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Nanoarchitectonics
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Nanoarchitectonics
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Contents
Preface xvii
1 Electrodes for Flexible Integrated Supercapacitors 1
Sajid ur Rehman and Hong Bi
1.1 Introduction and Overview of Supercapacitors 2
1.2 Electrode Materials for Flexible Supercapacitors 4
1.2.1 Carbon Materials 4
1.2.1.1 Activated Carbon 4
1.2.1.2 Carbon Nanotubes 5
1.2.1.3 Graphene 6
1.2.1.4 Carbon Aerogels 8
1.2.1.5 Graphene Hydrogel 8
1.2.2 Conducting Polymers 10
1.2.3 Metal Compounds 13
1.2.3.1 Ruthenium Oxide (RuO2) Electrode Material 14
1.2.3.2 Nickel Oxide (NiO) Electrode Material 15
1.2.3.3 Copper Oxide (CuO) Electrode Material 16
1.2.3.4 Composite Electrode Materials 17
1.3 Device Architecture of Flexible Supercapacitor 18
1.4 Integration of Flexible Supercapacitors 19
1.5 Conclusion 21
References 22
2 Flexible Supercapacitors Based on Fiber-Shape Electrodes 27
Faiza Bibi, Muhammad Inam Khan, Abdur Rahim,
Nawshad Muhammad and Lucas S.S. Santos
2.1 Introduction 27
2.2 Supercapacitors 29
2.2.1 Electrochemical Supercapacitor 29
2.2.2 Flexible Supercapacitors 30
2.3 Shape Dependent Flexible Electrodes 31
2.3.1 Porous 3D Flexible Electrodes 32
v
vi Contents
2.3.2 Flexible Paper Electrodes 32

2.3.3 Flexible Fiber Electrodes 33
2.4 Fiber Shape Electrodes (FE/FSC) 34
2.4.1 Wrapping Fiber Shape Electrode/Supercapacitors 34
2.4.2 Coaxial Fiber Shape Electrode/Supercapacitor 35
2.4.3 Parallel Fiber Shape Electrode/Supercapacitor 36
2.4.4 Twisted Fiber Shape Electrode/Supercapacitor 37
2.4.5 Rolled Fiber Shape Electrode/Supercapacitors 38
2.5 Conclusion 39
References 40
3 Graphene-Based Electrodes for Flexible Supercapacitors 43
Jyoti Raghav, Sapna Raghav and Pallavi Jain
3.1 Introduction 43
3.2 Type of SCs 44
3.2.1 EDLC 44
3.2.2 PCs 45
3.2.3 Flexible Graphene-Based Nano Composites 45
3.3 Fabrication Techniques for the Electrode Materials 46
3.3.1 Electrodeposition 46
3.3.2 Direct Coating (DC) 46
3.3.3 Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) 48
3.3.4 Hydrothermal 48
3.4 Substrate Materials for the Flexible SCs 48
3.5 Graphene Nanocomposite-Based Electrode Materials 49
3.5.1 Additives/Graphene Electrodes 49
3.5.2 Binder/Graphene Electrodes 49
3.5.3 Pure Graphene Electrode 50
3.5.4 Conductive Polymers/Graphene Composites Electrode 50
3.5.5 Metal or Metal Oxides (MOs) Composite Electrodes 51
3.6 NSs for the Flexible SC 52
3.7 Conclusion 53
Acknowledgment 54
References 54
4 Polymer-Based Flexible Substrates for Flexible Supercapacitors 59
Zul Adlan Mohd Hir, Shaari Daud, Hartini Ahmad Rafaie,
Nurul Infaza Talalah Ramli and Mohamad Azuwa Mohamed
4.1 Introduction 60
4.2 Polymers-Based Flexible Materials for Flexible
Supercapacitors 61
Contents vii
4.3 Synthesis and Fabrication Approach of the Polymer-Based

Electrode 62
4.3.1 Preparation of Polymer-Based Electrode Materials 62
4.3.1.1 Polyaniline (PANI) 63
4.3.1.2 Polypyrrole (PPy) 65
4.3.1.3 Poly (3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT) 66
4.3.2 Electrode Fabrication 69
4.4 Physicochemical Characterization of Flexible Supercapacitors 70
4.4.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy 70
4.4.2 Transmission Electron Microscopy 71
4.4.3 X-Ray Diffraction 73
4.4.4 Surface Area Analysis by BET (Brunauer, Emmett
and Teller) 75
4.4.5 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) 78
4.5 Recent Findings on the Performance of Flexible
Supercapacitors 79
4.5.1 Electrochemical Double-Layer Capacitor (EDLC) 80
4.5.2 Pseudocapacitor 81
4.5.3 Hybrid Supercapacitor 83
4.6 Conclusion 86
References 87
5 Carbon Substrates for Flexible Supercapacitors and Energy
Storage Applications 95
Seyyed Mojtaba Mousavi, Seyyed Alireza Hashemi,
Najmeh Parvin, Chin Wei Lai, Sonia Bahrani,
Wei-Hung Chiang and Sargol Mazraedoost
5.1 Introduction 96
5.2 Overview of the Energy Storage System 98
5.3 Capacitors Modeling 109
5.3.1 Equivalent Circuit Models 120
5.3.2 Intelligent Models 121
5.3.3 Self-Discharge 122
5.3.4 Fractional-Order Models 122
5.3.5 Thermal Modeling 123
5.4 Industrial Applications of Capacitors 124
5.4.1 Power Electronics 124
5.4.2 Uninterruptible Power Supplies 125
5.4.3 Hybrid Energy Storage 126
5.5 Conclusions 127
References 127
viii Contents
6 Organic Electrolytes for Flexible Supercapacitors 143

Younus Raza Beg, Gokul Ram Nishad and Priyanka Singh
6.1 Introduction 143
6.2 Organic Electrolytes 145
6.3 Solid and Quasi-Solid-State Electrolytes 150
6.3.1 PVA-Based Gel Electrolytes 154
6.3.2 PEG-Based Gel Electrolytes 156
6.3.3 PVDF-Based Gel Electrolytes 157
6.4 Ionic Liquids-Based Electrolytes 159
6.5 Redox Active Electrolytes 165
6.6 Conclusion 167
References 170
7 Carbon-Based Electrodes for Flexible Supercapacitors
Beyond Graphene 177
Sunil Kumar and Rashmi Madhuri
7.2 Materials Used to Prepare Flexible Supercapacitors 179
7.2.1 Carbon Materials 180
7.2.1.1 Activated Carbon (AC) 180
7.2.1.2 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) 180
7.2.1.3 Graphene 181
7.2.1.4 Carbon Aerogel 181
7.2.2 Conducting Polymer 181
7.2.3 Metal Oxide 182
7.3 The Carbon-Based Electrode Used for Flexible
Supercapacitors 182
7.3.1 Carbon Nanotube (CNT)-Based Materials 182
7.3.1.1 CNT-Conducting Polymer Composite
as Supercapacitors 182
7.3.1.2 CNT–Metal Oxide Composite as
Supercapacitors 185
7.3.2 Activated Carbon-Based Materials 191
7.3.2.1 Activated Carbon-Conducting Polymer
Composite as a Supercapacitor 191
7.3.2.2 Activated Carbon–Metal Oxide Composite
as a Supercapacitor 195
7.4. Conclusion 201
References 201
Contents ix
8 Biomass-Derived Electrodes for Flexible Supercapacitors 211

Selvasundarasekar Sam Sankar and Subrata Kundu
8.1.1 Electrode Materials for Flexible Supercapacitors 213
8.2 Biomass-Derived Carbon Materials 214
8.2.1 Activation 214
8.2.1.1 Physical Activation 215
8.2.1.2 Chemical Activation 215
8.2.1.3 Other Activation 218
8.2.2 Carbonization 218
8.2.2.1 Hydrothermal Method 218
8.2.2.2 Pyrolysis Method 219
8.3 Incorporation of Biomass-Based Electrodes in Flexible
Supercapacitors 220
8.4 Challenges for Using Biomass-Derived Materials 222
8.5 Conclusion 224
References 225
9 Conducting Polymer Electrolytes for Flexible Supercapacitors 233
Aqib Muzaffar, M. Basheer Ahamed and Kalim Deshmukh
9.2 Components of a Supercapacitor 236
9.2.1 Electrodes 236
9.2.2 Electrolytes 237
9.2.3 Separator 238
9.2.4 Current Collectors 239
9.2.5 Sealants 239
9.3 Configuration of a Supercapacitor 240
9.4 Conducting Polymer Electrolytes 241
9.4.1 Gel Conducting Polymer Electrolytes 243
9.4.2 Ionic Liquid-Based Conducting Polymer 246
9.4.3 OH− Ion Conducting Polymers 247
9.5 Conclusion 252
References 252
10 Inorganic Electrodes for Flexible Supercapacitor 263
Muhammad Inam Khan, Faiza Bibi, Muhammad
Mudassir Hassan, Nawshad Muhammad, Muhammad Tariq
and Abdur Rahim
10.2 Flexible Inorganic Electrode Based on Carbon
Nanomaterial 265
x Contents
10.2.1 Carbonaceous Material 265

10.2.1.1 Graphene 266
10.2.1.2 Graphene Oxide-Based Electrodes 268
10.2.1.3 Carbon Nanotubes 269
10.2.1.4 Carbon Films/Textiles 271
10.3 Conclusion 272
References 273
11 New-Generation Materials for Flexible Supercapacitors 277
P.E. Lokhande, U.S. Chavan, Suraj Bhosale, Amol Kalam
and Sonal Deokar
11.2 Taxonomy of Supercapacitor 278
11.3 Fundamentals of Supercapacitor 280
11.4 Flexible Supercapacitor 282
11.4.1 Graphene-Based Flexible Supercapacitor 282
11.4.2 Metal Oxide/Hydroxide-Based Flexible
Supercapacitor 284
11.4.3 Conducting Polymer-Based Flexible
Supercapacitor 290
11.5 Outlook and Perspectives 298
Acknowledgement 303
References 303
12 Asymmetric Flexible Supercapacitors: An Overview of
Principle, Materials and Mechanism 315
Sabina Yeasmin and Debajyoti Mahanta
12.1 Introduction: Why Store Energy? 316
12.2 Supercapacitor: A Green Approach Towards Energy
Storage 316
12.3 Flexible Supercapacitors 319
12.3.1 Solid Electrolytes 320
12.3.2 Flexible Electrodes 322
12.3.3 Cell Designs for Flexible Supercapacitor 324
12.4 Asymmetric Supercapacitor 325
12.4.1 Principle, Material and Mechanism 325
12.4.2 Performance Evaluation in Asymmetric
Supercapacitor 330
12.5 Recent Advances in Flexible Asymmetric Supercapacitors 333
12.6 Conclusion 335
References 335
Contents xi
13 Aqueous Electrolytes for Flexible Supercapacitors 349

Dipanwita Majumdar
13.1.1 Influence of Electrolytes on Performance
of Supercapacitors 352
13.1.2 What is an Ideal Electrolyte? 354
13.1.3 Classes of Electrolytes for Supercapacitors 355
13.2 Electrolyte Performance-Controlling Parameters
for Designing Flexible Supercapacitors 357
13.2.1 Large Electrochemical Stability 357
13.2.2 High Ionic Conductivity 357
13.2.3 Nature of Electrolyte 358
13.2.4 Dielectric Constant and Viscosity of Solvent 358
13.2.5 Low Melting and High Boiling Points 359
13.2.6 High Chemical Stability 360
13.2.7 High Flash Point 360
13.2.8 Low Cost and Availability 360
13.2.9 Influence of Pressure 360
13.2.10 Influence of Binder 361
13.3 Why Aqueous Electrolytes? 362
13.4 Acid Electrolytes 363
13.4.1 EDLC and Pseudocapacitor Electrode Materials
Employing H2SO4 Aqueous Electrolyte 375
13.4.2 H2SO4 Electrolyte-Based Nanocomposite
Electrode Material Supercapacitors 377
13.4.3 H2SO4 Electrolyte-Based Hybrid Supercapacitors 377
13.5 Alkaline Electrolytes 378
13.5.1 Alkaline Electrolyte-Based EDLC and
Pseudocapacitors 379
13.5.2 Alkaline Electrolyte-Based Nanocomposite
Supercapacitors 381
13.5.3 Alkaline Electrolyte-Based Hybrid Supercapacitors 383
13.6 Neutral Electrolyte 383
13.6.1 Neutral Salt Aqueous Electrolyte-Based EDLC
and Pseudocapacitors 384
13.6.2 Neutral Salt Aqueous Electrolyte-Based
Nanocomposite Supercapacitors 387
13.6.3 Neutral Electrolyte-Based Hybrid Supercapacitors 388
13.7 Comparative Electrochemical Performances in Different
Aqueous Electrolytes 388
xii Contents
13.8 Water-in-Salt Electrolytes for Flexible Supercapacitors 394

13.9 Conclusion and Future Prospects 395
Acknowledgements 396
References 396
14 Electrodes for Flexible Micro-Supercapacitors 413
Subrata Ghosh, Jiacheng Wang, Gustavo Tontini
and Suelen Barg
14.2 Electrode Configurations 414
14.2.1 Sandwich µSCs 414
14.2.2 Fiber or Wire µSC 415
14.2.2.1 Parallel 416
14.2.2.2 Twisted or Two-Ply 417
14.2.2.3 Coaxial 417
14.2.2.4 Rolled 417
14.2.2.5 All-in-One 418
14.2.3 Interdigitated µSCs 418
14.3 Manufacturing Techniques 421
14.3.1 Photolithography 421
14.3.2 Electrodeposition 422
14.3.3 Laser Direct-Writing 422
14.3.3.1 Laser Carving 423
14.3.3.2 Laser Scribing 423
14.3.3.3 Laser Transfer Method 424
14.3.4 Printing 425
14.3.4.1 Screen Printing 426
14.3.4.2 Inkjet Printing 427
14.3.4.3 3D Printing 428
14.4 State-of-the-Art Electrode Materials 431
14.4.1 Nanocarbons 431
14.4.2 MXenes 433
14.4.3 Transition-Metal Chalcogenides 435
14.4.4 Metal-Based Materials 435
14.4.5 Conducting Polymers 438
14.4.6 Composites or Hybrid Structures 440
14.4.7 Symmetric vs Asymmetric 441
14.5 Conclusion and Outlook 445
Acknowledgement 446
References 447
Contents xiii
15 Electrodes for Flexible Self-Healable Supercapacitors 461

Ayesha Taj, Rabisa Zia, Sumaira Younis, Hunza Hayat,
Waheed S. Khan and Sadia Z. Bajwa
15.1.1 Supercapacitors 463
15.1.2 Electric Double Layer Capacitors (EDLCs) 464
15.1.3 Hybrid Capacitors 467
15.2 Self-Healable Nanomaterials 468
15.2.1 Metallic Nanomaterials 468
15.2.2 Non-Metallic/Carbon-Based Nanomaterials 470
15.2.3 Conducting Polymer-Based Nanomaterials 471
15.3 Nanomaterials-Based Interfaces for Supercapacitors 472
15.3.1 Metal Nanomaterials-Based Interfaces
for Supercapacitors 473
15.3.2 Graphene-Based Interfaces for Self-Healable
Supercapacitors 474
15.3.3 CNT/GO/PANI Composites Supercapacitors 478
15.4 Conclusion 479
References 480
16 Electrodes for Flexible–Stretchable Supercapacitors 485
Ravi Arukula, Pawan K. Kahol and Ram K. Gupta
16.1.1 Supercapacitors and Energy Storage Mechanisms 487
16.1.2 Flexible/Stretchable Supercapacitors 489
16.2 Electrodes for Flexible/Stretchable Supercapacitors 490
16.2.1 Metal Oxide-Based Flexible/Stretchable
Supercapacitors 491
16.2.1.1 Vanadium-Based Flexible Electrodes 493
16.2.1.2 Manganese-Based Flexible/Stretchable
Electrodes 494
16.2.1.3 Ruthenium-Based Flexible Electrodes 496
16.2.1.4 Other Metal Oxides-Based Flexible
Electrodes 498
16.2.2 2D Materials-Based Flexible/Stretchable
Supercapacitors 499
16.2.3 Carbon-Based Flexible/Stretchable Supercapacitors 504
16.2.4 Conductive Polymer-Based Flexible/Stretchable
Supercapacitors 505
16.2.5 Hybrid Composites-Based Flexible/Stretchable
Supercapacitors 507
xiv Contents
16.3 Conclusion and Future Remarks 511

References 512
17 Fabrication Approaches of Energy Storage Materials
for Flexible Supercapacitors 533
Mohan Kumar Anand Raj, Rajasekar Rathanasamy,
Prabhakaran Paramasivam and Santhosh Sivaraj
Abbreviations 533
17.1 Intoduction 534
17.2 Classification of Flexible Supercapacitors 536
17.2.1 Materials 536
17.2.1.1 Carbon 536
17.2.1.2 Metal Oxides 537
17.2.1.3 Conducting Polymers 537
17.2.1.4 Composites 537
17.2.2 Fabrication Methods 538
17.2.2.1 Electro-Chemical Deposition Method 538
17.2.2.2 Chemical Bath Deposition (CBD)
Process 539
17.2.2.3 Inkjet Printing 540
17.2.2.4 Spray Deposition Method 541
17.2.2.5 Sol–Gel Technique 542
17.2.2.6 Direct Writing Method 543
17.3 Conclusion 544
References 545
18 Nature-Inspired Electrodes for Flexible Supercapacitors 549
Aqib Muzaffar, M. Basheer Ahamed and Kalim Deshmukh
18.2 Energy Storing Mechanism of Supercapacitors 552
18.2.1 Electrostatic Double Layer Capacitor (EDLC) 554
18.2.2 Pseudocapacitor 555
18.2.3 Hybrid Supercapacitor 556
18.3 Flexible Supercapacitors 557
18.4 Essential Parameters of Supercapacitors 560
18.4.1 Energy Density Parameter 560
18.4.2 Power Density Parameter 561
18.5 Natural Flexible Supercapacitors 561
18.6 Conclusion 565
References 565
Contents xv
19 Ionic Liquid Electrolytes for Flexible Supercapacitors 575

Udaya Bhat K. and Devadas Bhat Panemangalore
Abbreviations 575
19.2 Mobile Energy Storage Systems and Supercapacitors 578
19.3 Flexible Supercapacitors: Need and Challenges 580
19.4 Developments in the Design of a Supercapacitor 581
19.5 Electrolytes for Flexible Supercapacitors 583
19.5.1 Aqueous Electrolytes 583
19.5.2 Solid Electrolytes 584
19.5.3 Liquid Electrolytes 584
19.5.4 Ionic Liquid (IL) Electrolytes 585
19.6 Gel Polymer Electrolytes (GPEs) 586
19.7 Development in ILEs 588
19.8 Design Flexibility With IL Electrolytes 594
19.9 Electrolyte–Electrode Hybrid Design 596
19.10 Ionic Liquid Electrolytes and Problem of Leakage 597
19.11 Mechanical Stability of ILs 597
19.12 Conclusions 598
References 598
20 Conducting Polymer-Based Flexible Supercapacitor Devices 611
Anand I. Torvi, Satishkumar R. Naik, Sachin N. Hegde,
Mohemmedumar Mulla, Ravindra R. Kamble,
Geoffrey R. Mitchell and Mahadevappa Y. Kariduraganavar
20.2 Principles of Supercapacitor 612
20.3 Classification of Supercapacitors 613
20.3.1 Electrochemical Double-Layer Capacitors 613
20.3.2 Pseudocapacitors 613
20.3.2.1 Conducting Polymers 614
20.4 Conducting Polymer-Based Flexible Supercapacitors 615
20.4.1 Polyaniline-Based Flexible Supercapacitors 616
20.4.2 Polypyrrole-Based Flexible Supercapacitors 618
20.4.3 Polythiophene and its Derivatives-Based Flexible
Supercapacitors 621
20.5 Electrolytes for Flexible Supercapacitors 624
20.6 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 626
Acknowledgements 626
References 626
Index 635
Preface
The tremendous demand for energy for miniaturized portable and wear-
able electronic devices has inspired intense research on lightweight, flexible
energy storage devices for commercial applications such as smartwatches,
mobile phones, flexible displays, electronic skin and implantable medical
devices. The speedy progress in ﬂexible electronics has sparked wide-rang-
ing endeavors in exploring coordinating power sources as ﬂexible super-
capacitor devices. Flexible supercapacitors are flexible, wearable devices
that deliver high-power density, high specific capacitance, fast charge/
discharge processes, long cycle life, low cost, and environmental friendli-
ness. They hold enormous potential to meet the rapidly expanding market
for portable and wearable electronics. Designing flexible supercapacitors
requires essential architectures such as electrodes, electrolytes, and sub-
strate materials that become robust, flexible, and durable under mechan-
ical deformations without sacrificing the electrochemical performance.
These flexible supercapacitors are promising energy technologies that can
supplement or even substitute batteries in portable and flexible electronics;
however, research and development (R&D) studies need to be conducted
for their large-scale commercialization. Therefore, awareness and knowl-
edge of flexible supercapacitors is crucial for advanced energy research.
This book presents a comprehensive overview of flexible supercapacitors
using engineering nanoarchitectures mediated by functional nanomateri-
als and polymers as electrodes, electrolytes, separators, etc., for advanced
energy applications. Various aspects of flexible supercapacitors, including
capacitor electrochemistry, evaluating parameters, operating conditions,
characterization techniques, different types of electrodes, electrolytes, and
flexible substrates are covered. Since it is probably the first book of its type
to systematically describe the recent developments and progress in flexible
supercapacitor technology, it will help readers understand fundamental
issues and solve problems. This book is the result of the commitment of top
researchers with various backgrounds and expertise in the flexible power
sources field. Those working in science, research, industry, or academia
xvii
xviii Preface
will benefit from the information archived herein relating to the fields of
flexible power sources, solid-state electrochemistry, advanced energy stor-
age material science, energy, electronics, advanced materials, and wearable
science. It will be a very helpful reference source for generating innovative
ideas in the field of energy storage material for wearable/flexible industry
applications and also useful in resolving current industry issues. A sum-
mary of the information included in the 21 chapters is given below.
Chapter 1 discusses the types of electrode materials and the role they
play in the high performance of flexible supercapacitors. Device prepara-
tion is described as well as the integration of flexible supercapacitors in
various applications.
Chapter 2 highlights flexible fiber-shaped electrodes for flexible super-
capacitors. Supercapacitors have an incredible impact on electrochemical
devices in energy storage systems. To meet the rapid consumer demand for
wearable and portable devices a new class of energy devices employ flexible
fibrous electrodes/supercapacitors. These fiber-shaped flexible electrodes
have garnered great attention for use in miniaturized microscale devices
and the modern textile industry.
Chapter 3 discusses recent developments in graphene-based flexible
supercapacitors, the structural morphology of flexible graphene-based
electrodes and methods used to fabricate them, and the electrochemical
performance of the devices.
Chapter 4 mainly discusses the preparation of polymer-based electrode
materials. Also highlighted are the various prominent characterization
techniques to elucidate the intercorrelation between physicochemical and
performance properties of polymer-based electrode materials. The new
reinforced polymer-based electrode materials for flexible supercapacitor
applications are also discussed.
Chapter 5 thoroughly reviews the energy storage system and types of
capacitor modeling. The structure, types of flexible supercapacitors and
industrial applications are introduced.
Chapter 6 discusses the types of electrolytes for flexible supercapacitors
and their salient features. Various electrolytes such as polyethylene gly-
col, polyvinylidene fluoride, ionic liquid and redox-active materials-based
electrolytes are discussed along with their effect on the performance of
flexible supercapacitors.
Chapter 7 discusses the preparation and properties of carbon-derived
composite materials such as CNT-conducting polymer, CNT-metal oxide,
activated carbon-conducting polymer, and activated carbon-metal oxide.
The main focus of this chapter is to provide an overview of the latest prog-
ress in the development of flexible supercapacitors beyond graphene.
Preface xix
Chapter 8 highlights the various synthesis processes for making biomass-

derived electrode materials, their recent developments and the associated chal-
lenges for the near future. After a brief general introduction, the chapter moves
on to discuss various electrode materials used for flexible supercapacitors;
biomass-derived carbon materials and their different activation processes like
physical, chemical and other activations; and carbonization processes using
the hydrothermal method, pyrolysis method, etc. The possible incorporation
of biomass-based electrodes in flexible supercapacitors and the challenges for
using biomass-derived materials in the near future are also discussed in detail.
Chapter 9 portrays the importance and applicability of conducting poly-
mer electrolytes, especially in flexible supercapacitors. The components of
supercapacitors and their configurations are discussed in detail along with
the role of conducting polymer-based electrolytes and their significance
in the performance of flexible supercapacitors. The essential enhancing
parameters of such electrolytes, including their consequences and electro-
chemical activity, are also elaborated.
Chapter 10 discusses the various inorganic electrode materials used in
flexible supercapacitors. These flexible inorganic-based electrodes have
great potential in the field of stretchable, lightweight and intrinsic fast
charging and discharging performance.
Chapter 11 focuses on different new generation materials used for flexible
supercapacitor electrodes. Also, in order to predict future trends, the direction
towards developing new materials exhibiting superior electrochemical perfor-
mance and their feasibility in practical applications are discussed.
Chapter 12 briefly describes flexible supercapacitors and their flexible
components with a concise outline of innovative cell designs. Additionally,
there is an overview of the principle behind the energy-storage mechanism
and the anode and cathode materials used for asymmetric supercapacitors.
Chapter 13 provides detailed insights into the gradual development and latest
accomplishments achieved with aqueous electrolyte-based flexible supercapac-
itors. Advantages of low production costs, eco-friendliness, non-flammability,
and many other attractive factors have motivated scientists to design these
smart devices to meet the high rising energy demands of modern society.
Chapter 14 presents systematic evaluations of different kinds of
micro-supercapacitor configurations, possible strategies of fabrication,
and state-of-the-art electrode materials. Discussions on designing asym-
metric micro-supercapacitors and the influence of electrolytes on enhanc-
ing charge-storage properties are also provided. Finally, the challenges of
current technologies and possible solutions are highlighted.
Chapter 15 discusses the categories of supercapacitors and their mode of
action. Different types of nanomaterials, including metallic, non-metallic
xx Preface
and graphene-based hybrid, are discussed in detail for their self-healable

properties to modify the electrodes in supercapacitors. The major focus is
given to those nanomaterials that increase the self-healing properties of
supercapacitors with enhanced capacitance.
Chapter 16 discusses the recent advancements for the fabrication of
flexible and stretchable electrode supercapacitors using metal oxides, 2D
materials, carbon, conductive polymers, and various hybrid nanocompos-
ites. Moreover, possible applications of flexible/stretchable supercapacitors
using these electrode materials, along with upcoming opportunities and
challenges in this emerging field, are also discussed.
Chapter 17 discusses the classification of flexible supercapacitors and
various superconducting materials. Additionally, different fabrication
methods, namely, electrochemical deposition, chemical bath deposition
(CBD), inkjet printing spray deposition, sol-gel technique, and direct writ-
ing method are discussed in detail.
Chapter 18 deals with the fundamental aspects of flexible supercapacitors
with naturally inspired electrodes for energy storage systems. The mechanisms
and principle behind energy storage in supercapacitors along with its essential
parameters are presented. The use of common and naturally occurring mate-
rials and their electrochemical behavior is also discussed.
Chapter 19 focuses on advances in the field of high-performance ionic
liquid electrolytes for flexible supercapacitors. After a brief discussion of
the fundamentals, developments in the field of ionic liquids are presented.
Design perspectives like electrolyte-electrode hybridization, challenges in
encapsulation and mechanical stability are also presented.
Chapter 20 describes various types of conducting polymer-based flex-
ible supercapacitors. Special emphasis is given to the fabrication methods
employed for flexible supercapacitor devices. The different electrolytes,
which play a significant role in flexible supercapacitors, are also discussed.
The chapter concludes with perspectives on flexible supercapacitors.
Inamuddin, Mohd Imran Ahamed,

Rajender Boddula and Tariq Altalhi
March 2021
1
Electrodes for Flexible
Integrated Supercapacitors
Sajid ur Rehman1,2 and Hong Bi1*
1
School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Anhui University, Hefei, China
2
High Magnetic Field Laboratory, Key Laboratory of High Magnetic Field
and Ion Beam Physical Biology, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science,
Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, China
Abstract
Supercapacitor, as a new type of energy storage device lying in-between battery
and traditional capacitor, owns many advantages such as fast charge and dis-
charge time, high power density, environmental-friendly and long cycle life. It has
become one of the hot research topics in the field of energy storage. Electrode
materials play a vital role in flexible supercapacitors, the common electrode
materials include carbon materials, conducting polymers and transition metal
oxides. In order to exploit flexible high-performance supercapacitors, new high-
performance electrode materials need to be developed. Metal oxides are prom-
ising supercapacitor electrode materials due to their low cost, good chemical
stability, high theoretical specific capacitance and environmental friendliness.
However, cycling stability and rate performance of metal oxides based superca-
pacitor still can’t meet the requirements of practical applications. Therefore, the
research on electrode materials are not limited to single-component material, and
nanocomposites can synergistically enhance the intrinsic properties of each com-
ponent to exhibit more outstanding electrochemical properties. In this chapter,
we discuss the electrode materials for flexible supercapacitors in detail and also
describes the device preparation as well as the integration of the flexible superca-
pacitors in various applications.
Keywords: Flexible electrodes, carbon, metal oxides, supercapacitors, EDLC,

pseudo-capacitors, hybrid electrodes, electrolytes
*Corresponding author: bihong@ahu.edu.cn
Inamuddin, Mohd Imran Ahamed, Rajender Boddula and Tariq Altalhi (eds.) Flexible Supercapacitor
Nanoarchitectonics, (1–26) © 2021 Scrivener Publishing LLC
1
2 Flexible Supercapacitor Nanoarchitectonics
1.1 Introduction and Overview of Supercapacitors

In today’s world, coal, oil, natural gas and other traditional nonrenewable
fossil energy are gradually exhausted, as the demand and consumption
of energy are increasing day by day, which have been difficult to main-
tain for the sustainable development of human society and economy.
Supercapacitor, also known as an electrochemical capacitor, is a new
type of energy storage device between the battery and traditional capac-
itor, which is based on the principle of electric double-layer capacitance
(EDLC) or pseudocapacitance. Because of its fast charge and discharge
rate, high power density, environment-friendly and long cycle life, it has
attracted increasing attention [1].
Supercapacitor is mainly composed of current collector, electrode active
material, diaphragm and electrolyte (see Figure 1.1) [2]. Among them,
electrode materials play an important role in improving electrochemical
performance. The collector usually has good conductivity, does not react
with the electrolyte, can exist stably in it, and has little contribution to the
specific capacity of the capacitor. Different metal materials, such as nickel
foam and aluminum foam, are used according to the electrolyte. An ideal
electrode material should have the characteristics of large specific surface
area, good conductivity, unique porous structure, high catalytic activity,
good chemical stability and low manufacturing cost [2, 3]. Supercapacitors
are commonly categorized into three sets based on the mechanism of
charge storage: (1) EDLCs that store charge statically at interface of carbon
electrode with large specific surface area; (2) Faraday pseudocapacitors that
store electric energy electrochemically through electron transfer during
reversible redox reaction, usually based on metal oxides and conduct-
ing polymer; (3) hybrid supercapacitor composed of special hybrid elec-
trode or asymmetric electrode, which has significant carbon double-layer
Charging
Discharging
Separator Active materials

Current collector and electrolyte
Figure 1.1 Schematic illustration of charge storage in supercapacitors [13]. Copyright ©

2013 Elsevier Ltd. Reproduced with permission from Elsevier.
Electrodes for Flexible Supercapacitors 3
capacitance and pseudocapacitance of conducting polymer or transition

metal oxide [4, 5].
Starting from the theory of interface double electric layer proposed by
Helmholtz, a German physicist, EDLCs began to be developed gradually.
When two electrodes are inserted into the electrolyte, the positive and
negative ions in the electrolyte will move towards the two poles rapidly
under the action of the electric field, and attach to the electrode surface,
forming a compact double electric layer [6]. As shown in Figure 1.1 [7], in
the charging process, the applied electric field releases electrons, and the
direction of electrons is from the negative electrode to the positive elec-
trode. At this time, the ions present in the electrolyte will transport towards
the respective electrodes respectively, so as to adsorb on the electrode sur-
face and form a stable voltage. In the process of discharge, electrons flow
through the conductor to generate current, at this time, the anion and cat-
ion on the electrode surface will be released into the electrolyte. In this
process, the electrode material will not react with the electrolyte, only the
adsorption and desorption of anions and cations in the electrolyte on the
electrode surface [8, 9].
Hybrid supercapacitor (HSC) includes a composite symmetrical super-
capacitor, battery supercapacitor mixer and asymmetric supercapacitor
(ASCs). The structure of ASCs is shown in Figure 1.5 [10], which is usually
assembled by two different materials as anode and cathode. In the process
of charging and discharging, oxidation–reduction (Faraday) reaction usu-
ally takes place at the positive electrode, while adsorption and desorption
of the negative electrode mainly take place at the double electric layer. In
fact, EDLC can achieve fast and stable charge storage but provide relatively
low specific capacitance, while the pseudocapacitor can obtain high spe-
cific capacitance but has poor multiplier performance and low cycle sta-
bility. The hybrid supercapacitor, which combines the advantages of EDLC
and pseudocapacitor, has become a new hotspot in capacitor research area.
It can achieve high energy and power density as well as good cycle stabil-
ity in one device. However, the performance of all these supercapacitors
depends on the properties of their active materials, the fabrication of elec-
trodes, the selection of electrolytes and the geometry of devices [11, 12].
Throughout the development of supercapacitors, electrode materials
have always played an important role in the electrochemical performance.
Generally, the ideal electrode material should have the characteristics of
large specific surface area, good conductivity, unique porous structure,
high mechanical strength, good chemical stability and low manufacturing
cost. Among them, carbon materials, metal oxides, conductive polymers
and other electrode materials are the main research objects.
1.2 Electrode Materials for Flexible Supercapacitors

1.2.1 Carbon Materials
As electrode material of flexible supercapacitors (FSCs), carbon-based
materials are beneficial due to their low cost, large specific surface area, sta-
ble electrochemical performance, better electrical and thermal conductiv-
ity, and mature synthesis process. At present, the commonly used carbon
materials include activated carbon [14], carbon nanotubes [15], graphene
[16], and carbon aerogel [17]. Their specific surface area, pore size and dis-
tribution, conductivity and heteroatom doping have certain effects on the
electrochemical performance of [18].
1.2.1.1 Activated Carbon

Activated carbon is the first electrode material used in supercapacitors.
Due to its advantages of low price, wide source of raw materials and stable
physical and chemical properties, it has been widely used in commercial
supercapacitors. So far, it still has a broad market [19]. After activated by
KOH, the specific surface area of activated carbon can reach as high as
2,000 m2 g–1. However, the specific surface area of the active carbon elec-
trode material is not directly proportional to the specific capacitance. The
main reason is that the activated carbon has not been fully explored in
terms of specific surface area, and the diameters of various electrolyte
ions are required to be different for different pore diameters in the acti-
vated carbon, so some micropores do not play the role of storing electric
charge, resulting in the available effective specific surface area becom-
ing smaller, affecting its electrochemical performance [20]. As shown in
Figure 1.2 [21], when the porous carbon has large pores (>50 nm), the
electrode surface can rapidly adsorb electrolyte ions. Because the pore size
is large, its specific surface area is reduced, resulting in a small effective
adsorption area and poor capacitance performance. When the pore is a
mesopore (2–50 nm), the inner surface of the pore can also rapidly adsorb
electrolyte ions, and the mesopore also results in a large specific surface
area and specific surface area. When the porous carbon is microporous
(<2 nm), the size of ions is larger than that of the pore size, so, it cannot enter
into the inner part of the pore, and the ion adsorption is reduced, resulting
in the reduction of effective adsorption area. Therefore, in order to improve
the electrochemical properties of the materials, in addition to improving
the specific surface area of the activated carbon, the doping of hetero
atoms, pore size control and the addition of surface functional groups
+ ∆V –
Nanoporous Carbon
Supercapacitors
εr ε0 A
C=
d
> 50 nm De 2π εr ε0 L δ–
cre C= δ– δ–
as In(b/a)
ing
Po δ– δ–
re
Siz δ– δ–
e
2 – 50 nm 2π εr ε0 L δ–
C=
In(b/a0)
< 2 nm
Figure 1.2 Schematic illustration of charge adsorption in porous carbon materials

with different sizes in double-layer capacitors [24]. Copyright 2016. Reproduced with
permission from John Wiley & Sons.
can also be used. Zhou et al. [22] reported N-doped porous carbon with
pore size classification by activating m-aminophenol formaldehyde resin
with KOH, which has a high specific surface area of 1,847.5 m2 g−1 and
thus a specific capacitance of 114 F g−1. Bleda Martine et al. [23] obtained
oxygen-containing functional groups on the activated carbon through
HNO3 peroxidation and subsequent heat treatment in N2 atmosphere,
which not only improved the wettability of the surface of the activated car-
bon to the electrolyte but also generated additional pseudocapacitance to
improve the specific capacitance.
1.2.1.2 Carbon Nanotubes

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are a kind of tubular carbon material made
of single or multi-layer graphite curled. Its structure is very perfect, with
seamless porous structure connected by hexagonal carbon atoms [25].
CNTs can be categorized into single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs,
single layer) and multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs, two or more
layers). Single-walled carbon nanotubes have a higher specific surface area,
(a) S-720 (b) S-800
500 nm 500 nm
3
(c) S-720 (d) S-800
2 1
1
Current, mA
0 Current, mA 0
–1
–1
–2
20 mV s–1 1 M H2SO4 20 mV s–1 1 M H2SO4
–3 –2
0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000
Voltage, mV Voltage, mV
Figure 1.3 (a, b) HRTEM images of multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWNTs)

synthesized at different temperatures, (c–d) CV curves at 20 mV s−1 rate in 1 M H2SO4
aqueous electrolyte, respectively [30]. Copyright 2016. Reproduced with permission from
John Wiley & Sons.
but it is more difficult to prepare and purify. CNTs have excellent physical
and chemical properties. Due to its unique hollow porous structure, large
specific surface area, and good conductivity, it is considered to be an ideal
electrode material for supercapacitors [26–29]. As shown in Figures 1.3(a, b)
carbon nanotubes can form a network structure when they are entangled
with each other. Most of the pore diameter is more than 2 nm, which is
conducive to the penetration of electrolyte ions. Therefore, their specific
surface area utilization ratio is high. Popvo et al. [30] have synthesized the
MWCNTs at different temperatures and study the influence on superca-
pacitance properties. As shown in Figures 1.3(c, d), they found an increase
in double-layer capacitance because of the larger surface area as well as the
improvement in pseudocapacitance owing to the larger oxygenated groups
grown on the exterior of nanotubes.
1.2.1.3 Graphene
Graphene is a kind of two-dimensional crystal plane material [31, 32]
which is composed of sp2-hybridized carbon atoms tightly stacked and
connected, in which the covalent bond between carbon atoms is formed,
presenting a hexagonal ring honeycomb shape. It has a unique two-

dimensional (2D) structure and many attractive characteristics and is
widely used in electrochemical energy storage devices, as shown in Figure
1.4 [33]. Graphene is one of the allotropes of carbon, and it is also the basic
unit of other dimensional carbon materials. A single layer of graphene has
only one carbon atom thickness (0.335 nm).
Graphene has a large specific surface area, better electrical and ther-
mal conductivity, excellent mechanical strength and chemical stability. Its
surface is easy to show a three-dimensional (3D) fold structure, which is
conducive to the transmission of electrons on the surface and the diffu-
sion of ions in the material. It has great potential to apply it to electrode
materials of supercapacitors. In fact, graphene itself is easy to aggregate,
making its specific surface area far away from the theoretical value, thus
limiting its electrochemical performance [34–36]. Therefore, it is very
important to modify the surface of graphene or composite it with other
materials. Si et al. [37] combined Pt particles with graphene, which made
Pt nanoparticles deposit on graphene sheets. Pt played a role of separation,
prevented the aggregation of graphene sheets face to face, mechanically
peeled off graphene effectively. As a result, the embedded Pt@graphene
had a highly expanded layered structure and retained the characteristics
of 2D graphene hexagonal carbon network with large specific surface area.
The specific surface area of Pt@graphene composite was 862 m2 g−1, and
the specific capacitance of Pt@graphene composite was increased to 269 F
g−1. Zhu et al. [38] reported that porous graphene oxide prepared by KOH
chemical activation has a specific surface area of up to 3,100 m2 g−1, accom-
panied with high conductivity and low hydrogen and oxygen content, and
the sp2-bonded carbon has a continuous highly curved three-dimensional
0.14 nm
Covalent bonds
Carbon atoms
Van der Waals

bonds
0.34 nm
Figure 1.4 Schematic diagram of the Origin (illustrating the transformations) of

graphene from graphite and peculiar structure of graphite and graphene [33]. Open access
article under Creative Commons CC BY license copyright © 2020, Elsevier.
network, forming a hole with a width of 0.6–5 nm. Using organic and ionic
liquid electrolytes, the double electrode supercapacitor made of this kind
of carbon can obtain 3.5 V working voltage and 167 F g−1 specific capaci-
tance (5.7 A g−1 current density), and the energy density can reach 70 Wh
kg−1. In addition, the electrochemical properties of graphene can also be
improved by combining graphene with other pseudocapacitor materials
(such as transition metal oxides (NiO, MnO2, etc.) or conducting polymers
(polyaniline, polypyrrole, etc.).
1.2.1.4 Carbon Aerogels

Carbon aerogel is a lightweight, porous, amorphous three-dimensional
carbon nanostructured material. Because of its large specific surface area,
abundant mesoporous and wide range of density variation, it is considered
as an ideal electrode material for supercapacitors. In 1989, Pekala used
resorcinol and formaldehyde as raw materials and sodium carbonate as
catalyst. It is found that the carbon aerogel has the specific surface area of
400–800 m2 g−1 and the ultrafine pore size (<100 nm), and the specific capac-
itance of the 5 mol L−1 KOH solution is 45 F g−1. Subsequently, the research
on carbon aerogels in supercapacitors has attracted more and more atten-
tion. Lin et al. [39] synthesized a series of carbon aerogels with a bimodal
(microporous and mesoporous) structure by using iron-based ionic liquids
as a solvent ionic thermal carbonization method and pore-forming agent.
It has a high specific surface area up to 1,200 m2 g−1 and pore volume of 0.8
cm3 g−1, and a specific capacitance reaching as high as 245 F g−1. Carbon
aerogels have certain advantages in the application of supercapacitors, but
their shortcomings have seriously restricted their industrialization, such as
expensive raw materials, long-time synthetic process, high equipment cost
and difficulty to achieve a large-scale production.
1.2.1.5 Graphene Hydrogel

The effective specific area of graphene is greatly reduced due to the stack-
ing and agglomeration of graphene layers. Therefore, the researchers have
envisaged the connection and integration of 2D structure and designed
various kinds of graphene, such as graphene hydrogel, aerogel, foam and
sponge, to develop and utilize the properties of graphene in various 3D
network structures. Its preparation methods are various, mainly including
self-assembly, template oriented, new 3D printing and ultrasonic-assisted

technology. Although the structures and properties of these 3D graphene
materials are different, they all have the common characteristics of high
specific surface area and porosity, low bulk density, high conductivity and
so on. Therefore, they have been widely studied and applied in adsorption,
catalysis, sensing, energy storage and conversion, biomedicine and other
fields [40].
Graphene hydrogel is a 3D solid structure cross-linked by 2D graphene,
which can be prepared by freeze-drying or supercritical drying to remove
moisture. It has both the intrinsic properties of graphene nanosheet and
3D porous material and shows better performance than the graphene
nanosheet in the electrochemical application. Graphene hydrogel has
interconnected porous structure, large specific surface area, low mass
density and strong mechanical properties, making it widely used in elec-
trode materials of the supercapacitor. As a high volume capacitor mate-
rial, the large pores interconnected in the frame become unimpeded ion
transmission channels, which is conducive to shortening the diffusion
distance from the external electrolyte to the internal surface, thereby
enhancing the ion transmission; while the graphene sheet in the frame is
conducive to promoting the electron transmission on the electrode surface
[12, 39]. Huang et al. [41] reported the elastic carbon aerogels and
graphene as 3-D Matrix for supercapacitance properties. The schematic
diagram as illustrated in Figures 1.5(a, b) demonstrates the interconnected
macropores which exhibit high elasticity, improved surface area along with
charge-transfer efficiency owing to the excessive interconnections between
graphene flakes and carbon nanofiber ribs, which reveals prominent
capacitive performance as supercapacitor electrode as shown in Figures
1.5(d–e). Xu et al. [42], using hydroquinone as both reductive and func-
tionalized molecules, synthesized functional graphene hydrogels through
a simple one-step reduction method, showing excellent electrochemical
properties. Graphene hydrogel as a negative electrode can effectively pre-
vent the aggregation of graphene nanosheets, provide large active surface
area, and promote the transmission of electrolyte ions. Gao et al. [43] used
graphene hydrogels with 3D interconnected pores as negative electrodes,
and vertically aligned MnO2 nanosheets loaded on nickel foam as posi-
tive electrodes, successfully produced asymmetrical supercapacitors with
high energy and power density. The potential window could reach 2.0 V,
and the energy density achieved 23.2 wh kg−1 while the power density was
1.0 kW kg−1.
(a)
Mixing and
co-assembling Carbonization
Freeze-drying
oPAN dispersion GO suspension GO/oPAN aerogel GCA
(b) Cyclisation (c)

CN CN CN CN CN N N N N
Dehydrogenation
N N N N
O
O H H O O
C H
O C
100 µm
(d) 20 (e) 0.0

1 A g–1
15
2 A g–1
–0.2
10 5 A g–1
10 A g–1
Current (mA)
5 –0.4 15 A g–1
Voltage (V)
20 A g–1
0
–0.6
–5
–10 20 mV s–1 –0.8

5 mV s–1 50 mV s–1
–15 10 mV s–1 100 mV s–1
–1.0
–20
–1.0 –0.8 –0.6 –0.4 –0.2 0.0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Potential (V) vs. Ag/AgCl Time (s)
Figure 1.5 (a) Schematic presentation of graphene/carbon nanofiber (CNF) composite

aerogels (GCA) by co-assembly and carbonization. (b) Illustration of the pre-oxidation
process of polyacrylonitrile (PAN) nanofibers and hydrogen bondings between GO
and pre-oxidized PAN. (c) SEM image showing the graphene/carbon composite aerogel
(GCA). (d) CV curves at different scan rates in 6 M KOH aqueous electrolyte.
(e) Galvanostatic charge/discharge curves at different current densities [41]. Open access
article under Creative Commons CC BY license copyright © 2016, Springer Nature.
1.2.2 Conducting Polymers

In 2000, the Nobel Prize in chemistry was awarded to Heeger A.J.,
MacDiarmid A.G. of the United States and Yingshu Shirakawa of Japan
for their contributions to the field of conducting polymers [44]. Through
their research, they have proved that people usually think that insulating
polymer materials can also have conductivity under certain conditions,
breaking the traditional concept that polymers are insulators. Since then,
more and more attention has been paid to this field, and researchers have
developed many conductive polymers such as polyacetylene, polyaniline,
polypyrrole, thiophene and their derivatives. Their structures are shown in

Table 1.1.
Common conductive polymer electrode materials are prepared by
chemical oxidation and electrochemical oxidation. Conductive polymers
have been widely used as electrode materials for supercapacitors because
of their low cost, good conductivity and wide electrochemical window.
When oxidation occurs, the conductive polymer can be p-doped with
anions, while in the reduction process, it will be n-doped with cations. The
simplified charging process equation is as follows:
p-Type doping: CP → CPn+ ( A– )n + ne – (1.1)
n-Type doping: CP + ne – (C + )n + CPn– (1.2)
The discharge time is contrary to the above process. The conducting

polymer will be p-type or n-type doped, so it can store more charge and
obtain higher Faraday pseudocapacitance.
There are three kinds of devices for supercapacitor assembled only by
conducting polymer materials [45] namely, polyaniline, polypyrrole, poly-
thiophene and derivatives of polythiophene, as well as composites of these
materials with carbon nanotubes and inorganic battery materials. Various
treatments of the conducting polymer materials to improve their proper-
ties are considered and comparisons are made with other supercapacitor
Table 1.1 Several common conducting polymers.

Polymers Structural formula
Polyacetylene
CH CH
n
Polyaniline
NH
n
Polypyrrole
N n
H
Polythiophene
S n
materials such as carbon and with inorganic battery materials. Conducting

polymers are pseudo-capacitive materials, which means that the bulk of the
material undergoes a fast redox reaction to provide the capacitive response
and they exhibit superior specific energies to the carbon-based super-
capacitors (double-layer capacitors: type I (symmetric), using the same
p-type doped conducting polymer for positive and negative materials; type
II (asymmetric), p-type doped conducting polymer with different electric
activity ranges for positive and negative materials; type III (symmetric), for
two electrodes the same polymer is used, in which p-type doping is used
as positive electrode and n-type doping is used as negative electrode. In
addition, a conductive polymer can be used as a positive electrode and a
carbon material as a negative electrode to construct an asymmetric device.
Among them, the type III device based entirely on conductive polymer is
the most attractive, because it is highly conductive in the charged state and
has high capacitance performance, but due to the difficulty of n-type dop-
ing, the performance of these types of conductive polymer supercapacitor
devices is not as good as expected [46]. Wang et al. [47] demonstrated the
excellent performance of N-graphene doped polyacrylic acid/polyaniline
composites flexible solid-state carbon cloth supercapacitors. Figure 1.6(a)
shows the image of aqueous nitrogen-doped graphene (NG) enhanced
polyacrylic acid/polyaniline (NG-PAA/PANI) composites suspension
containing 32 wt.% PANI and 1.3 wt.% NG. Figure 1.6(b) demonstrates
the flexibility of the carbon cloth electrode and Figure 1.6(c) shows the
SEM image of carbon fiber. The optimal performance of electrode (CC@
NG-PAA/PANI) has been achieved with a high capacitance of 521 F g−1 at
0.5 A g−1.
Carbon materials generally have excellent cycle stability, but the capac-
ity of conducting polymers usually starts to decrease in less than 1,000
cycles. This is because, in the process of charge and discharge test, ions
are continuously doped/de-doped (embedded/de-embedded) into the
doped polymer under the action of electric field, its physical structure will
change, which to a certain extent, aggravates the expansion and contrac-
tion of the skeleton chain, destroys the stability of the material, leading to
its cycle stability decay. In addition, some conducting polymers undergo
incomplete reversible redox reactions [48, 49]. Therefore, the specific
capacitance and cycle stability of the conductive polymer can be greatly
improved by forming a composite electrode material between the conduc-
tive polymer and other materials such as carbon materials (graphene, car-
bon nanotubes, etc.) and metal oxides (NiO, CoO, etc.). Zhang et al. [49]
synthesized graphene and polypyrrole composites (GNS/PPy) by in-situ
polymerization of pyrrole monomers in the presence of graphene under
(a) (b)
(c)
NG-PAA/PANI
20µm
(d) (e) 0.8

45 5 mV/s
10 mV/s 10 A/g
30 20 mV/s 5.0 A/g
0.6
50 mV/s 3.0 A/g
1.0 A/g
Current (A/g)
Potential (V)
15 100 mV/s
0.5 A/g
0 0.4
–15
–30 0.2
–45
0.0
–0.2 –0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0 500 1000 1500 2000
Potential (V) Time (sec)
Figure 1.6 Photo of (a) the aqueous nitrogen-doped graphene (NG) enhanced
polyacrylic acid/polyaniline (NG-PAA/PANI) composites suspension containing 32 wt.%
PANI and 1.3 wt.% NG, (b) a single bent carbon cloth (CC) electrode. (c) SEM images
of single carbon fibers coated by PAA/PANI, (d) CV curves at different scan rates, and
(e) Galvanostatic charge/discharge curves at different current densities [47]. Open access
article under Creative Commons CC BY license copyright © 2016, Springer Nature.
acidic conditions. The specific capacitance of GNS/PPy was 482 F g−1 at the
current density of 0.5 A g−1, and the attenuation of specific capacity was less
than 5% after 1,000 charge–discharge cycles, indicating that the composite
had excellent cycling stability.
1.2.3 Metal Compounds

The metal-oxides used as electrode material of supercapacitor are mainly
based on the Faraday pseudocapacitance which is produced by the
reversible oxidation–reduction reaction at the interface of electrode and
solution. Compared to carbon based materials, Faraday’s reaction can
provide higher specific capacitance and energy density; compared with
conductive polymers, it can obtain better electrochemical stability, so it
has attracted extensive interest and favor of researchers. Transition metal
oxides are often used as electrode materials for supercapacitors, includ-
ing noble metal oxides (RuO2, IrO2, etc.) and non-noble metal oxides
(MnO2, NiO, CuO, CoO, etc.). Due to the limited resources and high
cost of precious metals, their large-scale production and application are
limited. Thus, it is essential to discover alternative materials with com-
parable performance and low price. The emphasis of electrode materi-
als has gradually shifted from precious metal oxides to non-precious
metal oxides.
1.2.3.1 Ruthenium Oxide (RuO2) Electrode Material

In the early stage of supercapacitor research, RuO2 is the most popular
and researched noble metal oxide electrode material because of its good
conductivity and high specific capacitance. Hu et al. [50] successfully pre-
pared RuO2·× H2O nanotube array electrode by using membrane template
synthesis route and anode deposition technology, while maintaining the
(a)
Glass plate (b) (c)
SEBS
Twisting
(d) (e)
Stretching
MWCNTs wrapping
50 µm 500 µm 50 µm 500 µm
RuO2 or MnO2 dry painting/MWCNT wrapping

(f) 0.3 (g)60
0.2 RuO2 + MnO2
50
MnO2
Repeat dry painting and MWCNT wrapping 0.1 40
C60 (G g–1)
I (A g–1)
0.0 30
–0.1 20 RuO2
MWCNT sheet RuO2
MnO2 layer –0.2 RuO2 + MnO2 10 MnO2
RuO2 layer –0.3 0
SEBS core –0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
E (V vs. Ag/AgCl)
Figure 1.7 (a) Schematic structure and Fabrication method of stretchable

pseudocapacitor. Where highly stretchable stylene-ethylene/butylene-stylene (SEBS)
is used as the supporting elastomeric core. SEM images of (b) as-prepared stretchable
pseudocapacitor, (c) after a 1,000 times of repeated stretching by 200%; (d) magnified
image of the as-prepared and (e) magnified image of the stretched pseudocapacitor.
(f) Cyclic voltammograms of variously prepared yarn type pseudocapacitors using 1 M
Na2SO4 as electrolyte. (g) Bar graphs showing the decrease in specific capacitance of the
pseudocapacitors: green and red bars denote graphs obtained before and after stretching
the pseudocapacitor yarn a thousand times, respectively [51]. Open access article under
Creative Commons CC BY license copyright © 2016, Springer Nature.
permeability of electrolyte, the simplicity of proton exchange/diffusion and

the metal conductivity of RuO2 crystal. Its power density and energy den-
sity were up to 4,320 kW kg−1 and 7.5 Whkg−1. Lee et al. [51] synthesized
(Figure 1.7(a)) the stretchable yarn-based pseudocapacitor. They applied
dry painting of RuO2 and MnO2 on the soft SEBS surface. As shown in
Figures 1.7(b–e), the yarn-type pseudocapacitor comprised of eight-
layered MWCNTs, three-layered RuO2, and two-layered MnO2, presented
specific capacitance of 25 F g−1 (shown in Figures 1.7(f–g)). The electro-
chemical pseudocapacitor yarn retained its electrical capacity after 200%
stretching.
1.2.3.2 Nickel Oxide (NiO) Electrode Material

Among the transition metal oxides, nickel oxide has been widely used in
supercapacitors, catalysts, sensors, magnetic materials and other fields
[52–55]. Among them, due to its advantages of high theoretical capaci-
tance, wide sources, easy preparation and environmental friendliness, it is
considered to be the most likely alternative to RuO2 as an ideal supercapac-
itor electrode material. It has excellent reversibility and stability in alkaline
solution. The oxidation-reduction reaction of Faraday pseudocapacitance
usually formed is as follows:
NiO + OH- ↔ NiOOH + e- (1.3)
NiO, as electrode material of supercapacitor, has been widely studied.

Wang et al. [56] synthesized NiO with ordered mesoporous structure by
duplicating SBA-15 template and studied its electrochemical capacitance
characteristics in 2 M KOH electrolyte solution for the first time. The
ordered mesoporous structure can greatly improve the utilization of NiO.
Its specific capacitance was 120 F g−1, and it had good rate performance.
However, when single-phase NiO is utilized as an electrode material, its
cycle stability is not good, because its volume structure will be expanded
and contracted to a certain extent in the process of continuous charging
and discharging. Therefore, researchers began to focus on the formation of
composite electrode materials with NiO and carbon materials (graphene,
carbon nanotubes, etc.) or other pseudo capacitor materials (CoO, PPy,
etc.). Fang et al. [57] reported the hybrid NiO–CuO mesoporous nano
wire arrangement with excessive oxygen vacancies as a high-performance
supercapacitor electrode material. Figure 1.8(a) shows the scheme of syn-
thesis where Figures 1.8(b, c) show the SEM and TEM images of urchin-
like hollow structure with abundant nails of CuO–NiO heterostructures
(a)
NiO
CuO
+ Urea Hydrothermal Annealing
(Ni, Cu)2CO3(OH)2 NiO-CuO
(d) 160
(b) Ni : Cu=1:1 (c) NiO-CuO 30 mV s–1
120 25 mV s–1
Current density (mA cm–2)

20 mV s–1
80 15 mV s–1
40 10 mV s–1
5 mV s–1
0
–40
–80
1 µm 50 nm –120
5 nm
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6

Potential (V vs. SCE)
(e) 0.5
(f)
2 mA cm–2
3 mA cm–2 NiO
0.4 K+ CuO
Potential/V (vs SCE)
5 mA cm–2 OH–
10 mA cm–2 – e–
e e–
0.3 15 mA cm–2
20 mA cm–2
0.2 electrolyte
0.1
Ni foam Ni foam
0.0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Time (s)
Figure 1.8 (a) Schematic illustration of the synthesis of urchin-like NiO–CuO hollow
architectures, (b) SEM image and (c) TEM image of the NiO–CuO sample, the inset in
(c) is the magnified image of NiO–CuO. (d) CVs and (e) GCDs of the electrode of NiO–
CuO with Ni:Cu = 1:1. (f) The charge transfer mechanism of the electrode based on NiO–
CuO [57]. Copyright 2019. Reprinted with permission from Royal Society of Chemistry.
on the surface. The hybrid NiO–CuO exhibited an excellent supercapaci-

tance performance (shown in Figures 1.8(d, e)). The 3D hollow structure
of NiO–CuO facilitated the electrolyte penetration, increased the contact
area of the electrode/electrolyte interface and provided a large number of
active sites for electrochemical reactions, as shown in Figure 1.8(f).
1.2.3.3 Copper Oxide (CuO) Electrode Material

CuO, as a common transition metal oxide has the characteristics of low
cost synthesis, rich sources, simple preparation method, high theoret-
ical specific capacitance and excellent chemical stability, and has gradu-
ally attracted attention in the field of supercapacitor electrode materials
[58–60]. CuO has a variety of micromorphology, which has a certain
influence on its capacitance performance. Mosavifard et al. [59] synthe-

sized 3D highly ordered nanoporous CuO by using nanoporous silica as
template. Its specific capacitance was 431 F g−1 at 0.35 mA cm−1current
density, having outstanding performance and cycle life. Dubal et al. [61]
synthesized well dispersed cauliflower-like CuO on stainless steel substrate
by a simple and effective electrodeposition method. It had a high specific
capacitance of 179 F g−1 in Na2SO4 electrolyte, and the capacity retention
rate was 81% after 2,000 cycles. However, when only single-phase CuO is
used as electrode material of supercapacitor, its specific capacitance is far
from ideal, so a series of CuO composite materials have also been stud-
ied. Qian et al. [62] directly synthesized CuO/polypyrrole core-shell nano
sheet array by electrochemical co-deposition on interdigital electrode.
1.2.3.4 Composite Electrode Materials

There have been three kinds of electrode materials of supercapacitor are
introduced above, which have both advantages and disadvantages when
applied to the electrode materials of supercapacitor. The specific capac-
itance of carbon material is far less than that of conducting polymer
and transition metal oxide. The structure of conducting polymer will be
destroyed after multiple cycles of charging and discharging, and the cycle
stability is poor. In addition, as electrode materials, transition-metal oxides
have the benefits of great specific capacitance, high energy density, rich
sources, easy preparation, electrochemical stability, etc., but most of them
have low intrinsic conductivity, increased electrode resistance, and poor
cycle stability. Therefore, researchers are committed to the study of com-
posite electrode materials (composed of two or more materials). Composite
electrode materials can take advantage of the advantages of every single
component to play a synergistic role to obtain electrode materials with
better performance than single materials. Common composite materials
include: (1) the composite of carbon-based materials and pseudo capacitor
materials (transition metal oxides or conductive polymers), which can not
only improve the specific capacitance of carbon-based materials but also
improve the cycle stability of transition metal oxides or conductive poly-
mers. For example, Zhao et al. [63] made nickel ions adsorbed on both sides
of GO through the electrostatic interaction of two substances, forming a
single graphene/NiO sheet, which greatly increased the surface area of the
composite and can maintain a capacity retention rate of 95.4% after 1,000
cycles. Liu et al. [64] prepared graphene oxide/polypyrrole (GO/PPy) com-
posite by simple electrochemical deposition technology, and the specific
capacitance reached 358 F g−1, after 1,000 charges and discharges cycles at a
(a) (b) (c)
2 µm 200 nm
Coat MWCNT Electrodeposite MnO2 Coat electrolyte Assemble

(d)
Assembled flexible
bare textiles MWCNT ink dipped Electrodeposite MnO2 PVA-H2SO4 solid-state supercapacitor
Figure 1.9 (a) Photograph of prepared hybrid supercapacitor, (b, c) SEM images of
MnO2/CNTs, (d) Scheme of the fabrication process of the honeycomb MnO2/CNT
textile-based flexible solid-state supercapacitors [66]. Open access article under Creative
Commons CC BY license copyright © 2016, Springer Nature.
scanning rate of 10 mV s−1, the capacitance showed only 7.1% attenuation.

(2) The composite of two kinds of pseudocapacitor materials can obtain
new morphology and structure, so as to obtain better performance. For
example, Li et al. [65] used low-temperature hydrothermal in-situ growth
process to grow three-dimensional MnO2 nanowire/ZnO nanorods array
composite electrode materials on carbon cloth without binder. With the
support of ZnO nanorods array, the electrochemical performance of MnO2
nanowire can be greatly improved. Yinko et al. [66] prepared porous hon-
eycomb structures from interconnected MnO2 sheets on CNT-coated sub-
strates. Figure 1.9(a) shows the photograph of prepared flexible hybrid
supercapacitor. The morphology of the produced MnO2/CNT composites
was studied by SEM at different magnifications, as presented in Figures
1.9(b, c). The 3D honeycomb (MnO2/CNT) minimizes the accumulation
of the MnO2 layers, improving the electrolyte-accessible area and enables
easy approach of ions inside the electrodes. The honeycomb-like MnO2/
CNT textiles were straightly applied as the binder-free electrodes for the
production of bendable solid-state supercapacitors shown in Figure 1.9(d).
1.3 Device Architecture of Flexible Supercapacitor

Electrochemical functioning of supercapacitors depends not only on the
performance of the materials used in each component, but also on the
design, matching, and combination of these components in order to make

a device which meets the performance needs [59, 62, 63].
The early all-solid-state flexible supercapacitor (FSCs) used a tradi-
tional sandwich like design with {a current collector|electrode|electrolyte|
electrode|current collector} layered structure. This design has appealed the
consideration of scientists due to its simple configuration and quite sim-
ple manufacturing procedure. Though, increased ion transmission paths
result in limitations to ion transmission severely when stiffer electrodes are
needed [60, 63]. Also, not only the portable electronic devices needs to be
flexible, but they should also be thin and smaller size. Therefore, the large
sandwich structure is not compatible with the planar microstructure of
micro-electronics and is not feasible to meet the requirements of electronic
circuits.
To solve this drawback, a new device structure (Figure 1.6(b)) [59]
has been developed into a flat design, which intersects multiple micro-
electrodes (for one electrode) on an elastic substrate, such as p-benzene
ethylene glycol diformate (PET) or polyimide (PI) layer or paper (cross
design). The preparation of the interdigital microelectrode usually requires
an extra micro-patterning step prior or post thin film electrode deposition.
Such type of planar interdigital structure has the advantage of space saving,
shorter ion transmission better diffusion of electrolyte ions and appropri-
ate integration in electronic systems.
Use of elastic substrate for supporting electrodes is another technique
for the fabrication of flexible solid-state supercapacitor. Plastics such as
polyethylene terephthalate (PET) being flexible, lightweight and thin
thickness are reported as the supporting substrates for FSCs. Kaempgen
et al. [67] demonstrated thin film supercapacitor built on spray coated
SWCNT nets.
1.4 Integration of Flexible Supercapacitors

In the beginning, mostly FSCs were utilized for the supply power to basic
electronic devices, for example, LEDs or clocks [66, 68, 69]. So as to accom-
plish the current or voltage prerequisites of electronics, FSCs are typically
utilized in series and/or parallel arrangement. Scientists and engineers
keep on investigating the handy utilizations of FSCs in practical applica-
tions. Lu et al. [70] utilized a series combination of three asymmetric FSCs
made of MnO2/Fe2O3 electrodes and arranged them to charge cell phones
(HTC, A320e). Kim et al. [71] prepared a waterproof wire type of FSCs
(a) (b)
15cm 12 Scan rate: 0.5 V/s
Current density (mA/cm2)

1cm 3cm 5cm
8 10cm 15cm
5cm
4
1cm
0
–4
800µm 3cm 0.25cm
–8
10cm 2 cm 2 cm –12
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
Voltage (V)
(c) MSC array
Red LED
2cm
Figure 1.10 (a) Optical images of CF/MWNT/V2O5 NW (CMV) electrode and wire-
type supercapacitors (WSCs) with varying length, (b) CV curves of WSCs with various
lengths at scan rate of 0.5 V s−1, (c) wire-type supercapacitors array and LED array on
T-shirts [71]. Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. Reproduced with permission from Elsevier.
(shown in Figure 1.10(a)) to supply power a gas sensor (NO2) shown in

Figure 1.10(c). The sensor have ability to detect NO2 gas for 50 min after
completely charging the MSCs.
Shi et al. [72] prepared different shaped flexible asymmetric superca-
pacitors on ultrathin 2D nanosheets demonstrating good mechanical flexi-
bility and excellent optical transparency as shown in Figure 1.11 (a-c). The
flexible supercapacitor achieved a high specific capacitance of 774 F g−1
even after 10,000 cycles. The asymmetric supercapacitors exhibited a very
high energy density with less than 3% capacitance loss following 10,000
cycles in aqueous electrolyte Figure 1.11 (d-f). This study on electrode
materials for FSCs shows that there have been still a void space for an out-
standing material or nano composite to fill for the high power density and
high energy density simultaneously.
0.5×0.5 1.5×1.5 flexible

(mm)
picture
word
Tsinghua University
or letter magnify visible
pattern
Tsinghua University
wooden chopsticks
(a) (b) (c)

1.2
Capacitance Retention (%)

straight 100 MS-GA 120 MS-MS
bended Energy Density (Wh/kg) MS-MS
0.8 MS-GA
Ref 100
bended
Current (mA)
0.4
80 MS GA MS MS
0.0
60
–0.4 MS-GA MS-MS
40
–0.8 10
20
–1.2 electrolyte
0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 10 100 1000 10000 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
Voltage (V) Power Density (W/kg) Cycle number
(d) (e) (f)
Figure 1.11 (a) Photographs of the screen-printed electrodes of several designs;

(b) Photographs of electrodes demonstrating good mechanical flexibility. (c) Photograph
of the ‘‘panda’’ asymmetric MS/GA supercapacitor lighting up a red light emitting diode.
(d) CV curves of straight and bended supercapacitor at 20 mV. (e) Ragone plots of MS/GA
and MS/MS supercapacitor compared with other MnO2 based asymmetric supercapacitors
(f) Cycle performance and schematic illustration of screen-printed supercapacitor [72]. Open
access article under Creative Commons CC BY license copyright © 2013, Springer Nature.
1.5 Conclusion
The urgent need for efficient energy storage and conversion promotes the
research of new energy storage devices such as supercapacitors. The elec-
trode materials, which are essential to supercapacitors have been widely
concerned and studied. Despite the progress in all-solid-state manufactur-
ing of flexible supercapacitor with sandwich-like and interdigital structure,
to achieve full commercialization, much tasks remain to be done. Further
work needs in electrodes, manufacturing technology and equipment
integration.
More research work is required to acquire flexible electrode materials
to enhance the performance of FSCs. Therefore, it is mandatory to explore
bendable electrodes that combine the advantages such as good conduc-
tivity, close-packed structure and enhanced ion contact area. In addition,
an outstanding electrochemical stability is quiet one of the core research
goals.
At the end, it is very important to build combinations of FSCs with

new electronics (such as photodetectors, TENGs, solar cells and oth-
ers) in smart devices. Besides the research on electrodes, manufacturing
the integrated wearable devices like thermal supercapacitors and photo-
supercapacitors are worth exploring.
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After this we begin the second stasis in tone v, in which at the end
of a verse we say,
Have mercy upon thy servant.
The choir beginneth, Thy commandments....
Have mercy upon thy servant.
And again the same choir, Thy hands have made me....
After the iind stasis, deacon, Again and again.... Page 142.
And again they begin the third stasis in tone iii.
Thy name, alleluia.
And again the same choir singeth,
Look upon me, and have mercy upon me....
After the iiird stasis, and after the troparia of the undefiled, deacon,
Again and again.... Page 142.
Then troparia, tone v.
Our Saviour rest thy servant with the just, and place him in thy
courts, as it is written, as being good, despising his iniquities, both
willing ones and those unwilling, and all those done in knowledge
and in ignorance, O lover of mankind.
Glory. Both now.
Christ God, who from the Virgin, shinest to the world, who hast
through her made manifest the sons of light, have mercy thou on us.
Then graduals, tone vi.
Unto heaven have I lifted up mine eyes, unto thee, O Word; have
compassion upon me, that I may live to thee.
Have mercy upon us who have been set at nought, appointing us,
O Word, to be vessels acceptable unto thee.
Glory.
To the Holy Ghost belongs every all-saving cause: on whomsoever
he, through worthiness, doth breathe, he quickly taketh him from
earthly things, gives wings, exalteth and appoints his place on high.
Both now, the same.
Then prokimenon, tone vi.
Blessed is the way wherein thou goest to-day, O soul, because a
place of rest hath been prepared for thee.
Verse. Return O my soul, unto thy rest, for the Lord hath wrought a
good thing for thee.
The message of the holy apostle Paul to the Thessalonians,
section cclxx.
Brethren, I would not have you to be ignorant.... ending, be ever
with the Lord.[35]
Priest. Peace to thee.
Reader. And to thy spirit.
Reader. A psalm of David. Alleluia, tone viii.
Blessed is he whom thou hast chosen and received, O Lord.
Deacon. Wisdom, standing, let us hear the holy gospel.
Priest. The reading of the holy gospel from John, section xvi.
The Lord said unto the Jews that came unto him, Verily, verily, I
say.... ending, the Father which hath sent me.[36]
Then the deacon. Let us pray to the Lord.
Choir. Lord, have mercy.
And the priest the prayer.
Master, Lord our God, who only hast immortality, who dwellest in
unapproachable light, who killest and makest alive, who wentest
down into hades and didst arise therefrom; thou didst in wisdom
create man, and didst turn him again to earth, exacting payment of
his spiritual debt. Thee we beseech, Accept the soul of thy servant,
and rest him in the bosom of Abraham, and Isaac, and Jacob; and
give unto him the crown of thy righteousness, the portion of the
saved, in the glory of thine elect; that in whatsoever he hath laboured
in this world for thy name’s sake, he may receive a plenteous reward
in the habitations of thy saints; through the grace, and compassions,
and love to man of thine only-begotten Son, our Lord Jesus Christ.
Amen.
Kathisma, tone ii.
To-day I from my kinsfolk sever’d am, and unto thee betake
myself, thou only sinless one: O rest me in the tabernacles of the just
with thine elect.
Then we say psalm xxii.
The Lord tendeth me, and there is nothing lacking to me.
Alleluia, thrice, repeating alleluia to every verse of the rest of the
psalm.
Then the present troparion, tone ii.
Since to the same abiding-place we all are urg’d, and under the
same stone shall come, and in a little time in self same dust shall be,
let us ask Christ for rest for him removed hence. For such our life is,
brethren, this on earth, a toy: that which is not it abides, and that that
doth abide it perisheth. We are a dream that stayeth not, a breath
that is not held, a flight of passing birds, a ship upon a trackless sea.
Then let us cry to the immortal King, O Lord, vouchsafe to him thine
endless blessedness.
Prokimenon, tone vi.
Verse. To thee is due a song, O God, in Sion.
The epistle to the Romans, section lxxxix.
Brethren, as by one man sin.... ending, Jesus Christ our Lord.[37]
Alleluia, tone vi.
Verse. Blessed is he whom thou hast chosen and received, O
Lord.
The gospel from John, section xv.
The Lord saith unto the Jews that came unto him, My Father
worketh.... ending, but is passed from death unto life.[38]
And the priest.
We give thanks unto thee, O Lord our God, for thine alone it is to
have immortal life, and inaccessible glory, and unspeakable love to
man, and an uninheritable kingdom, and there is no respect of
persons with thee; for thou hast appointed unto all men a common
limit of life, when life hath been fulfilled. Therefore we beseech thee,
O Lord, Rest thy servant, and our fellow minister, name, who hath
fallen asleep in hope of the resurrection of eternal life, in the bosom
of Abraham, and Isaac, and Jacob. And as on earth thou hast
appointed him a minister of thy church, so also declare him at thy
heavenly altar, O Lord; and like as thou hast adorned him with
spiritual honour among men, so accept him uncondemned in angelic
glory. Thou thyself hast glorified his life on earth, and do thou thyself
appoint the outgoing of his life to be the ingoing to thy holy righteous
ones; and number his soul among all them that from ages have been
acceptable unto thee.
For thou art the resurrection and the life, and the repose of thy
servant, name, who hath fallen asleep, O Christ our God, and to thee
we ascribe glory, with thine unbeginning Father, and with thy most
holy, and good, and life-creating Spirit, now and ever, and to ages of
ages. Amen.
Antiphon ii.
Were not the Lord with us, we none could have withstood the foe’s
attack; for they that overcome are thence lift up.
As a small bird be not my soul caught in their teeth, O Word: woe
unto me! how from the foe shall I be freed, who am a lover of sin.
Glory.
Through the Holy Ghost divinity comes to all, goodwill and
understanding, peace and blessing; for he is like-effective with the
Father and the Word.
Both now, the same.
The earth is the Lord’s, and the fulness thereof.[39]
Alleluia, thrice, repeating alleluia to every verse of the rest of the
psalm. Glory, alleluia. Both now, alleluia.
Troparion, tone ii.
In faith, and hope, and love, and meekness, and in chastity, and in
the priestly dignity thou piously hast liv’d, thou aye remember’d one.
Therefore the eternal God, whom thou hast served, in a bright and
pleasant place, where rest the just, thy soul hath plac’d; and, at the
judgment-seat of Christ, thou shalt forgiveness gain, and mercy
great.
Kathisma, tone v.
Thou knowest, O our God, that we were born in sin. Therefore we
thee beseech, Rest him who is remov’d from us, o’erlooking, as the
good one, the iniquities, which he, as mortal man, hath done in life,
through the God-bearing one’s entreaties, thou sole lover of
mankind.
Verse. His remembrance is to generation and generation.
The epistle to the Corinthians, section clviii.
Brethren, I declare unto you.... ending, so ye believed.[40]
Alleluia. Blessed is he whom thou hast chosen and received, O
Lord.
The gospel from John, section xxi.
The Lord spake unto the Jews that came unto him, I am the
bread.... ending, at the last day.[41]
And the priest this prayer.
O Lord of hosts, who art the joy of the afflicted, the consolation of
mourners, and the aid of all them that are faint-hearted; do thou in
thy tenderness console them that are constrained with grief for him
that hath fallen asleep, and heal every distress that lieth in their
hearts, and rest thy servant, name, who hath fallen asleep in hope of
the resurrection of eternal life, in the bosom of Abraham.
For thou art the resurrection, the life, and the repose of thy
servant, name, O Christ our God, and to thee we ascribe glory, with
thine unbeginning Father, and with thy most holy, and good, and life-
creating Spirit, now and ever, and to ages of ages. Amen.
Antiphon iii.
They that trust in the Lord are terrible to enemies, and wonderful
to all; for they look on high.
Let not the inheritance of the righteous, having thee, O Saviour, as
a helper, stretch forth their hands unto transgression.
Glory.
Of the Holy Ghost is the might in all things: him the hosts above
worship, and everything that hath breath below.
Both now, the same.
How amiable are thy tabernacles, O Lord of hosts....[42]
Alleluia, thrice, repeating also in order the rest of the Psalm.
Then troparion, tone vi.
O my beloved brethren, do ye forget me not, when ye sing unto
the Lord; but remember ye the brotherhood, and beseech ye God
that the Lord may rest me with the just.
Troparion, tone vi.
On me death suddenly hath come, and parted me to day from that
which was mine own; but me, translating, do thou rest, O Christ, in
places of refreshment.
Have mercy upon us, O Lord, have mercy upon us; for, destitute of
all defence, we sinners offer unto thee, as Master, this prayer, Have
mercy upon us.
Glory.
O Lord, have mercy upon us; for we have put our trust in thee. Be
not exceedingly wroth against us, neither remember our
transgressions; but, as being loving-kind, look now upon us, and
deliver us from our enemies; for thou art our God, and we are thy
people, we are all the work of thy hand, and we call upon thy name.
Both now. Theotokion.
Open unto us the gates of loving-kindness, O blessed God-
bearing one, that we perish not who put our trust in thee, but through
thee may we be delivered from calamities; for thou art the salvation
of the christian race.
His soul shall dwell in good things.
Verse. Unto thee, O Lord, have I cried....
The epistle to the Corinthians, section clx.
Brethren, Christ is risen ... ending, God may be all in all.[43]
Alleluia.
Blessed is the man that feareth the Lord.
Verse. His seed shall be mighty upon earth.
The gospel from John, section xxii.
The Lord spake unto the Jews that came unto him, This is the
will.... ending, at the last day.[44]
Then the beatitudes in tone ii.
In thy kingdom remember us, O Lord, when thou comest in thy
kingdom.
Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven.
Blessed are they that mourn, for they shall be comforted.
Blessed are the meek, for they shall inherit the earth.
Blessed are they which do hunger and thirst after righteousness,
for they shall be filled.
Blessed are the merciful, for they shall obtain mercy.
For tasting the tree’s fruit of old Adam from paradise was driven;
but for thee owning to be God, when on the cross he hung, the thief
was plac’d in paradise. And, saved by thy passion, Lord, we imitate
the thief, crying in faith, Remember us, when in thy kingdom thou
shalt come.
Blessed are the pure in heart, for they shall see God.
My maker, taking clay from earth, by will divine my body form’d,
but by a holy ordinance he plac’d a soul therein, by breathing breath
that beareth life. And when to sin’s corruption I in evil wise was
bound, me thou recalledst, lover of mankind, by tenderness extreme.
But rest, O God, among thy Saints, him whom thou hast receiv’d.
Blessed are the peacemakers, for they shall be called the children
of God.
When soul and body parted are, fearful and dread the mystery is
to all: then wailing goeth forth the soul, and hid the body is, consign’d
to earth. Therefore let us, knowing the final going hence, before the
Saviour come with tears, and cry, When in thy kingdom thou shalt
come, do thou remember us.
Blessed are they that are persecuted for righteousness’ sake, for
theirs is the kingdom of heaven.
Why bitterly do ye lament, O men, for me? and why in vain do ye a
murmuring make? he that is gone to all exclaims; for unto all a rest is
death. Then let us hear the voice of Job who saith, Death is the rest
of man. But rest, O God, among thy Saints him whom thou hast
receiv’d.
Blessed are ye when they shall revile you, and persecute you, and
shall say all manner of evil against you falsely for my name’s sake.
The all-wise Paul hath clearly fore-announc’d the change,
instructing all that uncorrupt the dead shall rise, and we be chang’d
by God’s command. Then shall that trumpet sound in fearful wise,
and they that have from ages slept shall rise from sleep. But rest, O
God, among thy Saints him whom thou hast receiv’d.
Rejoice and be exceeding glad, for great is your reward in heaven.
He that is gone and in the grave lies dead, being reconcil’d, to all
exclaims, Come unto me, ye sons of earth, see ye the body’s beauty
render’d dark. Then, brethren, knowing his departure hence, let us
before the Saviour come, and cry with tears, Rest thou, O God,
among thy Saints him whom thou hast receiv’d.
Glory. Both now. Theotokion.
Thou, Queen, didst seedlessly within thy womb in supernatural
wise conceive the God who ere the ages was, and bring him forth in
flesh unchangedly and unconfusedly, himself being God and man.
Therefore we ever owning thee God-bearing one in faith exclaim to
God brought forth from thee, Remember in thy kingdom also us.
Verse. His soul shall dwell in good things.
The epistle to the Romans, section cxiii.
Brethren, he that regardeth the day.... ending, the dead and living.
[45]
Alleluia, tone vi.

Verse. His soul shall dwell in good things.
The gospel from John, section xxiii.
The Lord spake unto the Jews that came unto him, I am the bread
of life.... ending, at the last day.[46]
Then psalm l. And the canon, tone vi.
Ode i. Irmos.
Him that beneath the surges of the sea....
Refrain. Rest, O Lord, thy sleeping servant’s soul.
To thee, O benefactor, Christ, and Lord of all, we cast us down
with fervent tears, and wailing cry this funeral song, Thy faithful
servant rest, thou that art loving-kind.
Him that is dead in hope of resurrection grant the holy standing,
Word, at thy right hand with thine elect, prolongedly with voice of
praise we pray, O lover of mankind.
Thy chosen servant from the earth remov’d, O lover of mankind,
count worthy brightly to rejoice within thy kingdom heavenly and
rever’d; and overlook, as loving-kind, his soul’s iniquities.
Glory.
Alas! life’s glory grew as grass, and straightway was dried up.
Where in the grave is honour? and where form or beauty there?
Then spare thy servant, Lord, as being loving-kind.
With love, as it behoves, we thee all praise, O Mary, Mother of
God, Virgin most pure; for thou hast ever sleepless eyes—thy
prayers—to save us now from sins, and from the doom of death.
Ode iii. Irmos.
There is none holy like to thee, O Lord my God....
There is no man on earth that hath not sinn’d, O Word. Therefore
accept a prayer from us, the lowly ones: and, Saviour, pardon and
forgive thy servant all iniquities.
And who, O lover of mankind, as thou, Lord merciful, forgivest sins
of quick and dead with great authority? Therefore thy servant do
thou save by this.
Glory.
Of calling from on high, O Saviour, him heritor declare, even him
gone hence in faith, accepting his last tearful prayer, thou only
sinless one.
O thou that art our Queen, all holy Virgin, cease not beseeching
God, whom thou didst bear, to count him worthy of his kingdom,
even him who hence in faith hath gone.
Kathisma, tone vi.
Verily everything is vain, and life a shadow is, a dream; for vainly
every earth-born one disquieteth himself, as saith the scripture.
When we have gain’d the world, then dwell we in the grave, where
kings and beggars are as one. Therefore, O Christ, thy servant rest
in tract of living ones, and in the dwellings of the just.
Ode iv. Irmos.
Thy divine exhaustion on the cross....
Since importable is the terrible threatening of that day, let us
unceasingly beseech of Christ forgiveness of all sins for him that
hath in faith and hope of resurrection hither gone.
Since, through penitence, he, thy servant, unto thee a lamp
enkindled brightly ere his death, O Master, Saviour loving-kind,
vouchsafe to him in brightly wise thy bridal-room.
Glory.
When all things hid thou dost reveal, and prove our sins, O Christ,
him whom thou hast receiv’d do thou then spare, remembering his
confession, Lord.
Holy God-bearing one, forget not all that cry to thee with ceaseless
wail; and find him rest, thou blessed one, even him, thy faithful
servant, who is gone from us.
Ode v. Irmos.
Of thy divine epiphany, O Christ....
In the elect ones’ choir, and in the joy of paradise, O thou
compassionate one, give rest to him whom thou from us in faith
removed hast; for thou, our Saviour, hast divine repentance laid on
all men who have sinn’d; and him, as Master, of thy kingdom worthy
count.
According to thy might as God, thou art, in lordly wise, unto thy
creature merciful, whom thou subjected hast to human law, O Lord,
sole lover of mankind. Therefore remit, forgive the sins of him gone
hence in faith, and him, O Saviour, of thy kingdom worthy count.
Glory.
None there escape the fearful sentence of thy judgment-seat:
kings, mighty ones with servants all together stand, and them, the
people who have sinn’d, the judge’s fearful voice bids to gehenna’s
doom; but save from this thy servant, Christ.
In supernatural wise from thee was born, according unto human
nature, him that Redeemer is; and him, O thou unwedded Virgin,
ceaselessly beseech to free from torment all, and from the fierce and
fearful hades’ pains; and save him who is now in faith remov’d from
us.
Ode vi. Irmos.
The lowest depth....
Death and the grave and judgment us await, impressing all our
works; and out of these thy servant save, O lover of mankind, even
him who thou removed hast.
Open, my Saviour, I beseech thee, unto him gone hence thy
mercy’s door, that he, O Christ, in glory may in chorus sing,
partaking of the gladness of thy mightiness.
Glory.
Deliver, Saviour, from iniquities thy servant for thy mercy’s sake,
him whom thou now removed hast in faith; for none is justified by
human works, O lover of mankind.
The slayer of death and looser of the curse in flesh thou
broughtest forth, God-bearing one, and all that die in faith he saves,
as being good and lover of mankind.
Then the customary ectenia.
Again and again.... Page 142.
And the prayer, O God of spirits.... Page 139.
Condakion, tone viii.
Rest with the Saints, O Christ, thy servant’s soul, where is no pain,
nor grief, nor sighing, but life that endeth not.
Icos.
Thyself alone immortal art, who madest and didst fashion man, for
out of earth we mortals fashion’d were, and unto that same earth
shall go, as thou who madest me hast given command, and sayest
unto me, Earth thou art, and unto earth shalt thou return. And thither
all we mortals go, making the funeral wail, even the song, the
Alleluia.
Hearken in thoughtful wise, I pray; for I with pain these words
announce; yea, for your sake I make the wail: it may for profit be to
some. But when ye have to sing these words, remember me who
once was known; for ofttimes we together went, and in God’s house
together sang the Alleluia.
Arise ye then, and gather ye together all, and, sitting down, hear
ye a word, Brethren, the judgment-seat is dread, where we have
every one to stand. There none is slave, and none is free; there
none is little, none is great; but all in nakedness shall stand: for this
cause it is well to sing ofttimes the psalm, the Alleluia.
Bewail we all with tears as we behold the relics lie, and all
approaching them to kiss let us in equal wise exclaim, Lo, thou hast
left them who thee lov’d: wilt thou not speak with us again? Why dost
thou speak not, friend, as thou wast wont to speak to us? But so
thou silent art, even to say with us the Alleluia.
What, brethren, are the dying’s bitter words, which, when they go,
they say? I from the brethren parted am, I quit and leave you all, O
friends. Then where I go I do not know, and how I shall be there
know not: God only knows, who calleth me. But make ye my
memorial with the song, the Alleluia.
Then where now go the souls? then how now fare they there? I
long to learn the mystery; but none sufficient is to tell. Do they
remember their own things, as we remember them? or have they us
forgotten who are left, who them lament and make the song, the
Alleluia.
Accompany the dead, O friends, and to the grave with heed hie
ye, and muse ye there in thoughtful wise, and your own feet prepare:
all youthfulness is cast therein, all vigour fadeth there: there dust and
ashes are, and worms: there all is silence, and none saying Alleluia.
Lo, now we see him lying, but to us no presence is of him: behold,
the tongue now silent is, and, lo, already cease the lips. Farewell, O
friends, O children; be ye saved, O ye brethren, O acquaintance, be
ye sav’d; for I depart my way. But make ye my memorial with the
song, the Alleluia.
Not one of those who there hath gone doth live again to tell to us
how they, our brethren once and kinsfolk, fare who there have come
before the Lord. Therefore, we oft, yea, ever say, Do they each other
there behold? do they a brother see? do they together say the
psalm, the Alleluia?
We go the everlasting way in mien as them that are condemn’d,
with faces all cast down. Then where is beauty? where is wealth?
then where the glory of this life? Nothing of these shall help us there,
even to say ofttimes the psalm, the Alleluia.
Why in untimely wise disquietest thou thyself, O man? one hour,
and all is gone; for there in hades no repentance is, nor any further
pardon there: the never-dying worm is there, all there is dark and
gloomy land, where I must come to be condemn’d. For I have not
ofttimes made speed to say the psalm, the Alleluia.
Nothing so soon forgotten is by man as man when he is gone; for,
if we do remember for a time, we straightway death forget, when
absent is the dead. And parents even every child forget, that, of the
womb begot, they nourish’d have, and have with tears accompanied
with the song, the Alleluia.
I remind you, O my brethren, and my children, and my friends, that
ye forget me not when ye beseech the Lord. I pray, I ask, I make
entreaty that ye keep these words in memory, and bewail me day
and night. I speak to you as Job did to his friends, O sit ye down to
say again the Alleluia.
Forsaking all things we depart, and naked and abhorrent we
become; for comeliness doth fade away as grass, but only do we
men delude ourselves. Thou naked, wretched one, wast born, and
altogether naked there shalt stand! Then be not prodigal in life, O
man; but only always sigh with wailing, Alleluia.
If thou, O man, art merciful to man, he there shall mercy have to
show to thee; and if to any orphan hast been kind, he there shall
thee deliver out of need; if thou in life the naked clothed hast, he
there shall clothing have to put on thee, and sing the psalm, the
Alleluia.
The way is evil whereby I depart, and therein so I never went; that
country also is unknown, where me none recognize at all. ’Tis fearful
them to see who dreadfully are led, and him who me hath call’d, who
ruleth life and death, and there us biddeth when he willeth. Alleluia.
If from some country we depart, we of some guides have need.
What shall we do, and whither go, that country in, where we are
quite unknown? To thee will then be needful many guides, and many
prayers to go with thee to save thy wretched soul, ere it attain to
Christ, and say to him, the Alleluia.
They that to lusts material subject are, in nowise have forgiveness
there: there terrible accusers are, and there too opened are the
books. Then where, O man, wilt thou glance round? or who will there
then thee assist? save thou in life hast wrought some good, or done
some kindness to the poor, singing the Alleluia.
Both youth and bodily beauty fade away in time of death, and then
in painful wise is parch’d the tongue, and, dried up, is scorch’d the
throat, then quenched is the beauty of the eyes, all chang’d the
beauty of the face, the beauty of the neck is spoil’d, and what
remaineth silent is to say ofttimes the Alleluia.
Keep silence then, keep silence: O ye survivors, be ye still before
him lying there, and contemplate the mystery great; for fearful is the
hour. Hush, that the soul may go in peace; for it endureth anguish
great, and in much fear beseecheth God with Alleluia.
I have seen an infant dying, and for my life have wept; for it was
altogether scar’d, and, when its hour came, trembling cried, O father,
help me; mother, save me! and none sufficient was to help it then:
they only griev’d beholding, and in the grave bewail’d it. Alleluia.
How many on a sudden have been taken from their bridal to the
grave, betroth’d been with an everlasting troth, have costless made
the dirge, and from the chamber have not risen; but together there
was marriage and the grave, together troth and parting, together
laughter and the wail, yea, and the psalm, the Alleluia.
We are enflam’d when only hearing that everlasting light is there,
there our life’s fount, and there eternal joy: the paradise is there
where every soul rejoiceth with the just. We all in Christ shall
gather’d be, that so to God we all may cry the Alleluia.
All-holy Virgin, thou unwedded one, who didst bring forth th’
approachless light, I pray, entreaty make, and beg, Cease not to
pray the Lord concerning him, thy sleeping servant, thou most pure,
that in the day of judgment he may find forgiveness there; for thou,
as Queen all pure, to pray thy Son hast always boldness. Alleluia.
Then again the condakion.
Rest with the Saints, O Christ.... Page 188.
Ode vii. Irmos.
Narrateless wonder....
As being pitiful, O Christ, deliver him, thy servant, whom thou in
faith received hast, from fearful doom, and from gehenna’s fire, and
to thy servant grant to sing to thee, Blessed art thou, redeemer, God.
Within the land of gentle ones, and in delights of paradise, in
glory’s wondrous dwelling-place, thy servant faithfully asleep
esteeming worthy, God, do thou grant him to sing to thee, Blessed
art thou, redeemer, God.
Glory.
Great is the doom and undescribable the need, O brethren, in
gehenna; for the souls of sinners there are burned with their bodies,
and in anguish weep, unable to exclaim, Blessed art thou, redeemer,
God.
Both now.
Them that undoubtingly thee praise, O Mother of God, thou
altogether undefil’d God-bearing one, when living by thy prayers for
ever guard, and when departed free from bitter torment, that they
with thee to Christ may say, Blessed art thou, redeemer, God.
Ode viii. Irmos.
Fearingly quake, O heaven....
O what dread hour awaiteth sinners, brethren! O what terror then!
gehenna’s fire consumes, and shall eternally torment. Therefore, O
Christ, compassionate Lord, deliver him departed now from us from
fearful threatening, and snatch him from gehenna’s pains eternally.
Oh, of the just the joy which they receive when comes the judge!
for them the bridal-chamber is prepar’d, and paradise, and all
Christ’s kingdom; and there thy servant, Christ, make manifest
rejoicing with the Saints eternally.
Glory.
Who shall endure the fearful menace of thy presence, Christ? the
heavens thereat roll’d up shall be as is a scroll in fearful wise, the
stars shall fall, and all creation shake with fear, and changed be the
light; but then, O Word, spare him whom thou removed hast from us.
Him whom thou gavest flesh in supernatural wise, O pure, even
the Son, he is the judge of living and of dead, and judgeth all the
earth, and saves from torment whom he wills, and them especially
who in types adore him lovingly, and thee, God-bearing one, extol
eternally.
Ode ix. Irmos.
Weep not for me, O mother....
O weep ye not, all ye who die in faith; for Christ for us bore flesh,
the cross, and sepulture, and made all them immortal sons that sing
to him, O into judgment with thy servant enter not.
Let us, ye faithful, from the heart pray Christ to stablish in the
dwellings of the saints the brother who in faith and hope of
resurrection sleeps; for there is judgment stern and trial dread, and
none can help himself without good works, and common prayer of
faithful ones; and let us cry, Lord, into judgment with thy servant
enter not.
Glory.
In, Blessed One, thy glory that becomes not old, and in delights of
paradise, place him who now is gone from us, and in the right-belief
and penitence betaketh him to thee in faith; and of thy kingdom him
a chosen partner make.
God-bearing Virgin, we reverently, we, faithful ones, extol thee
who art mother of life in supernatural wise; for we, aforetime dead,
being made immortal, life have found; and, lo, to thee the song we
end.
Deacon. Again and again.... Page 142.
And the prayer, O God of spirits.... Page 139.
Exapostilarion.
Now am I at rest, and much forgiveness have receiv’d; for I have
passed from corruption, and am translated unto life: glory to thee, O
Lord.
And the people the same.
Verse i. Man is as grass, his day is as a flower of the field.
Verse ii. For his spirit goeth through in him, and he shall not be.
Verse iii. And the mercy of the Lord shall endure to ages.
And to each verse the exapostilarion.
Then, Glory. Both now.
Now have I chosen the maiden Mother of God, for Christ,
redeemer of all, was born of her: glory to thee, O Lord.
And straightway, Praise the Lord from the heavens....[47]
Then stichera, tone vi.
Like, Having despair’d....
Thy godly minister is gone to thee, now deified in the translation by
thy quickening mystery, Christ: take as a bird his soul into thy hand,
and range him in thy courts and in the angelic choirs, and rest him
whom thou hast received by thy command, O Lord, for thy great
mercy’s sake.
Strange is the mystery of death; for unacceptably it comes to all,
nature by force is spoil’d; it taketh elders, abbots, scribes, teachers
who vainly strive, bishops, and pastors too. Then let us cry with
tears, Him, whom thou hast receiv’d, O Lord, by thy command, O
rest, for thy great mercy’s sake.
He that in piety hath liv’d, and was thy decorated priest, O Christ,
the celebrant and offerer of thy mysteries divine, is gone, by thy
divine command, from life’s alarms to thee; and him, accepting as a
priest, O Saviour, save, and with the righteous rest, even him whom
thou received hast, for thy great mercy’s sake.
God-bearing Virgin, we have understood the God made flesh from
thee, whom do thou pray to save our souls.
Then they say, Glory to God in the highest....
And after the Vouchsafe, O Lord....
the following stichera idiomela are said,
of Damascene, tone i.
What sweet of life abideth unaccompanied with grief? what glory
stayeth upon earth unchang’d? All is the feeblest shade, all the most
cheating dream: one moment, and death taketh all these things. But
in thy face’s light, O Christ, and in the sweetness of thy beauty, grant
rest to him whom thou hast call’d, as lover of mankind.
Verse. The Lord tendeth me, and there is nothing lacking to me.
By deed, my Saviour, thou hast shewn that thou the resurrection
art of all, who didst, O Word, by word raise Lazarus from the dead.
Then were the fetters burst, and shatter’d hades’ gates; then human
death declared was a sleep. Thou, therefore, who didst come thy
creature, not to judge, but save, rest him whom thou received hast,
as lover of mankind.
Thou art made manifest, O Bringer-forth of God, a fervent
advocate for all, for all a shelter, and a might of God for them that hie
to thee, an aid for them that are in need, a quick deliverance for the
bound. For thee against barbarians Christ hath placed as a fence,
and barrier, and assailless wall; and for the weak a strength
unovercome; and for our souls the arbitress of peace.
Stichera, tone ii.
Woe unto me, what agony hath the soul when it is from the body
torn! alas, then how it weeps, and none is merciful to it! To Angels
lifting eyes, without effect it prays; to men extending hands, it findeth
none to help. Therefore, my brethren lov’d, musing on our brief life,
let us for the departed ask for rest from Christ, and for great mercy
for our souls.
Verse. When I was in affliction I cried unto the Lord, and he heard
me.
Come, let us all a wonder passing thought behold: he who but
yesterday abode with us now lieth dead. Come, let us know that

Flexible Supercapacitor Nanoarchitectonics Inamuddin Full Chapter

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Flexible Supercapacitor

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Cover image: Pixabay.Com

Printed in the USA

2.3.2 Flexible Paper Electrodes 32

4.3 Synthesis and Fabrication Approach of the Polymer-Based

6 Organic Electrolytes for Flexible Supercapacitors 143

8 Biomass-Derived Electrodes for Flexible Supercapacitors 211

10.2.1 Carbonaceous Material 265

13 Aqueous Electrolytes for Flexible Supercapacitors 349

13.8 Water-in-Salt Electrolytes for Flexible Supercapacitors 394

15 Electrodes for Flexible Self-Healable Supercapacitors 461

16.3 Conclusion and Future Remarks 511

19 Ionic Liquid Electrolytes for Flexible Supercapacitors 575

Chapter 8 highlights the various synthesis processes for making biomass-

and graphene-based hybrid, are discussed in detail for their self-healable

Inamuddin, Mohd Imran Ahamed,

Keywords: Flexible electrodes, carbon, metal oxides, supercapacitors, EDLC,

*Corresponding author: bihong@ahu.edu.cn

1.1 Introduction and Overview of Supercapacitors

Separator Active materials

Figure 1.1 Schematic illustration of charge storage in supercapacitors [13]. Copyright ©

capacitance and pseudocapacitance of conducting polymer or transition

1.2 Electrode Materials for Flexible Supercapacitors

1.2.1.1 Activated Carbon

Figure 1.2 Schematic illustration of charge adsorption in porous carbon materials

1.2.1.2 Carbon Nanotubes

(a) S-720 (b) S-800

Figure 1.3 (a, b) HRTEM images of multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWNTs)

presenting a hexagonal ring honeycomb shape. It has a unique two-

Van der Waals

Figure 1.4 Schematic diagram of the Origin (illustrating the transformations) of

1.2.1.4 Carbon Aerogels

1.2.1.5 Graphene Hydrogel

self-assembly, template oriented, new 3D printing and ultrasonic-assisted

oPAN dispersion GO suspension GO/oPAN aerogel GCA

(b) Cyclisation (c)

(d) 20 (e) 0.0

–10 20 mV s–1 –0.8

Figure 1.5 (a) Schematic presentation of graphene/carbon nanofiber (CNF) composite

1.2.2 Conducting Polymers

polypyrrole, thiophene and their derivatives. Their structures are shown in

p-Type doping: CP → CPn+ ( A– )n + ne – (1.1)

n-Type doping: CP + ne – (C + )n + CPn– (1.2)

The discharge time is contrary to the above process. The conducting

Table 1.1 Several common conducting polymers.

materials such as carbon and with inorganic battery materials. Conducting

(d) (e) 0.8

1.2.3 Metal Compounds

1.2.3.1 Ruthenium Oxide (RuO2) Electrode Material

RuO2 or MnO2 dry painting/MWCNT wrapping

Figure 1.7 (a) Schematic structure and Fabrication method of stretchable

permeability of electrolyte, the simplicity of proton exchange/diffusion and

1.2.3.2 Nickel Oxide (NiO) Electrode Material

NiO + OH- ↔ NiOOH + e- (1.3)

NiO, as electrode material of supercapacitor, has been widely studied.

+ Urea Hydrothermal Annealing

(Ni, Cu)2CO3(OH)2 NiO-CuO

Current density (mA cm–2)

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6

on the surface. The hybrid NiO–CuO exhibited an excellent supercapaci-