Trixie Maxine Marie L.

Cedeño

1. What is biotransformation?
Biotransformation is the process by which a substance changes from one chemical to another
(transformed) by a chemical reaction within the body. Metabolism or metabolic
transformations are terms frequently used for the biotransformation process.
However, metabolism is sometimes not specific for the transformation process but may include
other phases of toxicokinetics.
Microbial Biotransformation
Steroids constitute a natural product class of compounds that is widely distributed throughout
nature present in bile salts, adrenal-cortical and sex-hormones, insect molting hormones,
sapogenins, alkaloids and some antibiotics.16 In 1937 the first microbial biotransformation of
steroids was carried out.17 Testosterone was produced from dehydroepiandrosterone by using
Corynebacterium sp. Subsequently cholesterol was produced from 4-dehydroeticholanic and 7-
hydroxycholestrol using Nocardia spp..
Why is Microbial Transformation necessary?
Microbial biotransformation is widely used in the transformation of various pollutants or a large
variety of compounds including hydrocarbons, pharmaceutical substances and metals.7 These
transformations can be congregated under the categories: oxidation, reduction, hydrolysis,
isomerisation, condensation, formation of new carbon bonds, and introduction of functional
groups.8 For centuries microbial biotransformation has proved to be an imperative tool in
alleviating the production of various chemicals used in food, pharmaceutical, agrochemical and
other industries.

2. How is biotransformation different from typical fermentation?

Conventional Fermentation:

 Fermentation is a 'metabolic process' in which microorganisms produces some

chemical change in 'organic substrates' through the action of enzymes.
 It is also known as the "extraction of energy" from carbohydrates in the 'absence of
oxygen'.

Biotransformation:

 Biotransformation is the change in chemical composition of a compound by an

organism.
 The end products of the transformation are generally  . It is also
known as mineralization.

 Example of biotransformation is the chemical alteration of amino acids, nutrients,

toxins and medicines in the human body.

3. Compare and contrast the production of natural, biosynthetic and semi-synthetic beta-lactam
antibiotics.

Natural

In the earliest years of antibiotic discovery, the antibiotics being discovered were naturally
produced antibiotics and were either produced by fungi, such as the antibiotic penicillin, or by
soil bacteria, which can produce antibiotics including streptomycin and tetracycline

Biosynthetic

Streptomycin biosynthesis

Bacteriocin biosynthesis

Protein involved in the synthesis of antibiotics. Antibiotics are organic compounds produced by
living organims that can selectively inhibit the growth of, or kill bacteria.

Semi-synthetic beta-lactam - A common form of antibiotic production in modern times is semi-

synthetic. Semi-synthetic production of antibiotics is a combination of natural fermentation and
laboratory work to maximize the antibiotic. Maximization can occur through efficacy of the drug
itself, amount of antibiotics produced, and potency of the antibiotic being produced. Depending
on the drug being produced and the ultimate usage of said antibiotic determines what one is
attempting to produce.

An example of semi-synthetic production involves the drug ampicillin. A beta lactam antibiotic
just like penicillin, ampicillin was developed by adding an addition amino group (NH2) to the R
group of penicillin. This additional amino group gives ampicillin a broader spectrum of use than
penicillin. Methicillin is another derivative of penicillin and was discovered in the late 1950s, the
key difference between penicillin and methicillin being the addition of two methoxy groups to
the phenyl group. These methoxy groups allow methicillin to be used against penicillinase
producing bacteria that would otherwise be resistant to penicillin.

4. How do transgenic plants and animals differ from plants and animals modified by
conventional breeding techniques?

Transgenic plants are plants into which one or more genes from another species have been
introduced into the genome, using genetic engineering processes. Techniques include the
biolistic method—in which a heavy metal is coated with plasmid DNA is shot into cells—and
Agrobacterium tumefaciens mediated transformation.

Transgenic animals are animals (most commonly mice) that have had a foreign gene deliberately
inserted into their genome. Such animals are most commonly created by the microinjection of
DNA into the pronuclei of a fertilised egg which is subsequently implanted into the oviduct of a
pseudopregnant surrogate mother. This results in the recipient animal giving birth to genetically
modified offspring. The progeny are then bred with other transgenic offspring to establish a
transgenic line. Transgenic animals can also be created by inserting DNA into embryonic stem
cells which are then micro-injected into an embryo which has developed for five or six days after
fertilisation, or infecting an embryo with viruses that carry a DNA of interest. This final method
is commonly used to manipulate a single gene, in most cases this involves removing or 'knocking
out' a target gene. The end result is what is known as a ‘knockout’ animal.

While conventional plant breeding is the development or improvement of cultivars using

conservative tools for manipulating plant genome within the natural genetic boundaries of the
species. Mendel's work in genetics ushered in the scientific age of plant breeding. The number of
genes that control the trait of interest is important to breeders. Qualitative traits (controlled by
one or a few genes) are easier to breed than quantitative traits (controlled by numerous genes).

5. Explain why the use of regulatory switch is desirable for the large scale production of a
protein?
Task 2

What are the different interactions between and among microorganisms? Give specific examples.

 Positive interaction: Mutualism, Syntrophism, Proto-cooperation, Commensalism

 Negative interaction: Ammensalism (antagonism), parasitism, predation, competition

Mutualism

o It is defined as the relationship in which each organism in interaction gets benefits from
the association.
o It is an obligatory relationship in which mutualist and host are metabolically dependent
on each other.
o Mutualistic relationship is very specific where one member of association cannot be
replaced by another species.
o Mutualism requires close physical contact between interacting organisms.
o Relationship of mutualism allows organisms to exist in habitat that could not be occupied
by either species alone.
o Mutualistic relationship between organisms allows them to act as a single organism.

Examples of mutualism:

Lichens: Lichens are an excellent example of mutualism. They are the association of specific
fungi and certain genus of algae. In lichen, the fungal partner is called mycobiont and algal
partner is called phycobiont is the member of cyanobacteria and green algae (Trabauxua)

Syntrophism

It is an association in which the growth of one organism either depends on or improved by the
substrate provided by another organism.

In syntrophism, both organisms in association get to benefit from each other.

Compound A

Utilized by population 1

Compound B
Utilized by population 2

Compound C

utilized by both Population 1+2

Products

In this theoretical example of syntrophism, population 1 is able to utilize and metabolize

compound A, forming compound B but cannot metabolize beyond compound B without co-
operation of population 2. Population 2is unable to utilize compound A but it can metabolize
compound B forming compound C. Then both population 1 and 2 are able to carry out a
metabolic reaction which leads to the formation of the end product that neither population could
produce alone.

Examples of syntrophism:

a. Methanogenic ecosystem in sludge digester

Methane produced by methanogenic bacteria depends upon interspecies hydrogen transfer by

other fermentative bacteria.

Anaerobic fermentative bacteria generate CO2 and H2 utilizing carbohydrates which are then
utilized by methanogenic bacteria (Methanobacter) to produce methane.

Protocooperation

o It is a relationship in which an organism in an association is mutually benefited with each

other.
o This interaction is similar to mutualism but the relationships between the organisms in
protocooperation are not obligatory as in mutualism.

Examples of Protocooperation:

a. Association of Desulfovibrio and Chromatium: It is a protocooperation between the carbon

cycle and the sulfur cycle.

b. Interaction between N2-fixing bacteria and cellulolytic bacteria such as Cellulomonas.

Commensalism

o It is a relationship in which one organism (commensal) in the association is benefited

while another organism (host) of the association is neither benefited nor harmed.
o It is a unidirectional association and if the commensal is separated from the host, it can
survive.

Examples of commensalism:

a. Non-pathogenic E. coli in the intestinal tract of human: E. coli is a facultative anaerobe that
uses oxygen and lowers the O2 concentration in the gut which creates a suitable environment for
obligate anaerobes such as Bacteroides. E. coli is a host which remains unaffected by
Bacteroides.

Amensalism (antagonism)

o When one microbial population produces substances that are inhibitory to other microbial
population then this interpopulation relationship is known as Ammensalism or
Antagonism.
o It is a negative relationship.
o The first population which produces inhibitory substances are unaffected or may gain
competition and survive in the habitat while other populations get inhibited. This
chemical inhibition is known as antibiosis.

Examples of antagonism (amensalism):

a. Lactic acid produced by lactic acid bacteria in the vaginal tract: Lactic acid produced by many
normal floras in the vaginal tract is inhibitory to many pathogenic organisms such as Candida
albicans.

Competition

o The competition represents a negative relationship between two microbial population in

which both the population are adversely affected with respect to their survival and
growth.
o Competition occurs when both populations use the same resources such as the same
space or same nutrition, so, the microbial population achieves lower maximum density or
growth rate.
 o Microbial population competes for any growth-limiting resources such as carbon source,
nitrogen source, phosphorus, vitamins, growth factors etc.
o Competition inhibits both populations from occupying exactly the same ecological niche
because one will win the competition and the other one is eliminated.

Examples of competition:

a. Competition between Paramecium cadatum and Paramecium aurelia: Both species of

Paramecium feeds on the same bacteria population when these protozoa are placed together. P.
aurelia grow at a better rate than P. caudatum due to competition.

Parasitism

o It is a relationship in which one population (parasite) get benefited and derive its nutrition
from other population (host) in the association which is harmed.
o The host-parasite relationship is characterized by a relatively long period of contact
which may be physical or metabolic.
o Some parasite lives outside the host cell, known as ectoparasite while other parasite lives
inside the host cell, known as endoparasite.

Examples of parasitism:

a. Viruses: Viruses are an obligate intracellular parasite that exhibits great host specificity. There
are many viruses that are parasite to bacteria (bacteriophage), fungi, algae, protozoa etc.

b. Bdellovibrio: Bdellavibrio is ectoparasite to many gram-negative bacteria.

Predation

o It is a widespread phenomenon when one organism (predator) engulf or attack other

organisms (prey).
o The prey can be larger or smaller than predator and this normally results in the death of
prey.
o Normally predator-prey interaction is of short duration.

Examples of Predation:
a. Protozoan-bacteria in soil: Many protozoans can feed on various bacterial population which
helps to maintain the count of soil bacteria at optimum level