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A MODERN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL ELECTRODYNAMICS
OXFORD MASTER SERIES IN PHYSICS
The Oxford Master Series is designed for final year undergraduate and beginning graduate students in physics and related
disciplines. It has been driven by a perceived gap in the literature today. While basic undergraduate physics texts often show
little or no connection with the huge explosion of research over the last two decades, more advanced and specialized texts
tend to be rather daunting for students. In this series, all topics and their consequences are treated at a simple level, while
pointers to recent developments are provided at various stages. The emphasis is on clear physical principles like symmetry,
quantum mechanics, and electromagnetism which underlie the whole of physics. At the same time, the subjects are related
to real measurements and to the experimental techniques and devices currently used by physicists in academe and industry.
Books in this series are written as course books, and include ample tutorial material, examples, illustrations, revision points,
and problem sets. They can likewise be used as preparation for students starting a doctorate in physics and related fields,
or for recent graduates starting research in one of these fields in industry.
CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS

1. M.T. Dove: Structure and dynamics: an atomic view of materials
2. J. Singleton: Band theory and electronic properties of solids
3. A.M. Fox: Optical properties of solids, second edition
4. S.J. Blundell: Magnetism in condensed matter
5. J.F. Annett: Superconductivity, superfluids, and condensates
6. R.A.L. Jones: Soft condensed matter
17. S. Tautz: Surfaces of condensed matter
18. H. Bruus: Theoretical microfluidics
19. C.L. Dennis, J.F. Gregg: The art of spintronics: an introduction
21. T.T. Heikkilä: The physics of nanoelectronics: transport and fluctuation phenomena at low temperatures
22. M. Geoghegan, G. Hadziioannou: Polymer electronics
ATOMIC, OPTICAL, AND LASER PHYSICS

7. C.J. Foot: Atomic physics
8. G.A. Brooker: Modern classical optics
9. S.M. Hooker, C.E. Webb: Laser physics
15. A.M. Fox: Quantum optics: an introduction
16. S.M. Barnett: Quantum information
23. P. Blood: Quantum confined laser devices
PARTICLE PHYSICS, ASTROPHYSICS, AND COSMOLOGY

10. D.H. Perkins: Particle astrophysics, second edition
11. Ta-Pei Cheng: Relativity, gravitation and cosmology, second edition
24. G. Barr, R. Devenish, R. Walczak, T. Weidberg: Particle physics in the LHC era
26. M. E. Peskin: Concepts of elementary particle physics
STATISTICAL, COMPUTATIONAL, AND THEORETICAL PHYSICS

12. M. Maggiore: A modern introduction to quantum field theory
13. W. Krauth: Statistical mechanics: algorithms and computations
14. J.P. Sethna: Statistical mechanics: entropy, order parameters, and complexity, second edition
20. S.N. Dorogovtsev: Lectures on complex networks
25. R. Soto: Kinetic theory and transport phenomena
27. M. Maggiore: A modern introduction to classical electrodynamics
A Modern Introduction to Classical Electrodynamics
Michele Maggiore
Département de Physique Théorique
Université de Genève
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
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contained in any third party website referenced in this work.
A Maura, Sara, Ilaria e Lorenzo
Preface
This book evolved from the notes of a course that I teach at the Uni-
versity of Geneva, for undergraduate physics students. For many gen-
erations of physicists, including mine, the classic references for classical
electrodynamics have been the textbook by Jackson and that by Lan-
dau and Lifschits.1 The former is still much used, although more modern 1
In the text we will refer to the latest
and excellent textbooks with a somewhat similar structure, such as Garg editions of these books, Jackson (1998)
and Landau and Lifschits (1975). How-
(2012) or Zangwill (2013), now exist, while the latter is by now rarely ever, these books went through many
used, even as an auxiliary reference text for a course. Because of my editions: the first edition of Jackson ap-
field-theoretical background, as my notes were growing I realized that peared in 1962, while that of Landau
they were naturally drifting toward what looked to me as a modern ver- and Lifschits even dates back to 1939.
sion of Landau and Lifschits, and this stimulated me to expand them
further into a book.
While this book is meant as a modern introduction to classical elec-
trodynamics, it is by no means intended as a first introduction to the
subject. The reader is assumed to have already had a first course on
electrodynamics, at a level covered for instance by Griffiths (2017). This
also implies a different structure of the presentation. In a first course
of electrodynamics, it is natural to take a ‘bottom-up’ approach, where
one starts from experimental observations in the simple settings of elec-
trostatics and magnetostatics, and then moves toward time-dependent
phenomena and electromagnetic induction, which eventually leads to
generalizing the equations governing electrostatics and magnetostatics
into the synthesis provided by the full Maxwell’s equation. This ap-
proach is the natural one for a first introduction because, first of all,
gives the correct historical perspective and shows how Maxwell’s equa-
tions emerged from the unification of a large body of observations; fur-
thermore, it also allows one to start with more elementary mathematical
tools, for the benefit of the student that meets some of them for the first
time, while at the same time discovering all these new and fundamental
physics concepts. The price that is paid is that the approach, following
the historical developments, is sometimes heuristic, and the logic of the
arguments and derivations is not always tight.
For this more advanced text, I have chosen instead a ‘top-down’ ap-
proach. Maxwell’s equations are introduced immediately (after an intro-
ductory chapter on mathematical tools) as the ‘definition’ of the theory,
and their consequences are then systematically developed. This has the
advantage of a better logical clarity. It will also allow us to always go
into the ‘real story’, rather than presenting at first a simpler version, to
be later improved.
viii Preface
An important aspect of our presentation is that we keep distinct the

discussion of electrodynamics ‘in vacuum’ (i.e., the computation of the
electromagnetic fields generated by localized sources, in the region out-
side the sources) from the study of Maxwell’s equations inside mate-
rials. The study of the equations ‘in vacuum’ reveals the underlying
fundamental structure of the theory, while classical electrodynamics in
material media is basically a phenomenological theory. Mixing the two
treatments, because of a formal similarity among the equations, can be
conceptually confusing. Until Chapter 12 we will focus uniquely on vac-
uum electrodynamics, while from Chapter 13 we study electrodynamics
2
This approach is different from, e.g. in materials.2
that of Jackson, or Zangwill. It is Focusing first on vacuum electrodynamics allows us to bring out the
instead the same followed by Garg,
and especially by Landau and Lifs-
two most important structural aspects of the theory at its fundamental
chits, that even separated the subjects level, namely gauge invariance and the fact that Special Relativity is
into two different books: “The Clas- hidden in the Maxwell’s equations. We will introduce immediately and
sical Theory of Fields”, Landau and in full generality the gauge potentials, and work out most of the equa-
Lifschits (1975), for vacuum electrody-
namics, and “Electrodynamics of Con- tions and derivations of vacuum electrodynamics in terms of them. From
tinuous Media”, Landau and Lifschits a modern field-theoretical perspective, we know that classical electrody-
(1984) for electrodynamics in materials. namics is the prototype of a gauge theory, and the notion of gauge fields
and gauge invariance is central to all modern particle physics, as well as
to condensed matter theory. Similarly, after having duly derived from
Maxwell’s equations the most elementary results of electrostatics and
magnetostatics, as well as the notions of work and electromagnetic en-
ergy and the expansion in static multipoles, we move as fast as possible
to Special Relativity, introducing the covariant formalism and showing
3
By comparison, Jackson introduces how Maxwell’s equations can be reformulated in a covariant form.3 Hav-
the gauge potentials in full general- ing in our hands the gauge potentials and the covariant formalism, most
ity for the first time only after about
220 pages and Zangwill after about 500
of the subsequent derivations in Chapters 8–12 are performed in terms
pages, and their introduction is in gen- of them, with a clear advantage in technical and conceptual clarity.
eral presented simply as a trick for sim- Even if this book was born from my notes for an undergraduate course,
plifying the equations. However, their and is meant to be used for such a course, it has obviously grown well
role is much more fundamental, since
they are the basic dynamical variables beyond the original scope, and some parts of it are quite advanced.
in a field-theoretical treatment (which More technical sections, or whole chapters that are more specialized,
also implies that they will become the are clearly marked, so that the book can be used at different levels,
basic variables also when one moves to from the undergraduate student, to the researcher that needs to check a
a quantum treatment). As for Special
Relativity, Jackson introduces it only textbook as a reference. Classical electrodynamics, for its richness and
after more than 500 pages, while Zang- importance, is a subject to which one returns over and over during a
will relegates it to Chapter 22, after 820 scientist’s career.
pages, and Garg to Chapter 24.
Finally, an important point, when writing a textbook of electrodynam-
ics, is the choice of the system of units. In mechanics, the transforma-
tion between systems such as c.g.s. (centimeter-gram-second) and m.k.s.
(meter-kilogram-second) is trivial, and just amounts to multiplicative
factors. However, in electromagnetism there are further complications.
This has led to two main systems of units for classical electrodynamics:
the SI system, and the Gaussian system. As we will discuss in Chapter 2,
the essential difference is that, for electromagnetism, the SI system be-
side the units of length, mass and time, introduces a fourth independent
base unit of current, the ampere, while in the Gaussian system the unit
ix
of charge, and therefore of current, is derived from the three basic units
of length, mass and time.
The SI system is the natural one for applications to the macroscopic
world: currents are measured in amperes, voltages in volts, and so on.
This makes the SI system the obvious choice for laboratory applications
and in electrical engineering, and SI units are by now the almost uni-
versal standard for electrodynamics courses at the undergraduate level. 4
Actually, its real virtues appear
The Gaussian system, on the other hand, has advantages in other con- when combining electromagnetism with
texts, and in particular leads to neater formulas when relativistic effects quantum mechanics. In this case, the
are important.4 reduction from four to three base units
This state of affairs has led to a rather peculiar situation. In general, obtained with the Gaussian system can
be pushed further, using a system of
undergraduate textbooks of classical electromagnetism always use SI units where one also sets ~ = c = 1,
units; in contrast, more advanced textbooks of classical electrodynamics with the result that one remains with a
are often split between SI and Gaussian units, and all textbooks on single base unit, typically taken to be
quantum electrodynamics and quantum field theory use Gaussian units. the mass unit. In quantum field the-
ory this system is so convenient that
The difficulty of the choice is exemplified by the Jackson’s textbook, units ~ = c = 1 are called natural units
that has been the ‘bible’ of classical electrodynamics for generations of (we will briefly mention them in Sec-
physicists. The second edition (1975), as the first, used Gaussian units tion 2.2). As a consequence, all general-
throughout. However, the third edition (1998) switched to SI units for izations from classical electrodynamics
to quantum electrodynamics (and its
the first 10 chapters, in recognition of the fact that almost all other extensions such as the Standard Model
undergraduate level textbooks used SI units; then, from Chapter 11 of electroweak and strong interactions)
(Special Theory of Relativity) on, it goes back to Gaussian units, in are nowadays uniquely discussed using
the Gaussian system (or, rather, a vari-
recognition of the fact that they are more appropriate than SI units
ant of it, Heaviside–Lorentz or rational-
for relativistic phenomena.5 Gaussian units are also the most common ized Gaussian units, differing just by
choice in quantum mechanics textbooks: when computing the energy the placing of some 4π factors, that we
level of the hydrogen atom, almost all textbooks use a Coulomb potential will also introduce in Chapter 2), sup-
plemented by units ~ = c = 1.
in Gaussian units, −e2 /r, rather than the SI expression −e2 /(4π0 r).6
5
In this book we will use SI units, since this is nowadays the almost Among the other ‘old-time’ classics,
universal standard for an undergraduate textbook on classical electrody- Landau and Lifschits (1975) used Gaus-
sian units, while the Feynman Lectures
namics. However, it is important to be familiar also with the Gaussian on Physics, Feynman et al. (1964), used
system, as a bridge toward graduate and more specialized courses. This SI. The first two editions of the clas-
is particularly important for the student that wishes to go into theo- sic textbook by Purcell used Gaussian
units, but switched to SI for the 3rd edi-
retical high-energy physics where, eventually, only the Gaussian system
tion, Purcell and Morin (2013). Among
will be used. We will then discuss in Section 2.2 how to quickly trans- more recent books, SI is used in Grif-
late from SI to Gaussian units, and, in Appendix A, we will provide an fiths (2017), Zangwill (2013) and Tong
explicit translation in Gaussian units of the most important results and (2015), while Gaussian units are used in
Garg (2012) (with frequent translations
formulas of the main text. to SI units).
6
The most notable exception is the
Finally, I wish to thank Enis Belgacem, Francesco Iacovelli and Michele quantum mechanics textbook Griffiths
Mancarella, who gave the exercise sessions of the course for various years, (2004), that uses SI units, consistently
and Stefano Foffa for useful discussions. I thank again Francesco Iacovelli with the classical electrodynamics book
by the same author.
for producing a very large number of figures of the book. I am grateful
to Stephen Blundell for extremely useful comments on the manuscript.
Last but not least, as with my previous books with OUP, I wish to thank
Sonke Adlung, for his friendly and always very useful advice, as well as
all the staff at OUP.
Geneva, January 2023

Contents
1 Mathematical tools 1
1.1 Vector algebra 1
1.2 Differential operators on scalar and vector fields 3
1.3 Integration of vector fields. Gauss’s and Stokes’s theorems 5
1.4 Dirac delta 7
1.5 Fourier transform 13
1.6 Tensors and rotations 16
1.7 Groups and representations 18
1.7.1 Reducible and irreducible representations 20
1.7.2 The rotation group and its irreducible tensor rep-
resentations 22
2 Systems of units 27
2.1 The SI system 27
2.2 Gaussian units 31
2.3 SI or Gaussian? 36
3 Maxwell’s equations 39
3.1 Maxwell’s equations in vector form 39
3.1.1 Local form of Maxwell’s equations 39
3.1.2 Integrated form of Maxwell’s equations 42
3.2 Conservation laws 43
3.2.1 Conservation of the electric charge 43
3.2.2 Energy, momentum, and angular momentum of
the electromagnetic field 45
3.3 Gauge potentials and gauge invariance 52
3.4 Symmetries of Maxwell’s equations 55
4 Elementary applications of Maxwell’s equations 57

4.1 Electrostatics 57
4.1.1 Coulomb’s law 58
4.1.2 Electric field from a generic static charge density 59
4.1.3 Scalar gauge potential and electrostatic potential 62
4.1.4 Instability of a system of static charges 63
4.1.5 Uniqueness of the solution of electrostatic problems 64
4.1.6 Electrostatics of conductors 66
4.1.7 Electrostatic forces from surface integrals 68
4.2 Magnetostatics 71
4.2.1 Magnetic field of an infinite straight wire 71
xii Contents
4.2.2 Magnetic field of a static current density 76

4.2.3 Force of a magnetic field on a wire and between
two parallel wires 79
4.2.4 Force between generic static current distributions 80
4.2.5 Magnetic forces from surface integrals 82
4.3 Electromagnetic induction 83
4.3.1 Time-varying magnetic field and Lenz’s law 83
4.3.2 Induction on moving loops 84
4.4 Solved problems 86
5 Electromagnetic energy 99
5.1 Work and energy in electrostatics 99
5.2 Energy stored in a static electric field 101
5.2.1 Continuous charge distribution 101
5.2.2 The point-like limit and particle self-energies 104
5.2.3 Energy of charges in an external electric field 107
5.2.4 Energy of a system of conductors 108
5.3 Work and energy in magnetostatics 109
5.4 Energy stored in a static magnetic field 111
5.5 Forces and mechanical potentials 114
5.5.1 Mechanical potentials for conductors 118
5.5.2 Mechanical potentials in magnetostatics 124
6 Multipole expansion for static fields 133

6.1 Electric multipoles 133
6.2 Magnetic multipoles 139
6.3 Point-like electric or magnetic dipoles 141
6.4 Multipole expansion of interaction potentials 144
6.4.1 Electric multipoles in external field 144
6.4.2 Interaction between the electric multipoles of two
charge distributions 147
6.4.3 Interactions of magnetic multipoles 150
7 Special Relativity 155

7.1 The postulates 155
7.2 Space and time in Special Relativity 159
7.2.1 Lorentz transformations 159
7.2.2 Causality and simultaneity 161
7.2.3 Proper time and time dilatation 163
7.2.4 Lorentz contraction 165
7.3 The mathematics of the Lorentz group 166
7.3.1 Four-vectors and Lorentz tensors 166
7.3.2 Contravariant and covariant quantities 168
7.3.3 Invariant tensors of the Lorentz group 170
7.3.4 Infinitesimal Lorentz transformations 172
7.3.5 Decomposition of a Lorentz tensor under rotations 172
Contents xiii
7.3.6 Covariant transformations of fields 173

7.3.7 More general lessons 177
7.4 Relativistic particle kinematics 177
7.4.1 Covariant description of particle trajectories 177
7.4.2 Action of a free relativistic particle 179
7.4.3 Relativistic energy and momentum 180
8 Covariant formulation of electrodynamics 183

8.1 The four-vector current 183
8.2 The four-vector potential Aµ and the Fµν tensor 185
8.3 Covariant form of Maxwell’s equations 186
8.4 Energy-momentum tensor of the electromagnetic field 188
8.5 Lorentz transformations of electric and magnetic fields 190
8.6 Relativistic formulation of the particle-field interaction 192
8.6.1 Covariant form of the Lorentz force equation 192
8.6.2 The interaction action of a point particle 194
8.7 Field-theoretical approach to classical electrodynamics 197
8.7.1 Euler–Lagrange equations of relativistic fields 197
8.7.2 Lagrangian of the electromagnetic field 202
8.7.3 Noether’s theorem 205
9 Electromagnetic waves in vacuum 217

9.1 Wave equations 217
9.2 Electromagnetic waves in the Lorenz gauge 219
9.3 Electromagnetic waves in the Coulomb gauge 222
9.4 Solutions for E and B 224
9.5 Polarization of light 228
9.6 Doppler effect and light aberration 229
10 Electromagnetic field of moving charges 235

10.1 Advanced and retarded Green’s function 235
10.2 The Liénard–Wiechert potentials 242
10.3 Fields of charge in uniform motion 245
10.4 Radiation field from accelerated charges 249
10.5 Radiation from non-relativistic charges. Larmor formula 252
10.6 Power radiated by relativistic sources 256
10.6.1 Relativistic generalization of Larmor’s formula 256
10.6.2 Acceleration parallel to the velocity 260
10.6.3 Acceleration perpendicular to the velocity 262
11 Radiation from localized sources 269

11.1 Far zone fields for generic velocities 269
11.1.1 Computation in the Lorenz gauge 269
11.1.2 Computation in the Coulomb gauge 273
11.1.3 Radiated power and spectral distribution 275
11.2 Low-velocity limit and multipole expansion of the radia-
tion field 278
xiv Contents
11.2.1 Electric dipole radiation 284

11.2.2 Radiation from charge quadrupole and magnetic
dipole 285
11.3 Near zone, far zone and induction zone 290
12 Post-Newtonian expansion and radiation reaction 295

12.1 Expansion for small retardation 295
12.2 Dynamics to order (v/c)2 298
12.2.1 The gauge potentials to 1PN order 301
12.2.2 Effective dynamics of a system of point charges 303
12.2.3 Reduction of order of the equations of motion 310
12.3 Self-force and radiation reaction 312
12.3.1 Classical extended electron models vs. regulariza-
tion schemes 313
12.3.2 Self-energy and mass renormalization 317
12.3.3 Radiation reaction at 1.5PN order 323
12.3.4 The Abraham–Lorentz–Dirac equation 328
12.3.5 Covariant derivation of mass renormalization and
radiation reaction 334
13 Electromagnetic fields in material media 345

13.1 Maxwell’s equations for macroscopic fields 346
13.2 The macroscopic charge density: free and bound charges 348
13.3 The macroscopic current density 349
13.4 Maxwell’s equations in material media 351
13.5 Boundary conditions on E, B, D, H 353
13.6 Constitutive relations 356
13.6.1 Dielectrics 356
13.6.2 Metals 358
13.6.3 Diamagnetic and paramagnetic materials 359
13.7 Energy conservation 360
14 Frequency-dependent response of materials 365

14.1 General properties of σ(ω), (ω) 365
14.2 Causality constraints and Kramers–Kronig relations 367
14.3 The Drude–Lorentz model for (ω) 370
14.4 The Drude model of conductivity 374
14.5 The dielectric function of metals 377
15 Electromagnetic waves in material media 381

15.1 Electromagnetic waves in dielectrics 381
15.2 Phase velocity and group velocity 384
15.3 Electromagnetic waves in metals 386
15.3.1 Transverse EM waves 387
15.3.2 Longitudinal EM waves and plasma oscillations 391
15.4 Electromagnetic waves in waveguides 394
15.4.1 Maxwell’s equations in a waveguide 395
Contents xv
15.4.2 Boundary conditions at the surface of conductors 396

15.4.3 TE, TM, and TEM modes 397
16 Scattering of electromagnetic radiation 401

16.1 Scattering cross-section 401
16.2 Scattering on a free electron 403
16.3 Scattering on a bound electron 406
A Electrodynamics in Gaussian units 411
References 431
Index 433
Mathematical tools
1
Classical electrodynamics requires a good familiarity with a set of math-
ematical tools, which will then find applications basically everywhere in 1.1 Vector algebra 1
physics. We find it convenient to begin by recalling some of these con- 1.2 Differential operators on
scalar and vector fields 3
cepts so that, later, the understanding of the physics will not be obscured
1.3 Integration of vector fields.
by the mathematical manipulations. We will focus here on tools that will Gauss’s and Stokes’s
be of more immediate use. Further mathematical tools will be discussed theorems 5
along the way, in the rest of the book, as they will be needed. 1.4 Dirac delta 7
1.1 Vector algebra
1.7 Groups and representations
18
A vector a has Cartesian components ai . We use the convention that
repeated indices are summed over, so,
X
a·b = ai bi ≡ ai bi , (1.1)
i
where the sum runs over i = 1, 2, 3 in three spatial dimensions, as we will

assume next, or, more generally, over i = 1, . . . , d in d spatial dimensions.
We can introduce the “Kronecker delta” δij , which is equal to 1 if i = j
and zero otherwise. Note that, with the convention of the sum over
repeated indices, we have the identity
ai = δij aj . (1.2)
Then, we can also rewrite
a·b = δij ai bj . (1.3)
From the definition it follows that, in three dimensions, δii = 3. Note
that δij are just the components of the 3×3 identity matrix I, δij = (I)ij
and δii is the trace of the 3 × 3 identity matrix (or, in d dimensions, δij
are the components of the d × d identity matrix, and δii = d).
When using the convention of summing over repeated indices, one
must be careful not to use the same dummy index for different summa-
tions. For example, writing the sums explicitly,
3
! 3 
X X
(a·b)(c·d) = ai bi  cj dj  . (1.4)
i=1 j=1
With the convention of the sum over repeated indices, the right-hand
side becomes ai bi cj dj . Notice that it was important here to use two
different letters, i, j, for the dummy indices involved.
2 Mathematical tools
The vector product is given by
(a × b)i = ijk aj bk , (1.5)
where ijk is the totally antisymmetric tensor (or the Levi–Civita ten-
sor), defined by 123 = +1, together with the condition that it is an-
tisymmetric under any exchange of indices. Therefore ijk = 0 if two
indices have the same value and, e.g., 213 = −123 = −1. This also
implies that the tensor is cyclic, ijk = −jik = jki , i.e., it is unchanged
under a cyclic permutation of the indices. Note that a × b = −b × a.
We will see in Section 1.6 that the tensors δij and ijk play a special role
in the theory of representations of the rotation group. Unit vectors are
denoted by a hat; for instance, x̂, ŷ, and ẑ are the unit vectors along
the x, y and z axes, respectively. Note that, e.g.,
x̂ × ŷ = ẑ . (1.6)
A very useful identity is
ijk ilm = δjl δkm − δjm δkl . (1.7)
(Prove it!) Note the structure of the indices: on the left, the index i is
summed over, so it does not appear on the right-hand side. It is a dummy
index, and we could have used a different name for it. For instance, the
left-hand side of eq. (1.7) could be written as pjk plm , with a different
letter p. In contrast, the indices j, k, l, m are free indices so, if they
appear on the left-hand side, they must also appear on the right-hand
side. Note also that, because of the cyclic property of the epsilon tensor,
the left-hand side of eq. (1.7) can also be written as jki ilm .
Exercise 1.1 Show that
a·(b × c) = ijk ai bj ck . (1.8)
Exercise 1.2 Using eq. (1.7), show that
a × (b × c) = (a·c)b − (a·b)c , (1.9)

(a × b) × c = (a·c)b − (b·c)a . (1.10)
Observe that the vector product is not associative: in general, a×(b×c)

is different from (a × b) × c.
ijk ijm = 2δkm . (1.11)
Double-check the result by directly identifying the combinations of in-

dices that give a non-zero contributions to the left-hand side of eq. (1.11).
1.2 Differential operators on scalar and vector fields 3
1.2 Differential operators on scalar and

vector fields
We will use the notation ∂i = ∂/∂xi for the partial derivative with
respect to the Cartesian coordinates xi . Then, if f (x) is a function of the
spatial coordinates, its gradient ∇f is a vector field (i.e., a vector defined
at each point of space) whose components, in Cartesian coordinates, are
given by
(∇f )i = ∂i f (gradient of a scalar function) , (1.12)
or, in vector form,
∇f = (∂x f )x̂ + (∂y f )ŷ + (∂z f )ẑ . (1.13)
The expression in polar coordinates (r, θ, φ) can be obtained by perform-

ing explicitly the transformation between the derivatives ∂x , ∂y , ∂z and
the derivatives ∂r = ∂/∂r, ∂θ = ∂/∂θ , and ∂φ = ∂/∂φ, and expressing
x̂, ŷ, ẑ in terms of the unit vectors r̂, θ̂, φ̂ (and similarly in any other co-
ordinate system, such as cylindrical coordinates); we will give the results
in polar ad cylindric coordinates for different operators at the end of this
section. Given a vector field v(x), we can form two notable quantities
with the action of ∇: the divergence
∇·v = ∂i vi (divergence of a vector field) , (1.14)
which is a scalar field (i.e., a quantity invariant under rotations, defined

at each point of space), and the curl, ∇ × v, which is again a vector
field, with Cartesian components
(∇ × v)i = ijk ∂j vk (curl of a vector field) . (1.15)
Given a function f , after forming the vector field ∇f , we can obtain

again a scalar by taking the divergence of ∇f . This defines the Laplacian
∇2 , ∇2 f = ∇·(∇f ), or
∇2 f = ∂i ∂i f = (∂x2 + ∂y2 + ∂z2 )f , (1.16)
where ∂x = ∂/∂x, etc. Similarly, we can differentiate further the diver-

gence or the curl of a vector field. For instance, ∇(∇·v) is a vector field
with components
[∇(∇·v)]i = ∂i ∂j vj , (1.17)
while ∇·(∇ × v) is a scalar field, since it is the divergence of a vector
field. However, from the explicit computation in components,
∇·(∇ × v) = ∂i (ijk ∂j vk )
= ijk ∂i ∂j vk
= 0. (1.18)
The last equality follows because ∂i ∂j is an operator symmetric in the

(i, j) indices (we always assume that the derivatives act on functions,
or on vector fields, that are continuous and infinitely differentiable ev-
erywhere, so the derivatives commute, ∂i ∂j = ∂j ∂i ), and therefore it
gives zero when contracted with the antisymmetric tensor ijk . Thus,
the gradient of a curl vanishes. Similarly, the curl of a gradient vanishes:
(∇ × ∇f )i = ijk ∂j ∂k f = 0 , (1.19)
again because ∂j ∂k is symmetric in (j, k). The Laplacian of a vector
field is defined, using Cartesian coordinates, as
(∇2 v)i ≡ ∂j ∂j vi = (∂x2 + ∂y2 + ∂z2 )vi . (1.20)
∇ × (∇ × v) = ∇(∇·v) − ∇2 v . (1.21)
For future reference, we give the expression of the gradient and Lapla-
cian of a scalar field, and of the divergence and curl of a vector field,
in Cartesian coordinates (x, y, x), in polar coordinates (r, θ, φ), and in
1
Our convention on the polar angles is cylindrical coordinates (ρ, ϕ, z).1,2 Denoting by {x̂, ŷ, ẑ}, {r̂, θ̂, φ̂}, and
such that spherical coordinates are re- {ρ̂, ϕ̂, ẑ}, respectively, the unit vectors in the corresponding directions,
lated to Cartesian coordinates by x =
r sin θ cos φ, y = r sin θ sin φ, z =
we have
r cos θ, with θ ∈ [0, π] and φ ∈ [0, 2π]. ∇f = (∂x f )x̂ + (∂y f )ŷ + (∂z f )ẑ (1.22)
Cylindrical coordinates are related to
Cartesian coordinates by x = ρ cos ϕ, 1 1
= (∂r f )r̂ + (∂θ f )θ̂ + (∂φ f )φ̂ (1.23)
y = ρ sin ϕ (with ϕ ∈ [0, 2π]) and z = z. r r sin θ
Then, as ϕ increases, we rotate coun- 1
terclockwise with respect to the z axis. = (∂ρ f )ρ̂ + (∂ϕ f )ϕ̂ + (∂z f )ẑ , (1.24)
This means that ρ̂×ϕ̂ = +ẑ.
ρ
2
The Laplacian of a vector field has ∇2 f = ∂x2 f + ∂y2 f + ∂z2 f (1.25)
been defined from eq. (1.20) in terms of
the Cartesian coordinates and, in this 1 1 1
case, on each component of the vec-
= 2
∂r (r2 ∂r f ) + 2 ∂θ (sin θ∂θ f ) + 2 2 ∂φ2 f (1.26)
r r sin θ r sin θ
tor field, it has the same form as the 1 1 2 2
Laplacian acting on a scalar. This is no = ∂ρ (ρ∂ρ f ) + 2 ∂ϕ f + ∂z f , (1.27)
longer true in polar of cylindrical coor- ρ ρ
dinates. In that case, ∇2 v can be more
easily obtained from eq. (1.21), using ∇·v = ∂x vx + ∂y vy + ∂z vz (1.28)
the corresponding expressions of ∇·v
1 1 1
and ∇ × v. = 2
∂r (r2 vr ) + ∂θ (vθ sin θ) + ∂ φ vφ (1.29)
r r sin θ r sin θ
1 1
= ∂ρ (ρvρ ) + ∂ϕ vϕ + ∂z vz , (1.30)
ρ ρ
∇×v = x̂(∂y vz − ∂z vy ) + ŷ(∂z vx − ∂x vz ) + ẑ(∂x vy − ∂y vx ) (1.31)

1 1 1
= r̂ [∂θ (vφ sin θ) − ∂φ vθ ] + θ̂ ∂φ vr − ∂r (rvφ )
r sin θ r sin θ r
1
+φ̂ [∂r (rvθ ) − ∂θ vr ] (1.32)
r
1 1
= ρ̂ ∂ϕ vz − ∂z vϕ + ϕ̂ (∂z vρ − ∂ρ vz ) + ẑ [∂ρ (ρvϕ ) − ∂ϕ vρ ] .
ρ ρ
(1.33)
1.3 Integration of vector fields. Gauss’s and Stokes’s theorems 5
1.3 Integration of vector fields. Gauss’s

and Stokes’s theorems
Given a vector field v(x) and a curve C, one can define the line integral
Z
d` · v , (1.34)
C
by breaking the curve over infinitesimal segments, and introducing, in

each segment, a vector d` of length d`, tangent to the curve. Notice that
the line integral defined in this way is a scalar quantity. If the curve C
is closed, the line integral (1.34) is known as the circulation of v around
H
the curve. For a closed curve, we will denote the line integral by d`.
The integral over a two-dimensional surface S can be defined similarly.
We split the surface in infinitesimal surface elements of area ds,3 and 3
When we want to stress that this is
we define ds as the vector of modulus ds, pointing in the direction per- a two-dimensional surface element, we
will write it as d2 s. Otherwise, to sim-
pendicular to the surface element (for a closed surface, the convention plify the notation, we write simply ds.
is to choose the outward normal, otherwise a choice of orientation must
be made). Writing the unit vector normal to the surface as n̂, we have
ds = n̂ ds. The surface integral of a vector field v(x) is then given by
Z Z
ds · v = ds (v·n̂) . (1.35)
S S
For a closed surface, this defines the flux of v through S.

H In the case of
a closed surface, we will denote the surface integral by ds.
The fundamental theorem of calculus states that, for a function of a
single variable x,
Z x2
df
dx = f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) . (1.36)
x1 dx
This can be generalized to the line integral of a function of the three-
dimensional variable x: from the definition of the line integral (1.34)
one can show (do it!) that, for a function f (x) integrated over a curve
C with endpoints x1 and x2 ,
Z
d` ·∇f = f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) . (1.37)
C
Note in particular that, if C is closed, the line integral of a gradient

vanishes. Stokes’s theorem and Gauss’s theorem are generalizations of
eq. (1.37) to surfaces and to volumes, respectively. In particular, let C
be a closed curve and let S be any surface that has C as its boundary
(i.e., ∂S = C, where the notation ∂S stands for the boundary of S).
Then, Stokes’s theorem asserts that, for a vector field v(x) (with our
usual assumptions of differentiability, that we will not repeat further),
Z I
ds · (∇ × v) = d` · v (Stokes’s theorem) . (1.38)
S C
The orientation convention is that, if we go around the loop C in the

direction of the line integral, the normal to S is obtained with the right-
hand rule.
Another useful identity is obtained by setting, in Stokes’s theorem,
v(x) = ψ(x)w, where w is a constant vector. Then, (∇ × v)i =
ijk (∂j ψ)wk and eq. (1.38) becomes
Z I
wk dsi ijk ∂j ψ = wk d`k ψ . (1.39)
S C
Since this is valid for generic w, we get

Z I
dsi ijk ∂j ψ = d`k ψ , (1.40)
S C
or, in vector notation,

Z I
ds ×∇ψ = d` ψ . (1.41)
S C
Yet another useful identity following from Stokes’s theorem is obtained

by setting v(x) = u(x)×w, where, again, w is a constant vector. Then,
(∇×v)i = ijk ∂j (klm ul wm )
= ijk klm (∂j ul )wm
= (∂j ui )wj − (∂j uj )wi , (1.42)
where, in the last line, we used eq. (1.7). Then eq. (1.38) gives
I Z
wk ijk dì uj = dsi [(∂j ui )wj − (∂j uj )wi ]
C S Z
Z
= wk dsi ∂k ui − dsk ∂i ui , (1.43)
S S
and therefore
I Z Z
ijk dì uj = dsi ∂k ui − dsk ∂i ui . (1.44)
C S S
A useful application of this formula is obtained choosing ui (x) = xi .

Then ∂k ui = δik and ∂i ui = 3, so eq. (1.44) gives
I Z
ijk dì xj = −2 dsk . (1.45)
C S
However, for a planar surface

Z
dsk ≡ An̂k , (1.46)
S
where A is the area of the surface and n̂ is the unit vector normal to
it. We therefore obtain an elegant formula for the area A of a planar
surface S, bounded by a curve C,
I
1
An̂ = x×d` . (1.47)
2 C
1.4 Dirac delta 7
Gauss’s theorem extends Stokes’s theorem further, to integration over

volumes: let V be a finite volume bounded by the surface S, i.e., ∂V = S.
Then,
Z Z
d3 x ∇·v = ds · v (Gauss’s theorem) . (1.48)
V S
We will make use very often of both Gauss’s and Stokes’s theorems.4 4
Proceeding as for Stokes’s theorem, if
A vector field such that ∇ × v = 0 everywhere is called irrotational, we set v(x) = ψ(x)w, with w constant,
we also get the useful identity
or curl-free. We have seen in eq. (1.19) that, if v is the gradient of a Z Z
function, v = ∇f , then it is irrotational. A sort of converse of this d3 x ∇ψ = ds ψ , (1.49)
V S
statement holds:
while, setting v(x) = u(x)×w, we get
Z Z
Theorem for curl-free fields. Let v be a vector field such that d3 x ∇×u = ds ×u . (1.50)
∇ × v = 0 everywhere in a region V simply connected (i.e., such that V S
every loop in V can be continuously shrunk to a point). Then, there

exists a function f such that v = ∇f .
A vector field v such that ∇·v = 0 is called solenoidal, or divergence-
free. Similarly, there is a sort of inverse to eq. (1.18):
Theorem for divergence-free fields. Let v be a vector field such

that ∇·v = 0 everywhere in a volume V such that every surface in V
can be continuously shrunk to a point. Then, there exists a vector field
w such that v = ∇ × w.
1.4 Dirac delta

The Dirac delta is an especially useful mathematical object, that appears
everywhere in physics. Physically, it can be seen as the modelization of
a point-like object. The Dirac delta δ(x) is not a function in the proper
sense. Rather, in one dimension, it is defined from the conditions that
δ(x − x0 ) = 0 if x 6= x0 , (1.51)
and that, for any function f (x) regular in an integration region I that
includes x0 , Z
dx δ(x − x0 )f (x) = f (x0 ) . (1.52)
I
Note that the integral on the left-hand side vanishes if I does not include
x0 because of eq. (1.51) [and of the assumed regularity of f (x)]. On the
other hand, again because of eq. (1.51), the integral in the left-hand side
of eq. (1.52) is independent of I, as long as x0 ∈ I. In the following we
will set for definiteness I = (−∞, +∞), so eq. (1.52) reads
Z +∞
dx δ(x − x0 )f (x) = f (x0 ) . (1.53)
−∞
Observe that, applying this definition to the case of the function f (x) =
1, we get the normalization condition
Z +∞
dx δ(x) = 1 . (1.54)
−∞
Since the Dirac delta vanishes at all points x 6= x0 , but still the integral
in the left-hand side of eq. (1.53) is non-zero, it must be singular in x0 .
Actually, the Dirac delta is not a proper function, but can be defined
by considering a sequence of functions δn (x, x0 ) such that, as n → ∞,
δn (x, x0 ) → 0 for x 6= x0 , and δn (x, x0 ) → +∞ for x = x0 , while
maintaining the normalization condition (1.54). As an example, one can
take a sequence of gaussians centered on x0 , with smaller and smaller
width,
1 2 2
δn (x − x0 ) = √ e−(x−x0 ) /(2σn ) , (1.55)
2π σn
with σn = 1/n. Another option could be to use

n for |x − x0 | < 1/(2n)
δn (x − x0 ) = (1.56)
0 for |x − x0 | > 1/(2n) .
These two sequences of functions are shown in Fig. 1.1. In both cases,
δn (x)
the limit of δn (x − x0 ) for n → ∞ does not exists, since it diverges when
x = x0 , and therefore does not define a proper function δ(x). However,
n → ∞ =⇒ σn → 0
one can generalize the notion of functions to the notion of distributions

(or “improper functions”), which are defined from their action inside
an integral, when convolved with “test” functions f (x) (with suitably
defined properties of regularity and, possibly, behavior at infinity). In
the case of the Dirac delta, the definition in the sense of distributions is
given by eq. (1.53). Using the explicit expression of the functions δn (x)
x given in eq. (1.56), for a function f (x) regular near x0 , we get
δn (x)
Z +∞ Z x0 + 2n1
lim dx δn (x − x0 )f (x) = lim n dx f (x)

n→∞ −∞ n→∞ 1
x0 − 2n
n→∞

1 1
= lim n x0 + − x0 − f (x0 )
n→∞ 2n 2n
= f (x0 ) . (1.57)
x Therefore, in the sense of distributions, i.e., after multiplying by a

smooth function f (x) and integrating, we have
Fig. 1.1 A sequence of approxima-
δ(x − x0 ) = lim δn (x − x0 ) . (1.58)
tions to the Dirac δ function, us- n→∞
ing the gaussians (1.55) (top panel)
From the definition, we see that the Dirac delta only makes sense when
or the “rectangles” (1.56) (lower
panel).
it appears inside an integral. In physics, however, with an abuse of nota-
tion, the universal use is to treat it as if it were a normal function (and
it is even called the Dirac delta “function”!), with the understanding
that the relations in which it enters must be understood in the sense of
distributions, i.e., multiplied by a test function and integrated.
1.4 Dirac delta 9
From the definitions (1.55) or (1.56), setting x0 = 0, we see that

the Dirac delta function is even in x, δ(x) = δ(−x). Two more useful
properties are left as an exercise to the reader:
Exercise 1.5 Using the definition (1.53) show that, if a is a non-zero

real number,
1
δ(ax) = δ(x) . (1.59)
|a|
Exercise 1.6 Using again eq. (1.53) show that, if g(x) is a function
which has only one simple zero in x = x0 , then
1
δ (g(x)) = δ(x − x0 ) , (1.60)
|g 0 (x0 )|
where g 0 (x) = dg/dx. Show that, if g(x) has several simple zeros at the
points x = xi (i = 1, . . . , n), this generalizes to
n
X 1
δ (g(x)) = δ(x − xi ) . (1.61)
i=1
|g 0 (xi )|
Exercise 1.7 Show that, in the sense of distributions,
xδ(x) = 0 . (1.62)
Another useful notion is the derivative of the Dirac delta, δ 0 (x), which,
in the sense of distributions, is defined from
Z +∞ Z +∞
dx δ 0 (x − x0 )f (x) ≡ − dx δ(x − x0 )f 0 (x)
−∞ −∞
= −f 0 (x0 ) . (1.63)
This definition is clearly motivated by the analogy with the integration

by parts of a normal function. Taking δ(x) as the limit for n → ∞ (in the
sense of distributions) of a series δn (x) of continuous and differentiable
functions, such as the gaussians (1.55), one can see that δ 0 (x) is obtained,
again in the sense of distributions, from the limit n → ∞ of δn0 (x).
Indeed, for δn (x) differentiable (and vanishing at x = ±∞), the standard
integration by parts goes through,5 and 5
We also assume that the test functions
Z +∞ Z +∞ f (x) go to zero at ±∞. In fact, here
0 it is sufficient that they do not grow
lim dx δn (x − x0 )f (x) = − lim dx δn (x − x0 )f 0 (x) so fast to compensate the exponential
n→∞ −∞ n→∞ −∞ decay of the gaussian δn (x), so that, in
= −f 0 (x0 ) , (1.64) the integration by parts, we can discard
the boundary terms at infinity.
where the last equality follows from eq. (1.58). Therefore, in the same
sense as eq. (1.58),
δ 0 (x − x0 ) = lim δn0 (x − x0 ) . (1.65)

n→∞
Notice that δ 0 (x) is an odd function of x, δ 0 (−x) = −δ 0 (x), as it is

clear from its representation in terms of δn0 (x), with δn (x) given by the
sequence of gaussians. Higher-order derivatives of the Dirac delta are

defined similarly,
Z +∞ n Z +∞
d n dn f (x)
dx n
δ(x − x 0 ) f (x) ≡ (−1) dx δ(x − x0 )
−∞ dx −∞ dxn
n
d f (x)
= (−1)n |x=x0 . (1.66)
dxn
There is an interesting relation between the Dirac delta and the Heav-
iside theta function (also called simply the “theta function”), defined
by
1 for x > 0
θ(x) = (1.67)
0 for x < 0 .
Observe that, from the definition of the Dirac delta,
6
Note that we have proved eq. (1.68)
Z x
for x > 0 and for x < 0. Whether it also dx0 δ(x0 ) = θ(x) . (1.68)
holds for x = 0 depends on the series −∞
δn (x) that we use for approximating
δ(x), and on how we define θ(x = 0).
Indeed, if x < 0, the integration region does not include the point x0 = 0
If we use functions δn (x) that are sym- where δ(x0 ) is singular, so the integral vanishes. For x > 0, instead,
metric around x = 0, as in eqs. (1.55) we can extend the integral in eq. (1.68) up to x0 = ∞, since anyhow
or (1.56), the equality holds if we define δ(x0 ) = 0 for x0 > 0, and we can then use eq. (1.54) to show that the
θ(0) = 1/2. However, one could use dif-
ferent, non-symmetric series δn (x), and integral is equal to one. Conversely, for a differentiable function f (x)
one should then assign a different value that vanishes at infinity, treating θ0 (x) as a distribution and defining its
to θ(0) for the equality to hold. In fact, derivative as we have done for the Dirac delta,
the whole issue is irrelevant since the Z +∞ Z +∞
relation (1.70) holds only in the sense
of distributions, i.e., after integrating, dx θ0 (x)f (x) ≡ − dx θ(x)f 0 (x)
−∞
and the fact that it holds in a single Z−∞∞
point or not does not affect any inte- df
grated relation. = − dx
0 dx
7
For instance, by completing the square = −[f (∞) − f (0)]
in the exponent one gets
Z +∞ = f (0) . (1.69)
1 2 2
dx e− 2 n x −ikx
−∞ This shows that, in the sense of distributions,
2 Z +∞ 2
− k − n (x+ ik2 )2
= e 2n2 dx e 2 n
θ0 (x) = δ(x) , (1.70)
−∞
2 Z+∞ 2
− k2 − n2 0 2
which could also have been formally derived by taking the derivative
=e 2n dx0 e (x )
2
−∞
√ of eq. (1.68).6 This result could have also been proved using a sequence
− k2 2π δn (x) of approximations to the Dirac delta, and showing that, plugging it
=e 2n , (1.72)
n
on the left hand side of eq. (1.68), we get a continuous and differentiable
where we introduced x0 = x + ik/n2 . approximation to the theta function.
More precisely, we have actually con-
sidered a closed contour in the complex The Dirac delta has an extremely useful integral representation. A
plane z = x + iy, composed by the x simple way to obtain it is to use the sequence of gaussians (1.55). Then,
axis y = 0, and by the parallel line Z +∞ Z +∞
y = ik/n2 , and closed the contour join- n 1 2 2
ing these two lines at infinity. Since the dx δn (x)e−ikx = √ dx e− 2 n x −ikx

−∞ 2π −∞
integrand has no singularity inside this 2
/(2n2 )
contour, by the Cauchy theorem the in- = e−k , (1.71)
tegral over the x axis is the same as the
integral over the line y = ik/n2 , i.e., as can be proven by carrying out the integral on the right-hand side of
over the variable z = x + ik/n2 .
the first line.7 Similarly,
1.4 Dirac delta 11
Z +∞
dk − k22 +ikx n 1 2 2
e 2n = √ e− 2 n x
−∞ 2π 2π
= δn (x) . (1.73)
Taking the limit n → ∞ of these relations we therefore get

Z +∞
dx δ(x)e−ikx = 1 , (1.74)
−∞
and its inverse relation

Z +∞
dk ikx
e = δ(x) . (1.75)
−∞ 2π
Equation (1.74) could have been derived more simply from the defining
property of the Dirac delta, eq. (1.53), observing that, in x = 0, e−ikx =
1. Equation (1.75) was less evident, and provides a very useful integral
representation of the Dirac delta.8 In Section 1.5, we will use it to give 8
Note that, renaming the integration
a simple derivation of the inversion formula of the Fourier transform. variable k → −k, we can also write
eq. (1.75) as
The generalization to more than one dimension is straightforward. In Z +∞
particular, in three spatial dimensions, we define the three-dimensional dk −ikx
e = δ(x) . (1.76)
Dirac delta as −∞ 2π
δ (3) (x) = δ(x)δ(y)δ(z) , (1.77)

and this is a distribution to be multiplied by test functions f (x) and
integrated over d3 x. Then, eq. (1.53) becomes
Z
d3 x δ (3) (x − x0 )f (x) = f (x0 ) , (1.78)
while the integral representation (1.75) becomes

Z
d3 k ik·x
e = δ (3) (x) . (1.79)
(2π)3
Example 1.1 Divergence of r̂/r2 . As a particularly important appli-

cation of the concepts developed in Sections 1.2, 1.3, and in the present
section, we perform the computation of the divergence of the vector field
x
v(x) =
r3
r̂
= , (1.80)
r2
where r = |x| and r̂ is the unit vector in the radial direction. In polar
coordinates, vr = 1/r2 , vθ = vφ = 0. If we use eq. (1.29), we apparently
get

1 2 1
∇·v = ∂r r × 2 (r 6= 0)
r2 r
= 0. (1.81)
However, we have stressed that this only holds for r 6= 0, since these
manipulations become undefined at r = 0. To understand the behavior
of ∇·v in r = 0, we use Gauss’s theorem (1.48) in a volume V given by
a spherical ball of radius R. Its boundary is the sphere S 2 , and on the
boundary v = r̂/R2 , while ds = R2 dΩ r̂, where dΩ is the infinitesimal
9
Recall that the infinitesimal solid an- solid angle.9 Then,
gle dΩ is defined from the transforma- Z Z
tion from Cartesian to spherical coor-
dinates. In two dimensions, from x = d3 x ∇·v = ds · v
V 2
r cos θ and y = r sin θ, it follows that ZS
dxdy = rdrdθ. Similarly, in three di- r̂
= R2 dΩ r̂ · 2
mensions, the relation between Carte- 2 R
sian and spherical coordinates (as we ZS
already mentioned in Note 1 on page 4) = dΩ
is x = r sin θ cos φ, y = r sin θ sin φ, z = S2
r cos θ, with θ ∈ [0, π] and φ ∈ [0, 2π]. = 4π . (1.86)
Computing the Jacobian of the trans-
formation,
This shows that ∇·v cannot be zero everywhere. Rather, since ∇·v = 0
dxdydz = r2 sin θdrdθdφ for r 6= 0, but still its integral in d3 x over any volume V is equal to 4π,
= r2 drdΩ , (1.82) we must have
where
r̂
dΩ = sin θdθdφ . (1.83) ∇· = 4π δ (3) (x) . (1.87)
r2
Then, the total integral over the solid
angle is
Z Z π Z 2π From this, we can obtain another very useful result. Using the expression
dΩ = dθ sin θ dφ (1.23) of the gradient in polar coordinates, we get
0 0
= 4π , (1.84)
1 r̂
so the total solid angle in three dimen-
∇ =− 2. (1.88)
r r
sions is 4π. Observe that we can also
write dΩ = d cos θ dφ, reabsorbing the Writing
minus sign from d cos θ = − sin θdθ into
a change of the integration limits, so
1 1
that ∇2 = ∇· ∇
Z 1 Z 2π r r

Z
dΩ = d cos θ dφ . (1.85) r̂
−1 0 = −∇· , (1.89)
r2
we see that eq. (1.87) implies that

1
∇2 = −4πδ (3) (x) . (1.90)
r
Replacing x by x − x0 , for x0 generic, we then also have
1
∇2 = −4πδ (3) (x − x0 ) . (1.91)
|x − x0 |
We will use this result in Section 4.1.2, when we will introduce the notion
of Green’s function of the Laplacian.
1.5 Fourier transform

We next recall the definition and some basic properties of the Fourier
transform. For a function of one spatial variable f (x), we define the 10
More precisely, one must restrict to a
Fourier transform f˜(k) as10 space of functions such that the manip-
ulations below are well defined. This
Z +∞ can be obtained for instance consider-
f˜(k) = dx f (x)e−ikx . (1.92) ing f ∈ L1 (R), the space of functions
−∞ whose absolute value is integrable over
R.
Observe that, if f (x) is real, f˜∗ (k) = f˜(−k). The simplest way to invert
this relation between f (x) and f˜(k) is to use the integral representation 11
This was not the historical path. The
of the Dirac delta, eq. (1.75).11 Multiplying eq. (1.92) by eikx , integrating theory of distributions, which puts the
over dk/(2π), and changing the name of the integration variable to x0 in notion of Dirac delta on a sound math-
the right-hand side of eq. (1.92), we get ematical basis, was only developed in
the first half of the 20th century, while
Z +∞ Z +∞ Z
dk ˜ dk ikx +∞ 0 0 the original work of Fourier dates back
f (k)e ikx
= e dx f (x0 )e−ikx to 1822.
−∞ 2π −∞ 2π −∞
Z +∞ Z +∞ 12
There are different conventions for
dk ik(x−x0 )
= dx0 f (x0 ) e the factors 2π in the definition of the
−∞ −∞ 2π Fourier transform. The one that we
Z +∞ have used is, nowadays, the most com-
= dx0 f (x0 )δ(x − x0 ) mon in physics. Another common
−∞ choice is to define
= f (x) . (1.93) 1
Z +∞
f˜(k) = √ dx f (x)e−ikx ,
2π −∞
Therefore, the inversion of eq. (1.92) is12 (1.94)
Z +∞ in which case eq. (1.96) becomes
dk ˜ Z +∞
f (x) = f (k)eikx . (1.96) f (x) = √
1
dk f˜(k)eikx .
−∞ 2π 2π −∞
(1.95)
Another useful relation is obtained considering the convolution of two
functions f (x) and g(x), defined by 13
The explicit computation goes as fol-
Z +∞ lows:
dx0 f (x0 )g(x − x0 ) .
Z +∞
F (x) = (1.97) F̃ (k) = dx F (x)e−ikx
−∞ −∞
Z +∞ Z +∞
13
Taking the Fourier transform we get = dx dx0 f (x0 )
−∞ −∞
0
)+x0 ]
F̃ (k) = f˜(k)g̃(k) . (1.98) ×g(x − x0 )e−ik[(x−x
Z +∞ 0
= dx0 f (x0 )e−ikx
Therefore, the Fourier transform of a convolution is equal to the product −∞
of the Fourier transforms. This is known as the convolution theorem. +∞
Z
0
× dx g(x − x0 )e−ik(x−x ) .
Equations (1.92), (1.96), and (1.98) are easily generalized to any num- −∞
ber of spatial dimensions. In particular, in three spatial dimensions, the Introducing y = x − x0 , the last integral
Fourier transform is defined as over dx at fixed x0 is the same as an
Z integral over dy, so
˜
f (k) = d3 x f (x)e−ik·x , (1.99) Z +∞
0
F̃ (k) = dx0 f (x0 )e−ikx
−∞
Z +∞
and its inversion gives × dy g(y)e−iky
Z −∞
d3 k ˜ f˜(k)g̃(k) .
f (x) = f (k)eik·x . (1.100) =
(2π)3
If f (x) is real, f˜∗ (k) = f˜(−k). The convolution theorem now tells us
that, if Z
F (x) = d3 x0 f (x0 )g(x − x0 ) , (1.101)
then
F̃ (k) = f˜(k)g̃(k) . (1.102)
For a function of time f (t) we will denote the integration variable that
enters in the Fourier transform by ω, and we will also use a different
sign convention, defining the Fourier transform f˜(ω) as
Z
˜
f (ω) = dt f (t)eiωt , (1.103)
so that Z
dω ˜
f (t) = f (ω)e−iωt . (1.104)
2π
In the context of Special Relativity, the advantage of using a different
sign convention between the spatial and temporal Fourier transforms is
that the Fourier transform of a function f (t, x), with respect to both t
and x, can be written as
Z
dωd3 k ˜
f (t, x) = f (ω, k)e−i(ωt−k·x) , (1.105)
(2π)4
i.e., Z
f˜(ω, k) = dtd3 x f (t, x)ei(ωt−k·x) , (1.106)
and, as we will see, the combination (ωt − k·x) is more natural from the
point of view of Special Relativity and Lorentz invariance.
Example 1.2 In this example, we compute the three-dimensional Fourier
transform of the function
1
f (r) = , (1.107)
r
that appears in the Coulomb potential. A direct computation leads to
14
Indeed, this function does not belong a problem of convergence.14 Indeed, from eqs. (1.99), (1.82), and (1.85),
to L1 (R3 ), compare with Note 10 on Z
page 13. 1
f˜(k) = d3 x e−ik·x
r
Z ∞ Z 2π Z 1
1
= dr r2 dφ d cos θ e−ikr cos θ , (1.108)
0 0 −1 r
where, to perform the integral, we have written d3 x in polar coordinates
with k as polar axis, so θ is the angle between k and x. The integral over
dφ just gives a 2π factor, and the integral over cos θ is also elementary,
Z 1
2
dα e−ikrα = sin(kr) , (1.109)
−1 kr
so we get Z ∞
4π
f˜(k) = 2 du sin u , (1.110)
k 0
where k = |k| and u = kr. The integral over du, however, does not
converge at u = ∞, and is not well defined without a prescription. We
then start by computing first the Fourier transform of the function
e−µr
V (r) = , (1.111)
r
where µ > 0, and has the dimensions of the inverse of a length. This
function, which corresponds to an interaction potential known as the
Yukawa potential, reduces to the Coulomb potential as µ → 0+ . Per-
forming the same passages as before gives
Z
4π ∞
Ṽ (k) = 2 du sin u e−u , (1.112)
k 0
where = µ/k. For non-zero , i.e., non-zero µ, the factor e−u ensures 15
A note for the advanced reader. In
the convergence of the integral. Writing sin u = (eiu − e−iu )/(2i), the quantum field theory, the Coulomb
integral is elementary, potential is understood as the in-
teraction between two static charges
∞ mediated by the exchange of a massless
4π 1 1 (i−)u 1 −(i+)u
Ṽ (k) = e + e particle, the photon. The exchange of
k 2 2i i − i+ 0 a massive particle produces instead a
4π 1 Yukawa potential, with the constant
= µ related to the mass m of the ex-
k 2 1 + 2 changed particle by µ = mc/~, see
4π e.g., Section 6.6 of Maggiore (2005).
= . (1.113)
k + µ2
2 This way of regularizing the integral
therefore corresponds, physically, to
Therefore, assigning a small mass mγ to the
e−µr 4π photon and then taking the limit
V (x) = ⇐⇒ Ṽ (k) = . (1.114) mγ → 0. Indeed, one way to put limits
r k 2 + µ2
on the photon mass is to assume that
Since the limit µ → 0+ of these expressions is well defined, we can now the Coulomb interaction is replaced
define the Fourier transform of the Coulomb potential as the limit for by a Yukawa potential, and obtain
limits on mγ . Currently, the strongest
µ → 0+ of the Fourier transform of the Yukawa potential,15 so limit on the photon mass coming
from a direct test of the Coulomb law
1 4π gives mγ c2 < 1 × 10−14 eV. Writing
f (x) = ⇐⇒ f˜(k) = 2 . (1.115)
r k µ = 1/r0 , so that r0 = ~/(mγ c), this
translate into a limit r0 > 2 × 107 m,
i.e., there is no sign of an exponential
The correctness of this limiting procedure can be checked observing that, decay corresponding to a Yukawa po-
if we rather start from f˜(k) = 4π/k 2 and compute the inverse Fourier tential up to such scales. Other limits
transform, we get 1/r without the need of regulating any divergence. on the mass of the photon, not based on
a direct measurement of the Coulomb
Indeed, in this case we get
law, are even stronger, with the most
Z stringent being mγ c2 < 1 × 10−18 eV,
d3 k 4π ik·x
f (r) = e corresponding to r0 > 2 × 1011 m, see
(2π)3 k 2 https://pdg.lbl.gov/2021/listings/
Z ∞ Z 1 contents_listings.html. Another
4π 2 1
= 2π k dk d cos θ 2 eikr cos θ way to search for deviations from
8π 3 −1 k Coulomb’s law is to look for a force
Z ∞0 proportional to 1/r2+ , and set limits
1 2 sin u
= du on . This is a purely phenomenolog-
r π 0 u ical parametrization and, contrary to
1 the case of the Yukawa potential (and
= , (1.116) to statements in some textbook), it
r
R∞ has no field-theoretical interpretation
since 0 du (sin u)/u converges, and has the value π/2. in terms of a photon mass.
1.6 Tensors and rotations

The elementary definition of a vector is based on the notion of an arrow,
i.e., an object with a length and a direction. It is very useful to under-
stand vectors in a more elaborate language, that of representations of
the rotation group. This will allow us to better understand the meaning
of other objects, such as tensors, and will be a useful preparation for
understanding the formalism of Special Relativity, where the fundamen-
tal quantities will be given by representations of a broader group, the
Lorentz group, that we will introduce later. In this section, we will give
a first, simpler treatment, while in Section 1.7 we will provide a more
formal group-theoretical description (that will not be necessary for the
rest of the book but gives a deeper understanding).
Consider a vector v in two dimensions, defined as an arrow; with
respect to a given system of Cartesian axes, it will have components
(vx , vy ). Consider now a counterclockwise rotation of the vector by an
angle θ in the plane. After the rotation, the new components are given
16
Here, we are keeping the axes of the by16
reference frame fixed, and rotate the
vector by an angle θ. Then vx0 and vy0 in vx0 = vx cos θ − vy sin θ , (1.117)
eqs. (1.117) and (1.118) are the compo-
nents of the rotated vector with respect vy0 = vx sin θ + vy cos θ . (1.118)
to these fixed axes. This is called the
“active” point of view. Equivalently, we Therefore, under a rotation by an angle θ, the transformation of v is
can keep the vector fixed and rotate the
axes by an angle −θ. Then, vx0 and vy0 given by
in eqs. (1.117) and (1.118) are the com- 0
ponents of the vector v with respect to vx vx cos θ − sin θ vx
→ = . (1.119)
the new system of axes. This is called vy vy0 sin θ cos θ vy
the “passive” point of view.
Using our notation with a sum over repeated indices, we can rewrite this
as
vi → vi0 = Rij vj , (1.120)
where the indices i, j take the two values {x, y} (or, equivalently, {1, 2})
and Rij = Rij (θ) are the matrix elements of the 2 × 2 matrix that
appears in eq. (1.119).
We can now promote eq. (1.119) to the basic relation that defines
a vector, stating that a vector in two spatial dimensions is defined as
a set of two numbers (its components) with a well-defined transforma-
tion property under rotations, expressed by eq. (1.119). This definition
totally abstracts from the original notion of an arrow, and has the ad-
vantage that it can be generalized both to objects with different trans-
formation properties and to arbitrary dimensions.
17
In elementary physics, we are usu- Consider first the generalization to arbitrary dimensions.17 We begin
ally interested only in rotations in two by observing that the rotation (1.119) preserves the length of the vec-
or in three spatial dimensions. The
generalization to arbitrary dimensions,
tor, so the squared norm of the vector v (that, with our convention of
however, is already a useful preparation summation of repeating indices, can be written as vi vi ) is equal to the
for the extension to more complicated norm of the vector v 0 obtained applying a rotation to v,
transformations, such as Lorentz trans-
formations.
vi0 vi0 = vi vi . (1.121)
We now use this relation to define rotations and vectors, in any dimen-
sions, as follows. We consider a set of d objects vi , i = 1, . . . , d, and
a linear transformation of the form (1.120), where now Rij is a d × d
matrix. We define rotations in d dimensions as the transformations Rij 18
We will qualify this more precisely
that preserve the norm of v,18 so that eq. (1.121) (with i = 1, . . . , d) at the end of this section and in
holds. The set of objects vi that transforms as in eq. (1.120) when Rij Section 1.7, where we will see that
is a rotation matrix are then called “vectors under rotations” or, more “proper” rotations are obtained factor-
simply, vectors. ing out some discrete parity symmetry.
This definition allows us to characterize rotations as follows. Plugging
eq. (1.120) into eq. (1.121) we get
vi vi = Rij vj Rik vk . (1.122)
Using eq. (1.3) and renaming the dummy indices on the right-hand side
as i → k, j → i, k → j, this can be rewritten in the form
δij vi vj = Rij Rik vj vk

= Rki Rkj vi vj . (1.123)
Since this must hold for any vector vi , it follows that
Rki Rkj = δij . (1.124)
Recall that, if Rij are the matrix elements of the matrix R, the transpose
matrix RT has matrix elements (RT )ij = Rji . Then eq. (1.129) reads
T
Rik Rkj = δij or, in matrix form
RT R = I , (1.125)
where I is the identity matrix. Therefore RT is the left inverse of R,

and then it also holds19 19
This follows from the fact that, for
RRT = I . (1.126) a square matrix, the left and right in-
verse are the same. Indeed, let A be
In components, this reads a matrix, and suppose that its left in-
verse, L, exists, so that LA = I. Then,
multiplying by L from the right, we get
Rik Rjk = δij . (1.127) LAL = L. Multiplying further by L−1
from the left, we get AL = I. Then, L
Therefore, rotation matrices satisfy is also the right inverse.
RRT = RT R = I , (1.128)
or, in components,
Rki Rkj = Rik Rjk = δij . (1.129)
Equation (1.128) is just the definition of orthogonal matrices. We have
then found that rotations in d dimensions are given by d × d orthogonal
matrices, and vectors are defined by the transformation property (1.120)
under rotations.
The transformation property of vectors can be generalized to objects
with different transformation properties. In particular, in any dimension
d we can define a tensor Tij with two indices as an object that, under
rotations, transforms as
Tij → Tij0 = Rik Rjl Tkl , (1.130)
(with the indices running over two values {x, y} in two dimensions, over
{x, y, z} in three dimensions, and more generally over d values 1, . . . , d
in d dimensions), with the same matrix Rij that appears in the transfor-
mation of vectors. Similarly, a tensor Tijk with three indices is defined
as an object that, under rotations, transforms as
0
Tijk = Rii0 Rjj 0 Rkk0 Ti0 j 0 k0 , (1.131)
and so on. Note that, for tensors, the connection with the notion of arrow
is completely lost, and a tensor is only defined by its transformation
property (1.130).
Consider now a tensor Tij that, in a given reference frame, has compo-
nents δij . Normally, the numerical values of the components of a tensor
change if we perform a rotation, according to eq. (1.130). In this case,
however, in the new frame
Tij0 = Rik Rjl Tkl

= Rik Rjl δkl
= Rik Rjk
= δij , (1.132)
where in the last equality we have used eq. (1.129). Thus, δij is a very
special tensor, whose components have the same numerical values in
all frames. It is then called an invariant tensor. In three dimensions,
the only other invariant tensor of the rotation group is ijk , since it
transforms as
ijk → Rii0 Rjj 0 Rkk0 i0 j 0 k0 . (1.133)
However, from the definition of the determinant of a 3 × 3 matrix, we
can check that the right-hand side of eq. (1.133) is equal to (det R)ijk .
Equation (1.128), together with the fact that, for two matrices A and
B, det(AB) = det(A) det(B), and det(RT ) = det(R), implies that
(det R)2 = 1, so det R = ±1. “Proper” rotations are defined as the trans-
formations with det R = +1 (while transformations with det R = −1
correspond to parity transformations, that change the orientation of one
axis, or of all three axes, possibly combined with proper rotations), so
ijk is indeed invariant under (proper) rotations.
1.7 Groups and representations

This section is more formal and can
(actually, should!) be omitted at first Vectors and tensors are usually the first examples that one encounters of
reading. a much more general concept, that of representations of groups, which is
ubiquitous in modern theoretical physics. Even if this will not be strictly
necessary for the rest of the book, it can be interesting to expand on
the previous discussion, taking a more abstract and mathematical point

of view. The underlying mathematics here is that of group theory and
group representations. Group theory is a fundamental element of the
mathematical arsenal of modern theoretical physics. While, especially
with hindsight, it was already implicitly present in the classical physics
of the 19th century, it acquired a central role first of all because of
Special Relativity and its connection with electromagnetism (in relation,
in particular, to the work of Lorentz and Poincaré), that we will explore
in the following chapters. The role of group theory in physics then
became even more central with the advent of quantum mechanics where,
for instance, concepts such as the spin of the electron cannot be really
understood without it. Modern particle physics, such as the Standard
Model that unifies weak and electromagnetic interactions, as well as all
attempts at going beyond it, are also formulated in the language of group
theory.20 20
For an introduction to group theory
A group G is a set of objects g1 , g2 , . . . (discrete or continuous) among in physics, see e.g., Zee (2016).
which is defined a composition operation g1 ◦ g2 , such that
• if g1 ∈ G and g2 ∈ G, then also g1 ◦ g2 ∈ G.
• The composition is associative, g1 ◦ (g2 ◦ g3 ) = (g1 ◦ g2 ) ◦ g3 .
• In G there is the identity element e, defined by the fact that, for
each g ∈ G, g ◦ e = e ◦ g = g.21 21
The identity element is unique: in
fact, assume that e1 and e2 are two
• For each g ∈ G there is an inverse element, that we denote g −1 , identity elements. Then, using the fact
such that g ◦ g −1 = g −1 ◦ g = e. that e2 is an identity element, we have
e1 ◦ e2 = e1 . However, using the fact
Note that the composition operation is not necessarily commutative. that e1 is an identity element, we also
If it is, the group is called commutative (or abelian), otherwise is called have e1 ◦ e2 = e2 . Therefore e1 = e2 .
non-commutative (or non-abelian). Rotations form a group (in any di-
mensions), since they satisfy the previous axioms.
Exercise 1.8 Show that rotations in two dimensions form a commu-
tative group, while in three dimensions they form a non-commutative
group.
[Hint: take an object such as a book, lie it on a table, denote by x and
y the axes on the plane of the table so that the lower edge of the book
is along the x axis, and the rib of the book is along the y axis. Perform
first a rotation of the book by 90◦ around the x axis and then a rotation
of the resulting configuration by 90◦ around the y axis. Compare this
with what happens if you first perform the rotation by 90◦ around the
y axis and then by 90◦ around the x axis.]
A (linear) representation R of a group is an operation that assigns to a

generic, abstract element g of a group a linear operator DR (g) defined
on a (real or complex) vector space,
g 7→ DR (g) , (1.134)
with the property that, for all g1 , g2 ∈ G
DR (g1 )DR (g2 ) = DR (g1 ◦ g2 ) . (1.135)

This condition means that the mapping preserves the group structure,
i.e., that it is the same to compose the elements at the group level (with
the ◦ operation) and then represent the resulting element g1 ◦ g2 , or
first represent g1 and g2 in terms of linear operators and then com-
pose the resulting linear operators. Note that the composition oper-
ation in DR (g1 )DR (g2 ) is the one between linear operators (such as
the matrix product when the linear operators are matrices, see next),
while the composition operation in g1 ◦ g2 is the one at the abstract
group level. Setting g1 = g, g2 = e in eq. (1.135), we find that, for all
g ∈ G, DR (g)DR (e) = DR (g); similarly, setting g1 = e, g2 = g, we get
DR (e)DR (g) = DR (g). This implies that the identity element of the
group e must be mapped to the identity operator I, i.e., DR (e) = I.
Similarly, we can show that DR (g −1 ) = [DR (g)]−1 .
The vector space on which the operators DR act is called the basis,
or the base space, for the representation R and, as we have mentioned,
it can be a real vector space or a complex vector space. We will be
particularly interested in matrix representations. In this case, the base
space is a vector space of finite (real or complex) dimension n, and an
abstract group element g is represented by a n × n matrix [DR (g)]ij ,
with i, j = 1, . . . , n. The dimension of the representation is defined as
the dimension n of the base space.
Writing a generic element of the base space as a vector v with com-
ponents (v1 , . . . , vn ), a group element g can be associated with a linear
operator [DR (g)]ij acting on the base space, and therefore to a linear
transformation of the base space
vi → [DR (g)]ij vj , (1.136)
with our usual summation convention on repeated indices. The impor-
tant point is that eq. (1.136) allows us to attach a physical meaning
to a group element: before introducing the concept of representation,
a group element g is just an abstract mathematical object defined by
its composition rules with the other group members. Choosing a spe-
cific representation, instead, allows us to interpret g as a transformation
22
Apart from matrix representations, acting on a vector space.22
the other typical situation encoun-
tered in physics is when a group el-
ement is represented by a differential 1.7.1 Reducible and irreducible representations
operator acting on a space of func-
tions. Since the space of function The different representations of a group describe all possible ways in
is infinite-dimensional, this representa- which objects can transform under the action of the group, for instance
tion is infinite-dimensional. under rotations. However, not all possible representations describe gen-
uinely different possibilities. Given a representation R of a group G,
whose basis is a space X, and another representation R0 of G, whose
basis is a space X 0 , R and R0 are called equivalent if there is an isomor-
phism S : X → X 0 such that, for all g ∈ G,
DR (g) = S −1 DR0 (g)S . (1.137)
Comparing with eq. (1.136), we see that, in the case of representations
of finite dimension, equivalent representations correspond to a change
of basis in the vector space spanned by the v i , obtained acting on the

basis vector with a matrix S, so we do not consider them as genuinely
different representations.
Furthermore, some representations can be obtained trivially, just by
stacking together representations of lower dimensions, and do not really
describe novel ways of transforming under the action of the group. As a
simple example, consider two vectors v and w, in two dimensions. Under
a rotation in the plane by an angle θ, v transforms as in eq. (1.119), and
similarly

wx wx0 cos θ − sin θ wx
→ = , (1.138)
wy wy0 sin θ cos θ wy
which expresses the fact that, in two dimensions, vectors are represen-
tations of dimension two of the rotation group. Naively, we might think
that we can find a new type of representation of dimension four, by
putting together the components of v and w into a single object with
components (vx , vy , wx , wy ). Under rotations,
   0    
vx vx cos θ − sin θ 0 0 vx
 vy   vy0   sin θ cos θ 0 0   vy 
   =  .
 wx  →  wx0   0 0 cos θ − sin θ   wx 
wy wy0 0 0 sin θ cos θ wy
(1.139)
However, here we have not discovered a genuinely new type of repre-
sentation of dimension four; we have simply stack together two vectors.
Mathematically, the fact that this is not a genuinely new representation
is revealed by the fact that the matrix in eq. (1.139) is block diagonal
(for all rotations, so in this case for all values of θ), so that there is no
rotation that mixes the components of v with that of w.
This example motivates the definition of reducible and irreducible rep-
resentations. A representation R is called reducible if it has an invariant
subspace, i.e., if the action of any DR (g) on the vectors in the subspace
gives another vector of the subspace. This corresponds to the fact that
[possibly after a suitable change of basis of the form (1.137)] there is
a subset of components of the basis vector that never mixes with the
others, for all transformations DR (g). A representation R is called com-
pletely reducible if, for all elements g, the matrices DR (g) have a block
diagonal form, or can be put in a block diagonal form with a change
of basis corresponding to the equivalence relation (1.137). Conversely,
a representation with no invariant subspace is called irreducible. Ir-
reducible representations describe the genuinely different way in which
physical quantities can transform under the group of transformations in
questions.
To put some flesh into these rather abstract notions, we now look at
the simplest irreducible representations of the rotation group.
1.7.2 The rotation group and its irreducible tensor

representations
The group of rotations in d spatial dimensions can be defined as the
group of linear transformations of a d-dimensional space with coordinate
(x1 , . . . xd ), of the form
xi → x0i = Rij xj , (1.140)
which leaves invariant the quadratic form
|x|2 = x21 + . . . + x2d . (1.141)
As we already found in eq. (1.128), the corresponding condition on the
matrix Rij is that it must be an orthogonal matrix, RRT = RT R = I.
The group of d×d orthogonal matrices is denoted by O(d). As we already
found below eq. (1.133), from RT R = I it follows that (det R)2 = 1, so
det R = ±1. The transformations with determinant +1 form a sub-
group, since the product of two matrices with determinant plus +1 is
still a matrix with determinant +1 (which is not the case for those with
determinant −1, given that the product of two matrices with determi-
nant −1 is a matrix with determinant +1). The subgroup of O(d) with
determinant equal to +1 is denoted by SO(d) and is identified with
the proper rotation group in d dimension. As already mentioned be-
low eq. (1.133), transformations with det R = −1 rather correspond to
discrete parity transformations, such as (x → −x, y → y, z → z) or
(x → −x, y → −y, z → −z) or, more generally, to parity transforma-
tions combined with proper rotations. By “rotations” we will always
mean the proper rotations. In particular, the rotation group in three
dimensions is SO(3).
The simplest irreducible representation of the rotation group, as of
any other group, is the so-called trivial representation, that assign to
each group element the 1 × 1 identity matrix, i.e., DR (g) = 1 for each g.
In this case, the basic properties (1.135) of a representation are obviously
satisfied (note, however, that if we assign DR (g) = I with I the n × n
identity matrix with dimension n > 1, we do not get an irreducible
representation, since the identity matrix is block diagonal). Despite
being trivial from the mathematical point of view, this representation is
very significant physically. According to eq. (1.136), the basis for this
representation is an object of dimension 1, i.e., a single quantity φ, that,
under any rotation, remains invariant, φ → φ. Such quantities are called
scalars under rotation.
The next simplest representation of SO(3) is the vector representa-
tion vi . Indeed, the very definition that we have given of the group
SO(3), based on eq. (1.140) and the condition that it leaves invariant
the quadratic form (1.141), already introduces a transformation prop-
erty under rotation, in this case for the coordinates. More generally,
vectors are then defined as objects that transform as in eq. (1.120), and
the coordinates of three-dimensional space provide the simplest exam-
ple of a vector, x = (x1 , x2 , x3 ) [or x = (x, y, z); we will use the two
notations interchangeably]. Other obvious examples of vectors from el-

ementary mechanics are the momentum p, or the angular momentum
L.
The vector representation can be taken to be real, since the rota-
tion matrix Rij has only real elements, and therefore transform real
vectors into real vectors. The real vector representation of SO(3) is ir-
reducible, since we cannot find a subset of the coordinates (x1 , x2 , x3 )
that, whichever rotation we perform, never mix with the others. For
instance, a rotation around the third axis mixes x1 with x2 , a rotation
around the x1 axis mixes x2 with x3 , and one around the x2 axis mixes
x1 with x3 . Since the vector representation enters in the very defini-
tion of the group SO(3), it is also called the defining, or fundamental
representation of SO(3).23 23
Observe that we are considering here
Consider next the tensor representation (1.130). In three dimensions real representations, i.e., representa-
tions where the basis vectors are real.
a tensor Tij has nine components, and eq. (1.130) states that these nine One can sometimes assemble real rep-
components transform linearly among them, and therefore form a basis resentations of SO(d) into complex
for a representation of the rotation group of dimension nine. We could for representations of lower (complex) di-
instance express the corresponding representation of rotations as 9 × 9 mension. For instance, for SO(2),
eq. (1.119) defines an irreducible real
matrices, using as a basis (T11 , T12 , . . . , T33 ). We want to understand representation of (real) dimension two,
whether this representation is reducible, i.e., if (possibly after a suitable since the real quantities vx and vy mix
change of basis) there are subsets of elements of the basis that never among them. However, if we form the
mix with the other elements. The best way to address the problem is to complex combinations v± = vx ± ivy ,
we see that v+ → eiθ v+ and v− →
observe that, given a generic tensor Tij , we can always separate it into e−iθ v− so, over complex numbers, we
its symmetric and antisymmetric parts have two irreducible representations of
complex dimension one. Indeed, a the-
Tij + Tji Tij − Tji orem states that all irreducible complex
Tij = + representations of abelian groups, such
2 2
≡ Sij + Aij . (1.142) as SO(2), are one-dimensional.
For other groups, such as the groups
U (N ) of N × N unitary matrices, or
Using eq. (1.130), we can show that, under any rotation, a symmetric SU (N ) if we require the determinant
tensor remains symmetric: to be +1, the matrix elements are com-
plex, so, in general, one must consider
0 complex representations.
Sij = Rik Rjl Skl
= Rik Rjl Slk
= Rjk Ril Skl
0
= Sji , (1.143)
where, to get the second equality, we used the symmetry of Skl and, in
the third, we renamed the dummy indices k → l and l → k. Similarly, an
antisymmetric tensor remains antisymmetric. Therefore, Sij and Aij do
not mix under rotations. Consider now the trace of the symmetric part,
S = δij S ij . Using eq. (1.130) and the property (1.129) of orthogonal
matrices, we see that it is invariant under spatial rotations. It is then
convenient to separate Sij as

1 1
Sij = Sij − δij S + δij S
3 3
T 1
≡ Sij + δij S . (1.144)
3
T
The term Sij is traceless (as can be shown contracting it with δij and
24
We are working for simplicity in three using δij δij = δii = 3).24 Since the trace is invariant, under rotations
dimensions. In d dimensions, the trace- it remains traceless, and therefore it does not mix with the term δij S.
less combination is Sij − (1/d)δij S.
We have therefore separated the nine components of a generic tensor
T
Tij into its symmetric traceless part Sij (which has five components,
corresponding to the six independent components of a symmetric 3 × 3
matrix, minus the condition of zero trace), its trace S (one component),
and an antisymmetric tensor Aij which, in three dimensions, has three
independent components,
T 1
Tij = Sij + δij S + Aij . (1.145)
3
The trace S = δ ij Tij , being invariant under rotations, corresponds to the
scalar representation that we already encountered. The antisymmetric
tensor might look like a new representation of the rotation group, but
in fact, introducing
1
Ai = ijk Ajk , (1.146)
2
one sees that Ai is just a spatial vector. We have inserted a factor of
1/2 for convenience since, for instance, in this way A1 = (1/2)1jk Ajk =
(1/2)(123 A23 + 132 A32 ) = A23 [using the antisymmetry of ijk and
of Ajk with respect to (j, k)]. So, A23 = A1 , and similarly one finds
A12 = A3 , A31 = A2 , so the inversion of eq. (1.146) can be written
compactly as
Aij = ijk Ak . (1.147)
Therefore, the three independent components of an antisymmetric tensor
can be rearranged into the three independent components of a vector.
This means that these two representations are equivalent, in the sense
of eq. (1.137), and we have not discovered a genuinely new irreducible
representation of rotations.
In contrast, the traceless symmetric tensor is irreducible (since there
is no further symmetry that forbids its components to mix among them,
T
and then we can always find rotations that mix a given components of Sij
with any other component). We have therefore found a new irreducible
representation of the rotation group, of dimension five, the traceless
symmetric tensors, and eq. (1.145) can be rewritten as
T 1
Tij = Sij + δij S + ijk Ak , (1.148)
3
in terms of the invariant tensors δij and ijk , and of the irreducible
representations provided by the scalar S, the vector Ai , and the traceless
T
symmetric tensor Sij . Note how the nine independent components of
Tij have been shared between a scalar (one component), a vector (three
components), and a traceless symmetric tensor (five components). One
can work out similarly the decomposition into irreducible representations
of tensors with more indices, such as Tijk .
Observe that the dimension of the scalar, vector, and traceless sym-
metric tensor representations can all be written as 2s + 1 for s = 0
(scalar), s = 1 (vector) and s = 2 (traceless symmetric tensor). Higher-

order tensorial irreducible representations, obtained from tensors with
more indices, give representations of dimension 2s + 1 for all other in-
teger values of s. The representations of the rotation group play an
important role also in quantum mechanics, where the (tensorial) repre-
sentations that we have found turn out to correspond to massive particles
with integer spin s (in units of ~).
Finally, it is instructive to consider infinitesimal rotations, and see
how they can be parametrized. A rotation matrix that differs from the
identity transformation by an infinitesimal quantity can be written as
Rij = δij + ωij + O(ω 2 ) , (1.149)
with ωij infinitesimal parameters, which describe the deviation from the
identity transformation. Requiring that this satisfies eq. (1.129), to first
order in ω we get

δij = δik + ωik + O(ω 2 ) δjk + ωjk + O(ω 2 )
= δij + ωij + ωji + O(ω 2 ) , (1.150)
and therefore, requiring that the linear order cancels, we get25 25

Requiring the cancelation also to
quadratic and higher order does not
ωij = −ωij , (1.151) give any further constraint. This is a
general property of Lie groups, (i.e.,
group parametrized in a continuous and
i.e., ωij is an antisymmetric tensor. An antisymmetric tensor ωij can differentiable manner by a set of param-
be written in terms of a vector θi as in eq. (1.147), i.e., we can write eters), see e.g., Section 2.1 of Maggiore
ωij = −ijk δθk (where the minus sign is a convention, chosen so that δθi (2005).
corresponds to counterclockwise rotations, and the use of the notation
δθk stresses that this is an infinitesimal angle), so
Rij = δij − ijk δθk . (1.152)
Then, the infinitesimal form of eq. (1.140) is
xi → xi + ω ij xj
= xi − ijk xj δθk . (1.153)
As a check, we can consider a rotation around the z axis, so that δθ1 =

δθ2 = 0 and δθ3 = δθ. Then, eq. (1.153) gives x → x − (δθ)y, y →
y + (δθ)x, z → z, which is the infinitesimal form of the counterclockwise
rotation around the z axis, x → x cos θ − y sin θ, y → x sin θ + y cos θ.
Systems of units
2
As discussed in the Preface, there are two common systems of units, SI
and Gaussian, each one with its own advantages. We begin by defining 2.1 The SI system 27
them and discussing their relation, which involves some subtleties. The 2.2 Gaussian units 31
SI system is the most widely used in most contexts but an acquaintance 2.3 SI or Gaussian? 36
with the Gaussian system can also be very useful, in particular to prepare
the transition from classical electrodynamics to quantum field theory,
where (for reasons that we will explain) nowadays only Gaussian units
are used. Therefore, while we will use SI units in this book, we will
explain how to quickly translate the results into Gaussian units and, in
App. A, we will collect some of the most important formulas, written in
Gaussian units.
2.1 The SI system

Since its establishment in 1960, the International System of Units, or
SI (from the French Système International ), has imposed itself as the
international standard. The SI is based on seven basic units from which
all other units can be derived. For our course, we will really only need
four of them: the meter (the unit of length, m), the kilogram (the unit 1
Two more basic units are the kelvin
of mass, kg), the second (the unit of time, s), that together form the (unit of temperature, K) and the
m.k.s. system used in classical mechanics, and the ampere (the unit of mole (amount of substance, mol).
electric current, A).1,2 The SI includes a seventh base unit,
Over the years, the general trend in defining the basic SI units has the candela (cd), related to lumi-
nous intensity as perceived by the
been to get rid of definitions involving any man-made standard, or prop- human eye, mostly of interest for
erties of macroscopic materials, or descriptions of measurements, and biology and physiology. See https:
rather define them using fundamental constants of Nature, or quantum //www.bipm.org/utils/common/pdf/
si-brochure/SI-Brochure-9-EN.pdf
properties of matter at the atomic level. For instance, the meter was
for a detailed description.
originally defined in 1793 as one ten-millionth of the distance from the 2
equator to the North Pole along a great circle and, after other redefi- Note that, while the correct spelling of
the last name of André-Marie Ampère
nitions, was eventually redefined in 1899 as the distance between two (1775–1836) involves an accent, in En-
lines marked on a prototype meter bar made of an alloy of platinum glish the unit of measure “ampere” is
and iridium and conserved in the International Bureau of Weights and written without the accent. So, we
will refer to Ampère’s law, but the cur-
Measures in Sèvres, France. Such a definition had obvious intrinsic prob-
rent unit is the ampere. Note also
lems of reproducibility (national meter prototype had to be fabricated that units derived from names of per-
and distributed), stability with time, and made reference to specific ex- sons are written with lower cases, as
perimental conditions (e.g., the distance between the lines had to be in ampere, coulomb, or kelvin (except
when grammatical rules require an up-
measured at the melting point of ice). Similarly, the ancient definition per case letter), while their symbols are
of the second was based on the Earth’s rotation period, so that 1 day = written in upper case, A for ampere, C
24 hr = 24 × 3600 s. The modern definitions of the units of time and of for coulomb, K for kelvin.
28 Systems of units
length are different. The second is defined in terms of the frequency of a

3
The exact definition is that the un- specific atomic transition.3 Given this definition of a second, the meter
perturbed ground state hyperfine tran- is now defined in term of the speed of light c, stating that, by definition,
sition frequency of an atom of Cs 133 is
∆ν = 9 192 631 770 Hz, where 1 Hz =
1 s−1 . c = 299 792 458 m/s . (2.1)
This definition is consistent with the previous definition of the meter

based on a reference bar within the experimental error, but get rids of
any reference to specific macroscopic objects or detailed measurement
processes. In the same spirit, the kilogram is now no longer defined
in terms of a reference object, but rather from the Planck constant h,
stating that, by definition, h = 6.626 070 15 × 10−34 J s, where the unit
of energy, the Joule, is related to the basic units by J = kg m2 s−2 . Note
that, in this way, h and c are used to define the units and therefore their
values are fixed by definition, and have no experimental error associated
4
Similarly, the kelvin (K) and the mole with them.4
(mol), are defined by fixing, respec- For electromagnetic phenomena, the SI system proceeds by defining a
tively, the Boltzmann constant
base unit for electric current, the ampere (A). Since a current is a charge
kB ≡ 1.380 649 × 10−23 J K−1 , (2.2) flowing per unit time, this induces the definition of a derived SI unit of
and the Avogadro number charge, the coulomb (C), from 1 A = 1 C/s. In 2019, the SI definition
of the ampere (that, as we discuss in more detail next, was previously
NA ≡ 6.022 140 76 × 1023 mol−1 .
(2.3) based on the force between two parallel wires carrying a current) has
been changed, in order to relate it to fundamental constants rather than
to experimental settings: now the ampere is defined from 1 A = 1 C/s,
and the coulomb is defined in terms of the electron charge −e, stating
that, by definition,
e ≡ 1.602 176 634 × 10−19 C . (2.4)
To understand the reason underlying this definition and the relation

with the earlier definition, let us look at the force exerted between static
charges, and at the force between parallel wires carrying currents. It is
an experimental fact that two static charges, at a distance r, attract or
repel each other with a force inversely proportional to the square of the
distance. Even before having defined the units of electric charge, we also
know that the force is proportional to the charge q1 of the first body
and to the charge q2 of the second body, as could be shown comparing
systems with a different number of individual electron charges. This
gives Coulomb’s law,
q1 q2
F = k 2 r̂ . (2.5)
r
The value of the proportionality constant k depends, of course, on the
units chosen for the electric charge or, vice versa, could be used to define
the unit of electric charge. In the SI system, the constant k is denoted
as 1/(4π0 ), so
1 q1 q2
F= r̂ . (2.6)
4π0 r2
The constant 0 is called the vacuum electric permittivity, or just the
vacuum permittivity.
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moment’s notice. Sad accounts are daily coming in of the people
about here; every person who ventures out is robbed and beaten:
several people are waiting here for an escort. I cannot so much
blame the Shilhahs and Súsís;[87] they have been sadly oppressed
by the Sultán’s army; and now it is gone, they are repaying
themselves. They acknowledge no law but that of force, and exhibit
but little trace of any religion: their tribes extend, with intervals, to the
Gambia. This has been a dies non.
Sunday, Apr. 3.—Therm. 72°.—A large wolf stole up to the battery
during the night, which roused us all. To-day the wind feels cold, and
there is such a heavy fog that we cannot see the sea; the sun rarely
broke through. There is, at least, a difference of 40°. between the
temperature of to-day and yesterday out of doors, and of 8 to 10
within. Felt not all well, and kept all day to my carpet: beginning to
get tired of Agadír. An arrival from Teródánt, but it brought no news.
Monday, Apr. 4.—Therm. 65°. Very cold, and a mist equal to rain.
All hard at work in making leather bottles, &c., for the water.
Received a large present of fish. A large Káfilah[88] passed this
morning for Teródánt. Did not leave the battery all day.
Tuesday, Apr. 5.—Therm. 72°. The mist continues heavy, and
quite darkening the air. Not very well; kept within the battery. Alas! all
our bread is gone, and these people eat none; and as it is the feast
of unleavened bread, the Jews cannot make any for me, a
deprivation which I feel not a little. The man was seized again by the
devil. Heard the history of the enchanted castle, and the black
woman, who lives at three days’ ride from this place. Heard likewise
of the Jews, and of the tombs. I must see them on my way to Wád
Nún.
Wednesday, Apr. 6.—Therm. 72°. Heavy mist, with rain in the
N.W. A dies non.
Thursday, Apr. 7.—Therm. 76°. Beginning to look out for news:
my man returned from the mines; the specimens he brought were
very bad; he found great difficulty in getting any at all. There was a
market to-day, where I bought nothing but a few carrots. Quite tired
of Agadír. Hope two or three days will decide whether I can go on or
not.
Friday, April 8.—Therm. 60°. Very cold. My fingers were so
chilled, that I could not dress myself. At noon a courier arrived; all is
right; wrote my letters, and after detaining the man an hour,
dispatched him again to Mogadór, to say that we should be ready to
start at an hour’s notice. The feast of the Passover finishes to-day: it
has been very cold, with a strong breeze from the N.E.
Saturday, April 9.—Therm. 70°. Day beautiful; but a stiff gale from
the E. This is the clearest day we have yet had here. The mountains
can be seen distinctly: hard at work in arranging bags, &c.
Sunday, April 10.—Therm. 74°. Weather beautiful. Read the
service. A large káfilah is now passing from Sús; the mountains very
visible; in the afternoon there was a repetition of the easterly wind,
accompanied with the dust, which was very distressing.
Monday, April 11.—Therm. 68°. Wind strong from the E.
Disappointed again, as Hájí Majíibí[89] will not start for some days.
Our horses are to leave Mogadór to-morrow, in order that they may
be fresh for the start (‘Inshállah’) on Saturday next.
Tuesday, April 12.—Therm. 68°. The wind has got more to the N.
with weather very clear. This delay makes me very fidgetty: besides,
I am so well known here, that various reports have been circulated
about me, which rather annoy me. In the evening, thermometer fell
to 56°, when it became very cold. The horses and mules are to leave
Mogadór to-day.
Wednesday, April 13.—Therm. 60°. A dies non. Felt very poorly:
had a touch of the lumbago. Weather variable. Thirst excessive.
Thursday, April 14.—Therm. 70°. Looking out for the arrival of the
horses, as Hájí Majíibí is to start to-day. The people here are rather
too inquisitive, and I am getting rather alarmed. Evening came, but
brought no tidings of my horses, nor has a courier arrived. I am very
uneasy, and all the people here full of conjectures. The Hájí is
thinking only of himself. If he would only consider for one moment
what an object of suspicion I am, while I remain here, he would hurry
on; but no, it is all self in this country. I cannot bite, and therefore I
had better not shew my teeth. Wind got round to the E. The
thermometer fell 11°., when it became very cold. Went to my carpet
rather sulky.
Friday, April 15.—Therm. 70°. This is the first day of the
Mohammedan year 1252. The horses, &c. have arrived. I made my
present to the Sheïkh; got the Sultán’s letter, and one for Sheïkh
Mobarik. A report has reached Mógador, that a party is waiting for
me, who have determined to murder me. The governor here is very
desirous not to let me go. I question, however, if there are any real
grounds for these fears. At half-past seven there came on one of the
severest gales of wind I ever experienced; it threatened the very
fortress: a heavy sea, with lightning in the S.E. The gale from the
N.W. continued to blow hard till half-past nine. This change of
weather may go much against me. I find that I am an object of great
suspicion. A party have sent to ask me to prescribe for a man who
has been bewitched, and is now in a decline. I promised to see him
on Monday, although he lives twenty miles off. This may, however,
do me some good. The people of his tribe offered to bring him here,
but I pointed out the danger of removing him, and hope to gain their
good-will by going so far to visit a Muselmán. Tired, but not sleepy:
no appetite, and out of spirits.
Saturday, April 16.—Therm. 72°. Day beautiful; the gale passed
off without doing any damage. There was one about six weeks ago,
which threatened destruction to the whole place. Despite all I said
about the sick man, they have brought him to-day to Fontí. I had
promised to go down and see him, when the sun was a little lower; I
was scarcely half way down the rock, when I met him on the road; he
was attended by eight of his people, who took it by turns to hold him
on his horse, a splendid animal; the poor Sheïkh, Hájí Ibráhím, was
seriously ill. As he was so far up, I ordered him to the governor’s,
and told his attendants to lay him down, and let him obtain some
rest, previous to my examination of him. I found him in a sad state,
nearly dying to all appearance; he had been frightened, as they call
it, by some spirit, whom, as usual, they had burned out: he had been
fired all over his stomach, which had now lost all its powers. I gave
him a saline draught with tartar acid in effervescence, and made him
a good basin of arrow-root. He no sooner tasted it, than he put the
bowl to his mouth, and nearly emptied it, telling the crowd, that had
now collected to see the holy man, that he had got at last what his
stomach was craving for. I promised to make him a breakfast on the
morrow, and to give him some medicines. By my treatment of him, I
got no little credit; for which I can obtain some help from him in
return. Am heartily sick of this place; although it has lost all its
commerce, it has still a considerable revenue; it may be considered
a frontier town, and is capable of being well defended; it receives
one ducat a-head for all slaves that pass through it, two ounces for
each camel, half a peseta for each mule, and two blanquillas for
each donkey; and as it is in the great road to Sús and Súdán, these
imposts produce a large income.
Sunday, April 17.—Therm. 74°. Had hardly returned from my
patient, when Hájí Majíibí arrived. I repaired immediately to the
governor. All is now arranged for my departure to-morrow, at break
of day: hard at work in packing up. Wrote my letters: dispatched
Cohen and his boy: received a blessing in the synagogue yesterday,
which cost four dollars. I have to part with most of my things, as I
shall be allowed only two mules; the sharks are therefore looking out
for what they can get. I am quite sick at heart at these Moors: poor
ignorant creatures. I have just this moment learned that there is a
town E. of Teródánt, called Tazelt, where there is a Christian church,
in perfect preservation, well finished and painted, but shut up: it is
held in some veneration by the natives, who can only look into it
through the windows. There are also Christian villages in the
neighbourhood of the church. Went down to Fontí; every thing works
well; I am to start as a soldier, accompanying some mules: took
leave of my patient, who is to go with me; but not a soul has an idea
of this. Cohen is very anxious to go on. I have, at his own request,
given him a letter to Lord Glenelg: have packed up every thing: am in
a great bustle. I fear, however, there will be some detention to-
morrow. I suspect the courier has been stopped, as no escort was
visible at sun-set. Laid down to rest, but with no chance of sleeping,
as I am to be up at the earliest dawn, to start, if possible, to-morrow.
Monday, April 18.—Therm. 70°. Up at four A.M., but did not get
away till seven. I was accompanied as far as the river by the
governor, and four soldiers, Hájí Ibráhím, and our own party; in all
sixteen souls. At half-past eight we came to the boundary of the
district, where a prayer was offered up for the Sultán; after which, the
governor and his party returned. In defiance of all I said about Hájí
Ibráhím’s state of health, he would go on, or rather his tribe
compelled him, to his own house, distant a ride of four hours. Here
we stopped, and had kuskusú and barley-cakes with butter, and
some leben (sour milk). Ibráhím was, indeed, in a sad state of
health.[90] I gave him the medicines I thought best. The perfect
indifference shewn by Hájí Majíbí towards a fellow-creature quite
disgusted me. Had my horse shod, and proceeded S. to Stúka,
attended by a strange semi-devil from the Hájí (Ibráhím), who told
me that I need be under no alarm, as he could bring one hundred
horse into the field, and had promised to protect me. Crossed the
Sús river, which is here a considerable stream, although twenty
miles from the sea. We arrived at a little before six P.M., at the house
of Sheïkh Hamed, who is a fine young man: he and the people of his
town were all out at prayers. The country is fine, with large
plantations of figs and almonds. During the time that our food was
preparing, I was amused with some good ball-firing, the party
standing on one leg or lying down: they are a merry people. We
commenced with bread and butter and honey; then came kuskusú;
then tea till midnight. Abú here received from one of his countrymen
some account of his friends. The pocket-handkerchief is used for the
towel generally, and the corner of the mat lifted up for wiping the
nose: the belching is quite beastly. Passed but a bad night.
Tuesday, April 19.—Therm. 72°. Up at four A.M. and got off at six.
Just before starting, I had the place half-full of patients. I had been
bored to death the night before with questions. One man was
brought to me with a ball in his foot; and by way of assisting me to
cure him, the gun was brought from which the ball had been
discharged. Accompanied by the brother of the Sheïkh and four of
his people, and Hájí Ibráhím’s semi-devil, we reached the Mésah, a
finer river here than at Sús. Its course was S.S.W. We rode along its
banks through a fine and populous district, called Assa, and crossed
it at the great Sók (Tlátah.) Here we met the Sheïkh of ’Akúlí, with
twenty horsemen. Our party stopped; it was a trying moment for me:
the two parties held a council, and after some ten minutes, the
muhabbah-bik[91] (welcome) was pronounced. Here Hájí Ibráhím’s
semi-devil was sent back, and one of the other party took his place,
and conducted us to the house of Sheïkh ’Alí at Tamasert, in the
populous district of ’Akúlí, from which the sea is distant about a half
mile. The people here are said to be very bad characters, and their
looks confirm the tale. We had tea and kuskusú. The Sheïkh was ill,
and I was required to cure him, and a dozen others; but I pretended
to be unwell, and with this view I went without food, for the second
day. Some of Abú’s countrymen came to play and sing to him; and
thus kept me awake till midnight: afterwards the vermin, which were
a worse plague than last night, prevented me from sleeping.
Wednesday, April 20.—Therm. 70°. Heavy rain. Up at five A.M.
After eating and drinking, the people took me out to find a spring;
they had water enough, and so I pretended to point out the spot
where they are to dig. We got off at nine, accompanied by Sheïkh
’Alí. Owing to the rain, we travelled very slowly. I fear that I have had
to pay dear for passing this place. We arrived at the residence of a
great saint. This humbug has the power of taking me any where
through Sús. I bought him for dollars. At this point the Sheïkh
left us to return home. The country is completely cultivated: it is
backed by four regular rows of limestone-hills, which serve as a kind
of embankment against the desert. They are now cutting the corn,
which produces more than one hundred fold, most of the seeds
throwing out four stems, and some five. I am not over-pleased with
my conductor, Hájí Majíbí, who, I see plainly, is making a job out of
my journey. We passed the tomb of a great saint, El Ab, where all
the party, but the Káfri (myself) offered up their prayers. We then
entered a pass, which required some hard climbing. My horse
became so lame, that I was compelled to walk the rest of the
journey, a distance of three hours; when we reached the residence
of another great saint. Here they have to prepare a room for myself,
as I cannot be permitted to enter his apartment. My grumbling to-day
has been of service. I have some Tumbucktú quilts laid over my
carpet to serve for a bed. Received some barley-cakes and honey,
but could not eat them; afterwards butter and honey, and leben (sour
milk); but it will not do: a biscuit is the only food I have taken this day,
although I have fasted for three. The Moors, and Hájí Majíbí
amongst them, who had taken some refuse kuskusú from some
labourers on the road, were eating and drinking till midnight. Not
being allowed to enter the room of the saint, I was put into the
garden, until one was prepared. This is the district of Eit Bamáram.
The water is here both bad and scarce.
Thursday, April 21.—Therm. 74°. Weather muggy, with much rain.
I had been promised that I should reach Wád Nún to-day; but after
travelling two hours, having waited till past nine for the Moors to eat
three times, we met a courier from Wád Nún, and we were then
taken out of our road to a house, where we are to stop all day. This, I
am convinced, is owing to Hájí Majíbí not having sent word in proper
time. I am most grievously disappointed, but must bear it as well as I
can; the day hangs very heavy on my hands. A lot of these beasts
came as usual for physic; called me káfrí, and all the rest of it, but
could get nothing to eat. I would not advise any other traveller to
come through Sús: they ask for every thing, but will neither give, nor
even shew any thing. They affect much on the score of religion;
never going in or out, sitting up or standing, without the Bismillah. At
eight P.M. got four eggs, and had some biscuit. I received a message
from the Sheïkh, stating that we are to arrive to-morrow. This place is
Tisseret, famed for its copper mines.
Friday, April 22.—Up at four, A.M., or rather up all night. Vermin in
myriads. Hurried away; and after one hour’s march, stopped for two
more to eat. At length we reached Ifran Ochran, the last town in Eit
Bamáram. Passed the range of mountains in Lower Sús, and
entered Wád Nún. During the route, saw people reaping corn, with
arms by their side. Wád Nún is a large town, with several small
clusters of buildings: it derives its name[92] from a Portuguese
Queen, Núnah. Hence Wád Nún is the valley of Núnah: the place is
distant from the sea a journey of five or six hours. Our first halt was
on the banks of a magnificent stream of water. When we came to the
spring (Agusa), we washed and drank, while the people prayed. A
fine line of hills protects it from the Sahra. We found here the Sheïkh
waiting for us, who took us at once into his house: at half-past five he
gave us a good dinner, which set me all right. I am much pleased
with him. After tea, all the great folks of the place came to see me:
as soon as he had read the Sultán’s letter, he sent for Hájí Majíbí:
when he came back at nine, he said he wanted three double-
barrelled guns, silver-mounted, and the barrels damascened in gold,
together with an air-gun; to which I am to add my brace of pistols. I
talked over all the wonders of England, and then wrote to Mr.
Willshire to tell him what I had done. The Sheïkh assures me, he will
send me without the least danger. I like him much: he has a large
and fine family. I have brought him a handsome present, and I fear
he expects that I shall return this way back: but this is not in the
bond. Abú is very helpless. Here one begins to see slavery again:
the house swarms with slaves, who form a large item of property.
This Berúk is a person of great wealth: he possesses forty thousand
head of cattle, and has never less than one thousand camels,
working between here and Súdán. His eldest son is a fine young
man. Went to bed at midnight, quite done up.
Saturday, April 23.—Therm. 76°. Symptoms of heat. Had my sour
milk, and then unpacked my things. The Sheïkh highly amused with
the pillow, and the little globe firing the guns: he was smoking and
laughing alternately. All goes on well. I was kept up to write my
letters, and they are not yet sent off: these people are so very
dilatory, where they are not immediately interested. Patients are
beginning to come in. The fellows, who were so free on the road,
have come a little to their senses. Lots of patients, and amongst
them a man, who had been wounded sadly. Had the whole of the
Sheïkh’s family with me: gave each of his little children a bracelet. In
the afternoon walked about and round the town: went to the Abú
Sebah’s tents; from thence to the garden, where I saw a fine crop of
apples: saw likewise several heïries, both of dromedaries and
horses. As the Sheïkh’s cattle were coming in, I perceived that what
looked like a river, was a very small stream of water: it is the Assaka.
The view from the heights is rather pretty over fields of tobacco and
plantations of date-trees; here and there a garden, and many fine
wells: saw a part of my companions, who are to be fasting to-day,
but we hope we shall have some supper, although I am sick at the
sight of my sable attendants, who have the itch very bad. I shall have
to remain here at least three weeks, although I should be glad to
shorten the time.
Sunday, April 24.—Therm. 76°. I was kept up till midnight grinding
a small barrel-organ; and fainting with hunger, I took at last to the
kuskusú, and got some sleep. This morning my patients have
increased, so that I am obliged to say “hold.” Here the people are
really ill; but so stupid or stubborn, that it is impossible to do them
any good. Gorged to their throats, they sleep half their time away,
and then wonder they are ill. The houses here are better than any in
Marocco, and look like casts[93] in plaster, being built piece by piece
in moulds. These people have no idea of taking a draught, and they
sip the most nauseous medicines. As soon as all are asleep, I take
the opportunity of writing up the journal, and reading the prayers.
This is Sók-day, and no little bustle. I do not feel very well, the heat is
so excessive. We had a capital supper of meat, mixed with grapes
and butter; a strange mixture, but a good dish. A man, who has got a
gold mine here, has come to ask me about it. Great doings may be
expected here to-morrow, as I have given to twenty persons strong
doses of medicine. But they are such fools.
Monday, April 25.—Therm. 70°. Very close; heavy dew through
the night, during which I was called up twice to visit patients, some of
whom are very ill; but I am expected to cure them by merely looking
at them; a most disheartening business. Up early and went to the
garden; returned home, and visited patients. All my cigars are gone,
and I am now manufacturing a pipe. Have the prospect of being here
a month; but I must bear it all, as I am quite in the power of these
people. Walked round the town, which is a large one: went to the
millah; looked about for springs. Am sadly bored. They will not give
me a moment’s rest.
Tuesday, April 26.—Therm. 76°. Very hot, and towards mid-day
the sun was oppressive beyond description. Had a strange request
from Hájí Majíbí, whom I hate: he had the impudence to ask me for
one of my gold watches, although he knows they are worth here five
hundred dollars. I shall put him in the hands of Mr. Willshire, to whom
I shall write strongly on the whole subject. The Sheïkh had a
conversation with Abú and myself this evening, and promised us
every thing we could desire; he assured me that he both could and
would protect us. I felt quite satisfied with this: but later in the
evening, that scoundrel, Majíbí, came and started difficulties; that
there was danger here, and much to be arranged there: he was not
aware of the conversation I had had with the Sheïkh. I was sadly
annoyed, and determined to give him a set-down in the morning.
t
Drawn by J. G. Wilkinson Esqre. from a Sketch taken Drawn on Stone & Printed by P. Gauci, 9, North Cres .
by the late John Davidson. Bedford Sqre.
Style of Buildings of Wadnoon.

(Large-size)
Wednesday, April 27.—Therm. 70°. Made Abú write, for he cannot

talk, to this Majíbí, to ask if he meant to say that his party did not
wish me to go on: if so, that I would return, as I cared little upon the
subject, and had a ship waiting for me. He was taken somewhat
aback at this, and admitted that the observations came from himself,
and not from the Sheïkh. I shall write to Mr. Willshire, and give him
my candid opinion of this scoundrel, whose object is to induce me to
give him a bribe for his assistance. I will see him d———d first. Went
out to see my patients, when I was stopped by a marabout, who
humbugged me out of a dollar. ’Tis well to keep on good terms with
these impostors, who possess considerable influence. This journey
will ruin me, and I fear I shall break down. No person can be more
kind than the Sheïkh has been; and but for this blackguard I should
do very well. I must, however, put up with him, and patiently wait to
see how matters will turn out. The people here are a fine race; they
wear their hair generally curled, and are not at all dark; they are tall
in figure, ride upon spare horses without a bit, and with only a mere
rope put round the nose and neck of the animal; they have fine eyes
and beautiful teeth. The majority of those in better circumstances
have one or more of the desert-horses, which are fed entirely on
camel’s milk, and this only every fourth or fifth day. It is very strange
that they know nothing of the Jebel Khal, the black mountain; Sók
Assa is distant only one day’s journey; Tatta four; Akka five; Tódeny
twenty; from this to Arowán is another twenty; and thence to
Tumbuktú seven. There is another route to Tumbuktú. From hence
to Woden or Weddán, the name better known, twenty days; then to
Tishít ten; and to Tumbuktú ten more. Caravans frequently go to
Jennah from Tishít; from thence to Gwalátah, they say often; thence
to Drah in ten days; to Táfilelt in fifteen, &c. Some of my patients are
improving; others giving up medicines altogether. There is a
Muselmán-fast to-day, which is slept away. The weather has become
very cold. The thermometer has fallen 12°.
Thursday, April 28.—Therm. 68°. Some rain has fallen in the
night. I was called up to give the Sheïkh his medicines. It is perfectly
useless doing any thing for people who take five meals a-day, and
pass the rest of their time in sleep; with no exercise and no
employment, but sitting outside their doors or inside their walls, to
see on whom they can pounce. It is really sad to look upon the two
sides of the picture, which this place presents; the one, the
possessors of the soil, the daring, hardy, and commanding
inhabitants reduced to the level of the brute by his indulgence in food
and sleep, with the past forgotten, the future uncertain: the other
subject to slavery in its most abject form. A large káfilah is expected
from Mogadór to-day or to-morrow, and one from Súdán in a few
days. These will enliven us; but I hardly dare venture out. The
Christian is still upon me. The population may amount to two or three
hundred families, together with twelve Jewish, who are the working
classes, and manufacture good guns and daggers, ornaments in
silver, brass, &c. They are also the tailors and shoemakers, and do
the iron-work. The Muselmáns are the intermediate merchants, or
cultivators or breeders of cattle, which are very fine. There are some
Talebs here, and one has written for me a few prayers most
beautifully. Four káfilahs leave this place annually, consisting each of
slaves varying from three hundred to one thousand. At that time a
large encampment is formed outside of the town, where they collect
and prepare for the journey. I have been used most rascally by
Majíbí: I wish I dared kick him. Went out again to look for water: had
a conversation to-day about Christians, whom these people conceive
to have no idea of any religion. I tried, but in vain, to explain the
matter to them. I have evidently some foes here, because I will not
submit to be plucked unmercifully. I should be left without a penny or
a rag, were I to give all, or even half of what they endeavour to extort
from me. I am fairly tired out. The weather feels very cold. The
thermometer is down to 60°. We have had some rain to-day. I am
anxious to get out; but fear I am in for at least another month, and
must bear it.
Friday, April 29.—Therm. 58°. The wind is still east, and all are
suffering from the cold: I feel the effect of it, being but thinly clad. It
tells pretty sharply to a man with bare arms, legs, and feet. It is a sad
state of existence, where no one cares for his fellow, and throws off
a person the moment he ceases to be useful. As soon as they have
got what they want, they care not what becomes of you. I hope this
is not the case with the Sheïkh, who is certainly a very superior
person; but I find I shall have great difficulty in managing my affairs
here. Abú is not competent for this. To-day we are to have a private
conference with the Sheïkh, as soon as all the persons are gone to
the mosque, which is here a mere circle of large stones. The kiblah
is not quite due east, but rather to the south of it. I wish the Sheïkh
was quite well: but it is impossible to do him, or any of these people
here any good, with their five or six meals a-day, and without
exercise of body or mind, except a constant craving after sensual
enjoyments and for gold, gold, which is always uppermost in their
thoughts. The subject of Beïrúk’s[94] communication was to have an
English consul resident at his port,[95] and to open a trade direct with
England; that for this purpose he would send one of his sons to
London to manage his affairs; that by these means the route to
Súdán would be opened at once; the whole distance be performed in
forty or forty-four days, and a large trade be carried on; that a courier
would perform the journey to Súdán in fifteen or twenty days,
according to the heat—more wonderful for the man than the beast;
that England would receive in exchange gum, almonds, wool, hides,
ostrich feathers, ivory, and all the produce of Súdán, which would
find its way to Wád Nún rather than by a lengthened journey to
Marocco. I wrote to Lord Glenelg on the subject.
Saturday, April 30.—Therm. 60°. Wind still east. The Sheïkh now
thinks it will be impossible for me to cross the desert for the next four
months, owing to the great heat. The last caravan-kafilah left only a
fortnight before I arrived, and none go during the summer. I told him
that I ought to be sent on to overtake it. This he promised to do, if I
wished it; but he warned me of the danger of all the party perishing
from the want of water, as all the springs are then dried up, and the
camels cannot carry heavy loads during the hot months. I have
written to Mr. Willshire, and a courier has been dispatched to
Tumbuktú to say that a Christian is coming, accompanied by the
cousin of the King, Hámed Libbú. Hájí Majíbí now finds that I am too
canine for him to be in the same apartment, and thank Heaven he
has removed. I have the utmost contempt for this beast. The
population of this place rather exceeds six hundred, with great
capabilities for increase. The Sheïkh has about four hundred horse
that he could bring into the field. Went to the Millah, where I saw a
very beautiful woman anxious to get away. Her husband is one of the
principal workmen here. Provisions are cheaper than in any other
place. A good bullock may be purchased for 20s. to 30s.; heifers,
15s.; a sheep, 2s. to 4s.; fowls vary: I paid ½d. each; bread, ¼d. per
lb.; wheat, 5 to 6 pesetas; barley, 3 to 4 do. A camel varies in price
from 20 to 30 dollars; a slave from 20 to 100. All accounts are kept in
mitcalls.
Sunday, May 1.—Therm. 50°. The people are half killed with the
cold. Read the prayers. Received newspapers from England through
Mr. Willshire, and walked round the garden. The cold was so intense
this evening, that I was compelled to put on two cloaks. The Sheïkh
is still harping upon his favourite project, and complaining that all his
profits go into the hands of the Sultán of Marocco by the trade
through Mogadór.
Monday, May 2.—Therm. 60°. Symptoms of the weather
becoming warmer. This will be a great comfort to me: bare feet and
arms feel the cold too severely. Fasted all yesterday; hope to get
something to eat to-day, as there is a savoury smell of kabábs. It is
wonderful to witness the fear the children have of a Christian. The
itch has broken out with violence amongst the people: I suppose I
shall have my turn. There is one comfort in the cold; it drives away
all the vermin, to which the people here are quite indifferent, as their
skin is so thick, that neither lice or fleas can penetrate it. The káfilah
from Súdán is expected in twenty days. The cold felt here is not
unusual at this time of the year, as our winter is their hottest season.
Am extremely anxious to hear from Mogadór.
Wednesday, May 4.—Therm. 60°. Weather warmer; but I still feel
the cold: went only to the gardens. A part of the káfilah is just
arrived; it made its journey in haste: it brings accounts of a war
between the Fellátahs and Bambári. This will make it rather awkward
for me, should hostilities continue, although I do not pass in the
immediate vicinity of the people of Bambári.
Thursday, May 5.—Therm. 60°. Suffering from a severe cold to-
day, did not go out.
Friday, May 6.—Therm. 68°. It got very warm towards noon. I
have now been a fortnight here, and with every prospect of being
detained a month longer. I am bored to death by the people, of
whom the more I see the worse I like them. Had a visit from Sheïkh
’Ali, and a part of his tribe: I was obliged to be civil, lest I should have
to return to Suweïrah; as in that case he would protect me. Health
but indifferent, as I can get no peace or quiet from the importunities
of the people here. Three persons have just come sixty miles to ask
me to tell them where the silver is to be found, that they know is in
great plenty about Tamenart. The old mines are not worked; but the
nokrah is in the field (ground). I told them it was impossible to give
an answer without visiting the spot, or seeing some of the stones
from it. If I am to stop to make them all rich, Heaven knows when I
shall come back. As I have the character of a magician, every dirty
devil in and about the place claims a prescriptive right to the entré,
and the beasts come loaded with vermin. Took a short walk, and
retired to rest.
Saturday, May 7.—Therm. 70°. Weather beautiful. Feeling myself
much better, I strolled to the water, which is not a river, but a kind of
lake. Met with rhododendrons in full flower, and saw a great variety
of odoriferous shrubs, with an abundance of tortoises. I was followed
by one of the Sherí beggars for money. A nephew of the Sultán has
got off under[96] .........[97] order. The river Assaka is to the south of
the mountains that enclose Wád Nún; but I can gain no information
about it. Sick at heart with my evening parties, which occur quotidie
(daily). Received letters from Mr. Willshire. It is lucky that we are
here: we have done the big wigs.
Sunday, May 8.—Therm. 70°. Weather is becoming quite warm;
was up early, and read the prayers: sent Abú to the Sók, and tried to
purchase a dagger, but it was too dear. The Sheïkh’s son bought one
at night, but it was not equal to the one I had seen. Found a
document relating to the Auléd Deleim, one of the Arab tribes: took a
walk with Sheïkh Ali, whose people returned to a sheep-killing, &c. I
have no chance of sleeping, as they are to leave at day-break.
Monday, May 9.—Therm. 72°. Weather beautiful. The camels are
collecting for the Sók: the best will not fetch more than thirty mitcals,
and good ones are to be bought for twenty. This animal changes its
name every year for the first nine years; but after that time, it is the
jemál. In the first year, and while suckling, it is el howar; in the
second, el ben áshar; in the third, el bellibún; in the fourth, el hak; in
the fifth, el zoa; in the sixth, el thání; in the seventh, el erba’; in the
eighth, el siasí; and in the ninth, el jemál: the female is called nákah:
it has been known to work for thirty years; after which they are
turned out. The Heïri horse does not cost more than from sixty to
one hundred dollars. All kinds of cattle and food are cheap to a fault.
With regard to their buildings, the rooms are long and narrow, but
without windows, as the doors answer for that purpose; and there
they keep their guns, swords, saddles, powder-horns, &c. Driven out
of the room by vermin. At four, A.M., I commenced washing my
clothes.[98] The Jewish gentleman was offended, that I did not pay
him a visit on the Sabbath: after this, I helped to cut up the sheep,
and set about preparing my own food; but as these people think I
dislike what they cook for me, I ate a little by way of training, and I
shall now have a daily dose of it. Abú gets more helpless daily. I fear
he has become religiously crazy. Walked to the water, and then had
a large party in the evening, which kept me up till midnight.
Tuesday, May 10.—Therm. 76°. The heat is returning again; very
sultry at noon. Saw the Sheïkh’s three wives, and his numerous
family of sons and daughters; they were more pleased with me than I
with them; there were two pretty girls amongst them, but very dirty:
the Sheïkh’s forty slaves, and all the family, were out to see one of
the ladies off. Walked round the whole place, which is larger than I
thought: ascended a hill that commands all the approaches to the
town; it formerly had a fort upon it, and should have it now. On the
east of the town there is a large enclosure, surrounded with walls,
where the great Sók is held. There are twenty large public ovens for
cooking meat and bread; ten smaller ones for fritters, made of honey
and butter; and some for sphynge and kuskusú, and many matmórs
for corn; and a good supply of water.
All are in expectation of this great day, or rather of these three
days. Sidi Hasan, and all the people from the neighbourhood, will be
here. Beyond the enclosure is a very neat tomb of the Sheïkh’s
predecessor, from which there is a good view of the country. On the
plain are many scattered villages, and four extraordinary hills, distant
from each other about one thousand yards. By the last is meant the
mountains which shut in a part of Wád Nún: in the back ground is a
fine range of hills, about one thousand feet high. I am now in my
third week here, with every chance of detention for three or four
weeks longer. I got rid of my evening party by pretending to be ill.
Wednesday, May 11.—Therm. 76°. Weather most favourable for
acclimatizing me for the Sahrá. Went to the house of ’Omar to see
Banna; had two ladies to examine. There was too great
fastidiousness on the part of some, and too little on the part of
others: from this I went to the Millah. My pretty patient is better to-
day, but is very stupid, as they all are: the Jewesses bear away the
palm of beauty; and dirty as they proverbially are, they are
cleanliness itself, as compared with the Arab ladies, whose filth, dirt,
and misery, are dreadful. A consul lives here, which is quite absurd.
Received many blessings. Had some disturbance about my horse:
the people are beginning to find fault, and my food is falling off; nor
do they give the same hearty welcome as formerly: the fact is, one
must be always giving to get on with these people. I took to my haik,
and like it much better than the sulham. I am nearly devoured by flies
by day, and fleas by night. Am pleased more and more with Hájí El
Khirefí, who is to take us, I hear, to Súdán, where he has been
twenty times. My evening party was much better behaved than
usual.
Thursday, May 12.—Therm. 75°. Went to breakfast with Solomon
the Jew, whose wife is making up my shirts, and mother washing my
clothes; but such is the fashion of the place. Went some distance up
the bed of the river, which is now quite dry. Nothing is talked of but
Sidi El Rásí and the Moutardi, or the forthcoming great Sók. Food is
very bad, and the meat stinking. Saw a beautiful gun that was made
here; the Sheïkh promises to get me one[99] before I go. Some rain
fell before noon, and it became quite cold, as evening came on. To-
day I had many more lady-patients, as Abú calls them; their
complaints are curious. One is to be fattened up to thrice her present
size. Several wish to know how they are to become mothers: many
want me to give them the powder which Christians have to make
people love them. Eyes to be cured out of number; and as they are
far too many for me to attend to all, I have selected two, who are
very ill, and whom I think I can cure, and I have put the rest away as
incurable. Rain has fallen all round, but has not yet reached here.
The husband of the pretty Jewess has sent to say, that he shall feel
hurt, if I do not breakfast with him, as I had breakfasted with
Solomon. I promised to go to-morrow.
Friday, May 13.—Therm. 78°. Went to breakfast with the pretty
Jewess; her husband is a man of some information. We had too
much to eat: afterwards walked about two miles up the bed of the
river, which, when full, must contain a large body of water. Visited the
Arab tents; on returning, saw some very fine women, but they were
beastly dirty. Morality is here at a very low ebb; the husband
prostitutes his wife, and the father his child; and this is considered no
disgrace, if it is done for a valuable consideration, and not for love.
Witnessed a very disgusting scene with the Sheïkh; he has three
wives all living, but he still likes his slaves: his fourth wife died lately;
she was an Arab of great beauty, for whom he gave two hundred
camels, twelve slaves, and a great quantity of produce. His eldest
son is a chip of the old block, and is running after every woman he
takes a fancy to, the pretty Jewess excepted, whose person is
considered sacred. Three Moors have destroyed themselves for her
in a fit of love, and all come to see her. As she is a patient, I can visit
her daily. I am becoming very impatient, and the people tell me I
have a quick temper: but the fact is, time is no object to the people
here; their care is merely how to waste it; as soon as one meal is
finished, they want to sleep till the time for the next arrives. It is quite
dreadful to see the sad state to which human nature is degraded in
this place. The small-pox has broken out with great violence, and I
have to run the gauntlet without the least chance of escaping from it.
A slave was brought in, charged with attempting to run away; it
appears to have been a little love affair: he was punished by having
a fifty-six pound-weight fastened to his leg.
Saturday, May 14.—Therm. 74°. The poor creature is still chained,
and has not a drop of water, although it is now mid-day. The Sheïkh
should have clean hands before he thus punished others. Went out
again to the bed of the river, and made the round of the Khiesin: met
many beautiful women, if they were only clean. Their husbands are
all gone to Súdán; had to prescribe for some fifty of them; they
wanted me to make their faces of the same colour as my legs and
arms. My watch, rings, &c. were a great object of curiosity with them:
had a little difficulty in making some of them shew their tongues,
which they consider a mark of impudence; they all like to be closely
examined; their figures are perfectly beautiful; most of them were at
work. I had prayers and thanks in abundance. One very merry lass
had on her neck a curious collection: it embraced a little bag of
spices and scents; the nail of a horse-shoe; a leather charm, called
horse; a broken shell; a large glass bead; another horse; a shell
again (habha); a small habha, consisting of a circular piece of agate,
and a large horse at the centre, from which was suspended the horn
of a young ram; and the same things were repeated, forming the
circle. Some of the women work beautiful háïks, blankets, and
carpets. In the large tents are two beds raised on feet, with a cradle,
the canopy for the bride. There are two tents in each inclosure of
thorns or prickly pears. Visited the Millah, and then home.
Sunday, May 15.—Therm. 76°. Had a long conversation with
Zeïn, who was at Tumbuktú when Major Laing was killed.[100] It
appears that Hámed Libbú gave all the protection he could; but that
the Sheïkh, to whose care the Major was entrusted, expected to gain
a large plunder by his destruction. Zeïn had seen also Caillié[101]
several times during his stay there. Things have now changed. The
government is now Fulání. Hámed Libbú killed four thousand of the
Tawáriks in one day, and has quite reduced that tribe to subjection.
These marauders are, however, still in force between Tumbuktú and
Sakatú. A large portion of the former place, inhabited by the
Tawáriks, has been burnt down. Zeïn tells me there is no chance of
my getting to Sakatú. The Wád and the river are both beset by the
Tawáriks. The distance by land is forty days to Jennah, which is
distant from Tumbuktú eight days; from thence to Sansanding and
Ségó four or five days; and from thence twenty days to the source of
the river. To Kóng he did not know how long the journey was; but it is
very distressing, and is all performed on foot. Read the prayers. Day
very hot towards noon. There is a little quiet to-day, as all the people
are out at the Sók; which has been but badly attended, as there is no
arrival from Suweïrah, and the káfilah will not be here for some days.
Walked out and looked at Wesnúnah, which is about six miles south,
and to As-sérir about four east. The Sheïkh has about forty villages,
containing a population, they say, of twenty-five thousand. My spirits
are much depressed to-day. My position is truly miserable: I am
bored to death, and obliged to submit, through the fear of making
enemies amongst savages. I have scarcely a book to while away the
time, and no means of improving myself, or getting information from
others. I have at last learnt the name of the river; it is the
Bontkonman, or, as some call it, Buatkuman: it is called also
Mulasar. The large river that is laid down in the maps, as the Akassa,
runs nearly due east and west, flowing through the south of Wád

A Modern Introduction To Classical Electrodynamics 1St Edition Michele Maggiore Full Chapter

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A Modern Introduction to Classical

Electrodynamics 1st Edition Michele

CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS

ATOMIC, OPTICAL, AND LASER PHYSICS

PARTICLE PHYSICS, ASTROPHYSICS, AND COSMOLOGY

STATISTICAL, COMPUTATIONAL, AND THEORETICAL PHYSICS

An important aspect of our presentation is that we keep distinct the

Geneva, January 2023

4 Elementary applications of Maxwell’s equations 57

4.2.2 Magnetic field of a static current density 76

6 Multipole expansion for static fields 133

7 Special Relativity 155

7.3.6 Covariant transformations of fields 173

8 Covariant formulation of electrodynamics 183

9 Electromagnetic waves in vacuum 217

10 Electromagnetic field of moving charges 235

11 Radiation from localized sources 269

11.2.1 Electric dipole radiation 284

12 Post-Newtonian expansion and radiation reaction 295

13 Electromagnetic fields in material media 345

14 Frequency-dependent response of materials 365

15 Electromagnetic waves in material media 381

15.4.2 Boundary conditions at the surface of conductors 396

16 Scattering of electromagnetic radiation 401

A Electrodynamics in Gaussian units 411

where the sum runs over i = 1, 2, 3 in three spatial dimensions, as we will

The vector product is given by

(a × b)i = ijk aj bk , (1.5)

A very useful identity is

ijk ilm = δjl δkm − δjm δkl . (1.7)

Exercise 1.1 Show that

a·(b × c) = ijk ai bj ck . (1.8)

Exercise 1.2 Using eq. (1.7), show that

a × (b × c) = (a·c)b − (a·b)c , (1.9)

Observe that the vector product is not associative: in general, a×(b×c)

Exercise 1.3 Using eq. (1.7), show that

ijk ijm = 2δkm . (1.11)

Double-check the result by directly identifying the combinations of in-

1.2 Differential operators on scalar and

(∇f )i = ∂i f (gradient of a scalar function) , (1.12)

or, in vector form,

∇f = (∂x f )x̂ + (∂y f )ŷ + (∂z f )ẑ . (1.13)

The expression in polar coordinates (r, θ, φ) can be obtained by perform-

∇·v = ∂i vi (divergence of a vector field) , (1.14)

which is a scalar field (i.e., a quantity invariant under rotations, defined

(∇ × v)i = ijk ∂j vk (curl of a vector field) . (1.15)

Given a function f , after forming the vector field ∇f , we can obtain

∇2 f = ∂i ∂i f = (∂x2 + ∂y2 + ∂z2 )f , (1.16)

where ∂x = ∂/∂x, etc. Similarly, we can differentiate further the diver-

The last equality follows because ∂i ∂j is an operator symmetric in the

∇×v = x̂(∂y vz − ∂z vy ) + ŷ(∂z vx − ∂x vz ) + ẑ(∂x vy − ∂y vx ) (1.31)

1.3 Integration of vector fields. Gauss’s

by breaking the curve over infinitesimal segments, and introducing, in

For a closed surface, this defines the flux of v through S.

Note in particular that, if C is closed, the line integral of a gradient

The orientation convention is that, if we go around the loop C in the

Since this is valid for generic w, we get

or, in vector notation,

Yet another useful identity following from Stokes’s theorem is obtained

A useful application of this formula is obtained choosing ui (x) = xi .

However, for a planar surface

Gauss’s theorem extends Stokes’s theorem further, to integration over

every loop in V can be continuously shrunk to a point). Then, there

(a × b)i = ijk aj bk , (1.5)

ijk ilm = δjl δkm − δjm δkl . (1.7)

a·(b × c) = ijk ai bj ck . (1.8)

ijk ijm = 2δkm . (1.11)

(∇ × v)i = ijk ∂j vk (curl of a vector field) . (1.15)

Rij = δij − ijk δθk . (1.152)