels contain only residual concentrations
of impurities other than carbon and a little manganese. Low-alloy steels cost
more than plain-carbon steels. Low-alloy steels are used to a great extent in the
manufacture of automobiles and trucks for parts that require superior strength
and toughness properties that cannot be obtained from plain-carbon steels.
Steels are considered low alloy material where the alloying elements are not
more than 4wt%. The mechanical properties of steel are sensitive to the content of
carbon which is normally less than 1.0wt%. The principal alloying elements
added to make alloy steels are manganese (Mn), nickel (Ni), chromium (Cr),
molybdenum (Mo), silicon (Si), sulphur(S), phosphorus (P), and tungsten (W).
The low alloy steels are grouped according to carbon concentration, namely into
low-, medium-, and high-carbon types (Callister, 2005; Smith & Hashemi, 2011).
The following subsections explain the various classes of steels, stainless steels and
cast irons, their compositions, microstructures, properties and uses. Consequently,
the subsequent section elaborates the most common binary alloy system which is
the iron-carbon system.
3.1.1 Low-Carbon Steels

Low-carbon steels contain less than about 0.25wt% carbon (C) and are
unresponsive to heat treatments. Strengthening is accomplished by cold work.
Microstructures consist of ferrite and pearlite constituents. These alloys are
relatively soft and weak but have outstanding ductility and toughness. They are
machinable, weldable and the least expensive to produce. They typically have a
yield strength of 275MPa, tensile strength between 415 and 550MPa and a
ductility of 25 per cent elongation (Callister, 2005).

The typical microstructure of the low alloy steel is shown in Figure 3.2.
Figure 3.2: Typical of optical micrographs of plain carbon steel (magnification 500)
Source: Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM)
3.1.2 Medium-Carbon Steels

Medium-carbon steels have carbon concentrations between about 0.25 and
0.60wt%. These alloys may be heat treated by austenitising temperature,
quenching, and then tempering to improve their mechanical properties. They are
most often utilised in the tempered condition, having microstructures of
tempered martensite. The plain medium-carbon steels have low hardenabilities
and can be successfully heat treated only in very thin sections and with very
rapid quenching rates. Additions of chromium (Cr), sulphur (S), silicon (Si),
nickel (Ni), and molybdenum (Mo) and vanadium (V) improve the capacity of
these alloys to be heat treated, giving rise to a variety of strength-ductility
combinations.

These heat-treated alloys are stronger than the low-carbon steels, but at a
sacrifice of ductility and toughness. Applications include railway wheels and
tracks, gears, crackshafts and other machine parts and high-strength structural
components calling for a combination of high strength, wear resistance and
toughness (Callister, 2005). The compositions of several of these alloyed medium-
carbon steels are presented in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2: Composition Ranges for Plain Carbon Steel and Various Low-Alloy Steels
According to AISI/SAE
Composition Ranges
AISI/SAE Designation (wt% of alloying elements in addition to C)
Ni Cr Mo Other
10xx Plain carbon
11xx Free machining 0.08ă0.33S
12xx Free machining 0.10ă0.35S
0.04ă0.12P
13xx 1.60ă1.90Mn
40xx 0.20ă0.30
41xx 0.80ă1.10 0.15ă0.25
43xx 1.65ă2.00 0.40ă0.90 0.20ă0.30
46xx 0.70ă2.00 0.15ă0.30
48xx 3.25ă3.75 0.20ă0.30
51xx 0.70ă1.10
61xx 0.50ă1.10 0.10ă0.15V
86xx 0.40ă0.70 0.40ă0.60 0.15ă0.25
92xx 1.80ă2.20Si
3.1.3 High Carbon Steels

The high carbon steels, normally having carbon contents between 0.60 and
1.4wt%, are the hardest, strongest and yet least ductile of the carbon steels. They
are almost always used in a hardened and tempered condition. The tool and die
steels are high-carbon alloys usually containing chromium, vanadium, tungsten
and molybdenum. These alloying elements combine with carbon to form very
hard and wear-resistant carbide compounds. These steels are utilised as cutting
tools and dies for forming and shaping materials as well as razors, knoves,
hacksaw blades, springs and high strength wires (Callister, 2005).

SELF-CHECK 3.1
Name three different types of steels and, for each, cite compositional
differences, distinctive properties and typical uses.
ACTIVITY 3.1
Based on reference books, sketch the typical optical micrograph of

different types of carbon steels.
3.2 STAINLESS STEEL

Stainless steels are highly resistant to corrosion in a variety of environments.
Their predominant alloying element is chromium; a concentration of at least
11wt%. Corrosion resistance may also be enhanced by nickel and molybdenum
additions. Stainless steels are divided into three classes on the basis of the
predominant constituent of the microstructure namely martensitic, ferritic or
austenitic (Callister, 2005; Smith & Hashemi, 2011).
3.2.1 Martensitic Stainless Steels

Martensitic stainless steels are essentially Fe-Cr alloys containing 12 to
17 per cent of Cr with sufficient carbon (0.15 to 1.0 per cent) so that a martensitic
structure can be produced by quenching from the austenitic phase region. This
type of stainless steel is capable of being heat treated in such a way that
martensite is the prime microconstituent. Additions of alloying elements in
significant concentrations produce major alterations in the iron-iron carbide
phase diagram (Figure 3.4).
The corrosion resistance of this type of stainless steel is relatively poor corrosion
resistance compared to the ferritic and austenitic types. This stainless steel is
austenitised, cooled fast enough to produce a martensitic structure and then
tempered to relieve stresses and increased toughness. The applications include
machine parts, pump shafts, bolts and bushings (Callister, 2005; Smith &
Hashemi, 2011).

3.2.2 Ferritic Stainless Steels

Ferritic stainless steels are composed of iron-chromium binary alloys containing
about 12 to 30 per cent Cr. They are called ferritic since their structure remains
mostly in  ferrite (BCC) phase at normal heat treatment conditions. Ferritic
stainless are magnetic. This type of stainless steels are hardened and
strengthened by cold work because they are not heat treatable and do not contain
nickel. Therefore, they are relatively low cost. They are used mainly as general
construction materials in which their special corrosion and heat resistance are
required (Callister, 2005; Smith & Hashemi, 2011).
3.2.3 Austenitic Stainless Steels

Austenitic stainless steels are essentially iron-chromium-nickel ternary alloys
containing about 16 to 25 per cent Cr and 7 to 20 per cent Ni. These alloys are
called austenitic since their structure remains at the austenitic (FCC, or ) phase
at all normal heat-treating and is extended to room temperature. The austenitic
stainless steels are the most corrosion resistant because of the high chromium
contents and also the nickel additions and they are produced in large quantities.
Austenitic stainless steels are not magnetic (Callister, 2005; Smith & Hashemi,
2011).
Figure 3.3 depicts the typical microstructure of austenitic stainless steel.
Figure 3.3: Typical of optical micrographs of austenitic stainless steel (magnification 200)
Source: Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, UiTM

3.3 CAST IRON

Cast irons are a class of ferrous alloys with carbon contents above 2.14wt%.
However, practically, most cast irons contain between 3.0 and 4.5wt% C and
other additional alloying elements. As their name implies, they are intended to
be cast into the desired shape instead of being worked in the solid state. The iron-
iron carbide phase diagram reveals that alloy within this composition range
become completely liquid at temperatures between approximately 1,150 and
1,300 degrees celsius, which is considerably lower than for steels. Thus, they are
easily melted and amenable to casting. Some cast irons are very brittle and
casting is the most convenient fabrication technique. For most cast irons, the
carbon exists as graphite (decomposition of cementite (Fe3C)).
Both microstructure and mechanical behaviour depend on composition and heat

treatment. Most common cast iron types are gray, ductile (nodular), white and
malleable.
3.3.1 Gray Iron

Gray cast iron is formed when the carbon in the alloy exceeds the amount that
can dissolve in the austenite and precipitates as graphite flakes. The carbon and
silicon contents of gray cast irons vary between 2.5 and 4.0wt% and 1.0 and
3.0wt%, respectively. For most of these cast irons, the graphite exists in the form
of flakes (similar to corn flakes), which are normally surrounded by an  ferrite
or pearlite matrix. Because of these graphite flakes, a fractured surface takes on a
gray appearance, hence its name.
Mechanically, gray iron is comparatively weak and brittle in tension as a

consequence of its microstructure; the tips of the graphite flakes are sharp and
pointed, and may serve as points of stress concentration when an external tensile
stress is applied. Strength and ductility are much higher under compressive
loads.
Gray irons do have some desirable characteristics and are utilised extensively.
Base structures for machines and heavy equipments that are exposed to
vibrations are frequently constructed of this material. In addition, gray irons
exhibit a high resistance to wear. Furthermore, in the molten state, they have a
high fluidity at casting temperature, which permits casting pieces having
intricate shapes; also, casting shrinkage is low. Finally, and most important, gray
cast irons are among the least expensive of all metallic materials.

Gray cast iron is an important engineering material because of its relatively low
cost and useful engineering properties, including excellent machinability at
hardness levels that have good wear resistance, and excellent vibration damping
(Callister, 2005; Smith & Hashemi, 2011).
3.3.2 Ductile (Nodular) Iron

Ductile also called nodular or spherulitic graphite cast iron combines the
processing advantages of gray cast iron with the engineering advantages of steel.
Adding a small amount of magnesium to the gray iron before casting produces a
distinctly different microstructure and set of mechanical properties. Graphite still
forms, but as nodules or sphere-like particles instead of flakes. The resulting
alloy is called nodular or ductile iron. Ductile iron is stronger and more ductile
than gray iron. Ductile cast iron has a number of properties similar to those of
steel such as high strength, toughness, ductility, hot workability and
hardenability.
For example, ferritic ductile irons have tensile strength ranging between 380 and
480MPa and ductilities (as per cent elongation) from 10 to 20 per cent. Typical
applications for this material include valves, pump bodies, crankshafts, gears,
and other automotive and machine components. Ductile iron has good fluidity
and castability, excellent machinability and good wear resistance (Callister, 2005;
Smith & Hashemi, 2011).
3.3.3 White and Malleable Iron

White cast iron is formed when much of the carbon in a molten cast iron forms
iron carbide instead of graphite upon solidification For low-silicon cast irons
(containing less than 1.0wt% Si) and rapid cooling rates, most of the carbon exists
as cementite instead of graphite. A fracture surface of this alloy has a white
appearance, and thus it is termed white cast iron. White cast irons are most often
used for their excellent resistance to wear and abrasion. The large amount of iron
carbides in their structure is mainly responsible for their wear resistance. White
cast iron serves as the raw material for malleable iron (Callister, 2005).
SELF-CHECK 3.2
Name the four types of cast irons and, for each, describe its
microstructure and its general mechanical characteristics.

3.4 IRON-CARBON ALLOY SYSTEM

Iron-carbon binary alloys that contain very small amounts of carbon (about 0.03
to 1.2 per cent) and manganese (0.25 to 1.00 per cent), and minor amounts of
other elements are considered in this section. The phases present in very slowly
cooled iron-carbon alloys at various temperatures and compositions of iron with
up to 6.67 per cent carbon are shown in the Fe-Fe3C phase diagram as shown in
Figure 3.4. Pure iron, upon heating experiences two changes in crystal structure
before it melts.
Figure 3.4: Iron-carbon phase diagram


At room temperature the stable form, called ferrite, or  iron, has a BCC crystal
structure. Ferrite experiences a polymorphic transformation to FCC austenite, or
 iron, at 912C. This austenite persist to 1394C at which temperature the FCC
austenite reverts back to a BCC phase known as  ferrite, which finally melts at
1538C. All these changes are apparent along the left vertical axis of the phase
diagram (Callister, 2005).
Under certain conditions, Fe3C, which is called cementite, can decompose into
the more stable phases of iron and carbon (graphite). The Fe-Fe3C diagram
contains the following solid phases:  ferrite, austenite (), cementite (Fe3C), and
 ferrite.
 ferrite
This phase is an interstitial solid solution of carbon in the BCC iron crystal lattice.
As indicated by the Fe-Fe3C phase diagram, carbon is only slightly soluble in 
ferrite, reaching a maximum solid solubility of 0.02 per cent at 723C. The
solubility of carbon in  ferrite decreases to 0.005 per cent at 0C.
Austenite ()
The interstitial solid solution of carbon in  iron is called austenite. Austenite has
an FCC crystal structure and a much higher solid solubility for carbon than 
ferrite. The solid solubility of carbon in austenite is a maximum of 2.08 per cent at
1148C and decreases to 0.8 per cent at 723C (Figure 3.4).
Cementite (Fe3C)
The intermetallic composed Fe3C is called cementite. Cementite has negligible
solubility limits and a composition of 6.67 per cent C and 93.3 per cent Fe.
Cementite is a hard and brittle compound.
 ferrite
The interstitial solid solution of carbon in  iron is called  ferrite. It has a BCC
crystal structure like  ferrite but with a greater lattice constant. The maximum
solid solubility of carbon in  ferrite is 0.09 per cent at 1465C.
Plain carbon steel that contains 0.8 per cent C is called a eutectoid steel since an
all-eutectoid structure of  ferrite and Fe3C is formed when austenite of this
composition is slowly cooled below the eutectoid temperature. If a plain-carbon
steel contains less than 0.8 per cent C, it is termed hypoeutectoid steel, and if the
steel contains more than 0.8 per cent C, it is designated as hypereutectoid steel

ACTIVITY 3.2
Draw the transformation (temperature vs weight per cent carbon) of a

eutectoid steel, hypoeutectoid steel and hypereutectoid steel with slow
cooling.
3.5 NONFERROUS ALLOYS

Nonferrous alloys are alternative materials for steel and other ferrous alloys
due to its limitation such as high density, low electrical conductivity and
susceptibility to corrosion. Therefore, other alloys having more suitable
properties are needed. The following subsections discuss the non-ferrous alloy
systems namely aluminium, magnesium, nickel, titanium and copper.
3.5.1 Aluminium Alloys

Aluminium and its alloys are characterised by a relatively low density
(2.7g/cm3) as compared to (7.9g/cm3) of steel, high electrical and thermal
conductivities, and a resistance to corrosion in some common environments,
including ambient temperature. Many of these alloys are ductile and easy to be
rolled. Since aluminium has an FCC crystal structure, its ductility is retained
even at very low temperatures. The main limitation of aluminium is its low
melting temperature (660C).
The mechanical strength of aluminium may be enhanced by cold work and

by alloying, however, both processes tend to diminish resistance to corrosion.
Non-heat treatable alloys via solid-solution strengthening and/or heat treatable
precipitation-strengthening (hardening) processes are the most suitable to
produce aluminium alloys with an increased strength. Precipitation strengthening
is to create in a heat treated alloy a dense and fine dispersion of precipitated
particles in a matrix of deformable metal. The precipitate particles act as obstacles
to dislocation movement and thereby strengthen the heat treated alloy.
Aluminium alloys are classified as either cast or wrought. A generation of new

aluminium-lithium alloys have been developed recently for use by the aircraft
and aerospace industries. These kinds of alloys have relatively low density
(between about 2.5 and 2.6g/cm3), high specific moduli (elastic modulus-specific
gravity ratios) and excellent fatigue and low-temperature toughness properties
(Callister, 2005).

3.5.2 Magnesium Alloys

The most outstanding characteristic of magnesium is its density, 1.7g/cm3 which
is the lowest of all the structural metals; therefore, its alloy is used where
lightweight is an important consideration (for example, in aircraft components).
Magnesium has an HCP crystal structure, is relatively soft, and has a low elastic
modulus: 45GPa. At room temperature, magnesium and its alloys are difficult
to deform therefore, most manganese alloys are fabricated by casting or hot
working at temperatures between 200 and 350C. Magnesium, like aluminium,
has a moderately low melting temperature (651C).
Chemically, magnesium alloys are relatively unstable and susceptible to

corrosion especially in marine environment. Fine magnesium powder ignites
easily when heated in air; consequently, care should be exercised when handling
it in this state.
These alloys also are classified as either cast and wrought and some of them are
heat treatable. Aluminium, zinc, manganese and some of the rare earths are the
major alloying elements. Magnesium is now employed in a variety of hand-held
devices (for example, chainsaws, power tools, hedge clippers), in automobiles
(for example, steering wheels and columns, seat frames, transmission cases)
and in audio-video-computer-communications equipment (for example, laptop
computers, camcorders, TV sets, and cellular phones) (Callister, 2005).
3.5.3 Nickel Alloys

Nickel is an important engineering metal mainly because of its resistance to
corrosion and high temperature oxidation. Nickel is highly formable due to its
FCC crystal structure but it is relatively expensive and has a high density.
Because of its good strength and electrical conductivity, nickel is used for
electrical and electronics parts and, because of its good corrosion resistance, it is
suitable for food-processing equipment. Nickel and copper are completely
soluble in each other in the solid state at all compositions, and so many solid-
solution-strengthened alloys are made with nickel and copper.

Nickel is alloyed with about 32 per cent copper to produce the Monel 400 alloy
which has relatively high strength, weldability and excellent corrosion resistance
to many environments. The 32 per cent copper strengthens the nickel to a limited
extent and lowers its cost. The addition of about three per cent aluminium and
0.6 per cent titanium increases the strength of Monel (66% Ni-30% Cu)
significantly by precipitation hardening. The strengthening precipitates in this
case are Ni3Al and Ni3Ti. Nickel is one of the principal alloying elements in
stainless steel and food products (Smith & Hashemi, 2011).
3.5.4 Titanium Alloys

Titanium and its alloys are relatively new engineering materials that possess an
extraordinary combination of properties. The pure metal has a relatively low
density (4.5g/cm3), a high melting point (1668C), and an elastic modulus of
107GPa. Titanium alloys are extremely strong, tensile strength as high as
1400MPa is attainable, yielding remarkable specific strengths. Furthermore, the
alloys are highly ductile and easily forged and machined.
The major limitation of titanium is its chemical reactivity with other materials
at elevated temperatures. This property has necessitated the development of
nonconventional refining, melting and casting techniques; consequently,
titanium alloys are quite expensive. In spite of this high temperature reactivity,
the corrosion resistance of titanium alloys at normal temperatures is unusually
high; they are virtually immune to air, marine and a variety of industrial
environments. They are commonly utilised in airplane structures, space vehicles,
surgical implants, and in the petroleum and chemical industries (Callister, 2005).
3.5.5 Copper Alloys

Copper and copper-based alloys, possessing a desirable combination of physical
properties, have been utilised in quite a variety of applications. Unalloyed copper
is so soft and ductile that it is difficult to machine; also it has an almost unlimited
capacity to be cold worked. Furthermore, it is highly resistant to corrosion in
diverse environments including the ambient atmosphere, seawater and some
industrial chemicals. The mechanical and corrosion-resistance properties of
copper may be improved by alloying.

Most copper alloys cannot be hardened or strengthened by heat-treating

procedures; consequently, cold working and/or solid-solution alloying is
required. The most common copper alloys are the brasses for which zinc, as a
substitutional impurity, is the predominant alloying element; brass alloys having
higher zinc content. Some of the common brasses are yellow, naval, cartridge
brass, muntz metal and gilding metal. The composition, properties and typical
uses of several of these alloys are listed in Table 3.3 (Callister, 2005).
Table 3.3: Compositions, Mechanical Properties and Typical Applications for Some of
Copper Alloys
Mechanical Properties
Composition Tensile Yield Ductility
Alloy Name Typical Application
(wt%) Strength Strength (% EL in
[MPa] [MPa] 50mm)
Wrought Alloys
Electrolytic 0.04 O 220 69 45 Electrical wire, rivets,
tough pitch (Annealed) (Annealed) screening, gaskets, pans,
nails, roofing
Cartridge 30 Zn 300 75 68 Automotive radiator,
brass (Annealed) (Annealed) cores, ammunition
components, lamp
fixtures, flashlight shells,
kickplates
Copper- 30 Ni 380 125 36 Condenser and heat-
nickel, (Annealed) (Annealed) exchanger components,
(30%) saltwater piping
Cast Alloys
Tin bronze 10 Sn, 2 Zn 310 152 25 Bearings, bushings, piston
(As cast) (As cast) ring, steam fittings, gears
Aluminum 4 Fe, 11 Al 586 241 18 Bearings, gears, worms,
bronze (As cast) (As cast) bushings, valve seats and
guards, pickling hooks
The bronzes are alloys of copper and several other elements, including tin,
aluminium, silicon and nickel. These alloys are stronger than the brasses.

3.6 SPECIAL ALLOYS AND APPLICATIONS

Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs) are a unique class of metal alloys that can recover
apparent permanent strains when they are heated above a certain temperature.
The SMAs have two stable phases ă the high-temperature phase, called austenite
and the low-temperature phase, called martensite. In addition, the martensite can
be in one of two forms: twinned and detwinned, as shown in Figure 3.5. A phase
transformation which occurs between these two phases upon heating or cooling
is the basis for the unique properties of the SMAs.
Figure 3.5: Different phases of an SMA

Source: http://smart.tamu.edu/overview/smaintro/simple/definition.html
Shape memory alloys (SMA) have two unique properties, namely shape memory
and super- or pseudo-elasticity. These properties were first observed in 1938
(Chung, 2007). The most commonly used shaped memory alloys are NiTI,
CuZnAl, and CuNiAl. Nitinol, an alloy of nickel and titanium is an illustration of
a shape memory alloy (SMA) that can be changed from a new shape back to its
designed shape with application of temperature. For NiTi, the martensite phase
is softer and can sustain a larger strain. When the stress is removed, the alloy
returns to the austenite structure, recovering the original shape, hence the term
pseudo-elasticity.

SMAs have high operating temperature, abrasion and corrosion resistance and
high tensile strength that make it attractive for construction application.
Shape memory alloys have gotten attention from researchers to be utilised as
reinforcement to resist fatigue and vibration in case of earthquakes.
SELF-CHECK 3.3
1. Cite examples of the applications of shape memory alloys in

modern construction.
2. There have been suggestions of using shape memory alloys as

self-healing materials for example in closing cracks. How can this
be done?
ACTIVITY 3.3
Discuss in class, what are the advantages of using shape memory alloy
as reinforcement for concrete structures during an earthquake.
 Metal alloys are grouped into two classes which are ferrous and non-ferrous.
Ferrous alloys include different types of steel which are low-carbon, medium-
carbon and high-carbon steels and these types of steel can be distinguished
by its carbon content. Other types of ferrous alloys are, namely, stainless
steels and cast iron.
 Stainless steels are divided into three classes on the basis of the predominant
constituent of the microstructure namely martensite, ferritic or austenitic.
Meanwhile, cast iron is grouped into three types which are gray, ductile and
white cast iron.
 Alloying elements often added to steels are carbon, chromium (Cr), tungsten
(W), sulphur (S), vanadium (V), molybdenum (Mo), manganese (Mn) and
silicon (Si) to improve chemical and physical properties.

 Iron-carbon system, the main binary system for alloying in metal represents
the following phases of microstructure:
ă Austenite () ă It is the interstitial solid solution of carbon in  iron. It has

an FCC crystal structure and a much high solid solubility for carbon at a
maximum of 2.08 per cent at 1148C and decreases to 0.8 per cent at
723C.
ă Cementite (Fe3C) ă It is intermetallic and has negligible solubility limits

and a composition of 6.67 per cent C and 93.3 per cent Fe. Cementite is a
hard and brittle compound.
ă  ferrite ă It is composed of the interstitial solid solution of carbon in 

iron and has a BCC crystal structure but with a greater lattice constant.
The maximum solid solubility of carbon in  ferrite is 0.09 per cent at
1465C.
 The non-ferrous alloys are, namely, aluminium, magnesium, nickel, titanium

and copper. Aluminium and its alloys are characterised by a relatively low
density (2.7g/cm3), high electrical and thermal conductivities, ductile and
high resistance to corrosion. The main limitation of aluminium is its low
melting temperature (660C).
 Magnesium is characterised by its very low density, 1.7g/cm3 suitable to be

used in aircraft components. Magnesium is relatively soft, and has a low
elastic modulus. Magnesium has a moderately low melting temperature
(651C). Its main limitation is relative unstability and susceptibility to
corrosion especially in marine environment and its powder ignites easily
when heated in air.
 Aluminium, zinc, manganese and some of the rare earths are the major
alloying elements for magnesium and suitable to be employed in a variety
of hand-held devices, in automobiles and in audio-video-computer-
communications equipment.
 Nickel is highly formable due to its FCC crystal structure but it is relatively
expensive and has a high density. Because of its good strength and electrical
conductivity, nickel is used for electrical and electronics parts and, because of
its good corrosion resistance, it is suitable for food-processing equipment.
Nickel is alloyed commonly with copper to produce alloy which has
relatively high strength, weldability and excellent corrosion resistance to
many environments.

 Titanium and its alloys possess extraordinary combination of properties. The

pure metal has a relatively low density (4.5g/cm3), a high melting point
(1668C), and an elastic modulus of 107GPa. Titanium alloys are extremely
strong, high in tensile strength, highly ductile and easily forged and
machined. The major limitation of titanium is its chemical reactivity with
other materials at elevated temperatures.
 Copper and copper-based alloys, possessing a desirable combination of

physical properties, have been utilised in quite a variety of applications.
Most copper alloys cannot be hardened or strengthened by heat-treating
procedures; consequently, cold working and/or solid-solution alloying is
required. The most common copper alloys are the brasses for which zinc, is
the predominant alloying element. Brass alloys having a higher zinc content.
 A shape memory alloy (SMA) provides unique properties. SMAs can be

changed from a new shape back to its designed shape with application of
temperature. SMAs have high operating temperature, abrasion and corrosion
resistance and high tensile strength that make it attractive for modern
construction application.
Austenite Low carbon steels

Cementite Magnesium alloy
Cast iron Malleable iron
Copper alloy Martensite
Ductile iron Medium carbon steel
Eutectoid steel Nickel alloy
Ferrite Non-ferrous alloy
Ferrous alloy Plain carbon steel
Gray iron Shape memory alloy
Hypereutectoid steel Steel
Hypoeutectoid steel Titanium alloy
Iron-carbon system

Callister, W. D., Jr. (2005). Fundamentals of materials and engineering. Hoboken,

NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

Definition of a shape memory alloy. (n.d.) Retrieved from:

http://smart.tamu.edu/overview/smaintro/simple/definition.html


T op i c  Polymers,
Ceramics and
4 Composites
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Identify the types and properties of polymers, ceramics and
composites;
2. Explain the different processes to produce polymers, ceramics and
composites; and
3. Discuss the factors influencing properties and applications of
polymers, ceramics and composites.
 INTRODUCTION
This topic covers types, compositions and properties of some of the important
polymers, ceramics and composites. Polymeric materials are grouped into two
classes which are plastics and elastomers. The topic begins with an elaboration
on polymerisation or the reactions that link together the many parts of „mers‰.
Three steps involved in the polymerisation which are initiation, propagation and
termination are explained. Other types of polymerisation namely homopolymers
and copolymers are also illustrated. Other categories of polymers such as
emulsions, inorganic polymers, reactive polymers, other common polymers and
uses for each category are then covered.

TOPIC 4 POLYMERS, CERAMICS AND COMPOSITES  71
Subsequently, types of ceramics, their methods of processing, thermal treatment

properties and application in construction and various other fields are also
presented. Types of ceramic which are used in traditional industries and
engineering, and examples for each are highlighted as well. Finally, definitions of
composite material, types of most common composites made of different types of
fibre and matrices, the processes to produce composite and its applications in
construction are also included in this topic.
ACTIVITY 4.1
In the tutorial session, give examples of natural and synthetic polymers,

and discuss why the use of natural polymers in industry is limited.
4.1 POLYMERS
The word polymer literally means „many parts‰. A polymeric solid material
contains many chemically bonded parts or units that themselves are bonded
together to form a solid. There are two types of polymeric materials which are
plastics and elastomers. The first synthetic polymers were phenol-resins which
was developed in 1908. This was followed by the development of urea-
formaldehyde resins in 1930s.
Plastics are a large and varied group of synthetic polymeric materials that are
processed by forming or moulding into shape. The term plastic is defined as
human-made polymer resins containing carbon atoms covalently bonded with
other elements. Plastics can be divided into two classes, thermoplastics and
thermosetting plastics and the classes are elaborated in Topic 5.
Low modulus polymers are essential to the construction industry as flexible seals
at joints between structural elements. Some reactive resins such as epoxy are
applied as liquids without solvents and they harden to give coatings that are
better resistant to aggressive chemicals and abrasion. Both epoxy and polyester
resins are used as binder for fibre fabrics for example glass fibre to produce sheet
(laminate) of stronger composite which is further explained in sections 4.7 to 4.11.

72  TOPIC 4 POLYMERS, CERAMICS AND COMPOSITES
Elastomers or rubbers can be elastically deformed when a force is applied to

them and can return to their original shape when the force is released. The first of
the man-modified polymer was rubber. Coagulated natural rubber latex is of
very little practical use because, although under certain conditions it is soft and
elastic, it becomes very hard in cold conditions. It was the development of
vulcanisation in 1844 which overcame these difficulties. The processing methods,
uses and application of plastics and elastomers are elaborated in Topic 5.
4.2 POLYMERISATION
Polymerisation is the process of chain-growth to link together smaller units into
long chains. The simple molecules that are covalently bonded into long chains
are called monomers (from the Greek words mono, meaning „one‰ and meros,
meaning „parts‰). Polymerisation of ethylene into polymers like polyethylene
can be divided into the following steps which are: (1) initiation, (2) propagation
and (3) termination. The following outlines the three steps:
Initiation
A free radical (that is, organic peroxides catalyst) that has an unpaired electron
(free electron) can covalently bond to an unpaired electron of another atom or
molecule. For example, a molecule of hydrogen peroxide, H2O2 decomposes into
two free radicals as follows (Smith & Hashemi, 2011):
One of the free radicals then created by the decomposition of the hydrogen
peroxide reacts with ethylene molecule to form a new longer chain free radical as
shown below (Smith & Hashemi, 2011):

Propagation ă It is the process of extending the polymer chain by the successive

addition of monomer units. The double bond at the end of an ethylene monomer
unit can be „opened up‰ by the extended free radical and be covalently bonded
to it. The polymer chain is further extended by the reaction (Smith & Hashemi,
2011):
The polymer chains in chain polymerisation keep growing spontaneously

because the energy of the chemical system is lowered by the chain
polymerisation process.
Termination ă This process occurs by the addition of a terminator free radical or

when two chains combine. Another possibility is that trace amounts of impurities
may terminate the polymer chain. Termination by the coupling of two chains can
be represented by the following reaction (Smith & Hashemi, 2011):
Other polymerisation reactions can be described as homopolymers and

copolymers. Homopolymers are polymeric materials that consist of polymer
chains made up of single repeating units. That is if A is a repeating unit, a
homopolymer chain will have a sequence of AAAAAAA..... in the polymer
molecular chain. Copolymers, in contrast, consist of polymer chains made up of
two or more chemically different repeating units that can be in different
sequences. There are four distinct types of copolymers that have been identified
which are random, alternating, block and graft as in Figure 4.1 (Smith &
Hashemi, 2011).
Random Copolymers
Different monomers are randomly arranged within the polymer chains. If A and
B are different monomers, then an arrangement could be Figure 4.1(a), in which
the different units are randomly distributed along the chain:
AABABBBBAABABAAB....
Alternating Copolymers
Different monomers show a definite ordered alternation such as Figure 4.1(b), in
which the units alternate regularly:
ABABABABABAB.......

Block Copolymers
Different monomers in the chain are arranged in relatively long blocks of each
monomer as Figure 4.1(c):
AAAAAA- BBBBBB- ...
Graft Copolymers
Appendages of one type of monomer are grafted to the long chain of another as
Figure 4.1(d):
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
B B
B B
B B
B B
Figure 4.1: Copolymer arrangements

4.3 COMMON POLYMERS AND APPLICATIONS

Common polymers, its structures and its applications are outlined in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Chemical Structures and Application of Several Common Polymers
Types of Polymers Chemical Structure Application
Polyvinyl chloride Electrical insulation

(PVC) pipes, siding,
upholstery, floor
covering.
Polyacrylonitrile Fibres for clothing and
blankets.
Teflon Nonstick coatings, seals,
(polytetrafluoro- chemical containers,
ethylene, PTFE) pipes and cable
insulation.
Polymethyl- Plexiglass windshields
methacrylate for aircraft, outside
(PMMA) signs, safety shields,
goggles and dental
materials.
Polycarbonate Safety shields, helmets,

prescription lens, aircraft
components, and boat
propellers.
Bakelite (Phenol- Electrical connectors and

Formaldehyde) switches, motor, and
telephone housing,
billiard balls.
Source: Chung (2007)
Other types of polymers are polymer emulsions, inorganic polymers and reactive
polymers as elaborated in the following subsections.

4.3.1 Polymer Emulsions

Some polymers can be dispersed in non-solvents, for instance, water-dispersed
epoxy resin systems that are used as floor coatings. This is analogous to the way
in which oil-in-water or water-in-oil emulsions can be prepared for application as
machine cutting oils. This type of polymers prepared in solution can be used for
surface coating and impregnation. The two incompatible liquids are mixed with
a trace of surface active agent until one is broken down to fine stable drops
uniformly dispersed in the other.
The polymer produced in this manner is termed polymer emulsions or polymer

dispersion. The monomers, which may be volatile oily liquids or gases under
pressure, are dispersed in water and react with suitable initiators or catalysts,
until the suspended monomer droplets become suspended particles of polymer.
Many synthetic rubbers are prepared in this manner and one example, styrene-
butadiene rubber, is used in construction industry. Many vinyl, acrylic polymers
and copolymers are also produced as water-based dispersions for construction
work.
When spread out in a thin layer, most of these polymer dispersions lose their
water by evaporation, and the polymer particles coalesce together to form a
coherent film. This has applications for surface coating and many vinyl
copolymers are the bases of emulsion paints. Many synthetic polymer
dispersions can be similarly used and find particular application in upgrading
the strength and abrasion resistance of floor screeds and as bonding agents
between fresh wet concrete and existing hardened concrete. When incorporated
into cementitious mortars, they can substantially reduce the permeability of the
mortar to liquids and gases, which accounts for their considerable use in concrete
repair compositions.
4.3.2 Inorganic Polymer

Commonly, the polymeric materials that were discussed earlier are considered
organic polymers, in which the repeating units always had carbon atoms linked
together as their backbone. However, inorganic polymers, in contrast, do not
have carbon atoms in their structures, for example, the polymer chains that are
made of silicon and oxygen molecules. This chemical linkage is more stable than
that between carbon atoms, so that these polymers can withstand much higher
temperatures and are more resistant to many aggressive chemicals. The genetic
term for polymers based upon a silicon-oxygen backbone, often with organic
branches is silicone. Silicone polymers come in many forms ranging from oils to
rubbers, to hard resin coatings.

Silicone polymers have very good water-repelling properties and this is put to
good use by reacting them inside the pores of concrete to form a hydrophobic
lining, which prevents the capillary movement of water without blocking or
sealing the pores. Concrete thus treated is resistant to the passage of liquid water,
but water vapour passes freely allowing the concrete to dry out if necessary. This
is achieved by impregnating the surface of the concrete with a silane monomer or
a siloxane oligomer (a very short chain silicone-oxygen species which is less
volatile than the silane monomer). These materials are of such small molecular
size that they can easily penetrate the finest pores in concrete and then react with
free lime or moisture to polymerise and form a silicone-resin lining.
4.3.3 Reactive Polymer

Reactive polymers are polymers that are converted from liquid or semi-liquid
materials into solids or rubbery solids after having been moulded to the desired
shape. This means that part of the polymerisation reaction is carried out on-site
and there are two types of chemical reactions employed. In „addition‰ reactions,
a chemically reactive polymer such as epoxy resin is mixed with another reactive
chemical (such as an amine hardener or curing agent) which is then able to form
chemical links between reactive sites on the polymer chains and connect them
together into a fairly rigid network.
By contrast, polyester resins contain the two reactive components (a long chain
ester polymer and styrene monomer) but these are prevented from reacting with
each other by the inclusions of an inhibitor. When the reaction is required to
proceed, a very small quantity of a catalyst chemical (usually peroxide) is added.
For ease and safety of handling, the peroxide catalyst is usually dispersed into a
large volume of inert mineral filler. The use of reactive chemicals on-site does
require disciplined procedures and usually are clearly stated in the health and
safety data sheets issued by material suppliers.
4.4 CERAMICS
Ceramic materials are inorganic, non-metallic materials that consist of metallic
and non-metallic elements bonded together primarily by ionic and/or covalent
bonds. The chemical compositions of ceramic materials vary considerably, from
simple compounds to mixtures of many complex phases bonded together.
The properties of ceramic materials also vary greatly due to differences in

bonding. In general, ceramic materials are typically hard and brittle with low
toughness and ductility. Ceramics are usually good electrical and thermal
insulators because of the absence of conduction electrons. Ceramic materials
normally have relatively high melting temperatures and high chemical stability
in many hostile environments because of their stability of their strong bonds.
Because of these properties, ceramic materials are indispensable for many
engineering designs.
In general, ceramic materials used for engineering applications can be divided

into two groups: traditional ceramic materials and the engineering ceramic
materials. Examples of traditional ceramics are glasses, bricks and tiles used
in the construction industries and electrical porcelain in the electrical industry.
The engineering ceramics, in contrast, typically consist of pure or nearly pure
compounds such as aluminium oxide (Al2O3), silicon carbide (SiC) and silicon
nitride (Si3N4). Examples of the use of the engineering ceramics are silicon
carbide in high temperature areas of automotive gas turbine engine and
aluminium oxide in the support base for integrated circuit chips in a thermal
conduction module.
The atomic structures of ceramic have been discussed in Topic 2. The following
subsections explain the traditional and engineering ceramic materials.
Subsequently, the processing of ceramics is elaborated.
4.4.1 Traditional Ceramics

Traditional ceramics are made from three basic components: clay, silica
(flint), and feldspar. Clay consists mainly of hydrated aluminium silicates
(Al2O3.SiO.H2O) with small amounts of other oxides such as TiO2, Fe2O3, MgO,
CaO, Na2O and K2O. Kaolin is an example of clay. The clay in traditional
ceramics provides workability of the material before firing hardens it and
constitutes the major body material. The silica (SiO2), also called flint or quartz,
has a high melting temperature and is the refractory component of traditional
ceramics. Potash (potassium) feldspar, which has the basic composition
K2O.Al2O3.6SiO2, has a low melting temperature and makes a glass when the
ceramic mix is fired. It bonds the refractory components together.
Structural clay products such as building brick, sewer pipe, drain tile, roofing
tile, and floor tile are made of natural clay.

4.4.2 Engineering Ceramics

Unlike traditional ceramics which are mainly based on clay, engineering
ceramics are mainly pure compounds or nearly pure compounds of chiefly
oxides, carbides or nitrides. Some of the important engineering ceramics are
alumina (Al2O3), silicon nitride (Si3N4), silicon carbide (SiC), and zirconia (ZrO2)
combined with some other refractory oxides. The melting temperatures and
mechanical properties of some of the engineering ceramics are given in Table 4.2
in subtopic 4.5. The following are some of the important engineering ceramics.
Alumina (Al2O3) ă Alumina was originally developed for refractory tubing and
high purity crucibles for high temperature use. An example of the application
of alumina is in spark plug insulator. Aluminium oxide is commonly doped
with magnesium oxide, cold-pressed, and sintered, producing the type of
microstructure as shown in Figure 4.2. Alumina is used commonly for high-
quality electrical applications where low dielectric loss and high resistivity are
needed.
Silicon Nitride (Si3N4) ă Of all the engineering ceramics, silicon nitride has
probably the most useful combination of engineering properties. Si3N4
dissociates significantly at temperatures above 1800C and so cannot be directly
sintered. Si3N4 can be processed by reaction bonding in which a compact of
silicon powder is nitrided in a flow of nitrogen gas. This process produces a
microporous Si3N4 with moderate strength (Table 4.2).
Figure 4.2: Microstructure of sintered, powdered aluminium oxide doped with

magnesium oxide. The sintering temperature is 1,700C

Silicon Carbide (SiC) ă Silicon carbide is a hard refractory carbide with

outstanding resistance to oxidation at high temperatures. Although a nonoxide,
SiC at high temperatures forms a skin of SiO2 that protects the main body of
material. SiC can be sintered at 2,100C with 0.5 to 1 per cent boron (B) as a
sintered aid. SiC is commonly used as a fibrous reinforcement for metal matrix
and ceramic matrix composite materials.
Zirconia (ZrO2) ă Pure zirconia is polymorphic and transforms from the

tetragonal to monoclinic structure at about 1170C with an accompanying
volume expansion and so is subject to cracking. However, by combining ZrO2
with other refractory oxides such as CaO, MgO and Y2O3, the cubic structure can
be stabilised at room temperature and has found some applications. By
combinng ZrO2 with 9% MgO and using special heat treatments, a partially
stabilised zirconia (PSZ) can be produced with especially high fracture
toughness, which has led to new ceramic applications.
4.5 PROCESSING OF CERAMICS

Most traditional and engineering ceramic products are manufactured by
compacting powders or particles into shapes that are subsequently heated to a
temperature to bond the particles together. The basic steps in the processing
of ceramics by the agglomeration of particles are; (1) material preparation,
(2) forming or casting, and (3) thermal treatment by drying and firing.
Table 4.2: Mechanical Properties of Selected Engineering Ceramic Materials
Compressive Tensile Flexural Fracture

Density
Material strength strength strength Toughness
(g/cm3)
(MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
Al2O (99%) 3.85 2585 207 345 4
Si3N4 (hot- 3.19 3450 .... 690 6.6
pressed)
Si3N4(reaction- 2.8 770 .... 255 3.6
bonded)
SiC (sintered) 3.1 3860 170 550 4
ZrO2, 9% MgO 5.5 1860 ..... 690 8+
(partially
stabilised)

4.5.1 Materials Preparation

The raw materials for ceramics vary, depending on the required properties of the
finished ceramic part. The particles and other ingredients such as binders and
lubricants are blended wet or dry. In ceramic products that do not have critical
properties such as bricks, sewer pipe and other clay products, the blending of the
ingredients with water is common practice. For some other ceramic products, the
raw materials are ground dry along with binders and other additives. Sometimes
wet and dry processing of raw materials are combined. For example, to produce
one type of high-alumina (Al2O3) insulator, the particulate raw materials are
milled with water along with a wax binder to form a slurry that is subsequently
spray-dried to form small and spherical pellets.
4.5.2 Forming
Ceramic products made by agglomerating particles may be formed by a variety
of methods in the dry, plastic or liquid conditions. Cold-forming processes are
predominant in the ceramic industry, but hot-forming processes are also used.
Pressing, slip casting and extrusion are commonly used ceramic forming
methods.
Pressing ă Ceramic particulate raw materials are pressed in the dry, plastic or
wet condition into a die to form shaped products.
Dry Pressing ă This method is used commonly for products such as structural
refractories (high-heat-resistant materials) and electronic ceramic components.
Dry pressing is defined as the simultaneous uniaxial compaction and shaping of
a granular powder along with small amounts of water and/or organic binder in a
die. After cold pressing, the parts are usually fired (sintered) to achieve the
required strength and microstructural properties.
Isostatic Pressing ă In this process, the ceramic powder is loaded into a flexible
(usually rubber), air tight container (called a bag) that is inside a chamber of
hydraulic fluid to which pressure is applied. The force of the applied pressure
will compact the powder uniformly in all directions, with the final product
taking the shape of the flexible container. After cold isostatic pressing, the part
must be fired (sintered) to achieve the required properties and microstructure.
Ceramic parts manufactured by isostatic pressing include refractories, bricks and
shapes, spark plug insulators, carbide tools, crucibles and bearings.
Hot Pressing ă In this process, ceramic parts of high density and improved
mechanical properties are produced by combining the pressing and firing
operations. Both uniaxial and isostatic methods are used.
Slip casting ă Ceramic shapes can be cast by using a unique process called slip
casting. A powdered ceramic material and a liquid (usually clay and water) is
poured into a stable suspension called a slip. The slip then is poured into a
porous mould that is usually made of plaster allowing the liquid portion of the
slip to be partially absorbed by the mould. As the liquid is removed from the slip,
a layer of semi-hard material is formed against the mould surface. When a
sufficient wall thickness has been formed, the casting process is interrupted and
the excess slip is poured out of the cavity. This is known as drain casting.
Alternatively, a solid shape may be made by allowing the casting to continue

until the whole mould cavity is filled. This type of slip casting is called solid
casting. The material in the mould is allowed to dry to provide adequate strength
for handling and the subsequent removal of the part from the mould. Finally, the
cast part is fired to attain the required microstructure and properties. Slip casting
is advantageous for forming thin-walled and complex shapes of uniform
thickness. Slip casting is especially economical for development parts and short
production runs. Several new variations of the slip-casting process are pressure
and vacuum casting, in which the slip is shaped under pressure or vacuum.
Extrusion ă Single cross sections and hollow shapes of ceramic materials can be
produced by extruding these materials in the plastic state through a forming die.
This method is commonly used to produce, for example, refractory brick, sewer
pipe, hollow tile, technical ceramics and electrical insulators. The means most
commonly used is the vacuum-auger-type extrusion machine in which the plastic
ceramic material (for example, clay and water) is forced through a hard steel or
alloy die by a motor driven auger. Special technical ceramics are frequently
produced using a piston extrusion under high pressure so that close tolerances
can be attained.
4.5.3 Thermal Treatments

Thermal treatment is an essential step in the manufacturing of most ceramic
products. Various thermal treatments which include: drying, sintering and
vitrification are elaborated as follows:
(a) Drying and Binder Removal

The purpose of drying ceramics is to remove water from the plastic ceramic
body before it is fired at higher temperatures. Generally, drying to remove
water is carried out at or below 100C and can take as long as 24 hours for a
large ceramic part. The bulk of organic binders can be removed from
ceramic parts by heating in the range of 200C to 300C, although some
hydrocarbon residues may require heating to much higher temperatures.

(b) Sintering
The process by which small particles of a material are bonded together
by solid-state diffusion is called sintering. In ceramic manufacturing, this
thermal treatment results in the transformation of a porous compact into a
dense, coherent product. Sintering is commonly used to produce ceramic
shapes made of, for example, alumina, beryllia, ferrites and titanates.
In the sintering process, particles are coalesced by solid-state diffusion at

very high temperatures but below the melting point of the compound being
sintered.
(c) Vitrification
Some ceramic products such as porcelain, structural clay products and
some electronic components contain a glass phase. This glass phase serves
as a reaction medium by which diffusion can take place at a lower
temperature than in the rest of the ceramic solid material. During the firing
of these types of ceramic materials, a process called vitrification takes place
whereby the glass phase liquefies and fills the pore spaces in the material.
This liquid glass phase may also react with some of the remaining solid
refractory material. Upon cooling, the liquid phase solidifies to form a
vitreous or glassy matrix that bonds the unmelted particles together.
4.6 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CERAMIC

Ceramics are relatively brittle material. The tensile strength of ceramic materials
varies greatly, ranging from very low values of less than 0.69MPa to about
7  103MPa for ceramics such as Al2O3 prepared under carefully controlled
conditions. However, few ceramics have tensile strengths above 172MPa.
Ceramic materials also have a large difference between their tensile and
compressive strengths, with the compressive strengths usually being about 5 to
10 times higher than the tensile strengths, as indicated in Table 4.2 for the
99 per cent Al2O3 ceramic material. Also, many ceramic materials are hard and
have low impact resistance due to their ionic-covalent bindings. For example,
plasticised clay is a ceramic material that is soft and easily deformable due to
weak secondary bonding forces between layers of strongly ionic-covalently
bonded atoms.
The mechanical failure of ceramic materials occurs mainly from structural

defects. The principal sources of fracture in ceramic polycrystals include surface
cracks produced during surface finishing, voids (porosity), inclusions and large
grains produced during processing. Pores in brittle ceramic materials are regions
where stress concentrates, and when the stress at a pore reaches a critical value, a

crack forms and propagates since there are no large, energy-absorbing processes
in these materials such as those that operate in ductile metals during
deformation. Thus, once cracks start to propagate, they continue to grow until
fracture occurs. Pores are also detrimental to the strength of ceramic materials
because they decrease the cross-sectional area over which a load is applied and
hence lower the stress a material can support.
Ceramic materials have inherently low toughness because of their combination of

covalent-ionic bonding. By the use of processes such as hot pressing ceramics
with additives and reaction bonding, engineering ceramics with improved
toughness have been produced (Table 4.2).
Because of the ionic-covalent bonding of the atoms in a ceramic material, there is

an absence of plasticity in ceramics during cycling stressing. As a result, fatigue
fracture in ceramic is rare. A straight fatigue crack was produced after 79,000
compression cycles. Microcrack propagation along grain boundaries led to final
intergranular fatigue failure. Much research is being done to make tougher
ceramics that can support cyclic stresses for applications such as turbine rotors.
ACTIVITY 4.2
Look for research papers from various ceramic-related journals. Provide

a critical review of how the toughness of ceramics can be improved and
discuss during tutorial session.
4.7 COMPOSITES
A composite material is a material system composed of a suitably arranged
mixture or combination of two or more micro or macro constituents with an
interface separating them, which differ in form and chemical composition and
are essentially insoluble in each other. A composite material contains two or
more distinctly different materials combined to form a composite material that
possesses properties that are superior, or important in some other manner, to the
properties of the individual components.

A multitude of materials fit into this category, however, only important

composite materials used in engineering which are fibre-reinforced plastic (FRP),
wood and concrete will be discussed in this module. The following subsections
elaborate different types of fibre-reinforced plastics (FRP) while wood and
concrete are explained in Topic 6 and Topic 8. Three main types of synthetic
fibres are used to reinforce plastic material namely glass, aramid and carbon as
outlined in the following subsections.
4.7.1 Glass Fibres Reinforced Plastics (GFRP)

Glass fibres are used to reinforce plastic matrices to form glass fibre reinforced
plastic of structural composites. Glass fibre plastic composite materials have
these characteristics: high strength to weight ratio, good dimensional stability,
good resistance to heat, cold, moisture and corrosion, good electrical insulation
properties, ease of fabrication and relatively low cost. The two types of glass used
to produce glass fibres for composites are E (electrical) and S (high strength)
glasses.
E glass is the most commonly used glass for continuous fibres. Basically, E glass
is a lime-aluminium-borosilicate glass with zero or low sodium and potassium
levels. The basic composition of E glass ranges from: 52 to 56 per cent SiO2; 12 to
16 per cent Al2O3; 16 to 25 per cent CaO; and 8 to 13 per cent B2O3. E glass has a
tensile strength of about 3.44GPa in the virgin condition and a modulus of
elasticity of 72.3GPa.
S glass has a higher strength to weight ratio, is more expensive than E glass, and
is used primarily for military and aerospace applications. The tensile strength of
S glass is over 4.48GPa, and its modulus of elasticity is about 85.4GPa. A typical
composition for S glass is about 65 per cent SiO2, 25 per cent Al2O3 and
10 per cent MgO.
Glass fibres are produced by drawing monofilaments of glass from a furnace

containing molten glass and gathering a large number of these filaments to form
a strand of glass fibres. The strands then are used to make glass fibre yarns or
rovings that consist of a collection of bundles of continuous filaments. The
rovings may be in continuous strands or woven to make woven roving. Glass
fibre reinforcing mats are made of continuous strands or chopped strands. The
strands are usually held together with a resinous binder. Combination mats are
made with woven roving chemically bonded to chopped strand mat.

The strength of GFRP is mainly related to the glass content of the material and
the arrangement of the glass fibres. In general, the higher the weight per cent
glass in the composite, the stronger the reinforced plastic is. When there are
parallel strands of glass, as may be the case for filament winding, the fibre glass
content may be as high as 80wt%, which leads to very high strength for the
composite material. Figure 4.3 depicts the GFRP plate (laminated) for structure
strengthening.
Figure 4.3: Glass fibre reinforced plastic plate (laminate) for structure strengthening
4.7.2 Carbon Fibres Reinforced Plastics (CFRP)

Carbon fibres are produced mainly from two sources, polyacrylonitrile (PAN)
and pitch which are called precursors. In general, carbon fibres are produced
from PAN precursor fibres by three processing stages: (1) stabilisation,
(2) carbonisation, (3) graphitisation. Composite materials made of this fibre are
characterised by having a combination of light weight, very high strength and
high stiffness (modulus of elasticity). These properties make the use of CFRP
attractive for aerospace applications. Unfortunately, its relatively high cost
restricts their use in many industries such as the automotive industry.
The carbon fibres contribute the high tensile properties for rigidity and strength,
while the matrix is the carrier for the alignment of the fibres and contributes
impact strength. Epoxy resins are the most commonly used matrices for carbon
fibres. The major advantage of carbon fibres is that they have very high strength

and moduli of elasticity combined with very low density. In engineering-

designed structures, the carbon-fibre-epoxy material is laminated so that
different tailor-made strength requirements are met (Figure 4.4).
Figure 4.4: Unidirectional and multidirectional laminate plies for

composite laminate resins
4.7.3 Aramid Fibres Reinforced Plastics (AFRP)

Aramid fibre is the generic name for aromatic polyamide fibres. Aramid fibres
were introduced commercially in 1972 by Du Pont under the trade name of
Kevlar and at the present there are two commercial types: Kevlar 29 and 49.
Kevlar 29 is a low-density, high-strength aramid fibre designed for applications
such as ballistic protection, ropes and cables. Kevlar 49 is characterised by a low
density and high strength and modulus. The properties of Kevlar 49 make its
fibres useful as reinforcement for plastics in composites for aerospace, marine,
automotive and other industrial applications.
The chemical repeating unit of the Kevlar polymer chain is that of an aromatic
polyamide. Hydrogen bonding holds the polymer chains together in the
transverse direction. Thus, collectively these fibres have high strength in the
longitudinal direction and weak strength in the transverse direction. The
aromatic ring structure gives high rigidity to the polymer chains, causing them to
have a rodlike structure. Kevlar aramid is used for high performance composite

applications where light weight, high strength and stiffness, damage resistance to
fatigue and stress rupture are important, for instance, military, bullet resistance
appliances and space shuttles.
ACTIVITY 4.3
Discuss the advantages of FRP composite material as concrete structure

strengthening and how the FRP can be applied for strengthening and
rehabilitation works for existing concrete structures.
4.8 MATRIX MATERIALS FOR FRP

Two types of the most important matrix plastic resins for FRP are unsaturated
polyester and epoxy resins. The properties of unfilled cast polyester and epoxy
resins are listed in Table 4.3. The polyester resins are lower in cost but are usually
not as strong as the epoxy resins. Unsaturated polyesters are widely used for
matrices of fibre reinforced plastics. Applications for these materials include boat
hulls, building panels and structural panels for automobiles, aircraft and
appliances. Epoxy resins cost more but have special advantages such as good
strength properties and lower shrinkage after curing than polyester resins. Epoxy
resins are commonly used as matrix materials for carbon and aramid fibre
composites.
Table 4.3: Some Properties of Unfilled Cast Polyester and Epoxy Resins
Polyester Epoxy
Tensile strength, MPa 40ă90 55ă130
Tensile modulus of elasticity, GPA 2.0ă4.4 2.8ă4.2
Flexural yield strength, MPa 60ă160 125
Impact strength (notched bar Izod test), J/m of 10.6ă21.2 5.3ă53
notch
Density, g/cm3 1.10ă1.46 1.2ă1.3
Other resins such as polyimides, polyphenylene sulfides or polysulfonates may

be used for certain applications.

4.9 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FIBRES FOR

REINFORCED PLASTIC COMPOSITE
Table 4.4 shows the properties of yarn for fibre reinforcements for plastics.
Figure 4.5 compares typical stress-strain diagrams for carbon, aramid and glass
fibres. It can be seen that the fibre strength varies from about 1720 to 3440MPa,
while the fracture strain ranges from 0.4 to 4.0 per cent. The tensile modulus of
elasticity of these fibres ranges from 68.9 to 413GPa. The carbon fibres provide
the best combination of high strength, high stiffness (high modulus), and low
density but have lower elongations. The aramid fibre Kevlar 49 has a
combination of high strength, high modulus, low density and high elongation
(impact resistance). The glass fibre has lower strength and moduli and higher
density. Of the glass fibres, S glass fibres have higher strength and elongations
than the E glass fibres. As the glass fibres are much less costly, they are more
widely used.
Table 4.4: Comparative Yarn Properties for Fibre Reinforcements for Plastics
Property Glass (E) Carbon (HT) Aramid (Kevlar 49)

Tensile strength, MPa 3100 3450 3600
Tensile modulus, GPa 76 228 131
Elongation at break (%) 4.5 1.6 2.8
Density (g/cm3) 2.54 1.8 1.44

Figure 4.5: Stress-strain behaviour of various types of reinforcing fibres

ACTIVITY 4.4
Based on a reference book, draw the stress strain of steel such as in

Figure 4.4 for comparison. Discuss the special behaviour of steel that
cannot be competed by an FRP composite.

4.10 PROCESSING OF FRP

There are many methods used for producing FRP as discussed briefly in the
following subsections.
4.10.1 Hand Lay-up Process

This is the simplest method of producing a fibre reinforced part. To produce a
part with the hand lay-up process by using fibreglass and polyester, a gel coat is
first applied to the open mould. Fibre glass reinforcement that is normally in the
form of a cloth or mat is manually placed in the mould. The base resin mixed
with catalysts and accelerators is then applied by pouring, brushing, or spraying.
Rollers or squeegees are used to thoroughly wet the reinforcement with the resin
and to remove entrapped air. To increase the wall thickness of the part being
produced, layers of fibre glass mat or woven roving and resin are added.
Applications for this method include boat hulls, tanks, housings and building
panels.
4.10.2 Spray Lay-Up Process

The spray lay-up method of producing fibre reinforced plastic shells is similar to
the hand lay-up method and can be used to make boat hulls, tub-shower units
and other medium to large size shapes. In this process, if fibreglass is used,
continuous strand roving is fed through a combination chopper and spray gun
that simultaneously deposits chopped roving and catalysed resin into the mould.
The deposited laminate is then densified with a roller or squeegee to remove air
and to make sure the resin impregnates the reinforcing fibres. Multiple layers
may be added to produce the desired thickness. Curing is usually at room
temperature, or it may be accelerated by the application of a moderate amount of
heat.
4.10.3 Vacuum Bag-Autoclave Process

The vacuum bag moulding process is used to produce high performance
laminates usually of fibre reinforced epoxy systems. Composite materials
produced by this method are particularly important for aircraft and aerospace
applications.
First, a long, thin sheet which may be about 152cm wide, of prepreg carbon fibre
epoxy material is laid out on a large table. The prepreg material consists of
unidirectional long carbon fibres in a partially cured epoxy matrix. Next, pieces
of the prepreg sheet are cut out and placed on top of each other on a shaped tool
to form a laminate. The layers or plies are placed in different directions to
produce the desired strength pattern since the highest strength of each ply is in
the direction parallel to the fibres.
After the laminate is constructed, the tooling and attached laminate are vacuum-
bagged, with a vacuum being applied to remove entrapped air from the
laminated part. Finally, the vacuum bag enclosing the laminate and the tooling is
put into an autoclave for the final curing of the epoxy resin. The conditions for
curing vary depending on the material, but the carbon fibre epoxy composite
material is usually heated at about 190C at a pressure about 0.69MPa. After
being removed from the autoclave, the composite part is stripped from its tooling
and is ready for further finishing operations.
4.10.4 Filament Winding

Filament winding is the process to produce high strength hollow cylinders. In
this process, the fibre reinforcement is fed through a resin bath and then wound
on a suitable mandrel. When sufficient layers have been applied, the wound
mandrel is cured either at room temperature or at an elevated temperature in an
oven. The moulded part is then stripped from the mandrel. The high degree of
fibre orientation and high fibre loading with this method produce extremely high
tensile strength in hollow cylinders. Applications for this process include
chemical and fuel storage tanks, pressure vessels and rocket motor cases.
4.10.5 Pultrusion
Continuous pultrusion is used for the manufacturing of fibre reinforced plastics
of constant cross section such as structural shapes, beams, channels, pipe and
tubing. In this process, continuous strand fibres are impregnated in a resin bath
and then are drawn through a heated steel die that determines the shape of the
finished stock (Figure 4.6). Very high strengths are possible with this material
because of the high fibre concentration and orientation parallel to the length of
the stock being drawn.

Figure 4.6: (a) Reinforcement bar and (b) laminate sheet produced using pultrusion
technique for structure strengthening
4.10.6 Compression and Injection Moulding

These are two of the most important high volume processes used for producing
fibre reinforced plastics with closed moulds. These processes are essentially the
same as those discussed in Topic 5 (Section 5.3) for plastic materials except that
the fibre reinforcement is mixed with the resin before processing.
4.10.7 Sheet Moulding Compound (SMC)

The sheet moulding compound process is one of the newer closed-mould
processes used to produce fibre reinforced plastic parts, particularly in the
automotive industry. This process allows excellent resin control and good
mechanical strength properties to be obtained while producing high volume,
large size, highly uniform products. The SMC is usually manufactured by a
highly automated continuous flow process.
Continuous strand fibre glass roving is chopped in length of about 5cm and
deposited on a layer of resin filler paste that is travelling on a polyethylene film.
Another layer of resin filler paste is deposited later over the first layer to form a
continuous sandwich of fibreglass and resin filler. The sandwich with top and
bottom covers of polyethylene is compacted and rolled into package-sized rolls.

The rolled-up SMC is next stored in a maturation room for about one to four
days so that the sheet can carry the glass. The SMC rolls are then moved to near
the press and cut into the proper charge pattern for the specific part and placed
in a matched metal mould that is hot (149C). The hydraulic press then is closed,
and the SMC flows uniformly under presuure (6.9MPa) throughout the mould to
form the final product.
Sometimes an in-mould coating may be injected in the middle of the pressing

operation to improve the surface quality of the SMC part. The advantages of the
SMC process over the hand lay-up or spray lay-up processes are more efficient
due to high volume production, improved surface quality and uniformity of
product. The use of SMC is particularly advantageous in the automotive industry
for the production of front end and grille-opening panels, body panels and
hoods.
SELF-CHECK 4.1
1. Name the three types of fibres commonly used to produce fibre
reinforced plastic composite materials, and distinguish its general
mechanical characteristics.
2. Name five methods of producing FRP and for each method,
discuss its advantages and disadvantages.
4.11 APPLICATION OF FRP IN CONSTRUCTION

FRP has been widely used in construction for reinforcement and rehabilitation
work. FRP bars have been produced as an alternative material to steel
reinforcement in construction and to steel plate bonding for structural
strengthening. FRP bars are intended for use as concrete reinforcing in areas
where steel reinforcing bars have a limited life span due to effects of corrosion.
They are also used in situations where electrical or magnetic transparency is
needed.
In addition to reinforcing new concrete construction, FRP bars are used to

structurally strengthen existing masonry, concrete and wood members. The
usage of fibre reinforced polymers (FRP) was wide either in terms of improving
the structural integrity and durability of the reinforced concrete structure
elements and also to increase the strength of members to a level above the
original design requirements. Figure 4.7 shows various types of FRP bars
produced.

Figure 4.7: FRP bars manufactured for reinforcement of new concrete construction
Sources: (a) www. fanomran.com/products1.htm; (b) www.dir.indiamart.com
Externally Bonded Plate (EBP) is a method where a thin plate of FRP is applied to
reinforced concrete structure for rehabilitation or to increase the strength due to
additional imposed loads or the long exposure to aggressive environment. This
method was proven as an effective method to strengthen the bridge component
structures with the application of synthetic fibre-based FRP. The reasons for the
deterioration of reinforced concrete structures include reinforcement corrosion,
freeze-thaw action, excessive loading and poor initial design, mechanical damage
caused by actions such as impact, vibration, overloading, settlement and faulty
construction.
The Near Surface Mounted (NSM) method is also another strengthening method
to increase flexural and shear strength of deficient reinforced concrete (RC)
members (Balendran et al., 2002; Zsombor and Gyorgy, 2007; El-Hacha et al.,
2004). The Near Surface Mounted (NSM) method is where one or a number of
FRP rods are adhered to the soffit of the structure and it was reported that
strengthening through NSM method can improve approximately 130 per cent of
the existing nominal moment capacity (Balendran et al., 2002). Figure 4.8 depicts
the application of CFRP plate and GFRP bar to the soffit of the flexure structural
member using EBP and NSM methods respectively.

Figure 4.8: Applying carbon fibre reinforced plastic plate (laminate) using (a) EBP
method; and (b) NSM method on the soffit of a structural member
Moreover, fibre composites can also be used to prevent reinforcement corrosion

in new construction. This involves providing skin reinforcement for deeper cover
which the cover thickness is deeper than usual to the steel reinforcement. The
benefits of increasing the cover depth with respect to time-to-corrosion are
substantial. The rate of penetration of chlorides into concrete roughly obeys a
square root time law. Experience shows that typically in bridges exposed to salt,
40mm of quality concrete will prevent corrosion for about 20 years, hence 100mm
should provide protection for about 120 years which would mean that the
structure remains corrosion free throughout its design life.
However, the problem with increasing the cover is that it increases surface crack
width, which is aesthetically and structurally undesirable, as the thicker the
cover, the wider the cracks at the surface. More serious though is the fact that
where the cracks lie over transverse steel reinforcement, the risk of corrosion of
this steel is increased due to, essentially, the lower thickness of concrete cover.
However, by introducing bars made of fibre composites as skin reinforcement in
the cover zone, it is possible to increase the depth of concrete cover, to enhance
the vulnerable of steel reinforcement as well as control surface crack width.
Figure 4.9 shows the installation of GFRP bars within the cover thickness of
concrete to curb crack.

Figure 4.9: Glass fibre reinforced plastic (GFRP) bar for skin reinforcement
ACTIVITY 4.5
Discuss in class, what are the advantages of strengthening reinforced

concrete members using the NSM method over the EBP method.
 A polymeric material contains many chemically bonded units that themselves

are bonded together to form a solid. There are two types of polymeric
materials which are plastics and elastomers (or rubbers).
 Polymerisation is the process of chain-growth to link together of smaller units

into long chains.
 Homopolymers are polymeric materials that consist of polymer chains made

up of single repeating units. Copolymers, in contrast, consist of polymer
chains made up of two or more chemically different repeating units that can
be in different sequences.
 Other types of polymers are polymer emulsions, inorganic polymers and

reactive polymers.

 Ceramic materials are inorganic, non-metallic materials that consist

of metallic and non-metallic elements bonded together primarily by ionic
and/or covalent bonds.
 Ceramic materials used for engineering applications can be divided into two
groups: traditional ceramic materials and the engineering ceramic materials.
 Traditional ceramics are made from three basic components: clay, silica
(flint), and feldspar. Engineering ceramics, consist of pure or nearly pure
compounds such as aluminium oxide (Al2O3), silicon carbide (SiC) and
silicon nitride (Si3N4).
 A composite material contains two or more distinctly different materials

combine to form a composite material that possesses properties that are
superior, to the properties of the individual components. Fibre-reinforced
plastic (FRP), wood and concrete are among the important composites. Three
main types of synthetic fibres are used to reinforce plastic material are,
namely, glass, aramid and carbon.
 Glass fibres are used to reinforce plastic matrices to form glass fibre
reinforced plastic of structural composites. Glass fibre plastic composite
materials have these characteristics: high strength to weight ratio, good
dimensional stability, good resistance to heat and corrosion, good electrical
insulation properties, ease of fabrication and relatively low cost.
 Carbon fibres are produced mainly from two sources, polyacrylonitrile

(PAN) and pitch which are called precursors. In general, carbon fibres
are produced from PAN precursor fibres by three processing stages;
(1) stabilisation, (2) carbonisation, and (3) graphitisation.
 Aramid fibre is the generic name for aromatic polyamide fibres. Aramid
fibres were introduced commercially in 1972 by Du Pont under the trade
name of Kevlar.
 Carbon fibres provide the best combination of high strength, high stiffness
(high modulus), and low density but have lower elongations. Aramid fibre
Kevlar 49 has a combination of high strength, high modulus, low density, and
high elongation (impact resistance). Glass fibres have lower strength and
moduli and higher densities. As the glass fibres are much less costly, they are
more widely used.

Alumina Laminate
Aramid fibre Near surface mouted (NSM)
Aramid fibre reinforced plastic Polyacrylonitrile (PAN)
Carbon fibre Polymer
Carbon fibre reinforced plastic Polymer emulsion
Clay Polymerisation
Composite Pultrusion
Copolymers Reactive powder
E glass S glass
Elastomers Sheet moulding compound (SMC)
Engineering ceramic Silicon nitride
External bonded plate (EBP) Sintered
Extrusion Slip casting
Fibre reinforced plastic Spray lay-up
Filament winding Stress-strain
Glass fibre Thermal treatment
Glass fibre reinforced plastic Traditional ceramic
Hand lay-up Vacuum bag-autoclave
Homopolymer Vitrification
Inorganic polymer Zirconia
Isostatic pressing

Balendran, R. V., Rana, T. M., Maqsood, T., & Tang, W. C. (2002). Application of
RFP bars as reinforcement in civil engineering structures. Structural Survey,
20(2), 62ă72.


El-Hacha, R., Rizkalla, S. H. (2004). Near-surface-mounted fiber-reinforced

polymer reinforcements for flexural strengthening of concrete structures.
ACI Struct Journal, 101(5), 717ă726.

Zsombor, K. S., & Gyorgy, L. B. (2007). Near surface mounted frp reinforcement
for strengthening of concrete structures. Periodica Polytechnica, 51(1),
33ă38.

Topic  Plastic, Glass
and Rubber
5
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Identify the types and properties of plastic, glass and rubber;
2. Explain different processes to produce plastic, glass and rubber;
and
3. Discuss the factors influencing the properties and applications of
plastic, glass and rubber.
 INTRODUCTION
This topic covers the types, compositions and properties of some of the important
plastic, glass and rubber materials. Polymeric materials are grouped into two
classes which are plastics and elastomers. Firstly, this topic discusses
thermoplastic and thermoset, their characteristics and examples for each class.
The processing methods for thermoplastic and thermoset plastics, the advantages
and disadvantages for each method are also given. The advantages,
disadvantages of plastics and its uses in construction are also highlighted.
Secondly, definition of glass, its ingredients, its forming and heat treatment
methods are elaborated. Lastly, different types of elastomers namely natural
and synthetic rubbers, examples for each type, its structures, properties and
application in construction and various other fields are also included in this
topic.

102  TOPIC 5 PLASTIC, GLASS AND RUBBER
ACTIVITY 5.1
How many types of plastic and rubber components can you think of
that are used in the typical car? Discuss with your coursemates.
5.1 PLASTIC
Plastics can be divided into two classes, thermoplastics and thermosetting
plastics. Most plastics are produced from oil and also made from other organic
(carbon) materials, such as coal, agricultural crops including wood and soybean.
The largest number of different polymeric materials comes under the plastic
classification. The infinite variations of structure in plastics provide a wide range
of properties that continue to grow as the demands prompt the new discoveries
of plastic materials. Polyethylene, polypropylene, poly (vinyl chloride),
polystyrene, fluorocarbons, epoxies, phenolics, and polyesters are all classified
under plastics (Callister, 2005). The following sections elaborate on the two
classes of plastics and, subsequently, different types of glass and elastomers are
explained.
5.1.1 Thermoplastics
Thermoplastics soften when heated and eventually liquefy and harden when
cooled. This type of plastic requires heat to make them formable and after
cooling, it retains its shape as what it has formed. These materials can be
reheated and reformed into new shapes a number of times without significant
change in their properties. Most thermoplastics consist of very long main chains
of carbon atoms covalently bonded in the main molecular chain. Examples of
thermoplastics are acrylics, nylon and polyethylene.
On a molecular level, as the temperature is raised, secondary bonding forces are

diminished (by increased molecular motion) so that the relative movement of
adjacent chains is facilitated when a stress is applied. Irreversible degradation
results when the temperature of a molten thermoplastic is raised to the point at

TOPIC 5 PLASTIC, GLASS AND RUBBER  103
which molecular vibrations become violent enough to break the primary covalent
bonds. In addition, thermoplastic are relatively soft. Most linear polymers and
those having some branched structures with flexible chains are thermoplastics.
These materials are normally fabricated by the simultaneous application of heat
and pressure.
5.1.2 Thermosets
Thermosetting plastics form into a permanent shape and is cured or „set‰ by a
chemical reaction and cannot be remelted and reformed into another shape
but degrade or decompose upon being heated to too high a temperature.
Thermosetting plastics become permanently hard when heat is applied and do
not soften upon subsequent heating. Thus, thermosetting plastics cannot be
recycled. The term thermosetting implies that heat is required to permanently set
the plastic. Most thermosetting plastics consist of a network of carbon atoms
covalently bonded to form a rigid solid. Sometimes nitrogen, oxygen, sulphur or
other atoms are also covalently bonded into a thermoset network structure.
During the initial heat treatment, covalent crosslinks are formed between
adjacent molecular chains; these bonds anchor the chains together to resist the
vibrational and rotational chain motions at high temperatures. Crosslinking is
usually extensive, in that 10 to 50 per cent of the chain mer units are crosslinked.
Only heating to excessive temperatures will cause severance of these crosslink
bonds and polymer degradation. Thermoset plastics are generally harder and
stronger than thermoplastics, and have better dimensionally stability. Most of the
crosslinked and network polymers, which include vulcanised rubbers, epoxies,
and phenolic, some polyester resins and polyurethane are thermosetting
SELF-CHECK 5.1
Give the distinctive features, limitations and applications of

thermoplastic and thermoset plastic materials.

5.2 PROCESSING PLASTIC MATERIALS

Many different processes are used to transform plastic granules and pellets into
shaped products such as sheet, rods, extruded sections, pipe or finished product
moulded parts. The process used depends to a certain extent on whether the
plastic is a thermoplastic or thermosetting one. Thermoplastics are usually
heated to a soft condition and then reshaped before cooling. On the other hand,
thermosetting materials, not having been completely polymerised before
processing to the finished shape, use a process by which a chemical reaction
occurs to cross-link polymer chains into a network polymeric material. The final
polymerisation can take place by the application of heat and pressure or by
catalytic action at room temperature or higher temperatures.
The important processes used for thermoplastic and thermosetting materials are
outlined in the following subsections.
5.2.1 Injection Moulding

Injection moulding is one of the most important processing methods used for
forming thermoplastic materials. This is the most widely used technique for
fabricating thermoplastic materials. The modern injection moulding machine
uses a reciprocating-screw mechanism for melting the plastic and injecting it
into a mould. Older type injection moulding machines use a plunger for melt
injection. One of the main advantages of the reciprocating screw method over the
plunger type is that the screw drive delivers a more homogeneous melt for
injection.
In the injection moulding process, plastic granules from a hopper are fed through
an opening in the injection cylinder onto the surface of a rotating screw drive,
which carries them forward toward the mould. The rotation of the screw forces
the granules against the heated walls of the cylinder, causing them to melt due to
the heat of compression, friction and the hot walls of the cylinder.
When sufficient plastic material is melted at the mould end of the screw, the
screw stops and by plunger like motion injects a „shot‰ of melted plastic through
a runner-gate system and then into the closed mould cavities. The screw shaft
maintains pressure on the plastic material fed into the mould for a short time to
allow it to become solid and then is retracted. The mould is water-cooled to
rapidly cool the plastic part. Finally, the mould is opened and the part is ejected
from the mould with air or by spring-loaded ejector pins. The mould is then
closed and ready for another cycle.

The main advantages of injection moulding are:
(a) High-quality parts can be produced at a high production rate;
(b) The process has relatively low labour cost;
(c) Good surface finishes can be produced on the moulded part;
(d) The process can be highly automated; and
(e) Intricate shapes can be produced.
The disadvantages of injection moulding are:
(a) High cost of the machine means that a large volume of parts must be made
to pay for the machine; and
(b) The process must be closely controlled to produce a quality product.
5.2.2 Extrusion
Extrusion is another important processing method used for thermoplastics.
Extrusion process is simply an injection moulding of a viscous thermoplastic
through an open-ended die, similar to the extrusion of metals. A mechanical
screw or auger propels through a chamber the pelletised material, which is
successively compacted, melted and formed into a continuous charge of viscous
fluid. Extrusion takes place as this molten mass is forced through a die orifice.
Solidification of the extruded length is expedited by blowers or a water spray just
before passing onto a moving conveyor. The technique is especially adapted to
produce continuous lengths having constant cross-sectional geometries, for
example, pipe, rod, film, sheet, rods, tubes, hose channels, sheets, filaments and
shapes of all kinds.
5.2.3 Blow Moulding and Thermoforming

Other important processing methods for thermoplastics are blow moulding and
thermoforming of sheet. In blow moulding, a cylinder or tube of heated plastic
called a parison is placed between the jaws of a mould. The mould is closed to
pinch off the ends of the cylinder, and compressed air is blown in, forcing the
plastic against the walls of the mould. In thermoforming, a heated plastic sheet is
forced into the contours of a mould by pressure. Mechanical pressure may be
used with mating dies, or a vacuum may be used to pull the heated sheet into an
open die. Air pressure may also be used to force a heated sheet into an open die.

5.2.4 Compression Moulding

Many thermosetting resins such as the phenol-formaldehyde, urea-formaldehyde
and melamine-formaldehyde resins are formed into solid parts by the
compression moulding process. In compression moulding, the plastic resin,
which may be preheated, is loaded into a hot mould containing one or more
cavities. The upper part of the mould is forced down on the plastic resin and the
applied pressure and heat melts the resin and forces the liquefied plastic to fill
the cavity or cavities. Continued heating (usually a minute or two) is required to
complete the cross-linking of the thermosetting resin, and then the part is ejected
from the mould. The excess flash is trimmed later from the part.
The advantages of compression moulding are:
(a) Because of the relative simplicity of the moulds, initial mould costs are low;
(b) The relatively short flow of material reduces wear and abrasion of moulds;
(c) Production of large parts is more feasible;
(d) More compact moulds are possible because of the simplicity of the mould;
and
(e) Expelled gases from the curing reaction can escape during the moulding
process.
The disadvantages of compression moulding are:
(a) Complicated part configurations are difficult to make with this process;
(b) Inserts may be difficult to hold to close tolerances; and
(c) Flash must be trimmed from the moulded parts.
5.2.5 Transfer Moulding

Transfer moulding is also used for moulding thermosetting plastics such as
the phenolic, urea, melamine and alkyd resins. Transfer moulding differs
from compression moulding in how the materials is introduced into the mould
cavities. In transfer moulding, the plastic resin is not fed directly into the mould
cavity but into a chamber outside the mould cavities. In transfer moulding, when
the mould is closed, a plunger forces the plastic resin (which is usually
preheated) from the outside chamber through a system of runners and gates into

the mould cavities. After the moulded material has had time to cure so that a
rigid network polymeric material is formed, the moulded part is ejected from the
mould.
The advantages of transfer moulding are:
(a) Transfer moulding has the advantage over compression moulding in that
no flash is formed during moulding, and thus the moulded part requires
less finishing;
(b) Many parts can be made at the same time by using a runner system; and
(c) Transfer moulding is especially useful for making small, intricate parts that
would be difficult to make by compression moulding.
5.3 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF

PLASTICS
Plastics are important engineering materials for many reasons. They have a wide
range of properties, some of which are unattainable from other materials. The
following outlines some of the advantages and disadvantages of plastic.
The advantages of plastics are listed below:
(a) Relative low in cost;
(b) Very light in weight;
(c) Low thermal conductivity;
(d) Low electrical conductivity;
(e) Great resistance to moisture and provides impermeable films for moisture
barriers;
(f) Available in a wide range of colours and shades;
(g) Transparent, translucent or opaque;
(h) Good resistance to attack by organic acids, bases, salts and living
organisms;
(i) Slow burning, self-extinguishing or even non-inflammable;
(j) Available in a very wide range of properties to suit the needs of different
applications;

(k) Can be formed or moulded into any shape;
(l) Strong varieties of plastics can be obtained by using fabric reinforcements;
(m) Can be cast, moulded, extruded, sawn, machined, riveted, welded or glued;
(n) Rust proof;
(o) Can be reused after reprocessing; and
(p) Have dimensional stability.
The disadvantages of plastics are outlined as follows:
(a) Relatively low strength;
(b) Low working temperature; and
(c) Deteriorate including fading of colour and reduction in tensile strength due
to exposure to sunlight or ultraviolet rays.
SELF-CHECK 5.2
Cite five different types of processing methods of plastics and describe

the processing methods to produce thermoplastic products.
5.4 PROPERTIES OF PLASTIC MATERIALS

Thermoplastic and thermosets have a wide variety of combinations of properties.
Some plastics are very rigid and brittle, others are flexible, exhibiting both
elastic and plastic deformations when stressed, and sometimes experiencing
considerable deformation before fracture. Based on the uses of plastic, properties
of plastic can be categorised into two, namely, general purpose and engineering
plastics. General purpose plastics are plastics that are encountered daily such as
cellulosic, acrylics and vinyls. Engineering plastics are those capable of bearing
supporting loads that can substitute traditional materials such as steel and wood
(Jacobs & Kilduff, 2001). Table 5.1 shows the properties of selected general-
purpose thermoplastics.

Table 5.1: Some Properties of Selected Thermoplastics
Impact Max-use
Tensile
Density Strength Temperature
Material Strength
(g/cm3) Izod (No Load)
(MPa)
(J/m) C
Polyethylene
ă Low density 0.92ă0.93 6.2ă17.3 21.4ă747.3 82ă100
ă High density 0.95ă0.96 20ă37.3 53.4ă299 80ă120
Rigid, chlorinated PVC 1.49ă1.58 51.8ă62.1 53.4ă299 110
Polypropylene, general 0.90ă0.91 33.1ă38.0 21.4ă117.4 107ă150
purpose
Styrene acrylonitrile (SAN) 1.08 69ă82.8 21.4ă26.7 60ă104
ABS, general purpose 1.05ă1.07 40.8 320 71ă93
Acrylic, general purpose 1.11ă1.19 75.9 122.8 54ă110
Cellulosic, acetate 1.2ă1.3 20.7ă55.2 58.7ă363 60ă104
Polytetrafluoroethylene 2.1ă2.3 6.9ă27.6 133.4ă213.5 288
Plastics exhibit good mechanical properties though the values are of lower order.
Some plastics exhibit very high ductility. The plastic materials can undergo as
high as 500 per cent elongation before breaking when pulled. The impact
strength also increases with increase in temperature. The tensile strength of
plastic materials is relatively low. Most plastic materials have a tensile strength of
less than 69MPa (Table 5.1). With increase in temperature, there is reduction in
strength and increase in deformation per unit length. At low temperature,
plastics become brittle and at high temperatures, it becomes highly ductile. With
increase in relative humidity, the strength of plastics in general decreases.
Plastic materials are generally good electrical insulative materials. The electrical
insulative strength of plastic materials is usually measured by their dielectric
strength, expressed in volts per millimetre (V/mm). The dielectric strengths of
the plastic materials vary from 15,169 to 69,935V/mm. The maximum use
temperature for most plastic materials is relatively low and varies from 54C to
150C for most thermoplastic materials. Table 5.2 lists the densities, tensile
strength, impact strength and maximum use of temperatures for some selected
engineering thermoplastics (Smith & Hashemi, 2011).

Table 5.2: Some Properties of Selected Engineering Thermoplastics
Impact Max-use
Tensile
Material Strength
(MPa)
(J/m) C
Nylon 6.6 1.13ă1.15 62ă83 107 82ă150
Polyacetal, homo. 1.42 69 75 90
Polycarbonate 1.2 62 640ă854 120
Polyester
ă Polyethylene terephthalate 1.37 72 43 80
(PET)
ă Polybutylene terephthalate 1.31 55ă57 64ă69 120
(PBT)
Polyphenylene oxide 1.06ă1.10 54ă66 267 80ă105
Polysulfone 1.24 70 64 150
Polyphenylene sulfide 1.34 69 16 260
Source: Smith & Hashemi, 2011)
Table 5.3 lists the densities, tensile strength, impact strengths and maximum use
temperatures for some selected thermoset plastics. The densities of thermoset
plastics tend to be slightly higher than most plastic materials, with those listed in
Table 5.3 ranging from 1.34 to 2.3g/cm3. The tensile strength of most thermosets
is relatively low, with most strengths ranging from 28 to 103MPa. However, with
a high amount of glass filling, the tensile strength of some thermosets can be
increased to as high as 207MPa. Glass-filled thermosets also have much higher
impact strengths as indicated in Table 5.3. The maximum use temperature for the
thermosets ranges from 77C to 288C (Smith & Hashemi, 2011).

Table 5.3: Some Properties of Selected Thermoset Plastics
Impact Max-use
Tensile
Material Strength
(MPa)
(J/m) C
Phenolic:
Wood-flour-filled 1.34ă1.45 35ă63 11ă32 150ă177
Mica-filled 1.65ă1.92 38ă49 16ă21 120ă150
Glass-filled 1.69ă1.95 35ă124 16ă961 177ă288
Polyester:
Glass-filled SMC 1.7ă2.1 56ă140 427ă1174 150ă177
Glass-filled BMC 1.7ă2.3 28ă69 801ă854 150ă177
Melamine:
Cellulose-filled 1.45ă1.52 35ă63 11ă21 120
Flock-filled 1.50ă1.55 49ă63 21ă27 120

Glass-filled 1.80ă2.0 35ă69 32ă961 150ă200
Urea, cellulose filled 1.47ă1.52 39ă91 11ă21 77
Alkyd:
Glass-filled 2.12ă2.15 28ă66 32ă53 230
Mineral-filled 1.60ă2.30 21ă63 16ă27 150ă230
Epoxy:
No filler 1.06ă1.40 28ă91 11ă53 120ă260
Mineral-filled 1.6ă2.0 35ă105 16ă21 150ă260
Glass-filled 1.7ă2.0 69ă210 ... 150ă260
ACTIVITY 5.2
List five properties essential for the rope used to pull water skiers.
Select two plastics suitable for this service and explain the selection.
Discuss with your tutor.

5.5 USES OF PLASTIC MATERIALS IN

CONSTRUCTION
Plastic materials have made a valuable contribution in the field of construction
material. Polymeric materials, or plastics, are capable of replacing many
conventional construction materials. Plastics provide low emissivity and,
therefore, conserve energy that might otherwise escape through roofs and walls.
Plastics can be used for roof, windows, siding, plumbing system, foundation as
well as electrical and mechanical systems. Various uses of plastics in construction
and the types of plastics are outlined in Table 5.4.
Table 5.4: Uses of Plastics in Construction and Commercial Forms
Commercial Component
No Uses Types of Plastics
Forms
1 Exterior roof Corrugated sheets, gutter, Polyvinylchloride (PVC)
water-proofing material, fibre reinforced plastics
thermal insulation, etc. (FRP), acrylic polyurethane,
phenolic resin bonded paper,
laminate sheets, etc.
2 Exterior walls Sheathing, window sills PVC, FRP, acryrilonitri
louvers, sign panels, sizing butadiene styrene (ABS),
boards, spraying material, acrylics, epoxy, polyvinyl
paints, thin and light wall acetate (PVA) polystrene
tiles, and wall lining. phenolic, etc.
3 Interior floors Floor tiles, composite PVC, polystyrene,
flooring material carpet, and polyurethane, acrylics,
water proofing sheet for polypropylene, epoxy, PVA,
unfloored part of house. hesian or other fabric backed
PVC, etc.
4 Interior skirting Skirting board. PVC and epoxy.
5 Interior wall Decorative panel, composite PVC melamine polyester
finishes plywood jointer, wall paper, polystyrene, acrylics, epoxy,
frame paints, adhesives, ABS, polyurethane, and
distempers, etc. water-soluble cellulose
derivatives.
6 Ceiling Ceiling louvers, spraying Acrylics, polyesters, PVC,
materials, paints, etc. etc.

7 Doors and Substrate for sliding doors, Polystyrene, PVC, nylon,

windows, door paper, door pull, hinge, polypropylene (PP) ABS,
Building knob, blind, screen, curtain, acrylics, polyester,
hardware door rolles, frame panels, methylmethacrylate, phenol
covering for handrails, formal dehyde (PF), urea,
laminates for joinery, etc. formal dehyde, FRP, PVC,
polystyrene, PP, ABS,
acrylics, and polyurethane
cellulose acetate.
8 Sanitary fittings Ventilation fan, duct, FRP, PVC, polystyrene, PP,
sanitary fixtures, bath tubs, ABS, acrylics, polyurethane,
cover, septic tank, hot water bitumen based plastics, and
pipe, chemical and medicine polythene (low density).
cabinets, flushing cistern,
mouldings, and cistern ball
float.
ACTIVITY 5.3
Discuss with your tutor how the construction industry can be

convinced about the beneficial impact that plastic materials can have on
the environment.
5.6 GLASS
A glass is a ceramic material that is made from inorganic materials at high
temperatures. However, it is distinguished from other ceramics in that its
constituents are heated to fusion and then cooled to a rigid state without
crystallisation. Thus, a glass can be defined as an organic product of fusion that
has cooled to a rigid condition without crystallisation (Smith & Hashemi, 2011).
Glass is used in the building industry mainly as an infilling for the transmission
of light through doors, windows and partitions in lantern and fan lights, as wall
and ceiling lining, glass bricks, glass windows sills and as a heat and sound
insulation medium in the form of glass-wool or fibre-glass.

5.6.1 Ingredients of Glass

Glass is made from a pure iron-free quartz sand or crushed quartzite rock
which is fused with the carbonate of potassium or sodium to produce a hard
transparent glassy substance known as sodium silicate (water glass) which is
soluble in water. When lime is added to this mixture, this solubility is reduced,
and when enough lime is added, a durable glass is obtained. The constituents
and their percentage in the main types of glass are illustrated in Table 5.5.
Table 5.5: Constituents and their Percentages of Main Types of Glass
Type of Glass Composition

Soda-lime-silica glass Na2CO3 = 15%, CaCO3 = 10%, SiCO2 = 75%
Borosilicate glass (heat-resistant glass, Na2O/K2O = 2ă10%= B2O3 = 10ă25%
that is, corning/pyrex) Al2O3 = 1ă4%, SiO2 = 60ă80%
Flint or crystal glass PbO = 20ă35% Na2O/K2O = 10ă20%
SiO2 = 55ă65%
PbO = 35ă65%, Na2O/K2O = 5ă10%
As2O3 = 5%; SiO2 = 30ă50%
5.6.2 Glass Forming

Glass is produced by heating the raw materials to an elevated temperature above
which melting occurs. Most commercial glasses are of the silica-soda-lime
variety. The silica is supplied as common quartz sand, whereas Na2O and CaO
are added as soda ash (Na2CO3) and limestone (CaCO3). For most applications,
especially when optical transparency is important, it is essential that the glass
product be homogeneous and pore free. Homogeneity is achieved by complete
melting and mixing of the raw ingredients. Porosity results from small gas
bubbles that are produced; which requires proper adjustments of the viscosity of
the molten material. Four different forming methods are used to fabricate glass
products; pressing, blowing, drawing and fibre forming.
Pressing is used in the fabrication of relatively thick-walled pieces such as plates

and dishes. The glass piece is formed by pressure applications in a graphite-
coated cast iron mould having the desired shape; the mould is ordinarily heated
to ensure an even surface.

The blowing process can be done manually and automatically for the production
of bottles, glass jars and light bulbs. From a raw gob of glass, a parison, or
temporary shape, is formed by mechanical pressing in a mould. This piece is
inserted into a finishing or blow mould and forced to conform to the mould
contours by the pressure created from a blast of air.
Drawing is used to form long glass pieces such as sheet, rod, tubing and fibres
which have a constant cross section. It may also be fabricated by hot rolling.
Flatness and the surface finish may be improved significantly by floating the
sheet on a bath of molten tin at an elevated temperature. The piece is slowly
cooled and subsequently heat treated by annealing.
Fibre forming is done continuously in a sophisticated drawing operation. The

molten glass is contained in a platinum heating chamber. Fibres are formed
by drawing the molten glass through many small orifices at the chamber base.
The glass viscosity, which is critical, is controlled by chamber and orifice
temperatures.
5.6.3 Heat Treating Glass

To avoid thermal stress due to cooling from elevated temperature, annealing heat
treatment is done by heating the glassware to the annealing point, and then
slowly cooling it to room temperature.
The strength of a glass may be enhanced to intentionally inducing compressive

residual surface stresses. This can be accomplished by a heat treatment procedure
called thermal tempering. With this technique, the glassware is heated to a
temperature above the glass transition region yet below the softening point. It is
then cooled to room temperature in a jet of air or, in some cases, an oil bath. The
residual stresses arise from differences in cooling rates for surface and interior
regions.
Initially, the surface cools more rapidly and, once having dropped to a
temperature below the strain point, becomes rigid. At this time, the interior,
having cooled less rapidly, is at higher temperature (above the strain point) and,
therefore, is still plastic. With continued cooling, the interior attempts to contract
to a greater degree than the now rigid exterior will allow. Thus, the inside tends
to draw in the outside, or to impose inward radial stresses. As a consequence,
after the glass piece has cooled to room temperature, it sustains compressive
stresses on the surface, with tensile stresses at interior regions.

The failure of glass almost always results from a crack that is initiated at the
surface by an applied tensile stress. To cause fracture of a tempered glass piece,
the magnitude of an externally applied tensile stress must be great enough to
first overcome the residual compressive surface stress and, in addition, to stress
the surface in tension sufficiently to initiate a crack, which may then propagate.
For an untempered glass, a crack will be introduced at a lower external stress
level, and, consequently, the fracture strength will be smaller. Tempered glass is
used for applications in which high strength is important. These include large
doors, automobile windshields and eyeglass lenses.
5.6.4 Properties of Glass

One characteristic of glass is that it has a noncrystalline or amorphous structure.
The molecules in a glass are not arranged in a regular repetitive long-range order
as that which exists in a crystalline solid. In a glass, the molecules change their
orientation in a random manner throughout the solid material (Smith &
Hashemi, 2011).
Upon cooling, glass becomes more viscous with decreasing temperature.

Therefore there is no definite temperature at which the liquid transforms to a
solid as with crystalline materials. In fact one of the distinctions between
crystalline and noncrystalline materials lies in the dependence of specific volume
(or volume per unit mass ă the reciprocal of density) on temperature. For
crystalline materials, there is a discontinuous decrease in volume at the melting
temperature Tm. However, for glassy materials, volume decreases continuously
with temperature reduction; a slight decrease in slope of the curve occurs at what
is called the glass transition temperature, or fictive temperature, Tg. Below
this temperature, the material is considered to be a glass; above, it is first a
supercooled liquid, and finally a liquid.
The viscous-temperature characteristics are important in glass-forming

operations which can be labelled as follows:
(a) The melting point corresponds to the temperature at which the viscosity is
10Pa-s; the glass is fluid enough to be considered a liquid;
(b) The working point represents the temperature at which the viscosity is
103Pa-s;
(c) The softening point is the temperature at which the viscosity is 4  106Pa-s,
is the maximum temperature at which a glass piece may be handled
without causing significant dimensional alterations;

(d) The annealing point is the temperature at which the viscosity is 1012Pa-s; at
this temperature, atomic diffusion is sufficiently rapid that any residual
stresses may be removed within about 15 minutes; and
(e) The strain point corresponds to the temperature at which the viscosity
becomes 3  1013Pa-s; for temperatures below the strain point, fracture will
occur before the onset of plastic deformation. The glass transition
temperature will above the strain point.
Most glass-forming operations are carried out within the working range ă
between the working and softening temperatures. The temperature at which
each of these points occurs depends on the glass composition. For example,
the softening points for soda-lime and 96 per cent silica glasses are about 700Ĉ
and 1550C, respectively, that is, forming operations may be carried out at
significantly lower temperatures for the soda-lime glass. The formability of a
glass is tailored to a large degree by its composition (Callister, 2005).
Glass is a hard weather resistant but brittle material; unaffected by alkalis or salts
or by most acids. It is attacked by hydrofluoric acid which is used to etch it. The
properties of glass are outlined as follows:
(a) Thickness and Weight

The thickness of glass was traditionally measured in terms of its mass
per unit area. However, the thickness can be given directly and the most
common thickness is 3 and 4mm thick.
(b) Thermal Conductivity

The thermal conductivity for glass is the same as for dense clay bricks
which is 1.0W/m2/C (U value). The resistance of single glazing to heat
loss is due to the surface resistance of the glass rather than its own ability to
restrict heat flow. U value for vertical single glazing in conditions of
average exposure is 5W/m2/C while for double glazing with 5mm cavity,
the U value is 3.0W/m2/C. As for comparison, a 280mm cavity brick wall
records 1.7W/m2/C U value.
(c) Thermal Movement

For high-silica glass such as borosilicates, the thermal movement recorded
was 5.6  10ă6/C and for lead crystal, the value is 9.0  10ă6/C. The
former, therefore, is more resistant to thermal shock.

(d) Light and Heat Transmission

Normal glazing records 90 per cent direct transmission of light. Glass tends
to absorb infrared radiation so that corresponding heat transmission is
80 per cent. The metallic layers in the manufactured glass reduce heat
transmission by 30 per cent (utility where solar radiation is a problem, for
example, roof lights or large areas of glazing in air conditioning result in
reducing the cooling requirements).
(e) Durability
Glass is unaffected by atmosphere, and by most acids with the exception
of hydrofluoric acid. Alkalis, which occur in cement or chemical paint
strippers, attack glass and destroy the smooth surface and light
transmission properties.
(f) Sound Insulation

The sound reduction properties of glazing are typical of those of a thin
panel or membrane. For best effect, air paths through double glazing
should be prevented. The use of different thicknesses of glass in the two
sheets and an absorbent material in the cavity increases the sound
insulation (see Table 5.6). About 200mm is best for sound insulation
properties.
Table 5.6: Sound Level Reduction in Single and Double Glazing (Openable Window)
Type and Thickness of Glazing Reduction (db)

3mm single glazing 20
12mm single glazing 22
3mm and 4mm double glazed window with absorbent in 31
the 200mm cavity

5.6.5 Uses of Glass in Construction

Table 5.7 gives the types of glass and its suitability for particular applications.
Table 5.7: Types of Glass and its Application
Types of Glass Suitability and Remarks

Clear window glass Extensively used in all classes of buildings.
(sheet glass)
Polished plate glass, (i) Exposed windows in the better grade of buildings:
float glass ă better quality of appearance and clearness of vision.
(ii) Large windows such as show windows
Chipped and ground Limited to where light is to be admitted but vision is to be
class obscured. Chipped ă more expensive of the two. Used in
interior partitions.
Rolled figured glass Exteriors and interiors of buildings to obscure the vision or
diffuse the light. It is desirable to use some type of figured
glass in basement windows below grade because such
windows cannot be kept clean and dust is conspicuous on
clear glass.
Wired glass Outside windows, because of its resistance to fire. Also in
doors and other positions where breakage is likely to occur.
It will continue to give service even though badly fractured.
In addition to the above, bullet-proof glass is also generally used in terms of

safety and security.
5.7 ELASTOMERS
Elastomers or rubbers are polymeric materials whose dimensions can be greatly
changed when stressed and that return to their original dimensions (or almost)
when the deforming stress is removed. There are many types of elastomeric
materials. The following subsections elaborate some of the elastomers namely
natural rubber, synthetic polyisoprene, styrene-butadiene rubber, nitrile rubbers,
polychloroprene and the silicones (Smith & Hashemi, 2011).

5.7.1 Natural Rubber

Natural rubber is produced commercially from the latex of the Heveabrasiliensis
tree, which is cultivated in plantations mainly in tropical regions of Southeast
Asia, especially in Malaysia and Indonesia. The source of natural rubber is a
milky liquid known as latex, which is a suspension containing very small
particles of rubber. The liquid latex is collected from the trees and taken to a
processing centre, where the field latex is diluted to about 15 per cent rubber
content and coagulated with formic acid (an organic acid).
The coagulated material is then compressed through rollers to remove water and
to produce a sheet material. The sheets are dried either with currents of hot air or
by the heat of a smoke fire (rubber-smoked sheets). The rolled sheets and other
types of raw rubber are usually milled between heavy rolls in which the
mechanical shearing action breaks up some of the long polymer chains and
reduces their average molecular weight.
(a) Structure
Natural rubber is mainly cis-1,4 polyisoprene mixed with small amounts of
proteins, lipids, inorganic salts, and numerous other components. Cis-1,4
polyisoprene is a long-chain polymer (average molecular weight of about
5  105g/mol) that has the following structural formula (Figure 5.1):
Figure 5.1: Cis-1, 4 polyisoprene structure, repeating structural

unit for natural rubber plastics
(b) Vulcanisation
Vulcanisation is the chemical process by which polymer molecules are
joined together by cross-linking into larger molecules to restrict molecular
movement. This is to overcome the problems with natural rubber that is too
soft and has many reactive sites (double bonds) which cause rapid
oxidation and will not recover from high stress. In 1839, Charles Goodyear
discovered a vulcanisation process for rubber by using sulphur and basic

lead carbonate. Goodyear found that when a mixture of natural rubber,

sulphur and lead carbonate was heated, the rubber changed from a
thermoplastic to an elastomeric material. The final result is that some of the
double bonds in the polyisoprene molecules form sulphur atom cross-links
as shown in Figure 5.2.
Figure 5.2: Structure of (a) natural rubber ă thermoplastic; and

(b) vulcanised (cross-linked) rubber ă thermosets

5.7.2 Synthetic Rubber

Synthetic rubbers accounted for about 70 per cent of the total worldÊs supply of
rubber materials. Some of the important synthetic rubbers are styrene-
butadience, nitrile rubbers, and polychloroprenes. The three synthetic rubbers
are described as follows:
(a) Styrene Butadiene Rubber

The most important synthetic rubber and the most widely used is
styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR), a butadiene-styrene copolymer. After
polymerisation, this material contains 20 to 30 per cent styrene. The basic
structure of SBR is shown in Figure 5.3.
Figure 5.3: Chemical structure of styrene-butadiene synthetic rubber copolymer

Since the butadiene mers contain double bonds, this copolymer can be
vulcanised with sulphur by cross-linking. Butadiene by itself when
synthesised with a stereospecific catalyst to produce the cis isomer has even
greater elasticity than natural rubber since the methyl group attached to the
double bond in natural rubber is missing in butadiene mer. The presence of
styrene in the copolymer produces a tougher and stronger rubber.
The phenyl side group of styrene that is scattered along the copolymer
main chain reduces the tendency of the polymer to crystallise under high
stresses. SBR is lower in cost than natural rubber and so is used in many
rubber applications for example tire treads. SBR has better wear resistance
but higher heat generation. A disadvantage of SBR and natural rubber is
that they absorb organic solvents such as gasoline and oil.

(b) Nitrile Rubbers

Nitrile rubbers are copolymers of butadiene and acrylonitrile with the
proportions ranging from 55 to 82 per cent butadiene and 45 to 18 per cent
acrylonitrile. The presence of the nitrile groups increases the degree of
polarity in the main chains and the hydrogen bonding between adjacent
chains. The nitrile groups provide good resistance to oils and solvents as
well as improved abrasion and heat resistance. On the other hand,
molecular flexibility is reduced. Nitrile rubbers are more costly than
ordinary rubbers, so these copolymers are limited to special applications
such as fuel hoses and gaskets where high resistance to oils and solvents is
required.
(c) Polychloroprene (Neoprene)

The polychloroprene or neoprene rubbers are similar to isoprene except
that the methyl group attached to the double carbon bond is replaced by a
chlorine atom (Figure 5.4).
Figure 5.4: Chemical structue of polychloroprene (neoprene)

The presence of the chlorine atom increases the resistance of the unsaturated
double bonds to be attacked by oxygen, ozone, heat, light and the weather.
Neoprenes also have fair fuel and oil resistance and increased strength over
that of the ordinary rubbers. However, they do have poorer low temperature
flexibility and are higher in cost. Neoprenes are commonly used as industrial
hoses and belts, and automotive seals and diaphragms.

5.7.3 Properties of Rubber

Elastomers possess diverse properties, as do plastics. Thousands of additives and
fillers are available to be mixed with a single elastomeric compound. Soap and
water are added to styrene and butadiene to produce and emulsion of SBR.
Accelerators, activators, retarders, pigmenters, abrasives, hardeners and
antioxidants are among additives to modify or improve the properties of
elastomers (Jacobs & Kilduff, 2001).
Figure 5.5 depicts the stress ă strain diagram for vulcanised and unvulcanised
rubber. Table 5.8 compares the tensile strength, elongation and density properties
of vulcanised natural rubber with those of some other synthetic elastomers.
Figure 5.5: Stress-strain diagrams for vulcanised and unvulcanised rubbers


Table 5.8: Properties of Selected Elastomers
Recommended
Tensile
Elongation Density Operating
Elastomer Strength
(%) (g/cm3) Temperature
(MPa)
(C)
Natural rubber 17ă24 750ă850 0.93 ă50 to 82
(cis ă polyisoprene)
SBR (butadiene-styrene) 14ă24 400ă600 0.94 ă50 to 82
Nitrile (butadiene- 3ă6 450ă700 1.0 ă50 to 120
acrylonitrile)
Neoprene 21ă28 800ă900 1.25 ă40 to 115
(polychloroprene)
Silicone (polysiloxane) 4ă9 100ă500 1.1ă1.6 ă115 to 315
5.7.4 Uses of Rubber

Rubber plays an important role in health care. Silicone elastomers are used for
various body replacements. Silicone is often used for reconstructing body tissue.
Other uses for silicone include baby bottle nipples, heat-resistant gaskets, cable
insulation, spark-plug boots, encapsulations, bumper gels, brake fluid, adhesives
for exterior tile on space shuttles, sealants and weatherproof caulks (Jacobs &
Kilduff, 2001). The construction and building industry uses rubber for flexible
seals and gaskets, water-bars, bridge bearings, vibration attenuating, mountings,
membranes for roofing, lining of reservoirs, etc. Flexible hoses carrying
compressed air and water around construction sites are also dependent upon
rubber.
SELF-CHECK 5.3
Describe the processes that are used to produce glass.

SELF-CHECK 5.4
1. Define the term elastomer and draw a diagram showing the

chemical structure of natural rubber and vulcanised rubber.
2. Describe the purpose of vulcanising rubber.
 Plastics can be divided into two classes, thermoplastics and thermosetting

plastics. Thermoplastics require heat to make them formable and after
cooling, it retains its shape as what it has formed. Thermosetting plastics
formed into a permanent shape and set by a chemical reaction cannot be
remelted and reformed into another shape.
 The processes used for thermoplastic are injection moulding, extrusion, blow
moulding and thermoforming of sheet. For thermosets, the processes include
compression moulding and transfer moulding. Each method has its own
advantages and disadvantages.
 Properties of plastic can be categorised into two, namely, general purpose

and engineering plastics. General purpose plastics are plastics that are
encountered daily such as cellulosic, acrylics and vinyls. Engineering plastics
are those capable of bearing supporting loads that can substitute traditional
materials such as steel and wood.
 A glass can be defined as an organic product of fusion that has cooled to a

rigid condition without crystallisation. Glass is made from a pure iron-free
quartz sand or crushed quartzite rock which is fused with the carbonate of
potassium or sodium to produce a hard transparent glassy.
 Four different forming methods are used to fabricate glass products;

pressing, blowing, drawing, and fibre forming.

 Glass is a hard weather resistant but brittle material; unaffected by alkalis or

salts or by most acids. It is attacked by hydrofluoric acid which is used to etch
it. The properties of glass are thickness and weight, thermal conductivity,
thermal movement, light and heat transmission, sound insulation and its
durability.
 Elastomers or rubbers are polymeric materials whose dimensions can be

greatly changed when stressed and that return to their original dimensions
(or almost) when the deforming stress is removed. Elastomers are grouped
into namely natural rubber, synthetic polyisoprene, styrene-butadiene
rubber, nitrile rubbers, polychloroprene and the silicones.
 Natural rubber is produced commercially from the latex of the

Heveabrasiliensis tree. Vulcanisation is the chemical process by which
polymer molecules are joined together by cross-linking into larger molecules
to restrict molecular movement. This is to overcome the problems with
natural rubber that is too soft and has many reactive sites (double bonds)
which cause rapid oxidation and will not recover from high stress.
 Synthetic rubbers accounted for about 70 per cent of the total worldÊs supply
of rubber materials. The three synthetic rubbers are styrene butadiene rubber,
nitrile rubbers and polychloroprene (neoprene).
 Elastomers possess diverse properties, as do plastics. Thousands of additives

and fillers are available to be mixed with a single elastomeric compound.
Accelerators, activators, retarders, pigmenters, abrasives, hardeners,
antioxidants are among additives to modify or improve the properties of
elastomers.
 Rubber plays an important role in health care, construction and the building
industry. Rubbers are used for flexible seals, hoses and gaskets, water-bars,
bridge bearings, vibration attenuating, mountings, membranes for roofing,
lining of reservoirs, etc.

Acrylics Plastic
Annealing Polyethylene
Blowing Polypropylene
Compression moulding Poly(vinyl chloride)
Drawing Polystyrene
Elastomer Polyester
Engineering plastic Pressing
Epoxy Rubber
Extrusion Styrene butadiene
Glass Synthetic rubber
Glass forming Thermoforming
Glass tempering Thermoplastic
Injection moulding Thermoset
Natural rubber Transfer moulding
Nitrile Vinyls
Nylon Viscous-temperature
Phenolic Vulcanised

Jacobs, J. A., & Kilduff, T. F. (2001). Engineering materials technology: Structures,

processing, properties, and selection. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.


Topic  Timber
6
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe the classification, characteristics, defects and moisture
movement of timber;
2. Explain different processes to preserve timber; and
3. Evaluate the factors, properties and select suitable preservation
methods for timber to be used in construction.
 INTRODUCTION
This topic deals with timber as one of the traditional materials used in
construction. Thousands of available timber species vary widely in their
properties and appearances. In addition, within any one species, there is often a
wide variation between trees growing in different climatic conditions and on
different soils, and between parts of trees. A typical macrostructure of a tree
trunk shows that wood consists of many layers inside and each layer has unique
functions. Meanwhile, timber can be classified into two groups which are
hardwoods and softwoods. Timber can also be classified based upon appearance
and strength grading. Strength of timber can be graded either visually or by
conducting a bending test.
Properties of timber are mainly influenced by its density and moisture condition.
Therefore, this topic covers some factors revolving around the methods of
controlling and determining the moisture content of timber. Shrinkage of timber
can occur in different directions of a cross section of a tree. This topic also
highlights common defects in timber and preservation techniques to prevent

130  TOPIC 6 TIMBER
degradation of timber due to fungi, insect and attacks from other organisms. This
topic ends with a look at the advantages of timber as an important construction
material.
ACTIVITY 6.1
Discuss with your tutor, how the macrostructure and microstructure of

hardwoods differ from softwoods. Cite examples to illustrate these
differences.
6.1 MACROSTRUCTURE OF WOOD

Wood is a naturally occurring composite material that consists mainly of a
complex array of cellulose cells reinforced by a polymeric substance called lignin
and other organic compounds. The strength of wood is highly anisotropic with
its tensile strength being much greater in the direction parallel to the tree stem
(Smith & Hashemi, 2011). A typical cross-section of a tree trunk is shown in
Figure 6.1.
Figure 6.1: Typical cross-section of a tree trunk

Source: Badorul Hisham Abu Bakar & Sharifah Rosfashida Syed Abd. Latif, 2010

TOPIC 6 TIMBER  131
The labels A to H in Figure 6.1 can be described as follows:
(a) A: Outer bark comprising dry dead tissue providing general protection
against external elements;
(b) B: Inner bark comprising moist, soft material which conducts food
synthesised by the leaves to all growing parts of the tree;
(c) C: Cambium layer comprising a microscopic layer on the inside of the inner
bark. Cell division within this layer is responsible for growth in the
thickness of the tree;
(d) D: Sapwood comprising the younger growth containing living cells which
store foods and conduct moisture from the roots to the leaves. This zone of
wood is normally lighter in colour than the inner heartwood and varies in
thickness from approximately 30mm in Western red cedar and Douglas to
the thickness in excess of 75mm in maples, white ash and some pines;
(e) E: Heartwood comprising the inner layers in which the sapwood has
become inert, with the cells dying and the remaining food stores
undergoing chemical change to produce substances such as tannin, a
colourless amorphous mass. The main function of the inactive heartwood
tissue is to provide mechanical rigidity to the tree;
(f) F: Pith comprising the core of the tree about which the first wood growth
takes place;
(g) G: Growth rings which occur in timber grown in climates having distinct
seasonal changes. These rings are the result of cycles of growth and rest,
where changes occur in the tissues formed between the beginning and the
end of the growing season. In general, tissues formed at the beginning
of the season that conduct moisture and conduction vessels become
smaller with proportionately thicker walls. A consequence of this is
that springwood tends to be light, porous and relatively weak and
summerwood stronger and more dense; and
(h) H: Rays comprising narrow bands of tissue running radially across the
growth rings. Their purpose is to store and conduct food to the various
layers between the pith and their bark.

6.2 CLASSIFICATION OF TIMBER

Generally, timbers can be classified into two groups, namely hardwoods and
softwoods. The differences between the two groups of timber from a botanical
point of view are as follows:
(a) Hardwoods (angiosperms) are from broad-leaf trees most of which are
deciduous, although holly, certain oaks and the majority of tropical tress
are evergreens. Hardwoods are normally the densest, strongest and most
durable timber. Some hardwoods however contain resins and/or oils which
interfere with the hardening of paints. Others such as teak and makore
include materials such as silica which make working the timber difficult.
(b) Softwoods are produced from the gymnosperms and include coniferous
trees such as pines and spruces, which are mainly evergreens and grow
chiefly in the temperate zones.
Figure 6.2 depicts the microstructure of softwood and hardwoods.
Figure 6.2: Electron micrograph scanning of (a) softwood (longleaf pine) block; and (b) of
diffuse-porous hardwood (sugar maple) block

The classification of timber as a structural material is obtained by a process of

selection based upon established grading systems, that is, appearance grading
and strength grading:
(a) Appearance grading ranks the physical features of the material such as the
surface grain pattern, the presence of knots, colour, wane, etc.; and
(b) In practice, strength grading is normally carried out either visually or

mechanically.
The following subsections elaborate the strength grading done visually and by
machine.
6.2.1 Visual Stress Grading

This method of grading is based upon the physical inspection of strength-
reducing defects. There are seven characteristics examined in visual stress
grading: knot, slope of grain, rate of growth, wane fissures, resin and bark
pockets and distortion. Since this technique is based on the experience and
judgement of the grader, it is inherently subjective and relatively slow.
It has the major disadvantage that it does not consider density, since this cannot
be measured by visual grading.
6.2.2 Machine Stress Grading

Machine stress grading is usually carried out by conducting bending tests on
planks of timber of about a one metre span which is fed continuously through
the machine. The results of such tests produce a value for the modulus of
elasticity. The correlation between the modulus of elasticity and strength
properties such as bending, tensile and compressive strength can be used to
define the grade or class of timber.
Visual grading enables a rapid check on the piece of timber to confirm, or

otherwise, an assigned grade which is impossible to do with machine grading.
However, machine grading has proved to be more reliable than visual grading,
and generally would allocate a larger percentage of timber in a given batch to the
higher grades than would visual grading that tends to be more conservative.
Malaysian Standards (MS 544: Part 2: 2001) describes the method of assessing the
characteristics of Malaysian structural timbers. Table 6.1 outlines the strength
group of Malaysian structural timber (Badorul Hisham Abu Bakar & Sharifah
Rosfashida Syed Abd. Latif, 2010).

Table 6.1: Strength Groups of Timber (MS 544: Part 2: 2001)
Strength Group
Timber
(SG)
SG1 Balau Bitis Chengal Penaga
SG2 Merbatu Kekatong Kempas Mata Ulat
Mertas
SG3 Balau, Red Bekak Kelat Kembang
Keranji Kulim Pauh Kijang Semangkok
Perah Petaling Ranggu Penyau
Tualang
SG4 Berangan Dedali Derum Giam
Kapur Kasai Keruntum Mempening
Meransi Meranti Bakau Merawan Merbau
Merpauh Nyalin Perupok Punah
Rengas Resak Simpoh
SG5 Alan Bunga Babai Bintagor Gerutu
Kedondong Keledang Keruing Ketapang
Kungkur Melunak Mempisang Mengkulang
Meranti, Meranti, Nyatoh Penarahan
Dark Red White Ramin Rubberwood Sengkuang
Petai Tembusu
Sepetir
SG6 Bayur Damar Durian Jelutong
Jongkong Minyak Medang Melantai/Kawang
Meranti Machong Mersawa Terap
Light Red Meranti,
Yellow
SG7 Ara Geronggang Lara Pelanjau
Pulai Sesendok Terentang

SELF-CHECK 6.1
What is the relation of lignin to cellulose in a tree? When is lignin

removed?
6.3 PROPERTIES OF TIMBER

The properties of timber are elaborated in the following subsections.
6.3.1 Density
Density defined as mass per unit volume is one of the principal properties
affecting strength. The heaviest species, that is, those with most substances, have
thick cell walls and small cell cavities. They also have the highest densities and
are consequently stiff and hard, increasing with density. The weight of wood
tissue is about 1506 kg/m3 for all species but the density of timber varies widely.
Table 6.2 shows the wet grade stresses of timber with their densities. Within the
range of moisture content from five to 25 per cent, the weight of timbers varies
approximately 0.5 per cent for every one per cent variation in moisture content.


6.3.2 Thermal Insulation

It is well-known that timber is a good insulator. Basically, the cellular structure of
timber results in a material which is a poor conductor of heat but the air trapped
within its cell greatly improves its insulating properties. Heavier timbers having
small cavities are better conductors of heat than lighter timbers. Timber does
expand when heated but this effect is more than compensated for by the
shrinkage caused by the loss of moisture. Conductivity (k) is 0.144W/mk and
transmittance (U) for 102mm thickness is about 1.19W/m2K for timber weighing
481kg/m3 with 20 per cent moisture content and for timber weighing 561kg/m3
with 12 per cent variation in moisture content.
6.3.3 Thermal Movement

The thermal coefficient is 30ă60  10ă6Kă1 across the fibres and about one tenth
as much parallel to the fibres. Expansion joints are not required even if the
structural elements are in the large section.
6.3.4 Behaviour in Fire

Timber is known as a combustible material. It is easily ignited at about 220 to
300C. In fires, typical softwoods and hardwoods char at about 0.7 and 0.5mm
per minute, respectively. The charcoal insulates the interior and, unlike steel,
there is no significant loss of strength even with a serious rise in temperature.
Moreover, there is no increase in length unlike the case with steel beams that
often cause walls to collapse. The thermal insulation of timber prevents a marked
rise in the temperature of members on the side remote from a fire, so timber can
protect steelwork from the effects of fire.
6.3.5 Strength
Timber has a high strength to weight ratio both in tension and compression, and
it also has good elasticity. It is able to resist greater loads for a short while than it
can over long periods so that in deriving working stress values from test results,
the rate of straining must be taken into account. In timber, strength can be
divided into compression, tensile, shear and flexural. Basically, strength increases
with density particularly with the species and decreases as the moisture content
rises. Table 6.2 lists bending, compressive, shear and modulus of elasticity of the
strength group of timbers.

As a natural product, timber is subjected to considerable variations in strength.

Properties vary widely between species, between trees of any one species, in
different parts of a tree and in different directions.
The compressive strength of wood parallel to the grain is considerably higher

than that of wood perpendicular to the grain by a factor of about 10. Along the
grain, tensile strength may be as much 30 times that across the grain and two to
three times the compressive strength. In addition, strength is reduced by a
particular defect contained in each piece of timber. Table 6.2 shows that wood in
the green condition is weaker than dried wood. The reason for this difference is
that the removal of water from the less-ordered regions of the cellulose of the
microfibril allows the cell molecular structure to compact and form internal
bridges by hydrogen bonding (Smith & Hashemi, 2011).
6.4 MOISTURE IN TIMBER

One of the most important characteristics of timber that affects its use and on-site
performance is its moisture content. This is a very important factor in timber
utilisation and the technology of timber revolves around the efficient methods of
controlling the moisture content of timber. The moisture condition of wood in the
living tree is referred to as the green condition.
6.4.1 Hygroscopic Nature of Timber

Green timber may contain as much as 200 per cent of water by weight. For
efficient utilisation, the timber needs to be more or less dry, the impossible
moisture content being from six to 20 per cent depending upon the use and the
environment of use.
Green timber is categorised as having moisture content of more than 19 per cent
whereas dry timber has less than 19 per cent. The various methods of seasoning
and preservation are aimed at keeping the moisture content within permissible
limits but it is necessary to control the environment to keep timber in dry
conditions.

6.4.2 Water in Wood

The cells consist of cell walls with cell cavities. The water in wood, thus, appears
in two forms: the free water in the cell cavities and the hygroscopic moisture in
cell walls.
6.4.3 Fibre Saturation Point

Fibre saturation point is the moisture content (in per cent) of the timber when the
cell walls are saturated with water and the cells cavity contains no water. Any
drying below the fibre saturation point results in shrinkage. Sudden and fast
drying of timber results in the removal of water from cell walls and the
consequent shrinkage causes cracking.
If a dry piece of timber is kept in a saturated atmosphere, timber absorbs water

from air up to about 15 per cent of its weight. This water goes into the cell walls
which tend to swell up. The amount of water absorbed depends upon the
humidity of the air and so does the swelling. Timber dried and manufactured in
one climate will shrink, swell and warp if used in another climate.
Other mechanical properties of wood depend to a large extent on the moisture

content of timber. Tests on timber to determine its other properties are usually
carried out on a standard percentage of moisture content.
ACTIVITY 6.2
Discuss with your tutor, examples of wood that can fit into the
following categories:
(a) High strength;
(b) High decay resistance; and
(c) High specific gravity.

SELF-CHECK 6.2
What effects can moisture have on wood? How can they be altered?
6.4.4 Equilibrium Moisture Content

The moisture content at any time in a piece of timber depends upon the
atmospheric conditions to which the timber is exposed, the stage reached in the
drying process, dimensions of the piece and the species.
A stage is finally reached after which there is no further interchange of moisture

between the wood and the air. Such a state is called the state of equilibrium. The
moisture content at this stage is called the equilibrium moisture content. Any
subsequent change in temperature or moisture content of the air would upset
this balance. As a result, there would be further exchanges of moisture until a
new state of equilibrium is reached.
6.4.5 Shrinkage
Drying of timber causes shrinkage while absorption of water by timber causes
swelling. Timber is not a homogeneous material and, hence, the shrinkage along
different directions is not uniform. Wood shrinks considerably more in the
transverse direction than in the longitudinal direction, with the transverse
shrinkage usually ranging from 10 to 15 per cent as compared to only about
0.1 per cent in the longitudinal direction.
Green timber shrinks least along its length, much more along the radial direction
and maximum along the circumference. The figures vary considerably for
different species of timber but on an average, the shrinkage is about 0.1 per cent
along the length, 3 to 5 per cent along circumference. Figure 6.3 illustrates the
shrinkage characteristics of timber. These uneven shrinkages can lead to many
defects in timber such as cupping, springing and bowing. The method of sawing
also affects the performance of timber because of the differential shrinkages.

Figure 6.3: Effects of shrinkage

Source: Badorul Hisham Abu Bakar & Sharifah Rosfashida Syed Abd. Latif (2010)
6.4.6 Determination of Moisture Content

Wood, unless oven-dried to a constant weight, contains some moisture. Water
occurs in wood either adsorbed in the fibre walls of the cells or as unbound water
in the cell-fibre lumen. By convention, the per cent of water in wood is defined by
the equation:
wt of water in sample
Moisture content (wt %)   100% (6.1)
wt of dry wood sample
Moisture content can be determined by the oven drying method. The wet timber
is weighed (Ww) and oven-dried in an oven to constant weight (Wd). If Ww is the
wet and Wd is the oven dry weight, moisture content can be determined as:
w w  wd
Moisture content (%)  (6.2)
wd

6.5 TIMBER DEFECTS

Defects can develop in timber at various times, some occurring naturally during
growth while others result from the processes involved in their conversion and
seasoning. All these can affect the quality of timber produced, either by reducing
its strength or damaging its appearance. The following subsections elaborate
some common defects in timber and wood products.
6.5.1 Knots
A knot is the part of a branch which is enclosed within the expanding trunk as
the tree grows, normally originating at the centre of the trunk or a branch. The
presence of knots has adverse effects on most mechanical properties of timber as
the knots distort the fibres around them, causing fibre discontinuity and stress
concentrations or non-uniform stress distributions.
In general, the size, shape, frequency and location of knots influence the quality
and, hence, the grade of timbers for structural use with better grades having
fewer and smaller knots.
6.5.2 Slope of Grain

Wood grain refers to the general direction of the arrangement of fibres in wood
and is expressed with respect to the longitudinal axis of the sawn timber or the
round timber (log). Slope of grain is the direction of the main wood cells,
tracheids or fibres and vessels in relation to the longitudinal axis of the section.
In general, the direction of the fibres does not lie truly parallel to the longitudinal
axis of the sawn or round timbers. In the growing process of trees, these cells do
not always grow perfectly vertical, straight and parallel to the longitudinal axis
of the trunk. In softwoods, the deviation with respect to the log (longitudinal)
axis is often constant, resulting in the production of spiral grains. Interlocked
grains are often produced in tropical hardwoods where the grain direction
changes routinely from one direction to another.
A cross grain occurs when the grain direction is at an angle longitudinal to the
axis of the sawn section. A cross grain occurs during conversion (sawing process)
as a result of conversion of a bent or heavily tapered log or a log with spiral or
interlocked grains.

Grain deviation can severely impair the strength properties of timber. Visual
grading rules limit the grain deviation; in general, grain deviation of one in 10 is
accepted for high-grade timber whereas one in five often relates to a low-grade
one (Porteous & Kermani, 2007).
6.5.3 Seasoning Defects

Seasoning is the controlled process of reducing the moisture content of the timber
so that it is suitable for the environment and intended use. There are two
methods of seasoning timber namely air drying and kiln drying. Other less
common techniques are microwave and solar techniques.
Seasoning defects are directly related to movements which occur in timber due to
changes in moisture content. Excessive or uneven drying as well as the presence
of compression wood, juvenile wood or even knots, exposure to wind and rain,
and poor stacking and spacing during seasoning can all produce defects or
distortions in timber. Examples of seasoning defects include cupping (in
tangential cuts), end splitting, springing, bowing, twisting, etc. (Porteous &
Kermani, 2007).
6.5.4 Fungal Decay

Fungi are simple plants without leaves or flowers, which consume „ready made‰
organic matter and, therefore, require no chlorophyll or sunlight. The spores are
microscopically small but become visible in a mass as an extremely fine powder.
They are produced in immense numbers and dispersed through air or sometimes
by insects or animals. Water is necessary for fungal growth but it is not true as
has sometimes been stated, repeated wetting and drying favour growth.
6.5.5 Reaction Wood

The wood, which is denser and stronger than normal timber, counteracts gravity,
wind or other forces which tend to bend the trunk or branches. Reaction wood
has the effect of throwing the heart off-centre, although this may be corrected by
later growth. In hardwoods, reaction wood usually occurs on the side, which is in
tension and is known as tension wood, while in softwoods it usually forms on
the compression side and is known as compression wood.

Unlike normal timber, movement along the grain is high and especially where it
is concentrated on one side of a thin piece, it often causes distortion and splitting,
particularly during seasoning. Sawn surfaces have a woody appearance and lead
to difficulties in machining and finishing.
6.5.6 Wane
In a mill when timber is converted from a trunk into suitable commercial
products, a wane can occur when part of the bark or rounded periphery of the
trunk is present in a cut length. It is expressed as a fraction of the dimension of
the face on which it occurs. A wane of less than 3mm is ignored. The effect of a
wane is to reduce the cross-sectional area with a resultant reduction in strength.
6.5.7 Distortions
Distortions of timber are basically related to the movement which occurs as a
result of changes in moisture content. Distortions in timber are normally due to
excessive or uneven drying, poor sacking and inadequate spacing and support
during seasoning or generally due to differential shrinkage. The defects that may
occur are twisting, cupping, bowing, springing and cracking. Once dried, the
deformation is set into the timber. All such defects have an effect on structural
strength as well as on fix stability.
6.5.8 Insect Damage

This may occur in the growing process of trees in the newly felled logs, or in
timber yards, as a result of the activity of a variety of insects, including pinholes
borers, bark borer and powder post beetles and woods swaps.
Aside from the strength consideration, the presence of worm holes and the
staining of surrounding timber which occurs with the pinhole borer, for example,
may seriously reduce the value of timber in terms of appearance.

6.5.9 Cracks, Fissures, Resin Pockets and Bark Pockets

All the above defects may occur during growth or may result from shrinkage
stresses in seasoning, and are generally given specific names to identify them
more readily. Checks, shakes and splits are terms which refer to particular fibre
disruptions which affect the strength of the timber by reducing the cross-
sectional area of complete fibrous section.
Heart-shakes that occur at the centre of the trunk may indicate the presence of
decay or the early stages of decay. Resin pockets are normally fissures containing
resin which constitute a strength defect and may also interfere with decorative
treatments in service. They are treated effectively equally in grading softwood
but have different rules for hardwood grading. They are caused by separation of
the fibres along the grain forming fissures and cracks that appear on one face or
the end grain but do not necessarily continue through to the other side. Their
presence may indicate decay or the beginnings of decay. Figure 6.4 depicts
natural, conversion and seasoning defects.
Figure 6.4: Defects in timber

Source: Porteous & Kermani (2007)

6.6 TIMBER PRESERVATION

A number of chemical treatments are available to prevent the degeneration of
timber due to fungi, insects and attacks from other organisms. The extent to
which a structural member is susceptible to attack is dependent on several factors
including the species and environmental conditions. The treatments can be
classified into three types. They are described as follows.
6.6.1 Tar Oil Preservatives

Coal tar creosote is a very effective and inexpensive preservative which is
resistant to leaching and particularly suitable for use externally. Tar oil types are
not readily flammable and after a few months of weathering they probably do
not increase the fire hazard. They are not generally corrosive to metals. On the
other hand, they are difficult to paint over satisfactorily, and inclined to „bleed‰
and to discolour adjacent porous materials. Its odour makes it unsuitable for
indoor uses, especially near food. It also injures some forms of plant life.
6.6.2 Organic Solvents

These types of solvents consist of the following preservative substances:
(a) Chlorinated naphthalene or other chlorinated hydrocarbons;
(b) Copper naphthenate;
(c) Zinc naphthenate; and
(d) Pentachlorophenol.
These organic solvents may be volatile or have relatively non-volatile petroleum

fractions. Specific insecticides and water-repellent materials can be included.
Organic solvent preservatives do not corrode metals, they are suitable for use
both indoor and outdoor and its penetration is superior to that of creosote;
preserved timber can usually be painted when the volatile solvents have
evaporated and the wood is then no more flammable than untreated wood.
Some organics solvents are colourless, although pigments may be added to

indicate the extent of their penetration or for decorative purposes. Some have an
odour which taints food. Although they are costly, organic solvent preservatives
are now being widely used for vacuum impregnation.

6.6.3 Water Borne Preservatives

These consist of the following preservatives substances dissolved in water:
(a) Copper-chrome;
(b) Copper-chrome-arsenic;
(c) Fluor-chrome-arsenate-dinitrophenol; and
(d) Copper sulphate, sodium fluoride, sodium pentachlorophenate, zinc

chloride and organic mercurial derivatives.
Water-borne preservatives have advantages in that they can be over-painted, do

not bleed when they are dry, are odourless and non-combustible; although
normal seasoning is necessary after treatment. Water-borne preservatives are
widely used for pressure impregnation and deep penetration is obtained in
permeable timber.
6.7 APPLICATION OF TIMBER IN

CONSTRUCTION
Timber is one of the traditional materials used in construction. Timber can be
used for structural and non-structural members in construction. For the
structural purposes, the properties have to be in compliance with the MS 544
standard requirements. Engineering properties such as strength (bending,
compression, tensile, elastic modulus, shear and density) are the primary data
referred to in designing timber members.
For non-structural members, it is not designed to carry any load except for its
own weight. However, in both applications, there needs to be good resistance to
deterioration by atmospheric exposure ă it is virtually unaffected by rain, frost
and acids which are responsible for damages to other types of materials.
Advantages of timber as construction materials are as follows:
(a) In terms of specific strength, that is, ratio of strength to unit weight, timber
is superior to many other building materials;
(b) Timber can be used for both load bearing structures and non-load bearing
elements;

(c) It can be easily converted to any shape and size;
(d) With the superior adhesives and other forms of connectors, timber
connections are easy to make;
(e) The wastage in timber construction is less because all wastes can be
converted to other uses;
(f) It has a high resale and salvage value;
(g) Timber has better insulating properties than many other material;
(h) For aesthetic and decorative appearance, timber is preferred as a

construction material for panelling, partitions, roofing and flooring as well
as furniture-making; and
(i) Timber construction is light in weight and can be made economical.
SELF-CHECK 6.3
1. What properties make wood a desirable material for furniture and

paneling?
2. Name three methods of preserving timber and for each method,

discuss its advantages and disadvantages.
ACTIVITY 6.3
Look for research papers from various timber-related journals. Provide

a critical discussion on how the lower grade of timber can be
manufactured to produce wood engineering products (EWP). Discuss
with your tutor.

 Wood is a naturally occurring composite material that consists of a complex

array of cellulose cells reinforced by lignin and other organic compounds.
The strength of wood is highly anisotropic with its tensile strength being
much greater in the direction parallel to the tree stem.
Ć Timber is obtained from two distinct wood groups, namely, the broad-leaved
hardwoods and conifers or softwoods having needle-shaped leaves and a
converging shape towards the top.
 Timber can also be classified based upon appearance and strength grading.
Strength of timber can be graded either visually or by conducting a bending
test.
 Density, thermal insulation, thermal movement, behaviour in fire and

strength are the primary parameters concerned with timber. The strengths of
timber are influenced by its moisture content, grain direction and defects.
Ć Moisture in timber is present in two forms: (1) Water in cell walls called
hygroscopic water; and (2) Water in the cell cavity called free water. Fibre
saturation point, equilibrium moisture content and shrinkage are all
properties related to moisture movement in timber.
Ć Knot is the most important natural defect and is due to the embedded stubs
of branches which are cut off. Other defects are slope of grain, cracks,
fissures, resin pockets, bark pockets, wane, distortions, seasoning defects and
reaction wood.
Ć Timber is also subjected to decay by fungi and destruction by many beetles

and borers.
Ć In natural or air seasoning, timber dries by giving out its moisture to the
surrounding air and this can be controlled by stacking timber in sheds and
controlling air circulation.

Ć Different types of treatments compounds used to preserve timber include tar

oil, organic solvents and water borne preservatives. The application of
preservatives is controlled by the process which may vary from simple brush
coating to injection under pressure.
 Advantages of timber as a construction material include high specific

strength ratio, it is easily converted to any shape and size, there is less
wastage as all wastes can be converted to other uses, has a high resale and
salvage value, has better insulating properties, high aesthetic value with
decorative appearance and is light in weight.
Bowing Shrinkage
Cupping Softwoods
Equilibrium moisture content Springing
Fibre saturation point Swelling
Hardwoods Timber
Moisture Timber defects
Preservation Twisting
Seasoning Wood
Badorul Hisham Abu Bakar, & Sharifah Rosfashida Syed Abd Latif. (2010).
EDVM3103/EBVM4103. Civil engineering materials. Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia: Open University Malaysia.
Jacobs, J. A., & Kilduff, T. F. (2001). Engineering materials technology: Structures,

processing, properties, and selection. Uper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Porteous, J., & Kermani, A. (2007). Structural timber design to Eurocode 5.

Oxford, London: Blackwell Science


Topic  Bricks and
Blocks
7
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe the classification and characteristics of bricks and blocks;
2. Explain the properties of bricks and blocks;
3. Identify the differences between clay, calcium silicate bricks and
concrete blocks;
4. Explain the process of manufacturing of each type of brick; and
5. Relate the use of bricks and blocks in construction.
 INTRODUCTION
This topic deals with bricks and blocks, which are among the most famous
traditional materials used in the construction. Based on the constituents, bricks
can be classified into clay, calcium silicate and sand-cement bricks. Clay bricks
are classified into its variety, quality and types. Bricks also can be categorised
into common, facing, engineering and damp-proof-course bricks. The Standards
have also classified bricks and blocks into several categories based on their
application. The compressive strength requirement for engineering bricks is
higher than those of other types of bricks while the requirement for water
absorption of engineering and damp-proof-course bricks are more stringent than
those of other types of bricks.

152  TOPIC 7 BRICKS AND BLOCKS
The size of blocks is normally larger than bricks. Concrete blocks are classified
into three categories, that is, dense aggregate, lightweight aggregate and
autoclaved aerated. This topic also discusses properties of different types of
bricks which include size limitation, dimension tolerance, water absorption,
compressive strength, salt soluble content, frost resistance and efflorescence. The
role of mortar, its material, suitable mixes and its influence to the mortar
properties are also covered. This topic ends with the description of bricks and
blocks as important construction materials.
ACTIVITY 7.1
Try to imagine the manufacturing area of a factory producing bricks in

general. Can you roughly guess what it looks like and what facilities are
needed? Discuss your answer with your tutor.
7.1 RAW MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURING

PROCESSES
The quality and characteristics of masonry products are directly determined by
the raw materials and methods of manufacture used in their production. Bricks
and blocks are generally made of three materials which are:
(a) Clay;
(b) Calcium silicate; and
(c) Sand-cement or concrete.
The following subsections elaborate the related three raw materials.
7.1.1 Clay
Clay is the raw material from which clay brick and clay tile are made. Clay is the
end product of the chemical alteration over long periods of time of the less stable
minerals in rock. Clay is well-suited to the manufacture of masonry products. It
is plastic when mixed with water, and easily moulded or formed into desired
shapes. Clays are basically compounds of silica and alumina with varying
amounts of metallic oxides and other minor ingredients and impurities. Metallic
oxides act as fluxes to promote fusion at lower temperatures, influence the range
of temperatures in which the material vitrifies, and give burned clay the
necessary strength for structural purposes.

TOPIC 7 BRICKS AND BLOCKS  153
The varying amounts of iron, calcium, and magnesium oxides also influence the
colour of fired clay. Kaolinite, illite, montmorillonite and chlorites are usually
present as the major constituents together with associated water in the crystalline
aluminosilicate clay minerals. These minerals appear in the form of fine particles
(with typical dimensions of 2m or less) and are accountable for the cohesion and
plasticity of the moist clay. However, they do not exceed 30 to 45 per cent of the
total composition of clay. There are also coarser particles (silt and sand
components which are mainly quartz and micas) in clay together with minor
accessory minerals such as gypsum CaSO4.2H2O, pyrites FeS2, iron oxides and
calcite CaCO3.
Clay bricks may consist of a variety of clay types with different geological
periods ranging from soft, easily moulded glacial deposits to much older,
relatively harder shales. Thus, it reflects the varied composition and mineralogy
of clay bricks due to the geological diversity. There are three different types of
clay which although are similar in chemical composition, have different physical
characteristics. They are surface clay, shale and fire clay as described in the
following (Badorul Hisham Abu Bakar & Sharifah Rosfashida Syed Abd. Latif,
2010; Beall, 1993):
(a) Surface clay occurs quite close to the earthÊs surface, and has a high
oxide content, ranging from 10 to 25 per cent. Surface clays are the most
accessible and easily mined, and therefore, the least expensive.
(b) Shale is a metamorphic form of clay hardened and layered under natural
geologic conditions. It is very dense and harder to remove from the ground
than other clays, and as a result, is more costly. Like surface clay, shale
contains a relatively high percentage of oxide fluxes.
(c) Fire clay is formed at greater depths than either surface clay or shale. It
generally has fewer impurities, more uniform chemical and physical
properties, and only two to 10 oxides. The lower percentage of oxide fluxes
gives fire clay a much higher softening point than surface clay and shale,
and therefore the ability to withstand very high temperatures. This
refractory quality makes fire clay best suited to produce brick and tile for
furnaces, fireplaces, flue liners, ovens and chimney stacks.
Brick plants commonly mine from several clay pits at a time. Two or more clays
from different pits are blended to minimise much of the natural variation in
chemical composition and physical properties. The clay is first washed to remove
stones, soil or sand, then crushed into smaller pieces, and finally ground to a
powdered mix. After preparation of the raw clay, the manufacture of fired brick
is completed in four additional stages namely forming, drying, burning, and
drawing.
The first method in forming method is tempering where the clay is thoroughly
mixed with a measured amount of water. A minimum amount of water,
generally 12 per cent to 15 per cent moisture by weight, is mixed with clay to
make it plastic. The stiff-mud extrusion method is the most common method
used to manufacture clay bricks. The clay is then forced through a steel die in a
continuous extrusion of the desired shape, and at the same time is cored to
reduce weight and to facilitate drying and burning. Automatic cutting machines
using thin wires attached to a circular steel frame cut the extruded clay into
pieces. After cutting, the clay is moved to the dryer and stacked for kiln burning.
7.1.2 Calcium Silicate

The raw materials of calcium silicate bricks are a siliceous aggregate, a high
calcium lime and water. Usually, a very fine aggregate with the passing of a
1.15mm sieve is used and the ratio range between 10 to 20 per cent by weight of
aggregate to lime is used to manufacture calcium silicate bricks. In addition, inert
and stable inorganic pigments are also added when different coloured bricks are
required.
Firstly, the controlled proportions of fine aggregate, crushed or uncrushed

siliceous aggregate or combinations of such materials are mixed with hydrated
lime or quicklime and water. Then, they are conveyed to an automatic pressed
machine where they are moulded to the required size and shape. After pressing,
the bricks are steamed at pressures up to 1.7N/mm2 for about eight hours in an
autoclave. In the process, lime reacts with the surfaces of the silica particles
developing hydrated calcium silicates and leaving practically no free lime. The
brick gains in strength and hardness when the calcium silicate gradually reacts
with carbon dioxide and forms calcium carbonate when exposed to the
atmosphere.
7.1.3 Sand-Cement and Concrete

The essential materials for dense concrete blocks are a hydraulic binder, water
and aggregate; sand aggregate accounts for at least 75 per cent of the volume of
masonry mortar. In aerated concrete blocks, a reactive foaming agent is used to
produce the characteristic cellular structure and sometimes together with
additives or admixtures to extend the product range. Usually, the binder is an
Ordinary Portland Cement or mixed with lime, pulverised-fuel ash or ground
granulated blast furnace slag.

Other types of Ordinary Portland Cement are used when their special properties
are required such as rapid-hardening type. Concrete blocks are used either
dense or lightweight aggregate, normally with a maximum size not exceeding
10mm. Commonly, additives and pigments are used to impart different colours;
admixtures, such as retarders, accelerators and water-reducing agents are used to
facilitate the block manufacturing processes or to impart certain special
properties to the finished blocks. The manufacture of dense aggregates concrete
blocks, aerated concrete blocks dense and lightweight aggregate blocks are
compacted by pressure or vibration, or both. Some are steam cured. Aerated
concrete blocks are made with or without fine aggregate, preferably high
pressure steam autoclaved.
Water for masonry mortar must be clean and free from harmful amounts of
acids, alkalis and organic materials. Appreciable amounts of soluble salts, such as
sodium and potassium sulphate can contribute to efflorescence.
SELF-CHECK 7.1
1. List the raw materials used to produce clay, calcium silicate bricks
and sand-cement bricks.
2. Explain the differences in the process of manufacturing between

calcium silicate, clay bricks and concrete blocks.
7.2 CLASSIFICATION AND TYPES OF BRICKS

AND BLOCKS
Clay bricks can be classified into several categories according to its variety,
quality and shape. Bricks also can be categorised into common, facing,
engineering and damp proof course (DPC) bricks. The British Standards Institute
(BSI)Ês BS EN 771-1: 2011 and -3: 2011 also categorise bricks into several
categories. These categories can be described as based on variety, quality and
shape.

Based on variety, clay bricks can be classified according to the following:
(a) Common brick is any type of clay brick for general purposes but not
specifically chosen for its attractive appearance. Common bricks are those
used where they will not normally be exposed to view and where there is
no claim as to their appearance. They are suitable for general use in
construction, given that they possess adequate strength and durability for
the location.
(b) Facing brick is any type of clay brick purposely made or selected for its
attractive appearance. Facing bricks have a suitable appearance for use
where they will be exposed to view so that they are attractive and have a
pleasing effect. Most facing brick types are available and the choice can be
made either from catalogues and display panels or from examples of work
carried out in the particular brick. Common terms to describe appearance
are: sand faced; rustic; multi-coloured; blue/yellow/red, etc.; and smooth.
The designation of a brick as facing does not imply that it will be durable in
all locations.
(c) Engineering brick is a very dense and strong semi-vitreous body with a
limitation on absorption and strength. The term „engineering bricks‰ is
used almost only in Britain where other places might call them differently.
These bricks may be facing bricks, but are defined with facing qualities in
mind. Engineering bricks are required to conform to defined upper limits
for water absorption and lower limits for compressive strength as specified
in BS EN 771-1. The bricks are used where high strength and/or resistance
to aggressive environments is required.
Meanwhile, based on quality, clay bricks can be classified according to the

following:
(a) Internal: for internal uses may require a thermal insulation;
(b) Ordinary: may be less durable than specially made but normally good for
external cladding; and
(c) Special quality: very good against aggressive environment or severe

conditions. It is more durable.
Bricks can also be categorised based on its shape and several categories are
outlined as follows:
(a) Solid: holes do not exceed 25 per cent of volume and frogs do not exceed
20 per cent;

(b) Perforated: holes do not exceed 20 per cent of volume;
(c) Hollow;
(d) Cellular;
(e) Special shapes; and
(f) Standard specials.
7.2.1 Damp-Proof-Course (DPC) Bricks

Damp-proof bricks are bricks with defined upper limits to water absorption,
similar to engineering bricks, but without the same strength requirements. Two
courses of such bricks (DPC1 and DPC2) are permitted to fulfil the function of a
damp-proof course according to BS 743: 1970 and BS EN 771-1: 2011 and are
particularly useful at the base of free-standing and retaining walls, where the
continuity of the brickwork is maintained without the plane of weakness that a
sheet DPC introduces. DPC unit is a clay masonry unit which, when laid in two
courses with broken bonds in a strong cementitious mortar will resist rising
damp in masonry.
7.2.2 Classification by BS EN 771

Besides those classifications, BS EN 771-1: 2011 applies to two groups of fired-
clay masonry units which are LD and HD units. LD is a clay masonry unit with a
low gross dry density for use in protected masonry. HD is a clay masonry unit
for unprotected masonry with a high gross dry density for use in protected
masonry. Annex B, BS EN 771-1: 2011 categorises clay masonry units according
to its applications as follows:
(a) Common masonry ă Used outside or inside having no claim to an attractive

appearance. It may or may not be load bearing.
(b) Protected masonry ă Which is protected against water penetration. It can

either be masonry in external walls which is protected by a suitable layer of
render or by a cladding or it can either be the inner leaf of a cavity wall or it
can be an internal wall. It may or may not be load bearing.
(c) Rendered/plastered masonry ă Used outside or inside which will be

rendered/plastered. It may or may not be load bearing.

(d) Thermal insulating masonry ă Which in itself significantly contributes to

the thermal insulation function of an external wall. The masonry consists
mainly of highly perforated clay masonry units. It may or may not be load
bearing.
(e) Facing masonry ă Used outside or inside that is intended to have an

attractive appearance. It is constructed from attractive masonry units using
a standard of workmanship and mortar joint finish appropriate to the
masonry unit type. It may or may not be load bearing.
(f) Civil engineering masonry ă Used in civil engineering works, for example,
drainage works, earth retaining walls, etc. in which masonry units with a
high level of durability and compressive strength and a low level of water
absorption are sometimes used.
(g) Structural masonry ă Used outside or inside that resists loads other than
the self weight. This expression is usually used in situations where the
structural design of the masonry has been carried out by an appropriately
qualified person. It may be facing, common, rendered or civil engineering
masonry. Structural masonry may also be earthquake resistant.
BS EN 771-1 and -3: 2011 provide examples of different shapes of clay and
aggregate concrete masonry units (see Figures 7.1 (a), (b) and (c) (BSI, 2011).
Figure 7.1(a): Examples of LD units
Figure 7.1(b): Examples of HD units

Figure 7.1(c): Examples of common shapes of aggregate concrete masonry units
SELF-CHECK 7.2
From the above information, provide an illustration and a flow chart
on how bricks and blocks can be classified, that is, according to
specifications as prescribed by BS EN 771-1: 2011, BS EN 771-3 and
BS EN 1996-1, -2 and -3: 2005.
7.3 PROPERTIES OF BRICKS

The properties of bricks are assessed in terms of size limits, dimension tolerance,
water absorption, compressive strength, soluble-salt content, frost resistance,
efflorescence, thermal movement and are elaborated in the following subsections.
7.3.1 Size Tolerances and Dimensional Deviations

The limits of size for clay bricks are as shown in Table 7.1 and Table 7.2
respectively. For comparison, the permitted deviations for concrete bricks are
shown in Table 7.3.
Table 7.1: Work Size Deviation Limits for Clay Masonry Units (BSI, 2011)
Coordinating Size (mm) Work Size (mm)

Length Width Height Length Width Height
225 112.5 75 215 102.5 65
Note: The work sizes are derived from the corresponding coordinating sizes by the
subtraction of 10mm for the mortar joint assuming the use of general purpose and
lightweight mortars.

Table 7.2: Maximum Deviation of Mean from Declared Work Dimension and Maximum
Range within Test Sample (BSI, 2011)
Maximum Deviation () of Mean Maximum Range within

Work Dimension from Declared Work Dimension Test Sample
(mm)
T1 T2 R1 R2
290 7 4 10 5
233 6 4 9 5
215 6 4 9 4
190 6 3 8 4
112 4 3 6 3
102 4 3 6 3
90 4 2 6 3
80 4 2 5 3
73 3 2 5 3
65 3 2 5 2
53 3 2 4 2
50 3 2 4 2
Notes: T ă Categories stipulated by BS EN 771: Part 1, for limiting mean value of clay
brick dimension.
R ă Categories stipulated by BS EN 771: Part 1 for the maximum range of size
found within the 10 units of clay brick measured; expressed in relation to
the square root of the work size.
Table 7.3: Limit Deviations of Concrete Bricks in Millimetres (BSI, 2011)
Tolerance Category D1 D2 D3 D4
Length +3 +1 +1 +1
ă5 ă3 ă3 ă3
Width +3 +1 +1 +1
ă5 ă3 ă3 ă3
Height +3 2 1.5 1.0
ă5

7.3.2 Water Absorption

The water absorption of a clay brick is the percentage of the increase in weight
of a dry brick when it has been saturated. It is one of the parameters for the
definition of engineering bricks used in a wall. It affects the mode of rain
penetration through the outer leaf of a cavity wall and is used to define the
flexural strength used in lateral load design.
7.3.3 Compressive Strength

The compressive strength of a brick is the mean of 10 crushing tests, when the
failing load is divided by the gross area of the brick. Different types of clay bricks
have compressive strengths ranging from about seven to well over 100N/mm2
and calcium silicate and concrete from about 21 to nearly 60N/mm2.
Normally, the compressive strength forms the basis for classification of clay
bricks and calcium silicate brick and it is subjected to BS EN 771-1: 2011 and BS
EN 771-2: 2011 requirements. In BS EN 771-1: 2011 (see Table 7.4), clay
engineering bricks were distinguished into Class A or Class B based on
minimum compressive strength and maximum water absorption values.
Meanwhile, Table 7.5 depicts the classification of calcium silicate bricks.
Table 7.4: Equivalent Classifying Properties of Traditional UK Engineering and Damp

Proof Course (DPC) Bricks in Relation to BS EN 771-1 : 2011 (BSI, 2011)
Clay Engineering Bricks

Performance Characteristic Reference
Class A Class B
Compressive strength (N/mm2) BS EN 772-1 125 75
Water absorption (per cent by mass) BS EN 772-7 4.5 7.0
(and DPC1) (and DPC2)
Table 7.5: Classification of Calcium Silicate Bricks in Accordance with NA.3.4 (BSI, 2011)
Class of Brick
Facing Brick Loadbearing Brick
2 3 4 5 6 7
Minimum mean class strength 14.0 20.5 27.5 34.5 41.5 48.5
(N/mm2)
Minimum predicted lower limit 10.0 15.5 21.5 28.0 34.5 40.5
(N/mm2)

7.3.4 Soluble Salt Content

Most clays used in brick-making contain soluble salts that are retained in the
fired bricks. If the brickwork becomes saturated for long periods, soluble
sulphates may be released. These may cause mortars that have been incorrectly
specified or batched and have a low cement content to deteriorate under sulphate
attack. Sulphates from the ground of other sources may be equally destructive.
BS EN 771-1: 2011 specifies the maximum content of water soluble sulphates for
use in service conditions where the risks of saturation differ, ranging from
expectations of prolonged saturation (S2) or normal exposure (S1) to completely
dry (S0). Table 7.6 shows the limits of active soluble salts content for LD and HD
units. Figure 7.2 illustrates cracking of the bed joint mortar due to sulphate
attack.
Table 7.6: Active Soluble Salts Content Categories for LD and HD Units (BSI, 2011)
Category of Exposure Total % by Mass Not Greater Than

Na+ (Sodium) + K+ (Potassium) Mg2+ (Magnesium)
S0 No requirement No requirement
S1 0.17 0.08
S2 0.06 0.03
Figure 7.2: Cracking of the bed joint mortar due to sulphate attack
Source: BDA (2006)

7.3.5 Freeze/Thaw Resistance

There is no mandatory test method for classifying frost resistance, and
manufacturers are required to state the frost resistance of their clay bricks by
classifying them according to its applicability. BS EN 771-1: 2011 classifies the
clay masonry units subjected to; passive exposure (F0); moderate exposure (F1);
and severe exposure (F2).
The frost resistance of calcium silicate bricks is generally higher for the higher
strength classes. However, calcium silicate bricks should not be used where they
may be subject to salt spray, for example, on sea fronts or to de-ice salts.
7.3.6 Efflorescence
Efflorescence is a crystalline deposit left on the surface of clay brickwork after the
evaporation of water carrying dissolve soluble salts. Manufacturers have to state
the category to which the bricks being offered correspond when subjected to the
efflorescence test namely the categories nil, slight or moderate. The risk of
efflorescence, which is harmless and usually temporary, can best be minimised
by protecting both the bricks in the stacks as well as newly built brickwork from
rain.
7.3.7 Thermal Movement

Bricks expand on being warmed, and shrink when cooled. In practice it is the
expansion and contraction of the brickwork, rather than of the individual units,
that is of interest to the user. Some reversible movement will occur in brickwork
exposed to temperature variation. The type of brick will not make any significant
difference and the coefficient of thermal expansion in a horizontal direction will
be about 5.6  10ă6 for 1C temperature change. For a 10m length of wall,
variation in length between summer and winter might be about 2mm. Vertical
expansion may be up to 1.5 times the horizontal value.

7.3.8 Moisture Movement

Clay bricks expand on cooling from the kiln, as some of the molecules of water
reattach themselves after being driven off by the heat of the kiln. This expansion
is effectively non-reversible, unless the bricks are refired. The magnitude of this
movement varies according to the type of brick. Fortunately, a considerable
portion of the expansion takes place quite quickly, probably at least half of it
occurring within a few days. The remainder may take place slowly over a
considerable period.
In addition, there is a small reversible movement due to wetting and drying of

clay bricks. Calcium silicate bricks tend to shrink as they dry out after
manufacture, and then expand again if wetted. The drying shrinkage may range
from less than 0.04 per cent. Concrete bricks behave like other concrete products,
for example, blocks, in that they shrink on drying and expand on wetting.
BS 6073-1: 1981 is used to give a limit on the drying shrinkage that can be
permitted of 0.06 per cent.
As with thermal movement, it is the movement of the brickwork itself that is of

interest to the user. Moisture movement in bricks may occur in the form of
an irreversible movement which continues throughout the life of the building.
Occasionally, there can be a third type of movement, occurring as a continuing
expansion in which bricks expand on drying and expand again if wetted. The
amount of information on this type of movement is limited but it is clear that
bricks should not be delivered straight from the kilns and be used immediately.
SELF-CHECK 7.3
1. Explain the effects of clay brick moisture expansion to the

masonry structures.
2. Describe three types of masonry units and their usage in

construction.

7.4 TESTING OF BRICKS AND BLOCKS

Methods of testing the compressive strength and water absorption of clay bricks,
calcium silicate bricks and concrete blocks are described in BS EN 771-1: 2011,
BS EN 771-2: 2011 and BS EN 771-3: 2011 and BS EN 772-2: 1998, respectively.
They can be described as follows.
7.4.1 Compressive Strength

A representative sample of bricks/ blocks was selected at random from batches
and pallets or on-site, and a minimum number of units is required to provide
sufficient knowledge about the variability of the property being measured. The
compressive strength of units is determined from the individual units; they are
compressed between the platens of the testing machine.
Units with perforation are automatically taken into consideration. However,

bricks with frogs should have the frogs filled with mortar and failure to include
this may lead to reduction of compressive strength values. In practice, frogged
bricks should be laid with the frog uppermost (or the larger frog if frogged on
two faces) to ensure that it is completely filled with mortar.
BS EN 771-2: 2011 specifies the minimum mean compressive strength of samples

of 10 bricks and the minimum predicted lower limit of compressive strength
of a sample. For concrete blocks, the compressive strength is determined in
accordance with BS EN 771-3: 2003. It is specified as a minimum average value of
10 blocks of which no single value should fall below 80 per cent of the permitted
average value. Although concrete blocks are made in the solid, cellular or hollow
form, they are tested for strength in the same manner, therefore the compressive
load carrying capacity is equivalent.

7.4.2 Water Absorption

The ability of the unit to absorb moisture from the mortar when laid is most
commonly assessed by two parameters, the total absorption and the initial rate of
absorption.
The total absorption is the amount of water required to saturate the unit, that is,
to fill all pores and voids. Both concrete and fired clay units are porous and total
absorption is really a measure of the porosity of the unit. The initial rate of
absorption is a measure of how quickly a unit could suck water out of a mortar as
the masonry is laid. It is measured as kg/m2/min and is the mass of water
absorbed per unit area per unit time. Thus, it is related to the pore-size
distribution of the unit. The water absorption of calcium silicate bricks varies
between about 6 to 16 per cent, by weight.
7.5 TYPES OF BONDING

Walling is made from regular shaped units constructed by laying the units in
definite, specific patterns called bonds, according to the orientation of the long
sides (stretchers) or the short sides (headers). The following Figures 7.3ă7.9
(Badorul Hisham Abu Bakar & Sharifah Rosfashida Syed Abd. Latif, 2010) show
some common types of bonding brick units.
Figure 7.3: English bond, where both faces show alternate courses of headers and
stretchers
Figure 7.4: Flemish bond, which shows on the face alternate headers and stretchers in
each course
Figure 7.5: English garden-wall bond shows a sequence of three courses of stretchers laid
with half-lap to one course of headers

Figure 7.6: Flemish garden-wall bond shows on both faces a sequence of three stretchers
to one header in each course of full brick wall
Figure 7.7: Heading bond consists of bricks with their ends showing on the face of the
wall, laid with a half lap of the brick
Figure 7.8: Running (stretcher) bond requires the block thickness to be equal to half of the
block length. There are half blocks at the wall ends

Figure 7.9: Thin stretcher bond requires cut-block closers or quoins at the corner and half
blocks at wall ends
SELF-CHECK 7.4
1. Explain the purpose of bonding in masonry structures.
2. Sketch four types of bonding system in masonry structures.
7.6 MORTARS FOR JOINTING

Mortar may account for as little as 7 per cent of the volume of a masonry wall,
but the role that it plays and the influence that it has on performance and
appearance are far greater than the proportion indicates. It is used for bonding or
jointing the masonry units together. Mortar joints should be 10mm or less in
thickness. There are requirements to be met by the mortar, both in freshly made
and hardened states. In practice, it must be easily workable and remain plastic
long enough to enable lining and levelling of the units.
The units must also retain water to avoid drying out and stiffening too quickly
with absorbent units. It must set with a reasonable time to prevent squeezing out
under the weight of the units laid at the top. The hardened or set mortar must
transfer the compressive, tensile and shear stresses between adjacent units, and it
must be sufficiently durable to sustain the load.

In any particular strength of units, there is an optimum mortar strength, and a

stronger mortar will not increase the strength of the brickwork or blockwork.
Particular care is needed when choosing a mortar for use with the lower strength
blocks to ensure that is it is of sufficiently low strength to confine any cracking to
the joints. Masonry units should be laid on a full bed of mortar and, if bed joints
are moved out of pointing, allowance must be made in the design for the
decreased width as well as the resulting loss of strength.
The principal components of masonry mortar and grout are cement, lime, sand
and water. Each of these constituents is essential in the performance of the mix.
The following subsections explain the constituents of mortar, mix proportioning
and choice of mortar.
7.6.1 Constituents
Mortars consist of sand and water in combination with one or more of the
following:
(a) Lime;
(b) Portland cement;
(c) Sulphate-resisting Portland cement;
(d) Masonry cement;
(e) High alumina cement;
(f) Plasticises or other additives; and
(g) Pigments.
Portland cement, in one or other of its several forms, is the principal binding
agent in mortars. Cement gives the mortar strength and durability. It is used
because of its comparatively rapid strength gain and quick setting rate. Very high
strengths are obtainable from cement: sand mortar (for example, 1:3 cement
sand), but these are not generally required except for very exposed conditions,
such as below damp proof course level or in retaining walls. Lime is normally
added to mortars to improve their workability, water retentivity and elasticity
and to enhance bonding properties, although this does result in some loss of
strength. Plasticisers may be used as an air entrainment into the mortar to
improve workability instead of lime. Lime requires special handling, and the use
of plasticisers can be economical in terms of labour and material cost.

Masonry cement consists of Portland cement with the addition of very fine
mineral filler and an air-entraining agent. Masonry cement should be used with
caution. The presence of the mineral filler reduces strength, and the comments
above on the use of plasticisers also apply. High alumina cement and calcium
chloride admixture should not be used.
7.6.2 Mortar Mixes

The designated grades of mortar are provided in Table 7.7. It gives guidance on
the selection of particular mortars for various purposes. In order to avoid any
complication on site, the number of different mixes to be used on any one project
should be kept to a minimum. Probably the most commonly used mix is a 1:1:6
ratios of cement, lime and sand, which is suitable for most applications.
However, also note that BS EN 1996-2: 2006 specifies that masonry mortar should
be selected according to the exposure condition of the masonry and the
specification of masonry units.
BS EN 1996-1-1: 2005 +A1: 2012 classifies the exposure conditions for mortar
jointing masonry units into five categories which are as follows:
(a) MX 1 ă Masonry subjected to dry environment (passive exposure);
(b) MX 2 ă Masonry exposed to moisture or wetting (moderate exposure);
(c) MX 3 ă Masonry exposed to moisture or wetting plus freeze/thaw

cycling (severe exposure);
(d) MX 4 ă Exposed to saturated salt air or seawater; and
(e) MX 5 ă In an aggressive chemical environment.
Masonry mortars are defined as general purpose, thin layer or lightweight

mortar according to their constituents. Masonry mortars may be factory made
(pre-batched or pre-mixed), semi-finished factory made or site-made, according
to the method or manufacture. According to BS EN 1996-1-1: 2005 +A1: 2012,
mortars should be classified by their compressive strength, expressed as the letter
M followed by compressive strength in N/mm2. The adhesion between the
mortar and the masonry units must be adequate for the intended use (by
determining the initial shear strength and flexural bond strength of masonry).

SELF-CHECK 7.5
1. Explain the role of lime and plasticiser in a mortar mix.
2. From Table 7.7, suggest the suitable mixes to produce mortar that
have maximum ability to resist temperature changes and frost
attack.
Table 7.7: Mortar Mixes in Accordance with BS 5628
Mortar Designation (BS 5628) Type of Mortar (Proportions by Volume)

Air Entrained Mixes
Cement :
Lime : Masonry
Cement : Sand
Sand Cement :
with Plasticiser¶
Sand
Increasing Increasing (i) 1 : 0 to ô¼ô: 3 ă ă
strength ability (ii) 1: ó : 4 to 4ó 1:2ó to 3 1: 3 to 4
and movements
improving due to (iii) 1:1.5 to 6 1:4 to 5 1:5 to 6
durability temperature (iv) 1:2.8 to 9 1:5ó to 6ó 1:7 to 8
and moisture
(v) 1:3:10 to 12 1:6ó to 7 1:8
changes
Increasing resistance to frost attack during

construction.
Improvement in adhesion and consequent resistance

to rain penetration.
 The different types of mortar that comprise any one designation are approximately
equivalent in compressive strength and do not generally differ greatly in their
other properties. Some general differences between types of mortar are indicated
by the arrows at the bottom of the table, but these differences can be reduced.
 The range of sand contents is to allow for the effects of the differences in grading
upon the properties of the mortar.
 The proportions are based on dry hydrated lime. The proportion of lime by
volume may be increased by up to 50 per cent (v/v) in order to obtain workability.
¶ At the discretion of the designer, air-entraining admixtures may be added to lime:
sand mixes to improve their early frost resistance (ready-mixed lime sand mixes
may contain such admixtures).
Source: Badorul Hisham Abu Bakar & Sharifah Rosfashida Syed Abd. Latif, 2010

7.7 BRICKWORK AND BLOCKWORK

Masonry construction today is used principally for non load bearing and load
bearing walls, the distinction between these being that the latter carry vertical
roof and/or floor loads, as in cross-wall construction, whilst the former carry
only their self-weight. Both may be subjected to wind loading. Masonry may
be reinforced or unreinforced and its many applications include retaining
walls, parapet and sewerage work. Brickwork and blockwork are particularly
significant for designers, builders and building owners. Brickwork and
blockworks are also used for decorative, glazed and paving units. Figure 7.10
depicts the use of block as pavement units and Figure 7.11 illustrates the use of
solid and hollow blockworks for wall and partition.
Figure 7.10: Concrete masonry paving units. Beall (1993)
Figure 7.11: Solid and hollow masonry unit (a) wall and (b) partition Beall (1993)

The choice of a particular type of brick or block for any given application and the
method of construction will depend largely on the properties of the associated
brickwork, or blockwork. These properties are related to the properties of its
components, namely the individual bricks and blocks (units) and the mortar used
to bind the units together. The properties are explained as follows:.
(a) Strength
The compressive strength of bricks or blocks is determined from the tests
on individual units. The measured strength will be dependent on the ratio
of the height to the least lateral dimension of the units. The most common
form of load bearing construction, a wall, invariably has a height many
times its least lateral dimension. Therefore, the actual wall strength will
generally be less than the individual units. Flexural strength is another
important property of masonry and for unreinforced masonry this
normally means the effective flexural tensile strength which is used when
assessing the ability of walls to withstand lateral wind forces.
Flexural strength about a horizontal axis, with tensile stresses acting normal
to the bed joints, are independent of unit strength, irrespective of the type of
unit, with failure occurring along the bed joint. Stronger mortars tend to give
higher flexural strengths. In the case of clay brickwork, the increased mortar
bond associated with clay bricks having low absorption characteristics which
produces a marked increase in flexural strength.
(b) Chemical Attack

The susceptibility of brickwork and blockwork to chemical attack depends
on the resistance to attack of both units and mortars. Usually, cement-based
mortars are susceptible to sulphate attack and sulphate-resisting cement
should be used wherever sulphate attack is possible. In relation to this, with
clay brickwork, cement-based mortars may be attacked by sulphates
derived from the clay constituents themselves. This also applies to cement
renderings on clay brickwork. Sulphate attack, which is gradual, only
occurs when brickwork is damped for the longer periods.
(c) Durability
In many cases, particularly for non load-boaring walls, durability is
governed by the strength. For clay brickwork, durability is likely to be more
of a problem than its strength, since in most cases clay bricks are very much
stronger than is required structurally.

Almost all durability problems are associated with moisture penetrations

and it is therefore of paramount importance that bricks are suited to the
degree of exposure likely to be found. In any one structure, the most
exposed position should be identified and, assuming that the same type is
to be used throughout, the brick selected should be adequate for this degree
of exposure.
(d) Movement
Brickwork and blockwork will expand or shrink due to the inherent
properties of the masonry units and mortar, and also the normal variations
in moisture content and temperature. Load-bearing masonry is subjected to
elastic and creep deformation, whereas the unloaded masonry only
expands or shrinks. Movements are associated with the irreversible
shrinkage and expansion of masonry units and with creep are time-
dependent and these may prolong, at a diminishing rate, for many years.
The two examples of potential problem areas are cavity walls with an outer
skin of clay brickwork and an inner skin of concrete blockwork and frame
structures supporting unloaded wall panels. In the latter case, horizontal
and vertical movement joints must be provided to prevent transfer of load
to the wall panel and to minimise restraint to the inherent shrinkage of
expansion of the wall panel. Differential movements should be considered
and should not interfere with the performance or masonry construction in
service.
(e) Fire Resistance

Brick and block have good fire-resistant properties and are incombustible
irrespective of the type of unit. For different masonry units, there are
differences between the thickness of wall required for the same fire rating
but these are relatively small and fire resistance is not normally an
important consideration in the choice of unit.
(f) Thermal Insulation

The good thermal properties of cavity walls have been recognised and
more, recently, have become critical in the attempts to conserve energy.
Cavity walls and diaphragm walls can be easily be insulated within the
void to provide further improved thermal values. However, care is
required in both, the choice of insulation material and the details employed.

(g) Sound Insulation

The majority of noise intrusion is by airborne sound, and the best defence
against this is mass ă the heavier the partition, the less the noise transmitted
through it. It is an added bonus if the mass structure is not too rigid.
Brickwork and blockwork provides the mass without too much rigidity. It
may be noted that whilst an increase in density of the masonry units will
improve the resistance to sound transmission it will at the same time
reduce its effectiveness for thermal insulation.
SELF-CHECK 7.6
1. Why should the strength of brickwork or blockwork be less than

the strength of the masonry units?
2. Describe how the moisture movement of brickwork and

blockwork affect the performance of masonry structures.
 Bricks and blocks are made of three materials which are clay, calcium silicate
and sand-cement or concrete.
Ć Clays are basically compounds of silica and alumina with varying amounts of
metallic oxides plus other minor ingredients and impurities. Kaolinite, illite,
montmorillonite and chlorites are usually present as the major constituents
together with associated water in the crystalline aluminosilicate clay
minerals.
 There are three different types of clay which although they are similar in
chemical composition, have different physical characteristics. They are
surface clay, shale and fire clay.
 The raw materials of calcium silicate bricks are a siliceous aggregate, a high
calcium lime and water, and hardened by high pressure steam.
 A hydraulic binder, water and aggregate are essential materials to produce

sand-cement and concrete blocks. Sand aggregate accounts for at least 75 per
cent of the volume. In aerated concrete blocks, a reactive foaming agent is
used to produce the characteristic cellular structure. Commonly, additives
and pigments are used to impart different colours; admixtures such as
retarders, accelerators and water-reducing agents are used to facilitate the

block manufacturing processes or to impart certain special properties to the

finished blocks. Aerated concrete blocks are made with or without fine
aggregate, preferably high pressure steam autoclaved.
Ć There are four basic subdivisions of brick: common bricks, facing bricks,
engineering bricks and damp proof course bricks. Clay bricks are also
classified into LD, HD units, common, protected, rendered/plastered,
thermal insulating, facing, civil engineering and structural masonry.
Ć In the design of brickworks and blockworks, there are three important basic
properties which are mechanical, durability and physical properties.
Ć Mechanical properties deal with compressive strength, whereas physical

properties deal with size, dimension tolerances, water absorption, the form of
bricks, perforations, etc. Durability properties deal with resistance to
chemicals, thermal, fire and moisture movement.
 The combination of masonry units with mortar as a jointing material is called

brickwork or blockwork. Individual brick units can be bonded using mortar
by English, Flemish, English Garden-Wall, Flemish Garden-wall Bond,
Heading Bond, Running (Stretcher) Bond and Thin Stretcher Bond.
 Mortar may account for as little as 7 per cent of the volume of a masonry
wall, but the role that it plays and the influence that it has on performance
and appearance are far greater than the proportion indicates.
 The principal components of masonry mortar and grout are cement, lime,
sand and water. Mortars consist of sand and water in combination with one
or more of the followings:
ă Lime;
ă Portland cement;
ă Sulphate-resisting Portland cement;
ă Masonry cement;
ă High alumina cement;
ă Plasticisers or other additives; and
ă Pigments

Aerated concrete blocks Engineering bricks

Blocks Facing bricks
Bonding bricks Fire clay
Bricks Mortar
Calcium silicate bricks Protected masonry
Clay bricks Sand-cement bricks
Common bricks Shale
Damn-proof course bricks Structural masonry
Efflorescence Surface clay
Badorul Hisham Abu Bakar, & Sharifah Rosfashida Syed Abd Latif. (2010).
Beall, C. (1993). Masonry design and detailing for architects, engineers, and
contractors (3rd ed.). New York, NY: McGraw Hill.
Brick Development Association. (2008). Section 4: Sulphate attack. BDA Design

Note 7 (August 2008). London, England: Author.
British Standards Institute. (1978). BS 187: 1978, specification for calcium silicate
(sandlime and flintlime) bricks. London, England: BSI Standards
Publication.
British Standards Institute. (1981). BS 6073: 1981, precast concrete masonry units.
Part 1: Specification for precast concrete masonry units. London, England:
BSI Standards Publication.
British Standards Institute. (2005). BS 5628: 2005, code of practice for the use of
masonry. Part 1: Structural use of unreinforced masonry. London, England:
BSI Standards Publication.

British Standards Institute. (2006). BS EN1996: 2006, Eurocode 6 ă Design of

masonry structures. Part 2: Design considerations, selection of materials
and execution of masonry. London, England: BSI Standards Publication.
British Standards Institute. (2011). BS EN771: 2011, specification for masonry

units. (Parts 1ă3). London, England: BSI Standards Publication.
British Standards Institute. (2012). BS EN1996: 2005 +A1: 2012, general rules for
reinforced and unreinforced masonry structures. Part 1-1. London,
England: BSI Standards Publication.

T op i c  Concrete
8
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Identify types of concrete;
2. Describe concrete constituents, components and its role in
producing quality concrete;
3. Explain concrete as an important construction material; and
4. Evaluate the suitable materials for concrete to be used
appropriately in the construction industry.
 INTRODUCTION
This topic deals with concrete as one of the widely used construction materials.
Concrete is the predominant material used in construction as compared to other
major construction materials such as steel and timber. Many famous structures
and skyscrapers are constructed using concrete. Advantages of concrete include
the ability to be cast, is economical, durable, fire resistant, includes on-site
fabrication, high in compressive strength, high fire resistance, high resistance to
cyclic and fatigue loading as well as requiring little maintenance. Concrete can be
categorised according to its weight such as normal, heavy and lightweight.

TOPIC 8 CONCRETE  181
Concrete can also be categorised based on its compressive strength such as low,
moderate and high strength concrete. Concrete is a composite material composed
of coarse granular material embedded in hard matrix of material (binder) usually
cement. This topic highlights constituent materials of concrete which are cement,
aggregate, water and admixtures. Different types of cement, classification of
aggregates and how its properties influence quality of concrete produced are also
covered. This topic ends with the description of reinforced, pre-stressed and
post-tensioned concrete.
ACTIVITY 8.1
Did you know that Burj Khalifa Tower in Dubai, United Arab Emirates
(UAE) is the tallest artificial structure in the world, and standing at
829.8m was constructed using concrete? Can you name other famous
skyscrapers or structures that are made from concrete?
Figure 8.1 below shows general information about the Burj Khalifa Tower.
Figure 8.1: Burj Khalifa Tower in Dubai

182  TOPIC 8 CONCRETE
8.1 IMPORTANCE OF CONCRETE

Concrete is the predominant material used in construction as compared to other
construction materials such as timber, steel, asphalt, stone, etc., because of its
versatility in applications. Popularity of concrete as a construction material is due
to the following reasons:
(a) Concrete is able to withstand the action of water without deterioration. It

is an ideal material for building structures to control, store and transport
water;
(b) It is one of the most economical materials for construction. It is the most
readily available material for the job;
(c) The structural concrete elements can be formed into a variety of shapes
and sizes. This is due to the fact that freshly made concrete is plastic,
hence, permits the material to flow into prefabricated formwork. After a
number of hours, the formwork can be removed for reuse when the
concrete has solidified and hardened to a strong mass;
(d) Concrete requires little maintenance. Good quality concrete is a very

durable material and remains maintenance free for many years;
(e) Concrete has good fire resistance; and
(f) It has high resistance to cyclic loading or fatigue. In most codes of

practice, the allowable concrete stresses are up to about 50 per cent of the
ultimate strength, thus generally, the fatigue strength of concrete is not a
major problem.
SELF-CHECK 8.1
1. List the advantages and disadvantages of using concrete as a

construction material.
2. Explain the reasons why most construction uses concrete and its
related materials.

8.2 TYPES OF CONCRETE

Generally, based on the unit weight, concrete can be classified into three broad
categories. These categories determine the suitability of use as described below:
(a) Normal-weight Concrete (2400kg/m3)

It is used for normal concrete projects such as:
(i) As filling for floor and roof slabs; and
(ii) Production of precast building blocks and filler walls.
(b) Lightweight Concrete (<1800kg/m3)

It has many advantages such as reduction of dead load, therefore reducing
construction cost and ease transportation. It is usually used as wall panel.
(c) Heavyweight Concrete (>3200kg/m3)

It is mainly used in the construction of nuclear reactors or other heavy duty
structures.
Based on the strength, concrete can also be described as:
(a) Low-strength concrete: Less than 20MPa (3000 psi) compressive strength;
(b) Moderate-strength concrete: From 20 to 40MPa (3000 to 6000psi)

compressive strength; and
(c) High-strength concrete: More than 40MPa (6000psi) compressive strength.

However, the limit for the high-strength concrete changes due to
introduction of admixtures and pozzolanas that can boost the strength of
concrete easily.
ACTIVITY 8.2
What causes concrete to have different compressive strength? Discuss

with your tutor.

8.3 COMPONENTS OF CONCRETE

Concrete is a composite material consisting of a binding medium within which
are embedded particles or fragments of aggregate. In hydraulic-cement concrete,
the binder is formed from a mixture of hydraulic cement and water. Hydraulic
cement is cement that sets and hardens by chemical interaction with water and is
capable of doing so under water. Concrete is mainly composed of three materials:
cement, water and aggregate. An additional material known as admixture can be
added to achieve certain properties. Concrete varies considerably in composition
but usually contains (by absolute volume) 7 to 15 per cent Portland cement, 14 to
21 per cent water, 0.5 to 0.8 per cent air, 24 to 30 per cent fine aggregate, and 31 to
51 per cent coarse aggregate (Smith & Hashemi, 2011).
The basic ingredients for manufacturing concrete are: cement as binding

material, aggregate (fine and coarse) as inert material, and water for chemical
reaction like hydration. Sometimes to modify or improve certain properties of
concrete, a small portion of admixture may also be used. An image of a typical
cross section of hardened concrete and the constituent materials in concrete is
shown in Figure 8.2.
Figure 8.2: Cross section of hardened concrete. A cement and water paste completely
coats each aggregate particle and fills the spaces between the particles to make a ceramic
composite material
Source: www.concretenetwork.com
The following subsections elaborate the constituent materials of concrete and its
influence in the quality of concrete produced.

8.3.1 Cement
Cement is the most important ingredient in concrete and acts as a binding
material because it has adhesive and cohesive properties. The most common
combination used in making cement is limestone, clay and sand. These materials
are processed in a rotating furnace called a kiln where temperatures reach
1500C. Cement when mixed with water forms a paste which hardens and binds
the aggregate together and forms a hard and durable mass called concrete. The
cement used for construction is known as Portland cement. Table 8.1 lists the
main chemical compounds of Portland cement. The functions of cement in
concrete are as follows:
(a) Cement binds the coarse and fine aggregates by filling the voids and
chemically reacting with water; and
(b) Cement provides strength, durability and water-tightness to the concrete.
Table 8.1: Chemical Compounds of Portland Cement
Compound Chemical Formula Abbreviation
Tricalcium silicate (C3S) 3CaO.SiO2 C3S
Dicalcium silicate (C2S) 2CaO.SiO2 C2S

Tricalcium aluminate (C3A) 3CaO.Al2O3 C3A
Tetracalcium aluminoferrite (C4AF) 4CaO. Al2O3. Fe2O3 C4AF
Portland cement is most widely used in civil engineering construction works. It

accounts for approximately 90 per cent of all cement production. It is made by
heating limestone and clay, or other suitable raw materials, together to form a
clinker rich in calcium silicates.
Historical Fact
Portland Cement was first developed in 1824 by an English inventor, Joseph
Aspdin and the name was taken from Portland Limestone in Dorset.

Neville (2005) describes the various types of Portland cement as follows:
(a) Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)

This cement is the basic Portland cement commonly used for most of the
concrete construction work where there are no sulphates in the soil or in the
groundwater. It is an excellent general cement and most widely used.
(b) Rapid-hardening Portland Cement (RHPC)

It has a higher fineness than OPC. The finer cement gains strength more
quickly but after several months the strengths of OPC and RHPC are the
same. RHPC is not quick setting but merely gains strength more rapidly
than OPC after hardening. The cost of rapid-hardening Portland cement is
only marginally greater than that of ordinary Portland cement.
(c) Sulphate-resisting Portland Cement (SRPC)

It is a form of Portland cement with a low tricalcium aluminate (C3A)
content. It has a higher content of tetracalcium aluminoferrite (C4AF) than
other Portland cements which give dark colours to the cement.
The heat developed by sulphate-resisting cement is not much higher than

that of low-heat cement, which is an advantage, but the cost of the former is
higher due to the special composition of the raw materials. Therefore, the
use of sulphate-resisting cement should be specified only when necessary.
(d) White Portland Cement

It has low content of iron compounds which gives the grey-green colour to
ordinary cements. It is used for special purposes, white concrete, or,
particularly in tropical countries, a pastel colour paint finish is sometimes
required. It is also used because of its low content of soluble alkalis so that
staining can be avoided.
(e) Low Heat Portland Cement (LHPC)

It produces concrete that gains strength and heat more slowly than normal
concrete of similar composition. It is normally available upon special order
and considered only for large structures. It has a low heat of hydration.

Other types of cement besides Portland are also used by the industry, as outlined
in Figure 8.3.
Figure 8.3: Different types of cement used for making concrete

Source: Jackson & Dhir (1996)
SELF-CHECK 8.2
Describe the chemical composition for each type of cement.

8.3.2 Aggregate
Aggregate is the granular material of sand gravel, crushed stones, crushed blast-
furnace slag or construction and demolition waste. It is used with a cementing
medium to produce either concrete or mortar. Aggregate is considered cheap
compared to cement and it is economical to mix as much as possible. Aggregates
generally occupy 70 to 80 per cent of the volume of concrete and, therefore, have
an important influence on its properties. It will improve the volume stability and
wear resistance than hydrated cement paste alone.
They are granular materials, derived for the most part from natural rock (crushed
stone or natural gravel) and sands although artificial materials such as
slags, expanded clay and shale are used in lightweight concrete. The general
classifications of aggregates by British Standards (BS) are as follows (also refer to
Figure 8.4):
(a) Heavyweight Aggregate
(i) Heavyweight aggregates provide an effective and economical use of

concrete for radiation shielding and for weight coating of submerged
pipelines; and
(ii) Density range from 4000 to 8500kg/m3 which depends on the

aggregate type, dimensions and degree of compaction.
(b) Normal Aggregate
(i) Suitable for most purposes;
(ii) Generally consists of various combinations of naturally occurring

sands, gravel and stones and of different sizes of crushed rock; and
(iii) Density range from 2300 to 2500kg/m3.
(c) Lightweight Aggregate
(i) Lightweight aggregates are used to make lightweight concrete; and
(ii) Lightweight aggregates can be processed natural materials (for

examples expanded clay or expanded shale), processed by products
(for example foamed slag or sintered pulverised fuel ash) or
unprocessed materials (for example pumice).

Figure 8.4: A classification of aggregates used for making concrete (with some examples
Source: Jackson & Dhir (1996)

To proportion suitable concrete mixes, certain properties of the aggregate must

be known, which are: (a) Shape and texture; (b) Size gradation; (c) Maximum
aggregate size; (d) Moisture content; and (e) Specific gravity/relative density.
(a) Shape and Texture

Aggregate shape and texture affect the workability of fresh concrete.
Sufficient paste is required to coat the aggregates and to provide lubrication
to decrease interactions between aggregate particles during mixing. For
good workability, the ideal aggregate particle is one that is close to
spherical in shape (well-rounded and compact) with relatively smooth
surface (Figure 8.5).
Crushed stone is much more angular (with sharp edges and corners) and
may have a rough surface texture. They also have a higher surface to
volume ratio and therefore require more paste to fully coat the surface of
each particle. Aggregates that are flat or elongated should be avoided
because they increase inter particle interaction and the surface-to-volume
ratio, thereby increasing the paste requirements. Also, concretes containing
aggregates of this shape are more prone to segregation during handling.
The presence of flat or elongated particles in crushed rock may be
indicative of rock with weak fracture planes. The surface texture of the
aggregate is also important for workability, since a rough surface requires
more lubrication for movement.
Figure 8.5: Classification of some aggregate shapes

Source: Mindness, Young & Darwin (2003)
ACTIVITY 8.3
Discuss with your tutor how the shape and texture of aggregate
influence the workability of fresh concrete produced.

(b) Size Gradation

The particle size distribution or grading of an aggregate supply is an
important characteristic because it determines the paste requirements for a
workable concrete. Since cement is the most expensive component, it is
desirable to minimise the cost of concrete by using the smallest amount of
paste. The significance of aggregate gradation is best appreciated by
considering concrete as a slightly compacted assembly of aggregate
particles bonded together with cement paste, with the voids between
particles completely filled with paste. Thus, the amount of paste depends
on the amount of void space that must be filled and the total surface area of
the aggregate that must be coated with paste.
The volume of the voids between roughly spherical aggregate particles

is greatest when the particles are of uniform size (Figure 8.6a). When a
range of sizes is used, the smaller particles can pack between the larger
(Figure 8.6), thereby decreasing the void space and lowering paste
requirements. Using a larger maximum aggregate size (Figure 8.6c) can also
reduce the void space.
Figure 8.6: Schematic representations of aggregate gradations in an assembly of

aggregate particles: (a) Uniform size; (b) Continuous grading; and (c) Replacement
of small sizes by large sizes
Source: Mindness, Young & Darwin (2003)
(c) Maximum Aggregate Size

The maximum size of the coarse aggregate influences the paste
requirements of the concrete, and the optimum grading of the coarse
aggregate depends on the maximum aggregate size. The maximum size of
coarse aggregate is the smallest sieve opening through which the entire
sample passes; the higher the maximum aggregate size, the lower the paste
requirements for the mix. For a given workability and cement content, the
strength of concrete increases with increasing aggregate size because the
w/c ratio can be lowered.
(d) Moisture Content

Since aggregates contain some pores, water can be absorbed into the body
of the particles. Also, water can be retained on the surface of the particles as
a film of moisture. It is necessary to have information about the moisture
content, since if there is a tendency for the aggregates to absorb water, it
will be removed from the paste so that the water cement ratio (w/c) is
effectively lowered and the workability of concrete decreased. There are
four states of moisture of the aggregates as shown in Figure 8.7 which are:
(i) Oven-dry. All moisture is removed from the aggregate by heating in

an oven at 105C to constant weight. All pores are empty;
(ii) Air-dry. All moisture is removed from the surface, but internal pores
are partially full;
(iii) Saturated-surface-dry. All pores are filled with water, but there is no
film of water on the surface; and
(iv) Wet. All pores are completely filled with water with a film of water
on the surface.
Figure 8.7: Four moisture conditions of aggregate that affect the water requirement
of concrete mixing
Source: Neville (2005)

(e) Specific Gravity/Relative Density

The density of the aggregates is required in mix proportioning to establish
weight-volume relationships. The density is expressed as the specific
gravity, which is a dimensionless ratio relating the density of the aggregate
to that of water. Relative density is defined as the ratio of the aggregateÊs
unit weight to that of water mix design. The relative density is an important
factor affecting the density of the resulting concrete.
8.3.3 Water
Water is responsible for the hydration reactions with the cement and influences
the strength development and durability of the concrete. Water also lubricates
the surface of aggregates and, hence, influences the workability and compaction
of concrete during the plastic stage. Ordinary drinking water can be used for
preparing concrete. As a whole, water is needed for:
(a) Chemical reaction with cement ă13 of water of the mixing is needed for
chemical reaction;
(b) Workability; and
(c) Facilitates mixing, placing and compacting of the fresh concrete.
Water of hydration is the amount of water needed to complete the chemical

reaction in the cement. Generally the water is about 25 per cent of the weight of
cement.
The effect of a high water-cement ratio on the strength of concrete is that the
higher the water to cement ratio, the lower the strength of the concrete (provided
that there is sufficient water to fully hydrate the cement and achieve good
workability for placing the concrete); the lower the water-cement, ratio, the better
the concrete in terms of strength and durability.
Water should be free from certain chemicals injurious to cement and the quality
of water should be just sufficient for the chemical reaction required for the
workability of the concrete.
ACTIVITY 8.4
Look up further references. Illustrate and discuss the relationship

between compressive strength of concrete and water cement ratio.

8.3.4 Admixtures
Admixture is defined as materials or substances other than aggregates, cement
and water which are added to the concrete batch immediately before or during
mixing. It is used in cement to modify one or more of its properties in the plastic
or hardened state. It should be noted that the terms „additive‰ and „admixture‰
are often misunderstood. Additive is referred to a substance which is added at
the cement manufacturing stage, while admixture implies addition at the mixing
stage. There are many types of admixtures. Admixtures can be divided into two
main types, namely chemical admixtures and mineral admixtures. They can be
further described as follows:
(a) Chemical Admixtures
(i) Set retarders:
 Retarders delay the setting and hardening of concrete. It is used in

hot weather concreting;
 Calcium sulphate (gypsum) is added during the manufacture of

cement to retard the setting; and
 The effect is retarders are dependent on dosage, cement type and

mix proportions used as well as the time of addition and the
ambient temperature.
(ii) Set accelerators:
 Accelerators are the chemicals used to accelerate the setting and

hardening of concrete; and
 The most commonly used accelerator is calcium chloride. The

disadvantages of using decelerates is that it may lead to corrosion
of embedded steel such as reinforcement and pre-stressing wires.

(iii) Water reducers or platicisers:
 It is used to increase the workability of concrete without

increasing water content; and
 Carbohydrate and organic acids are other examples of water-

reducing materials.
(iv) Air entraining:
 These are used to entrain air in the form of very small

disconnected air bubbles in concrete;
 It increases the workability and decreases the bleeding and

seggration. It also improves the resistance of concrete to frost
under cold climatic conditions; and
 Example: Vinsol resin.
(b) Mineral Additives

These are materials having cementitious properties which react mainly
with the calcium hydroxide liberated by the hydration of the silicates in
cement used to make mixtures more economical, reduce permeability,
increase strength and influence other concrete properties. Examples of
mineral additives are:
(i) Fly ash;
(ii) Silica fume;
(iii) Sawdust ash;
(iv) Slags; and
(v) Rice husk ash.
(c) Bonding Admixtures

These are normally polymer emulsions which will improve the adherence
of fresh concrete to hardened concrete.

(d) Water-repellent Admixtures

These materials reduce the capillary absorption of fluids by hardened
concrete and, therefore, lower its permeability.
ACTIVITY 8.5
Look up further references. Discuss how the inclusion of silica fume

enhances properties of concrete.
8.4 REINFORCED AND PRESTRESSED

CONCRETE
Since the tensile strength of concrete is about 10 to 15 times lower than its
compressive strength or about 7 per cent of its compressive strength, concrete
is usually cast containing steel reinforcing to cater tensile forces. Concrete
containing steel reinforcements in the form of rods, wires, wire mesh, etc. are
referred to as reinforced concrete. Figure 8.8 shows the exaggerated effect of a
heavy load on a reinforced concrete beam.
Figure 8.8: The reinforcing steel is placed in the tension zone to absorb tensile stresses

Pre-stressing means an intentional application of a predetermined force on a

system, for resisting the internal stresses that may be developed in the system,
due to external loads. It is meant for improving the behaviour and capacity of the
concrete structure. If the concrete structure is expected to have tensile stressses
due to external loads, pre-compression can be given to the concrete beam for
example, to a desired level even before the application of the external loads.
Then, the tension developed due to the external loads, will get largely nullified
by the initially applied compression.
These are the cases of uniform pre-stressing of the material, in a concrete element
to counteract the uniform stresses due to external loads. It will be the same
nature (say tension or compression) through the concrete element. Concrete
which is weak in tension can be pre-stressed with initial compression in those
zones where tensile stresses occur due to external loads. The application of pre-
compression in concrete is based on the fact that concrete is weak in tension. In
the zones where tension is caused by external loading, pre-compression is
introduced. The pre-compression can be applied by an external system such as
by jacks, unconnected with the structural element or internally from inside the
concrete element itself (Rajagopalan, 2005).
By pre-stressing the concrete (introducing pre-compression), the structural

element, which is subjected to tensile stresses due to external loads, can be kept
under compression during its service time. The tensile stresses generated by
external loads are nullified by the pre-compression and there could also be a
residual compression. Hence, the structure remains uncracked and the full cross
section is effective in transferring the load.
Meanwhile, in the process of post-tensioning (prestressed) concrete, hollow

conduits containing steel tendons are placed in the concrete (a beam, for
example) form before pouring concrete. The tendons may be stranded cable,
bundled parallel wires, or solid steel rods. The concrete is then poured, and when
it is sufficiently strong, each tendon is anchored at one end of the cast concrete
and jacking tension is applied at the other end.

When the jacking pressure is sufficiently high, a fitting is used to replace the jack,
which retains the tension in tendon. The space between the tendons and the
conduit is normally filled with cement grout by forcing it in as a paste at one end
of the conduit under high pressure; grouting also improves the flexural stress
capacity of a concrete beam. Figure 8.9(a) and (b) illustrate two methods of
applying tension force to steel strands which are known as pre-tensioned and
post-tensioned concrete (Smith & Hashemi, 2011).
Figure 8.9: Schematic showing the arrangement of producing: (a) a pre-tensioned (pre-
stressed); and (b) a post-tensioned concrete beam

 Advantages of concrete are many such as the ability to withstand the action
of water without deterioration, economic, readily available material for the
job, can be formed into a variety of shapes and sizes, durable and requires
little maintenance. Concrete has good fire resistance and has high resistance
to cyclic loading or fatigue.
 Concrete is composed of three major materials which are cement and water
(paste) and fine and coarse aggregate.
 To proportion suitable concrete mixes, certain properties of the aggregate

must be known, which are:
ă Shape and texture;
ă Size gradation;
ă Maximum aggregate size
ă Moisture content; and
ă Specific gravity/relative density.
 Additional material, admixtures, can be used to modify the concrete

properties. Admixtures can be divided into two types: chemical admixtures,
and mineral admixtures.
 The constituents of concrete are about 30 to 40 per cent paste and 60 to

70 per cent coarse and fine aggregate, as well as small quantities of admixture
in some.
 The important attributes of cement are:
ă Dry powder of very fine particles;
ă Forms a paste when mixed with water;
ă Chemical reaction especially hydration;
ă Paste coats all the aggregates together; and
ă Hardens and forms a solid mass.

 The important attributes of aggregate are:
ă Cheap fillers;
ă Hard material;
ă Provide for volume stability;
ă Reduce volume changes; and
ă Provide abrasion resistance.
 Pre-stressing concrete (introducing pre-compression) to structural elements

can be done by two methods which are through pre-tension and post-tension.
Pre-stressed concrete can be kept under compression during its service time.
The tensile stresses generated by external loads are nullified by the pre-
compression. Hence, the structure remains uncracked and the full cross
section is effective in transferring the load.
Admixture Hydraulic cement

Aggregate Medium-strength concrete
Bulk Mortar
Cement Prestressed concrete
Concrete Portland cement
Fly ash Post-tensioned concrete
Granular Reinforced concrete
Gravel Chemical admixture
High-strength concrete Mineral admixture

Badorul Hisham Abu Bakar, & Sharifah Rosfashida Syed Abd LAtif. (2010).
Jackson, N., & Dhir, R. K. (1996). Civil engineering materials (5th ed.). New York,
NY: Palgrave.
Neville, A. M. (2005). Properties of concrete (4th ed.). Harlow, England: Pearson

Prentice Hall.
Mindess, S., Young, J. F., & Darwin, D. (2003). Concrete (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Rajagopalan, N. (2005). Prestressed concrete (2nd ed.). Harrow, England: Alpha

Science.

T op i c  Green Materials
9
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Identify new materials having comparable properties with less
adverse environmental impact;
2. Discuss the engineering materials perspective to suit the modern
construction industry towards sustainability; and
3. Explain recycling efforts and the development of new recycling
technologies.
 INTRODUCTION
This topic deals with the definition of green materials, its product and selection
criteria. The attributes for green materials include absence of hazardous
ingredients, low-emitting carbon dioxide (CO2), bio-based and sustainably
sourced, durable or low-maintenance, reduction in material use, reduction in
heating and cooling loads, conservation of water, improved light and air quality,
improved acoustical performance and reduction of storm water pollution. The
examples of green products that fulfil these attributes are given. The advantages
of using green materials are also outlined.
This topic also covers recycling efforts and technology to reduce environmental
impacts and costs of disposal. The wastes that have been recycled and used in
construction are industrial waste, agricultural waste and wastewater sludge.
Tyres, glasses, oil palm, rice husk, sugarcane, sewage sludge and wastepaper
sludge are examples of industrial, agricultural and wastewater waste that have
been recycled to reduce the consumption of cement and natural aggregate in

TOPIC 9 GREEN MATERIALS  203
making concrete or bricks. Finally, this topic highlights some previous studies
and success stories of recycling waste materials as construction materials
reported by researchers.
ACTIVITY 9.1
Search for ten papers published in journals that report the outcome of
studies conducted on using agricultural waste materials as construction
material. Write and present a critical review to conclude all the findings.
9.1 SUSTAINABLE GREEN MATERIALS

Green materials are composed of renewable resources. Green materials are
environmentally sustainable because impacts are considered over the life of the
product. The ways the products are considered green are many and varied, either
they are energy or water efficient; they use healthy, non-toxic materials; they are
made from recycled or renewable sources; or they are more durable as compared
to conventional materials.
Sustainable materials are materials that can be produced in required volumes

without depleting non-renewable resources and without disrupting the
established steady-state equilibrium of the environment and key natural resource
systems.
Building and construction activities worldwide consume more than three billion
tonnes of raw materials each year or 40 per cent of total global use (Roodman &
Lenssen, 1995). Using green building materials and products promotes
conservation of dwindling non-renewable resources. In addition, integrating
green building materials into building projects can help reduce the
environmental impacts associated with the extraction, transport, processing,
fabrication, installation, reuse, recycling, and disposal of these building industry
source materials.
SELF-CHECK 9.1
1. What are the attributes a green material must possess?
2. Give more examples of green material products that fulfil one or

more of the attributes.

204  TOPIC 9 GREEN MATERIALS
9.2 GREEN MATERIAL SELECTION

Green material can be selected based on the following criteria:
(a) Resource efficiency;
(b) Indoor air quality;
(c) Energy efficiency;
(d) Water conservation; and
(e) Affordability.
The following subsections elaborate the criteria for a material to be considered as

green.
9.2.1 Resource Efficiency

Resource efficiency can be accomplished by utilising materials that meet the
following criteria:
(a) Recycled content: Products with identifiable recycled content including

post-industrial content (pre-consumer) with a preference for post-consumer
content. Pre-consumer recycling refers to the reuse of industrial by-
products. Post-consumer recycled content are products that recycle seldom-
used waste materials especially in areas where recycled products are hard
to find;
(b) Natural, plentiful or renewable: Materials which are harvested from

sustainably managed sources and preferably have an independent
certification (for example, certified wood and reclaimed wood) and are
certified by an independent third party. This is to avoid excessive
deforestation, premature demolition of historic barns and other buildings;
(c) Resource efficient manufacturing process: Products manufactured with

resource-efficient processes including reducing energy consumption,
minimising waste (recycled, recyclable and or source reduced product
packaging) and reducing greenhouse gases;
(d) Locally available: Building materials, components, and systems found

locally or regionally will save energy and resources in transportation to the
project site;

(e) Salvaged, refurbished, or remanufactured: Products that improve the

appearance, performance, quality, functionality, or products with improved
value;
(f) Reusable or recyclable: Materials that can be easily dismantled and reused
or recycled at the end of their useful life;
(g) Recycled or recyclable product packaging: Products enclosed in recycled

content or recyclable packaging; and
(h) Durable: Materials that are longer lasting or are comparable to conventional
products with long life expectancies.
9.2.2 Indoor Air Quality (IAQ)

Indoor air quality (IAQ) is enhanced by utilising materials that meet the
following criteria:
(a) Low or non-toxic: Materials that emit few or no carcinogens, reproductive

toxicants, or irritants as demonstrated by the manufacturer through
appropriate testing.
(b) Minimal chemical emissions: Products that have minimal emissions of

volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Products that also maximise resource
and energy efficiency while reducing chemical emissions.
(c) Low-VOC assembly: Materials that are installed with minimal VOC-
producing compounds, or no-VOC mechanical attachment methods and
minimal hazards.
(d) Moisture resistant: Products and systems that resist moisture or inhibit the
growth of biological contaminants in buildings.
(e) Healthfully maintained: Materials, components, and systems that require

only simple, non-toxic, or low-VOC methods of cleaning.
(f) Systems or equipment: Products that promote healthy IAQ by identifying

indoor air pollutants or enhancing the air quality.

9.2.3 Energy Efficiency, Water Conservation and

Affordability
Energy efficiency can be maximised by selecting materials and systems that help
reduce energy consumption in buildings and facilities. Water conservation can be
achieved by using materials and systems that help reduce water consumption in
buildings and conserve water in landscaped areas.
Meanwhile, affordability can be considered when building product life-cycle

costs which are comparable to conventional materials or as a whole, are within a
project-defined percentage of the overall budget.
9.3 ADVANTAGES OF USING GREEN

MATERIALS
Green building materials, if used for buildings and other infrastructure
components, will offer benefits to the owner, occupants and provide good impact
to the environment and economy which are:
(a) Reduced maintenance or replacement costs over the life of the building;
(b) Energy conservation;
(c) Improved occupant health and productivity;
(d) Lower costs associated with changing space configurations;
(e) Greater design flexibility;
(f) Conserving landfill void space; and
(g) Reducing global carbon dioxide emissions.
SELF-CHECK 9.2
Elaborate the advantages of using green materials in construction.

9.4 GREEN MATERIAL PRODUCTS

There are many products that are considered green that fulfil one or more
attributes that are outlined as follows:
(a) Absence of hazardous ingredients;
(b) Low-emitting CO2;
(c) Bio-based and sustainably sourced;
(d) Durable or low-maintenance;
(e) Reduces material use;
(f) Reduces heating and cooling loads;
(g) Conserves water;
(h) Improve air and light quality;
(i) Improved acoustical performance; and
(j) Reduces storm water pollution
The following subsections elaborate some of the green material attributes and
examples of products.
9.4.1 Absence of Hazardous Ingredients

Materials are green if they provide alternative applications dominated by
products for which there are concerns about toxic constituents, for example,
natural wall covering and LED lighting that is free of the mercury found in
fluorescent lighting sources.
9.4.2 Durable or Low Maintenance

Products that are durable and require low maintenance are considered as green
materials because they need to be replaced less frequently and, therefore, can
reduce costs as well as reduce environmental impact, for example, traffic-
resistant polyurethane floor finish and resilient flooring that does not require
regular waxing.

9.4.3 Reduces Material Use

Products can be claimed green if they help to use products or materials more
efficiently. For example, drywall clips allow the elimination of corner studs,
engineered stair stringers and reduce lumber waste. Concrete pigments and
polishing systems can turn concrete slabs into attractive finished floors. Some
other products like vacuum plumbing systems are also green products because
they use less material than their conventional counterparts.
9.4.4 Reusable, Recyclable or Compostable

Resources and energy can be conserved if products can be reused. Products that
are designed to be reusable, recyclable or compostable facilitate efficient use of
materials. More examples on recycled products are explained in section 9.5.
9.4.5 Improves Air Quality

Some products are green because they help us monitor the indoor environment.
These include carbon monoxide detectors and lead-paint test kits. Those that
prevent moisture problems, ventilation, filters and other devices that help to
remove pollution can also be considered green products.
ACTIVITY 9.2
Can you think of more examples of green material products that fulfil
one or more of the attributes?
9.5 RECYCLING WASTE IN CONSTRUCTION

Recycling is a process of converting waste materials into reusable material to
prevent waste of potentially useful materials, reduce the consumption of fresh
raw materials, reduce energy usage, reduce air pollution (from incineration) and
water pollution (from landfilling) by reducing the need for „conventional‰ waste
disposal and lower greenhouse gas emissions. Recycling is a key component of
waste reduction and is the third component of the „Reduce, Reuse and Recycle
(3R)‰

There are many waste products that have been recycled to be used for
construction materials. The iron-ore slag used to make mineral wool insulation
and fly ash used to make concrete are examples of industrial recycled materials.
Waste can be categorised into industrial, agriculture, domestic and construction
waste based on where it is generated. Some of the waste from those categories
have been recycled to reuse as construction materials and some examples are
given in the following subsections.
9.5.1 Industrial Waste

The generation of industrial waste is increasing at high rates for the past decades
and the disposal in landfill has been the most used option. The introduction of
industrial by-products in cementitious materials has been applied for years. In
addition, given the major CO2 emissions associated with the Portland cement
manufacture process, numerous researches have been undertaken to look at
alternatives using environmentally-sustainable raw materials. For example, coal
fly ashes and bottom ash from power stations and blast furnace slags from steel
factories have been successfully used in concrete and brick making either as
supplementary cementitious materials or aggregate.
Tyre and plastic are other examples of industrial waste that become a major
environmental issue in all parts of the world. The natural raw materials for
plastic and tyre production are petroleum, which is also the fossil fuel with the
greatest contribution the worldwide energy production (Pinto et al., 2001). Every
year millions of tyres are discarded, thrown away or buried all over the world
representing a very serious threat to ecology. Studies showed that there is a
promising future for the use of waste tyre rubber as a partial substitute for
aggregate in cement concrete (Thomas & Gupta, 2016). The application of
pyrolysis technology to plastic and tyre wastes allows the conversion of
hazardous waste into economical valuable products (Pinto et al., 2001).
Scrap tyres has been used as a fuel in the cement manufacturing process (Davies
& Worthington, 2001). The possibility of reusing industrial wastes as aggregate
for concrete has also been reported (Tay et al., 2000). Other industrial wastes that
have been recycled are glasses and rubber crumb. A number of studies on adding
glasses and crumb rubber into Portland cement concrete have also been reported.
Figure 9.1 shows the abundance of waste used tyres.

Figure 9.1: Examples of industrial wastes (a) tyres and (b) glasses
Sources: (a) http://ichemeblog.org/2014/06/04/day-8-a-tyred-old-problem/;
(b) http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/blue-box-glass-collection-could-
end-in-metro-vancouver-1.1401071)
ACTIVITY 9.3
1. Outline the challenges faced to adopt green materials in modern

construction.
2. Give more industrial by-products that you think can be reused

and recycled as construction material.
9.5.2 Agricultural Waste

Use of agricultural waste such as rice husk ash, straw from the stems left after
harvesting of cereal grains, oil palm shell (OPS), coconut shell ash and sugarcane
in concrete and brick have been reported. The annual production of solid waste
from the palm oil industry from the three main producers of oil palm Malaysia,
Indonesia and Thailand is around 90.5 million tonnes. Oil palm kernel shell
(PKS) is a waste material obtained during the extraction of palm oil by crushing
of the palm nut in the palm oil mills.
Research conducted by Shafigh et al. (2014) note partially replaced natural

sand in concrete containing Oil Palm Shell (OPS) as coarse aggregate with oil
palm boiler clinker (OPBC) as sand. The replacement levels were 12.5 per cent,
25 per cent, 37.5 per cent and 50 per cent by volume. The results showed
reduction in the workability, fresh and dry density with the inclusion of OPBC
sand. The compressive strength reduced with the inclusion of OPBC.

Rice husk is one of the agricultural wastes. Globally, approximately 61 million

tonnes of rice paddy is produced each year. An average 20 per cent of the rice
paddy is husk, giving an annual total production of approximately 132 million
tonnes. Most of the husk produced from processing of rice is either dumped as
waste or burnt causing environmental problems. Rice husk forms the outer
covering of rice and is removed during the milling process. Rice husk if properly
burnt, contains more than 92 per cent of SiO2.
Sugarcane is another agricultural waste that has potential to be cement

replacement material. Sugarcane bagasse is a main by-product of the sugar
industry, which is used as an energy source for sugar production. Sugarcane
contains 25ă30 per cent bagasse, whilst industry recovered sugar is around
10 per cent. Bagasse can be used as a raw material for paper making. The ash
produced by burning transforms the silica content of the ash into amorphous
phase and provides pozzolanic reactivity that lead to densification of cement
matrix structure (Alaa M. Rashad, 2015).
Figure 9.2 depicts rice husk and sugarcane bagasse, by-product of rice processing
and the sugar industry, respectively.
Figure 9.2: Examples of agricultural waste (a) rice husk and (b) sugarcane bagasse
Sources: (a) http://trade.indiamart.com/search.mp?search=rice+husk;
(b) http://www.123rf.com/photo_20329911_sugarcane-bagasse--useful-organic-
waste-close-up.html)

9.5.3 Construction Waste

Building activity requires amounts of materials (such as gravel and sand) derived
mainly from natural resources and generates high quantity of wastes. The
recycling of these wastes are in this way considered important steps towards
sustainable construction applications (Tam et al., 2008). Construction waste from
demolition works have been used as aggregate which is known as recycled
aggregate. Recycled concrete aggregate used for construction can ease aggregate
shortage problem and reduce both environmental pollution and ecological
footprint (Lee et al., 2012).
The reuse of waste bricks as aggregates in concrete has also been reported.
The use of recycled concrete aggregate such as from demolished waste or
buildings could not only contribute to the solution of waste disposal but to the
conservation of natural resources which are scarce nowadays. It has been
recognised that concrete manufactured using recycled concrete aggregate could
have mechanical properties equal to the natural aggregate concrete provided that
the parent concrete is of good quality (Xiao et al., 2012; Serres et al. 2016).
Figure 9.3 shows huge amounts of construction waste disposed.
Figure 9.3: Abundance of construction waste

Sources: (a) http://www.generalwasteuk.co.uk/construction/;
(b) http://ennissinc.com/our-work/)
9.5.4 Wastewater Sludge

Many regions in the world are experiencing problems in the increasing disposal
of municipal solid waste. Ashes from treatment plants of sludge from municipal
wastewater have been introduced as cement or sand replacement in concrete.
Incinerated sewage sludge ash (SSA) has been used partly in making concrete as
fine aggregate (Lynn et al., 2015). Pre-treatment (calcination) plating sludges
have been added in cement. However, the studies showed that the sludge ashes

can be added to cement in small dosages (less than 5 per cent dry weight)
without affecting the compressive strength and setting time of the final product
(Olmo et al., 2002).
Paper sludge ash (PSA) contains a high proportion of organic matter, in the form
of cellulose, as well as inorganic compounds, such as clays and calcium carbonate
(Pera & Amrouz, 1998). If combustion occurs in the range of 700ă750C, clay
minerals in the paper sludge such as kaolinite will be transformed into
metakaolinite (MK) and the PSA will behave as a pozzolanic material (Frías et al.,
2008). It showed that it is possible to manufacture sustainable 20 per cent PSA
and with powdered expanded polystyrene mortar in compliance with relevant
standard as rendering, masonry and plastering materials (Ferrándiz-Mas et al.,
2014).
 Materials are considered green if they are energy or water efficient; they use
healthy, non-toxic materials; they are made from recycled or renewable
sources; or they are more durable as compared to conventional material.
 Sustainable materials are materials that can be produced in required volumes

without depleting non-renewable resources and without disrupting the
established steady-state equilibrium of the environment.
 Integrating green building materials into building projects can help reduce
the environmental impacts associated with the extraction, transport,
processing, fabrication, installation, reuse, recycling and disposal.
 Green material can be selected based on the following criteria:
ă Resource efficiency;
ă Indoor air quality;
ă Energy efficiency;
ă Water conservation;
ă Affordability.

 Advantages of using green buildings include reduced maintenance or

replacement costs over the life of the building, energy conservation,
improved occupant health and productivity, lower costs associated with
changing space configurations, greater design flexibility, conserving landfill
void space and reducing global carbon dioxide emissions.
 Green products possess one or some of the following attributes:
ă Absence of hazardous ingredients;
ă Low-emitting CO2;
ă Bio-based and sustainably sourced;
ă Durable or low-maintenance;
ă Reduces material use;
ă Reduces heating and cooling loads;
ă Conserves water;
ă Improve air and light quality;
ă Improved acoustical performance; and
ă Reduces storm water pollution.
 Recycling is a process of converting waste materials into reusable material to

prevent waste of potentially useful materials, reduce the consumption of
fresh raw materials, reduce energy usage, reduce air pollution (from
incineration) and water pollution (from landfilling).
 Waste can be categorised into industrial, agriculture and construction waste.
 Iron-ore slag used to make mineral wool insulation, fly ash and bottom ash
used to make concrete are examples of industrial recycled materials. Blast
furnace slags from steel, crumb rubber, tyres and glasses are other examples
of industrial wastes that have been successfully used in concrete and brick
making either as supplementary cementitious materials or aggregate.
 Use of agricultural waste such as rice husk ash, straw from the stems left after
harvesting of cereal grains, oil palm kernel shell (OPS), coconut shell ash and
sugarcane in concrete and brick as cement replacement materials and
aggregate have been reported.

 Sugarcane bagasse, a by-product of the sugar industry, is another agricultural

waste that has potential to be cement replacement material. It has also been
used as an energy source for sugar production as well as raw material for
paper making.
 Incinerated sewage sludge ash (SSA) has been used partly in making concrete
as fine aggregate. Paper sludge ash (PSA) contains a high proportion of
organic matter, in the form of cellulose, as well as inorganic compounds, such
as clays and calcium carbonate.
Environment impact Recycled concrete aggregate

Green materials Rice husk ash
Green material attributes Sewage sludge ash
Green products Sugarcane bagasse
Oil palm kernel shell Sustainable materials
Paper sludge ash Waste tyres
Reuse Waste materials
Recycle
Davies, R. W., & Worthington, G. S. (2001). Use of scrap tyre as a fuel in the
cement manufacturing process. In R. K. Dhir, M. C. Limbachiya and
K. A. Paine (Eds.), Recycling and Reuse of Used Tyres. (pp. 93ă106).
London, England: Thomas Telford Publishing.
Ferrándiz-Mas, V., Bond, T., García-Alcocel, & Cheeseman, C. R. (2014).

Lightweight mortars containing expanded polystyrene and paper sludge
ash. Construction and Building Materials, 61. 285ă292.
Frías, M., García R., Vigil, R., & Ferreiro, S. (2008). Calcination of Art Paper
Sludge Waste for the Use as a Supplementary Cementing Material. Applied
Clay Science, 42 (1ă2), 189ă193.

Lee, C. H., Du, J. C., & Shen, D. H. (2012). Evaluation of pre-coated recycled
concrete aggregate for hot mix asphalt. Construction Building Material,
28(1), 66ă71.
Lynn, C. J., Dhir, R. K., Ghataora, G. S., & West, R. P. (2015). Sewage sludge ash
characteristics and potential for use in concrete. Construction and Building
98, 767ă779.
Olmo, F. I., López P., & Irabien, A. (2002). Behaviour of cement/plating waste
dried products: Unconfined compressive strength and setting time. In R. K.
Dhir, T. D. Dyer and J. E. Halliday (Eds.), Sustainable Concrete
Construction (pp. 77ă86). London, England: Thomas Telford Publishing.
Pera, J., & Amrouz, A. (1998). Development of highly reactive metakaolin from
paper sludge. Advanced Cement Based Material, 7(2), 49ă56.
Pinto, F., Miguel, M., Gulyurtlu, I., & Cabrita, I. (2001). Study of pyrolysis process
to recycle tyres and plastic wastes. In R. K. Dhir, M. C. Limbachiya and
K. A. Paine (Eds.), Recycling and Reuse of Used Tyres (pp. 27ă38). London,
England: Thomas Telford Publishing.
Roodman, D. M., & Lenssen, N. (1995). A building revolution: How ecology and
health concerns are transforming construction. Worldwatch Paper 124.
Washington D.C.: Worldwatch Institute.
Serres, N., Braymand, S., & Feugeas, F. (2016). Environmental evaluation of

concrete made from recycled concrete aggregate implementing life cycle
assessment. Journal of Building Engineering, 5, 24ă33.
Shafigh, P., Mahmud, H., Jumaat, M. Z. Ahmad, R., & Bahri, S. (2014). Structural
lightweight aggregate concrete using two types of waste from the palm oil
industry as aggregate. Journal of Cleaner Production, 80, 187ă196.
Tam, V. W. Y., Wang, K., & Tam, C. M. (2008). Assessing relationships among
properties of demolished concrete, recycled aggregate and recycled
aggregate concrete using regression analysis. Journal Hazard Material, 152,
703ă714.
Tay, J. H., Hong, S. H., & Show, K. Y. (2000). Reuse of industrial sludge as
palletised aggregate for concrete. Journal of Environmental Engineering
ASCE, 126(3) 279ă287.

Thomas, B. S., Gupta, R. C. (2016). A comprehensive review on the applications

of waste tyre rubber in cement concrete. Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews, 54. 1323ă1333.
Xiao, J., Huang, Y., Yang, J., Zhang, C. (2012). Mechanical properties of confined
recycled aggregate concrete under axial compression. Construction
Building Material, 26, 591ă603.

T op i c  Selection of
Materials and
10 Test Methods
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the principles of important test methods for determining
the properties of materials;
2. Evaluate suitable materials to be used in construction and other
application based on its properties; and
3. Discuss the appropriate test methods for engineering materials.
 INTRODUCTION
This topic deals with selection of materials which are mainly related to test
methods used to determine the properties of engineering materials. The
important criteria to select materials include source of supply, lightweight,
strong, renewable, corrosion resistant and not harmful to environment and
people. Relative cost, energy consumption during its manufacturing and
depletion of resources are among other criteria considered when suitable
materials to be chosen. This topic covers important testing methods to evaluate
mechanical properties of material for selection purpose. The test methods
explained include bending, hardness, creep, fatigue, hardness, impact and tensile
strength tests. The parameters obtained from conducting those tests are also
outlined.

TOPIC 10 SELECTION OF MATERIALS AND TEST METHODS  219
ACTIVITY 10.1
Look up the references and cite the tensile strengths of the following
materials:
(a) Copper;
(b) Steel; and
(c) Aluminium.
Discuss which material records highest tensile strength and lowest

density. Based on the tensile strength and the density, what do you
think are suitable applications of those materials in construction?
10.1 PROCESS OF SELECTING MATERIALS

We are surrounded by materials and we rarely think about how these materials
are selected. It is estimated that currently more than 100,000 engineering
materials are available for applications (Jacobs & Kilduff, 2001). Material
engineers should be knowledgeable of various classes of materials, their
properties, structure, manufacturing processes involved, environmental,
economic, sustainability issues, and more (Smith & Hashemi, 2011). The
following list comprises some of the common criteria for selection:
(a) Endless and readily available source of supply;
(b) Cheap to produce;
(c) Energy efficient;
(d) Strong, stiff and dimensionally stable at all temperatures;
(e) Lightweight;
(f) Corrosion resistant;
(g) No harmful effects on the environment or people;
(h) Biodegradable; and
(i) Renewable and sustainable.

220  TOPIC 10 SELECTION OF MATERIALS AND TEST METHODS
Selecting the best material for a given application or part involves an

understanding of the many relationships that exist between selection and a few
important variables which are:
(a) Design;
(b) Performance characteristics; and
(c) Manufacturing process.
Note that cost variable is inherent in all these variables, for example, epoxy
composites possess strength-to-weight ratio three to five times greater than those
of steels. So, why donÊt automakers use epoxy composites to make car bodies,
axles, and shafts when the use of this light weight composite material will allow
for much more fuel-efficient vehicles? It is because this material can cost 15 to 40
times more expensive than steel; so who could afford to buy such car? (Jacobs &
Kilduff, 2001).
Recycling and green materials are part of the strategy devised in the material
selection. Many materials are derived from resources that are renewable, that is
not capable of being generated for future. These include polymers for which the
prime raw material is oil. For example, it requires huge amount of natural
resources to produce concrete. These non-renewable resources are gradually
becoming depleted, which necessitates:
(a) The discovery of additional reserves;
(b) The development of new materials having comparable properties with less
adverse environmental impact; and
(c) Increased recycling efforts and the development of new recycling

technologies.
As a consequence, not only is the economics of production an important factor in

material design and selection, but environmental considerations, sustainability
impact and ecological factors are also becoming increasingly influential.

SELF-CHECK 10.1
1. Why should engineers be knowledgeable about properties of

materials?
2. Explain why renewability and sustainability are important criteria

in material selection. Give examples of materials used in
construction that are renewable.
10.2 IDENTIFYING POTENTIAL MATERIALS

Switching from traditional materials such as steel and concrete to newer
materials such as plastic based is not a straightforward approach for a designer.
The newer materials are often superior, but sometimes there are complications,
causing hesitation by designers. Sufficient experience in both designers and
fabricators requires time and is exacerbated when human life might be in
jeopardy such as in aircrafts.
Algorithms are well-defined methods for solving specific problems. Algorithms

can be developed by writing a computer programme to lay out the steps to solve
the problems. For example, a simple algorithm can be devised to calculate the
strength required of a light pole to withstand the pushing forces from a light
fixture. To aid in the creation of material selection algorithms, a database must be
available to answer questions on material suitability. A material database
involves listing properties of materials such as tensile strength, hardness,
corrosion resistance, and the ability to withstand heat and these can be obtained
from thousands of reference books (Jacobs & Kilduff, 2001).
Graphical techniques also can aid the designer to select and identify potential
materials. Figure 10.1 shows an example of a graphical plot of relationship
between two important properties which are stiffness (YoungÊs modulus) and
weight (density) of major groups of materials.

Figure 10.1: Graphical tool for material selection depicting a plot of YoungÊs modulus and
material density
SELF-CHECK 10.2
1. Name a major obstacle to changing from one material to another.
2. After all other considerations are made, what is very often the
major selection criterion that determines the final choice of
material?

10.3 TEST METHODS

There are many test methods to evaluate the mechanical properties of
engineering materials namely bending, creep, fatigue, hardness, toughness,
impact and tensile strength tests. The following subsections explain these tests.
10.3.1 Bending (Flexural)

Bending is also known as flexure and characterises the behaviour of a slender
structural element subjected to an external load applied perpendicularly to a
longitudinal axis of the element. Strength possessed by a material to resist
bending load is called flexural strength. Bending strength is associated with
the capability of a slender structural element to resist load that is applied
perpendicularly. For example, a closet rod sagging under the weight of clothes is
an example of a beam experiencing bending. When an object formed of a single
material, like a wooden beam or a steel rod, is bent (Figure 10.2) it experiences a
range of stresses across its depth.
F is a load applied
L is a length of the specimen
d is the thickness of the specimen
(a)
(b)
Figure 10.2: A material under bending test (a) before and (b) after applying load

At the edge of the object on the inside of the bend („B‰ ă concave face), the stress
will be at its maximum compressive stress value. At the outside of the bend („A‰
ă convex face) the stress will be at its maximum tensile value. These inner and
outer edges of the beam or rod are known as the „extreme fibres‰. Most materials
fail under tensile stress before they fail under compressive stress, so the maximum
tensile stress value that can be sustained before the beam or rod fails is its
flexural strength.
10.3.2 Creep
When a material is under a constant load or stress, it may undergo progressive
plastic deformation over a period of time. The time-dependent strain is called
creep. The creep of metals and alloys is very important for some types of
engineering designs, particularly those operating at elevated temperatures. For
example, engineers selecting an alloy for the turbine blades of a gas turbine engine
must choose an alloy with a very low creep rate so that the blades can remain in
service for a long period of time before having to be replaced due to their reaching
the maximum allowable strain. For many engineering designs operating at
elevated temperatures, the creep of materials is the limiting factor with respect to
how high the operating temperature can be. Let us consider a creep experiment in
which an tensile specimen is subjected to a constant load of sufficient magnitude to
cause extensive creep deformations. When the change of length of the specimen
over a period of time is plotted against time increments, a creep curve, such as the
one shown in Figure 10.3 is obtained (Smith & Hashemi, 2011).
Figure 10.3: A typical creep curve for a metal. The curve represents the time versus strain
behaviour of a metal or alloy under a constant load at constant temperature
10.3.3 Fatigue
Fatigue failure is failure that occurs under repeated or cyclic stressing. In many
applications, a material subjected to repetitive or cyclic stresses will fail due to
fatigue loading at much lower stress than that which those that can withstand
under the application of single static stress. Examples of application in which
fatigue failures are common are moving parts such as shafts, gears and
connecting rods. Meanwhile in construction, examples of components that are
subject to fatigue loadings are runways at airport and concrete sleepers for train
commuting.
There are many ways to test the fatigue life of a material. The most commonly
used small scale fatigue test is the rotating beam test in which a specimen is
subjected to alternating compression and tension stresses of equal magnitude
while being rotated (Figure 10.4). During the testing of a fatigue sample by this
apparatus, the centre of this specimen is actually undergoing tension on the
lower surface and compression on the upper surface by the weight attached in
the centre of the apparatus (Figure 10.4).
Figure 10.4: Exaggerated bending under fatigue machine showing action that produces
positive tension and negative compressive forces on sample
Data from this test are plotted in the form of SN curves in which the stress „S‰ to
cause failure is plotted against the number of cycles „N‰ at which failure occurs.
Figure 10.5 depicts typical SN curves for high-carbon steel and a high strength
aluminium alloy. For the aluminium alloy, the stress to cause failure decreases as
the number of cycles is increased (Smith & Hashemi, 2011).

Figure 10.5: Stress versus number of cycles (SN) curves for fatigue failure for aluminium
alloy and medium carbon steel
SELF-CHECK 10.3
1. Explain the differences between fatigue and flexural failure.
2. Give examples and explain components in buildings that are

subject to creep.

10.3.4 Hardness
Hardness is a measure of the resistance of a material to permanent (plastic)
deformation. The hardness of a material is measured by forcing an indenter into
its surface. The indenter material, which are usually a ball, pyramid, or a cone is
made of a material much harder than the material being tested. For example,
hardened steel, tungsten carbide or diamonds are commonly used materials
for indenter. For most standard hardness tests, a known load is applied slowly
by pressing the indenter at 90 into the surface of a material being tested
(Figure 10.6) (Smith & Hashemi, 2011).
Figure 10.6: Steps in the measurement of hardness with a diamond-cone indenter. The
depth r determines the hardness of the material. The lower the value of t, the harder the
material

10.3.5 Toughness and Impact

Toughness is a measure of the amount of energy a material can absorb before
fracturing. It becomes important in engineering when the ability of a material to
withstand an impact load without fracturing is considered. One of the simplest
methods of measuring toughness is to use an impact-testing apparatus. A
schematic diagram of a simple impact testing machine is shown in Figure 10.7.
Figure 10.7: Schematic diagram of a standard impact testing apparatus

One method of using this apparatus is to place a Charpy V-notch specimen

(shown in the upper part of Figure 10.7) across parallel jaws in the machine. In
the impact test, a heavy pendulum released from a known height strikes the
sample on its downward swing, fracturing it. By knowing the mass of the
pendulum and the difference between its initial and final heights, the energy
absorbed by the fracture can be measured. The energy absorbed is influenced by
the temperature (Smith & Hashemi, 2011).
10.3.6 Tensile Strength

The tensile test is a common test to evaluate the strength of metals and alloys.
Tensile test also applies to other materials like composites and polymers. In this
test, a metal sample is pulled to failure in a relatively short time at a constant
rate. Figure 10.8 illustrates schematically how the sample is tested in tension. The
force (load) on the specimen being tested is measured by the load cell while the
strain is obtained from the extensometer attached to the specimen and the data is
collected in a computer control software package. The types of samples used for
the tensile test vary considerably. For metals with a thick cross-section such
as plate, a 1.27cm diameter round specimen is commonly used (Figure 10.9(a).
For metal with thinner cross sections such as sheet, a flat specimen is used
(Figure 10.9(b). A 5.08cm gauge length within the specimen is the most
commonly used gauge length for tensile tests (Smith & Hashemi, 2011).
Figure 10.8: Schematic illustration showing how the tensile machine operates apparatus

(a) (b)
Figure 10.9: Examples of the geometrical shape of commonly used tension test specimen:
(a) Standard round tension test specimen; and (b) Standard rectangular tension test
specimen with 5.08cm gauge length apparatus
Data obtained from the tensile strength test are modulus of elasticity, yield
strength at 0.2 per cent offset, ultimate tensile strength, per cent elongation at
fracture and per cent reduction in area at fracture. The following subsections
elaborate each parameter obtained.
(a) Modulus of Elasticity

In the first part of the tensile strength test, the material is deformed
elastically, that is, if the load on the specimen is released, the specimen will
return to its original length. For metals, the maximum elastic deformation is
usually less than 0.5 per cent. In general, metals and alloys show a linear
relationship between stress and strain in the elastic region of the
engineering stress-strain diagram; this is described by HookeÊs Law:
 (stress) =  (strain)
or
  stress 
E   units of Pa 
  strain 
where E is the modulus of elasticity, or known as YoungÊs modulus.

(b) Yield Strength

The yield strength is a very important value for use in engineering
structural design since it is the strength at which a metal or alloy shows
significant plastic deformation. Because there is no definite point on the
stress-strain curve where elastic strain ends and plastic strain begins, the
yield strength is chosen to be that strength when a definite amount of
plastic strain has occurred. Commonly, the yield strength is chosen when
0.2 per cent plastic strain has taken placed as indicated on the engineering
stress-strain diagram of Figure 10.10.
Figure 10.10: Expanded linear part of stress-strain diagram to show determination

of the 0.2 per cent offset yield stress apparatus

The 0.2 per cent yield strength, also called the 0.2 per cent offset yield
strength, is determined from the engineering stress-strain diagram as
shown in Figure 10.10. First, a line is drawn parallel to the elastic
(linear) part of the stress-strain plot at 0.002m/m strain, as indicated on
Figure 10.10.
Then, at the point where this line intersects the upper part of the stress-
strain curve, a horizontal line is drawn to the stress axis. The 0.2 per cent
offset yield strength is the stress where the horizontal line intersects the
stress axis, and in the case of the stress-strain curve of Figure 10.10, the
yield strength is 537MPa. It should be pointed out that the 0.2 per cent
offset yield strength is arbitrarily chosen, and thus the yield strength could
have been chosen at any other small amount of permanent deformation. A
0.1 per cent offset yield strength is also used in other countries.
(c) Ultimate Tensile Strength

The ultimate tensile strength (UTS) is the maximum strength reached in
the engineering stress-strain curve. If the specimen develops a localised
decrease in cross-sectional area (commonly called necking), the engineering
stress will decrease with further strain until fracture occurs since the
engineering stress is determined by using the original cross-sectional area
of the specimen. The more ductile a metal is, the more the specimen will
neck before fracture and hence the more the decrease in the stress on the
stress-strain curve beyond the maximum stress. Figure 10.11 depicts the
ultimate strength determined from stress-strain diagram of high strength
aluminium alloy.

Figure 10.11: Engineering stress-strain of high strength aluminium

Source: Smith & Hashemi ( 2011)
(d) Per cent Elongation

The amount of elongation that a tensile specimen undergoes during testing
provides a value for the ductility of a metal. Ductility of metals is most
commonly expressed as per cent elongation, starting with a gauge length
usually of 5cm. In general, the higher the ductility (the more deformable the
metal is), the higher the per cent elongation.

During the tensile strength test, an extensometer can be used to

continuously measure the strain of the specimen being tested. The per cent
elongation can then be calculated from the equation as follows:
final length  initial length

% elongation   100%
initial length
l  lo
  100%
lo
The initial length is the length that is measured between the gauge marks
on the specimens before testing. The final length is the length between these
same gauge marks after testing when the fractured surface of the specimen
is fitted together.
(e) Per cent Reduction in Area

The ductility of a metal or alloy can also be expressed in terms of the per
cent reduction in area. This quantity is usually obtained from a tensile test
using a specimen 12.7mm in diameter. After the test, the diameter of the
reduced cross section at the fracture is measured. Using the measurements
of the initial and final diameters, the per cent reduction in area can be
determined from the equation as follows:
initial area  final area

% reduction in area   100%
initial area
Ao  Af
  100%
Af
The per cent reduction in area, like the per cent elongation, is a measure of
the ductility of the metal and is also an index of quality. The per cent
reduction in area may be decreased if defects such as inclusions and/or
porosity are present in the metal specimen (Smith & Hashemi, 2011).

SELF-CHECK 10.4
The following engineering stress-strain data were obtained at the

beginning of a tensile test for a 0.2 per cent plain carbon steel.
(a) Plot the engineering stress-strain curve for these data.
(b) Determine the 0.2 per cent offset yield stress for this steel.
(c) Determine the tensile elastic modulus of this steel.
Engineering Engineering Engineering Engineering

stress (MPa) starin (mm/mm) stress (MPa) Strain (mm/mm)
0 0 413.4 0.0035
103.4 0.0005 454.7 0.0040
206.7 0.0010 482.3 0.0060
275.6 0.0015 496.1 0.0080
344.5 0.0020
 Commonly used criteria for material selection include availability of supply,

price, strength, energy consumption, weight, effects on the environment,
renewability and sustainability as well as resistance to wear.
 Nevertheless, the few important variables in selecting the best materials are
usually related to design, performance characteristics and manufacturing
process.
 Cost, of course, is the inherent variable in all of the variables mentioned.
 Algorithms can be devised to aid in material selection where a material

database is needed to write computer programmes. A material database
involves listing properties of materials such as tensile strength, hardness,
corrosion resistance, stress-rupture and the ability to withstand heat.

 Graphical techniques also can aid designer to select and identify potential
materials. For example, a graphical plot of relationship between two
important properties; stiffness (Young Modulus) and weight (density) of
major groups of materials.
 There are many test methods to evaluate the mechanical properties of

engineering materials namely bending, creep, fatigue, hardness, toughness,
impact and tensile strength tests.
Algorithms HookeÊs law

Bending Impact
Brittle Material selection
Creep Modulus of elasticity
Ductility Recycling
Elongation Reduction of area
Flexural strength Tensile strength
Fracture Toughness
Graphical tools Ultimate tensile strength
Green materials Yield strength
Hardness Young modulus

Jacobs, J. A., & Kilduff, T. F. (2001). Engineering materials technology: Structure,

processing, properties, and selection (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice Hall.

MODULE FEEDBACK
MAKLUM BALAS MODUL
If you have any comment or feedback, you are welcome to:
1. E-mail your comment or feedback to modulefeedback@oum.edu.my
OR
2. Fill in the Print Module online evaluation form available on myINSPIRE.
Thank you.
Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

(Pusat Reka Bentuk Pengajaran dan Teknologi )
Tel No.: 03-27732578
Fax No.: 03-26978702


EBML2103 Engineering Materials - Caug18 (Bookmark) PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

EBML2103 Engineering Materials - Caug18 (Bookmark) PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

EBML2103

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Module Writer: Prof Dr Hamidah Mohd Saman @ Haji Mohamed

Moderator: Ir Dr Jansen Luis

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

First Edition, August 2018

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), August 2018, EBML2103

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 1 Introduction to Materials 1

Topic 2 The Structure of Materials 14

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

2.7 Structure of Electric and Magnetic Materials 38

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 4 Polymers, Ceramics and Composites 70

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 5 Plastic, Glass and Rubber 101

Topic 6 Timber 129

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

6.4 Moisture in Timber 138

Topic 7 Bricks and Blocks 151

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

7.4 Testing of Bricks and Blocks 165

Topic 8 Concrete 180

Topic 9 Green Materials 202

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

9.5 Recycling Waste in Construction 208

Topic 10 Selection of Materials and Test Methods 218

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours

1. Discuss the application of engineering materials to suit the modern

2. Identify the types and properties of engineering materials described in the

3. Describe the structure of engineering materials;

5. Discuss the appropriate test methods for engineering materials.

Topic 1 is an introduction to the materials engineering perspective. The topic

Topic 2 investigates the structure of materials such as metals, alloys, polymers

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 3 moves on to discuss the characteristics and properties of ferrous and

Topic 6 looks at timber as a source material for construction. The classification of

Topic 8 is about concrete. Here, we will be able to appreciate the importance of

Topic 9 discusses sustainability and green materials. It covers how to select

TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

How many categories of materials do you think is used to produce a

1.1 TYPES OF MATERIALS

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

1.1.1 Metallic Materials

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

1. When a metal contains a large percentage of iron, what is its

2. Give three examples of non-ferrous metals consisting of metal

1.1.2 Polymer Materials