Photosphere

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This article is about the astronomical object. For the image stitching feature, see VR
photography. For the solar disk in Egyptian mythology, see Aten.
Not to be confused with Photon sphere.

The structure of the Sun, a G-type star:

1. Core
2. Radiation zone
3. Convection zone
4. Photosphere
5. Chromosphere
6. Corona
7. Sunspot
8. Granules
9. Prominence
Not labelled: Solar wind
The surface of the Sun

The photosphere is a star's outer shell from which light is radiated.

The term itself is derived from Ancient Greek roots, φῶς, φωτός/phos, photos meaning
"light" and σφαῖρα/sphaira meaning "sphere", in reference to it being a spherical surface
that is perceived to emit light. It extends into a star's surface until the plasma becomes
opaque, equivalent to an optical depth of approximately 2⁄3,[1] or equivalently, a depth
from which 50% of light will escape without being scattered.
A photosphere is the deepest region of a luminous object, usually a star, that is
transparent to photons of certain wavelengths.

Contents

 1Temperature
 2Composition of the Sun
 3Sun
 4Other layers of the Sun
 5References
 6External links

Temperature[edit]
The surface of a star is defined to have a temperature given by the effective
temperature in the Stefan–Boltzmann law. Stars, except neutron stars, have no solid or
liquid surface.[2] Therefore, the photosphere is typically used to describe the Sun's or
another star's visual surface.

Composition of the Sun[edit]

The Sun is composed primarily of the chemical elements hydrogen and helium; they
account for 74.9% and 23.8% of the mass of the Sun in the photosphere, respectively.
All heavier elements, called metals in astronomy, account for less than 2% of the mass,
with oxygen (roughly 1% of the Sun's mass), carbon (0.3%), neon (0.2%), and iron
(0.2%) being the most abundant.

Sun[edit]

Solar atmosphere: temperature and density.[3] See here for meanings of extra lines in the graph.

The Sun's photosphere has a temperature between 4,500 and 6,000 K (4,230 and

5,730 °C)[4] (with an effective temperature of 5,777 K (5,504 °C))[5] and a density of
about 3×10−4 kg/m3;[6] increasing with depth into the sun.[3] Other stars may have hotter or
cooler photospheres. The Sun's photosphere is around 100 kilometers thick, and is
composed of convection cells called granules—cells of plasma each approximately
1000 kilometers in diameter with hot rising plasma in the center and cooler plasma
falling in the narrow spaces between them, flowing at velocities of 7 kilometer per
second. Each granule has a lifespan of only about twenty minutes, resulting in a
continually shifting "boiling" pattern. Grouping the typical granules are super granules
up to 30,000 kilometers in diameter with lifespans of up to 24 hours and flow speeds of
about 500 meter per second, carrying magnetic field bundles to the edges of the cells.
Other magnetically-related phenomena include sunspots and solar faculae dispersed
between the granules.[7] These details are too fine to be seen when observing other
stars from earth.

Other layers of the Sun[edit]

The Sun's visible atmosphere has other layers above the photosphere: the 2,000
kilometer-deep chromosphere (typically observed by filtered light, for example H-alpha)
lies just between the photosphere and the much hotter but more tenuous corona. Other
"surface features" on the photosphere are solar flares and sunspots.

References[edit]
1. ^ Carroll, Bradley W. & Ostlie, Dale A. (1996).  Modern
Astrophysics.  Addison-Wesley.
 2. ^ As of 2004, although white dwarfs are believed to crystallize
from the middle out, none have fully solidified yet [1]; and only
neutron stars are believed to have a solid, albeit unstable [2],
crust [3]
3. ^ Jump up to:a b John A. Eddy (1979). "SP-402 A New Sun: The
Solar Results From Skylab". NASA.
4. ^ The Sun – Introduction
5. ^ World Book at NASA – Sun
6. ^ Stanford Solar Center (2008). "The Sun's Vital Statistics".
7. ^ "NASA/Marshall Solar Physics".  NASA.

External links[edit]
 Animated explanation of the Photosphere  (University
of South Wales).
 Animated explanation of the temperature of the
Photosphere (University of South Wales).
 Solar Lower Atmosphere and Magnetism (MPS)
show

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Sunspot
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigationJump to search
For other uses, see Sunspot (disambiguation).

Sunspots

 Top: sunspot region 2192 during the partial

solar eclipse in 2014[1] and sunspot region

1302 in September 2011.

 Middle: sunspot close-up in the visible

spectrum (left) and another sunspot in UV,

taken by the TRACE observatory.

 Bottom: A large group of sunspots stretching

about 320,000 km (200,000 mi) across.

Sunspots are temporary phenomena on the Sun's photosphere that appear as spots

darker than the surrounding areas. They are regions of reduced surface temperature
caused by concentrations of magnetic field flux that inhibit convection. Sunspots usually
appear in pairs of opposite magnetic polarity.[2] Their number varies according to the
approximately 11-year solar cycle.
Individual sunspots or groups of sunspots may last anywhere from a few days to a few
months, but eventually decay. Sunspots expand and contract as they move across the
surface of the Sun, with diameters ranging from 16 km (10 mi)[3] to 160,000 km
(100,000 mi).[4] Larger sunspots can be visible from Earth without the aid of a telescope.
[5]
 They may travel at relative speeds, or proper motions, of a few hundred meters per
second when they first emerge.
Indicating intense magnetic activity, sunspots accompany secondary phenomena such
as coronal loops, prominences, and reconnection events. Most solar flares and coronal
mass ejections originate in magnetically active regions around visible sunspot
groupings. Similar phenomena indirectly observed on stars other than the Sun are
commonly called starspots, and both light and dark spots have been measured. [6]

Contents

 1History
 2Physics
o 2.1Lifecycle
o 2.2Solar cycle
o 2.3Longer-period trends
 3Modern observation
 4Application
 5Starspot
 6Gallery
o 6.1Videos
 7See also
 8References
 9Further reading
 10External links
o 10.1Sunspot data

History[edit]
Main article: Solar observation
The first meaningful mention of a sunspot was in around 300 BCE, by the ancient
Greek scholar Theophrastus, student of Plato and Aristotle and successor to the latter.
[7]
 The earliest surviving record of deliberate sunspot observation dates from 364 BCE,
based on comments by Chinese astronomer Gan De in a star catalogue.[8] By 28 BCE
Chinese astronomers were regularly recording sunspot observations in official imperial
records.[9] The first drawings of sunspots were made by an English monk named John of
Worcester in December 1128.[10] Sunspots were first observed telescopically in late 1610
by English astronomer Thomas Harriot and Frisian astronomers Johannes and David
Fabricius, who published a description in June 1611.[11]. After Johannes Fabricius' early
death at the age of 29, the book remained obscure and was eclipsed by the
independent discoveries of and publications about sunspots by Christoph
Scheiner and Galileo Galilei, few months later[12].
Physics[edit]
Heliophysics

Phenomena

 Coronal hole
 Coronal mass ejection
 Geomagnetic storm
 Solar flare
 Solar particle event
 Solar prominence
 Sunspot
 Space Weather

 v
 t
 e

Although they are at temperatures of roughly 3,000–4,500 K (2,700–4,200 °C), the

contrast with the surrounding material at about 5,780 K (5,500 °C) leaves sunspots
clearly visible as dark spots. This is because the luminance (which is essentially
"brightness" in visible light) of a heated black body (closely approximated by the
photosphere) at these temperatures varies greatly with temperature. Isolated from the
surrounding photosphere, a single sunspot would shine brighter than the full moon, with
a crimson-orange color.[13]
Sunspots have two parts: the central umbra, which is the darkest part, where the
magnetic field is approximately vertical (normal to the Sun's surface) and the
surrounding penumbra, which is lighter, where the magnetic field is more inclined.
Lifecycle[edit]
Any given appearance of a sunspot may last anywhere from a few days to a few
months, though groups of sunspots and their active regions tend to last weeks or
months, but all do eventually decay and disappear. Sunspots expand and contract as
they move across the surface of the Sun, with diameters ranging from 16 km (10 mi) to
160,000 km (100,000 mi).
Although the details of sunspot generation are still a matter of research, it appears that
sunspots are the visible counterparts of magnetic flux tubes in the Sun's convective
zone that get "wound up" by differential rotation. If the stress on the tubes reaches a
certain limit, a loop of the tube may project through the photosphere, the Sun's visible
surface. Convection is inhibited at the puncture points; the energy flux from the Sun's
interior decreases, and with it, surface temperature, causing the surface area through
which the magnetic field passes to look dark against the bright background of the
photosphere.
The Wilson effect implies that sunspots are depressions on the Sun's surface.
Observations using the Zeeman effect show that prototypical sunspots come in pairs
with opposite magnetic polarity. From cycle to cycle, the polarities of leading and trailing
(with respect to the solar rotation) sunspots change from north/south to south/north and
back. Sunspots usually appear in groups.
Magnetic pressure should tend to remove field concentrations, causing the sunspots to
disperse, but sunspot lifetimes are measured in days to weeks. In 2001, observations
from the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) using sound waves traveling
below the photosphere (local helioseismology) were used to develop a three-
dimensional image of the internal structure below sunspots; these observations show
that a powerful downdraft underneath each sunspot, forms a rotating vortex that
sustains the concentrated magnetic field.[14]
Solar cycle[edit]
Main article: Solar cycle

Butterfly diagram showing paired Spörer's law behavior

Sunspot activity cycles are about every eleven years, with some variation in length.
Over the solar cycle, sunspot populations rise quickly and then fall more slowly. The
point of highest sunspot activity during a cycle is known as solar maximum, and the
point of lowest activity as solar minimum. This period is also observed in most
other solar activity and is linked to a variation in the solar magnetic field that changes
polarity with this period.
Early in the cycle, sunspots appear in the higher latitudes and then move towards the
equator as the cycle approaches maximum, following Spörer's law. Spots from two
adjacent cycles can co-exist for some time. Spots from adjacent cycles can be
distinguished by direction of their magnetic field.
The Wolf number sunspot index counts the average number of sunspots and groups of
sunspots during specific intervals. The 11-year solar cycles are numbered sequentially,
starting with the observations made in the 1750s. [15]
George Ellery Hale first linked magnetic fields and sunspots in 1908. [16] Hale suggested
that the sunspot cycle period is 22 years, covering two periods of increased and
decreased sunspot numbers, accompanied by polar reversals of the solar
magnetic dipole field. Horace W. Babcock later proposed a qualitative model for the
dynamics of the solar outer layers. The Babcock Model explains that magnetic fields
cause the behavior described by Spörer's law, as well as other effects, which are
twisted by the Sun's rotation.
Longer-period trends[edit]
Main article: Solar cycle
Sunspot numbers also changes over long periods. For example, from 1900 to the
1960s, the solar maxima trend of sunspot count was upwards; for the following decades
it diminished.[17] Overall, the Sun was last as active as this period over 8,000 years ago. [18]
Sunspots number is correlated with the intensity of solar radiation over the period since
1979, when satellite measurements became available. The variation caused by the
sunspot cycle to solar output is on the order of 0.1% of the solar constant (a peak-to-
trough range of 1.3 W·m−2 compared with 1366 W·m−2 for the average solar constant).[19][20]

400-year history of sunspot numbers, showing Maunder and Dalton minima, and the Modern Maximum (left)
and 11,000-year sunspot reconstruction showing a downward trend over 2000 BC – 1600 AD followed by the
recent 400 year uptrend

Modern observation[edit]
Main article: Solar observatory
The Swedish 1-m Solar Telescope at Roque de los Muchachos Observatory on La Palma in the Canary
Islands.

Sunspots are observed with land-based and Earth-orbiting solar telescopes. These

telescopes use filtration and projection techniques for direct observation, in addition to
various types of filtered cameras. Specialized tools such
as spectroscopes and spectrohelioscopes are used to examine sunspots and sunspot
areas. Artificial eclipses allow viewing of the circumference of the Sun as sunspots
rotate through the horizon.

ALMA observes a giant sunspot at 1.25 mm wavelength[21]

Since looking directly at the Sun with the naked eye permanently damages human

vision, amateur observation of sunspots is generally conducted using projected images,
or directly through protective filters. Small sections of very dark filter glass, such as a
#14 welder's glass, are effective. A telescope eyepiece can project the image, without
filtration, onto a white screen where it can be viewed indirectly, and even traced, to
follow sunspot evolution. Special purpose hydrogen-alpha narrow bandpass filters
and aluminum-coated glass attenuation filters (which have the appearance of mirrors
due to their extremely high optical density) on the front of a telescope provide safe
observation through the eyepiece.
Application[edit]
Due to its link to other kinds of solar activity, sunspot occurrence can be used to help
predict space weather, the state of the ionosphere, and hence the conditions of short-
wave radio propagation or satellite communications. High sunspot activity is celebrated
by members of the amateur radio community as a harbinger of excellent ionospheric
propagation conditions that greatly increase radio range in the HF bands. During
sunspot peaks, worldwide radio communication can be possible on frequencies as high
as the 6-meter VHF band.[22] Solar activity (and the solar cycle) have been implicated
in global warming, originally the role of the Maunder Minimum of sunspot occurrence in
the Little Ice Age in European winter climate.[23] Sunspots themselves, in terms of the
magnitude of their radiant-energy deficit, have a weak effect on solar flux [24] however the
total solar flux increases as "At solar maximum the Sun is some 0.1% brighter than its
solar-minimum level". On longer time scales, such as the solar cycle, other magnetic
phenomena (faculae and the chromospheric network) correlate with sunspot
occurrence.[25]

Starspot[edit]
Main article: Starspot
In 1947, G. E. Kron proposed that starspots were the reason for periodic changes in
brightness on red dwarfs.[6] Since the mid-1990s, starspot observations have been made
using increasingly powerful techniques yielding more and more
detail: photometry showed starspot growth and decay and showed cyclic behavior
similar to the Sun's; spectroscopy examined the structure of starspot regions by
analyzing variations in spectral line splitting due to the Zeeman effect; Doppler
imaging showed differential rotation of spots for several stars and distributions different
from the Sun's; spectral line analysis measured the temperature range of spots and the
stellar surfaces. For example, in 1999, Strassmeier reported the largest cool starspot
ever seen rotating the giant K0 star XX Triangulum (HD 12545) with a temperature of
3,500 K (3,230 °C), together with a warm spot of 4,800 K (4,530 °C).[6][26]

Gallery[edit]


Sunspots, September 2011.

 
 

A view of the coronal structure above a different sunspot seen in

October 2010.

Sunspot 923 at sunset and in solar scope.

Sunset superior mirage of sunspot #930.

Sunset in Bangladesh, January 2004.

 
 

Tracking sunspots from Mars (animation; 8 July 2015).

Videos[edit]

Photospheric broadband image from flaring Sunspot NOAA 875 as observed with the GREGOR Fabry-Pérot
Interferometer on 26 April 2016.[27][28]

Chromospheric Halpha line-core image from flaring sunspot NOAA 875 as observed with the GREGOR Fabry-
Pérot Interferometer on 26 April 2016.[27][28]

This visualization tracks the emergence and evolution of a sunspot group as seen starting in early February
2011 and continuing for two weeks. Images are sampled one hour apart. The camera tracks the movement of
the solar rotation. At this scale, a 'shimmer' of the solar surface is visible, created by the turnover of convection
cells.
Groups of sunspots can emerge and dissipate over a matter of days. This is a movie built from images taken by
the SDO/HMI instrument over the course of 13 days during the rise of solar cycle 24.

See also[edit]
 Letters on Sunspots
 Joy's Law
 List of solar cycles
 Radio propagation
 Solar cycle
 Solar rotation
 Space weather
 Spörer's law (predictive)
 Starspot
 Wolf number sunspot number

References[edit]
1. ^ Gentle giant sunspot region 2192
2. ^ "Sunspots". NOAA. Retrieved  22 February  2013.
3. ^ "How Are Magnetic Fields Related To Sunspots?". NASA.
Retrieved 22 February 2013.
4. ^ "Sun". HowStuffWorks. Retrieved 22 February 2013.
5. ^ harvard.edu
6. ^ Jump up to:      Strassmeier, K. G. (10 June 1999). "Smallest
a b c

KPNO Telescope Discovers Biggest Starspots (press release

990610)".  University of Vienna. Archived from the original  on
24 June 2010. Retrieved 20 February 2008.  starspots vary
on the same (short) time scales as Sunspots do ... HD  12545
had a warm spot (350  K above photospheric temperature; the
white area in the picture)
7. ^ "Letter to the Editor: Sunspot observations by Theophrastus
revisited"
8. ^ "Early Astronomy and the Beginnings of a Mathematical
Science".  NRICH (University of Cambridge). 2007.
Retrieved 14 July  2010.
9. ^ "The Observation of Sunspots". UNESCO Courier. 1988.
Archived from  the originalon 2 July 2011. Retrieved  14
July  2010.
10. ^ Stephenson, F. R.; Willis, D. M. (1999). "The earliest
drawing of sunspots". Astronomy & Geophysics.  40  (6):
6.21–6.22.  Bibcode:1999A&G....40f..21S. do
i:10.1093/astrog/40.6.6.21. ISSN 1366-8781.
11. ^ "Great Moments in the History of Solar Physics 1". Great
Moments in the History of Solar Physics. Archived from  the
original on 1 March 2006. Retrieved 19 March  2006.
12. ^ Carlowicz, Michael J.; López, Ramón (2002). Storms from
the Sun: The Emerging Science of Space Weather. Joseph
Henry Press. p.  66. ISBN 9780309076425. Retrieved 19
June2020.
13. ^ "Sunspots". NASA. 1 April 1998. Retrieved  22
February  2013.
14. ^ NASA News Release (6 November 2001).  "SOHO reveals
how sunspots take stranglehold on the Sun".  SpaceFlight
Now.
15. ^ Tribble, A. (2003). The Space Environment, Implications for
Spacecraft Design. Princeton University Press. pp.  15–18.
16. ^ Hale, G. E. (1908). "On the Probable Existence of a
Magnetic Field in Sun-Spots". The Astrophysical Journal. 28:
315.  Bibcode:1908ApJ....28..315H. doi:10.1086/141602.
17. ^ "Sunspot index graphics". Solar Influences Data Analysis
Center. Retrieved 27 September  2007.
18. ^ Solanki SK; Usoskin IG; Kromer B; Schüssler M; et al.
(October 2004). "Unusual activity of the Sun during recent
decades compared to the previous 11,000
years". Nature. 431(7012): 1084–
1087.  Bibcode:2004Natur.431.1084S. doi:10.1038/nature029
95.  PMID  15510145. S2CID  4373732.
19. ^ "Solar Forcing of Climate".  Climate Change 2001: Working
Group I: The Scientific Basis. Archived from the original  on
15 March 2005. Retrieved 10 March  2005.
20. ^ Weart, Spencer (2006). Weart, Spencer (ed.). "The
Discovery of Global Warming—Changing Sun, Changing
Climate?".  American Institute of Physics. Retrieved  14
April2007.
21. ^ "ALMA Starts Observing the Sun". www.eso.org.
Retrieved 23 January  2017.
22. ^ Stu Turner. "Sunspots and Propagation". Ham Radio
School.com. Archived from the original  on 26 June 2017.
Retrieved 5 January 2020.
23. ^ Eddy J.A. (June 1976). "The Maunder
Minimum". Science. 192 (4245): 1189–
1202.  Bibcode:1976Sci...192.1189E.  doi:10.1126/science.19
2.4245.1189.  PMID  17771739. S2CID  33896851. PDF
Copy Archived 16 February 2010 at the Wayback Machine
24. ^ Hudson H (2008).  "Solar activity". Scholarpedia.
Retrieved 27 January  2011.
25. ^ Willson, R. C.; Gulkis, S.; Janssen, M.; Hudson, H. S.;
Chapman, G. A. (1981). "Observations of solar irradiance
 variability".  Science.  211  (4483): 700–
2. Bibcode:1981Sci...211..700W. doi:10.1126/science.211.44
83.700.  PMID  17776650.
26. ^ "Derived images showing rotation of cool and warm
starspots". Leibniz Institute for Astrophysics. Archived
from  the original on 29 May 2010. Retrieved  14
January  2013.
27. ^ Jump up to:a b Puschmann, K. G.; Kneer, F.; Nicklas, H.;
Wittmann, A. D. (2007). "From the "Göttingen" Fabry-Perot
Interferometer to the GREGOR FPI".  Modern Solar Facilities -
Advanced Solar Science: 45.  Bibcode:2007msfa.conf...45P.
28. ^ Jump up to:a b Sánchez-Andrade Nuño, B.; Puschmann, K. G.;
Kneer, F. (2007). "Observations of a flaring active region in
H[alpha]".  Modern Solar Facilities - Advanced Solar Science:
273.  Bibcode:2007msfa.conf..273S.

Further reading[edit]
 Carl Luetzelschwab, K9LA (October 2016). "The new sunspot
numbers".  QST. 100 (10): 38–41. ISSN 0033-4812.

External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has
media related to Sunspots.

 Sunspot Database based on Terrestrial (GPR/DPD)

and Satellite (SOHO/SDO) observations from 1872
to Nowadays with the newest data. ( )
 Solar Cycle 24 and VHF Aurora Website
(www.solarcycle24.com)
 Belgium World Data Center for the sunspot index
 High resolution sunspot image
 Sunspot images in high-res Impressive collection of
sunspot images
 NOAA Solar Cycle Progression: Current solar cycle.
o Current conditions: Space weather
 Lockheed Martin Solar and Astrophysics Lab
 Sun|trek website An educational resource for
teachers and students about the Sun and its effect
on the Earth
 Tools to display the current sunspot number in a
browser
o Propfire – displays current sunspot
number in browser status bar
 o HamLinks Toolbar – displays solar flux, A
Index and K Index data in a toolbar
 The Sharpest View of the Sun
 Daily Sunspot Update and Picture of the Sun
(www.spaceweather.com)
 Animated explanation of Sunspots in the
Photosphere (University of South Wales)
Sunspot data[edit]

 "11,000 Year Sunspot Number

Reconstruction". Global Change Master Directory.
Retrieved 11 March 2005.
o "Unusual activity of the Sun during recent
decades compared with the previous
11,000 years". WDC for
Paleoclimatology. Retrieved 11
March 2005.
 "Sunspot Numbers from Ancient Times to Present
from NOAA/NGDC". Global Change Master
Directory. Retrieved 11 March 2005.
o "SUNSPOT NUMBERS". NOAA NGDC
Solar Data Services. Retrieved 21
June 2010.[permanent dead link]
 International Sunspot Number
—sunspot maximum and
minimum 1610–present; annual
numbers 1700–present;
monthly numbers 1749–
present; daily values 1818–
present; and sunspot numbers
by north and south hemisphere.
The McNish–Lincoln sunspot
prediction is also included.
 American sunspot numbers
1945–present
 Ancient sunspot data 165 BC to
1684 AD
 Group Sunspot Numbers (Doug
Hoyt re-evaluation) 1610–1995
 Wilson, Robert M. (April 2014). Comparison of the
Variations of Sunspot Number, Number of Sunspot
Groups, and Sunspot Area, 1875-2013. Huntsville,
AL: National Aeronautics and Space Administration,
 Marshall Space Flight Center. Retrieved 13
March 2015.
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Star

Sunlight radiation

 Spectral class: G-type main-sequence star

NDL: 00572588

Categories: 
 Solar phenomena
 Vortices
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 This page was last edited on 25 November 2020, at 04:15 (UTC).
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