Enaje, Shania Erika D.

MICROPAN 1 – Microbiology & Parasitology Lecture

BSN 1 – A Prof. Ailene Golloso

Chemistry of Life
ACTIVITY 4

1. Define the following: phototroph, chemotroph, autotroph, heterotroph,

photoautotroph, chemoheteretroph, endoenzyme, exoenzyme, plasmid, R-factor,
superbug, mutation, mutant and mutagen.
 Phototroph – microorganisms that use light as an energy source.
 Chemotroph – microorganisms that use either inorganic or organic chemicals as
an energy source.
 Autotroph – microorganisms that use carbon dioxide (CO2) as their sole source of
carbon.
 Heterotroph – microorganisms that use organic compounds other than carbon
dioxide (CO2) as carbon sources.
 Photoautotroph – microorganisms that use light as a carbon source and carbon
dioxide (CO2) as an energy source.
 Chemoheteretroph – microorganisms that use chemicals as a carbon source and
CO2 as an energy source.
 Endoenzyme – enzymes produced within a cell that remain within the cell to
catalyze reactions.
 Exoenzyme – produced within a cell and then released outside of the cell to
catalyze extracellular reactions.
 Plasmid – a DNA molecule separated from, and can replicate independently of,
the chromosomal. They are double stranded and, in many cases, circular.
Plasmids usually occur naturally in bacteria.
 R-factor – a genetic component of some bacteria that provides resistance to
antibiotics and can be transferred from one bacterium to another by conjugation.
 Superbug – a bacterium that has become resistant to antibiotics that usually are
used to treat it.
 Mutation – occurs when a DNA gene is damaged or changed in such a way as to
alter the genetic message carried by that gene.
 Mutant – an organism or a new genetic character arising or resulting from an
instance of mutation.
 Mutagen – an agent of substance that can bring about a permanent alteration to
the physical composition of a DNA gene such that the genetic message is
changed.
2. Discuss the relationships among apoenzymes, coenzymes and holoenzymes.
 Enzymes are either complex or holoenzymes that contains a protein part and a
non-protein part, and a simple enzyme which only consists of protein.
Apoenzymes is the protein part of the holoenzymes and the cofactor is the non-
protein part, which contains prosthetic groups and coenzymes.

3. Discuss catabolism and anabolism.

 Anabolism and catabolism are the two broad classes of biochemical reactions
that make up metabolism. Anabolism is the synthesis of complex molecules from
simpler ones. These chemical reactions require energy. Catabolism is the
breakdown of complex molecules into simpler ones. These reactions release
energy. Anabolic and catabolic pathways typically work together, with the energy
from catabolism providing the energy for anabolism.

4. Explain the role of ATP molecules in metabolism.

 ATP molecules are the major energy-storing or energy-carrying molecules in a
cell. ATP molecules are found in all cells because they are used to transfer
energy from energy-yielding molecules like glucose, to energy-requiring
reactions. It is used as an energy source, it is hydrolyzed to adenosine
diphosphate (ADP).

5. Discuss briefly: biochemical pathway, aerobic respiration, glycolysis, Krebs cycle,

Electron Transport Chain, oxidation-reduction reaction, photosynthesis.
 Biochemical pathway – a series of linked biochemical reactions occurring in a
stepwise manner, from a starting material to an end product.
 Aerobic respiration – the aerobic catabolism of nutrients to carbon dioxide, water,
and energy, and involves an electron transport system in which molecular
oxygen is the final electron acceptor. Most eukaryotes and prokaryotes use
aerobic respiration to obtain energy from glucose.
 Glycolysis – the breakdown of glucose to pyruvate, with the release of usable
energy. This metabolic process takes place in nearly all living cells.
 Krebs cycle – a sequence of biochemical reactions occurring in cells that is part
of the metabolism of carbohydrates to produce energy.
 Electron Transport Chain – (also referred to as the electron transport system or
respiratory chain); a series of oxidation-reduction reactions, whereby energy is
released as electrons which are transferred from one compound to another.
 Oxidation-reduction reaction – are paired reactions in which electrons are
transferred from one compound to another; an oxidation reaction is always paired
with a reduction reaction.
 Photosynthesis – a process by which green plants and other organisms turn
carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates and oxygen, using light energy
trapped by chlorophyll.
6. Differences among beneficial, harmful and silent mutations.
 Beneficial mutations are mutations that have a positive effect on the organism in
which they occur. They lead to new versions of proteins that help organisms
adapt to changes in their environment and are essential for evolution to occur.
Harmful mutations, on the other hand, are any random change in a gene's DNA
is likely to result in a protein that does not function normally or may not function
at all. A silent mutation is a change in the sequence of nucleotide bases which
constitutes DNA, without a subsequent change in the amino acid or the function
of the overall protein. It does nothing significant, not making a sound in the
orchestra of the cell.

7. Discuss briefly: Lysogenic conversion, transduction, transformation and conjugation

 Lysogenic conversion – process by which temperate phages (or lysogenic
phages) inject their DNA into a bacterial cell. The phage DNA integrates into the
bacterial chromosome, but does not cause the lytic cycle to occur – this is known
as lysogeny.
 Transduction – is the transfer of DNA from one bacterium to another through the
action of viruses. When a virus infects a bacterium, it injects its genetic material
into its victim and highjacks the bacterium’s machinery for synthesizing DNA,
RNA and proteins.
 Transformation – certain species of bacteria can ingest DNA segments, known
as plasmids, from their surroundings and incorporate the plasmids into their own
chromosomes. The bacterium must first enter a special state, called competence
that allows transformation to occur. To achieve competence, the bacterium must
activate a number of genes that express the required proteins.
 Conjugation – is the bacterial equivalent of sex. It involves physical contact
between two cells, possibly via a bridging structure called a pilus. Donor cells
must contain a small DNA segment called the F-plasmid, which the recipient
must lack. The donor cell provides a single strand of DNA from the F-plasmid
and transfers it to the recipient. The enzyme DNA polymerase then synthesizes a
complementary strand to produce the normally two-stranded DNA structure.

8. List several factors that affect the growth of microogranisms.

 Availability of nutrients
 Moisture
 Temperature
 Osmotic pressure and salinity
 Barometric pressure
 pH
 Gaseous Atmosphere
9. Describe each: psychrophilic, mesophilic, thermophilic, halophilic, haloduric,
alkaliphilic, acidophilic and barophilic.
 Psychrophilic – microorganisms that prefer cold tempeartures; like deep ocean
water.
 Mesophilic – microbes that grow best at moderate temperatures (e.g., 37 o C).
 Thermophilic – microorganisms that grow best at high temperatures.
 Halophilic – microorganisms that prefer to live in salty environments.
 Haloduric – microbes that do not prefer to live in salty environments, but which
are capable of surviving there (e.g., Staphylococcus aureus).
 Alkaliphilic – microorganisms that prefer to live in an environment with a pH >
8.5.
 Acidophilic – microorganisms that prefer to live in an environment with a pH of 2
to 5.
 Barophilic – piezophiles; microbes that can survive in high atmospheric pressure
(> 14.7 psi).

10. List 3 in vitro sites where microbial growth is encouraged.

 Chemically defined medium
 Complex medium
 Liquid media

11. Differences among enriched, selective and differential media and cite two examples
of each.
 Enriched media is a broth of solid containing a rich supply of special nutrients
that promotes the growth of fastidious organisms. Selective media is added
inhibitors that discourage the growth of certain organisms without inhibiting the
growth of organisms you want. MacConkey agar inhibits Gram + organisms-
allows Gram - to grow. And Differential media is the one that permits the
differentiation if organisms that grow on the media.

12. Explain the importance of using “sterile technique” in microbiology laboratory.

 Sterile technique is a method of careful lab manipulations that prevents foreign
cells (from the air or from you) from getting into your plates and cultures and
prevents the bacteria in your exercises from escaping into the environment. Its
importance is it prevents contamination of cultures from foreign bacteria inherent
in the environment. Furthermore, proper aseptic technique prevents microbes
used in the laboratory from accidentally being released into the environment and/
or infecting people working in the laboratory.

13. Describe the three types of incubators that are used in microbiology laboratory.
  A CO2 incubator (contains 5-10% CO2) also known as a gassed incubator,
inside is an atmosphere is created that is as natural as possible to develop cell
and tissue cultures.
 A non-CO2 incubator (contains room air) is used to culture cells to provide it with
the optimum temperature, moisture (sterile environment) and to maintain
optimum pH.
 An anaerobic incubator (the atmosphere is devoid of oxygen) provides an
effective means of isolation of anaerobes in a clinical laboratory.

14. Cite two reasons why bacteria die during the death phase.
 This could be caused by lack of nutrients.
 Could be caused by environmental temperature above or below the tolerance
band for the species.

15. Name at least 3 ways in which obligate intracellular pathogens can be cultured in the
laboratory.
They must be grown in;
 Embryonated chicken eggs
 Lab animals
 Cell cultures

16. List 3 in vitro sites where microbial growth must be inhibited.

 The autoclave
 Selective media
 Inoculated culture media

17. Differences among sterilization, disinfection and sanitation.

 Sterilization is the process in which all microorganisms are either inactivated or
are killed outright. It involves using temperatures, various chemicals, or gas, to
destroy microbes that may cause contamination or disease.
 Sanitization is the process in which pathogenic microorganisms are reduced in
number so that they are no longer harmful; this usually means that more than
99.99% of microbes need to be removed from surfaces. Some viruses and
spores are not affected by sanitization though.
 Disinfection describes a process that eliminates many or all pathogenic
microorganisms, except bacterial spores, on inanimate objects

18. Differences between bactericidal and bacteriostatic agents.

 The definitions of “bacteriostatic” and “bactericidal” appear to be straightforward:
“bacteriostatic” means that the agent prevents the growth of bacteria (i.e., it
keeps them in the stationary phase of growth), and “bactericidal” means that it
kills bacteria. In reality, there are not 2 pure categories of antimicrobial agents
 (one that exclusively kills bacteria and another that only inhibits growth). Rather,
those agents that are called “bactericidal” usually fail to kill every organism within
18–24 hours after the test, and most so-called “bacteriostatic” agents kill some
bacteria within the 18–24 hours after the test—often more than 90%–99% of the
inoculum, but not enough (>99.9%) to be called “bactericidal.”

19. Discuss the process of pasteurization and lyophilization.

 Pasteurization - process often disposable heating liquids or substances to 60 ° C
for 60 minutes or at a temperature of 70-80 ° C for 30 min. Technology was
opened in the mid XIX century by French microbiologist Louis Pasteur. During
this processing in the product there are killed vegetative forms of
microorganisms, but the spores remain in a viable state and in the event of an
enabling environment are beginning to develop rapidly.
 Lyophilization - way of drying with a soft substance, which is dried product, is
frozen and then placed in a vacuum chamber. The advantages of this method of
drying are that there is no impact of high temperatures on the preparation,
preservation of the dispersed phase of the preparation and use of volatile
solvents.

20. Give at least several physical methods used to inhibit the growth of microorganisms.
 Cold – wherein most microorganisms are not killed.
 Desiccation – many dried microorganisms remain viable.
 Radiation – an ultra-violet (UV) lamp is useful for reducing the number of
microbes in the air.
 Ultrasonic waves – used in hospitals and medical and dental clinics to clean
equipment.
 Filters – used to separate cells/microbes from liquids or gases.
 Gaseous atmosphere – which can be altered to inhibit growth.

21. Cite at least 3 ways how disinfectants kill microorganisms.

 Cross-linking
 Coagulating
 Clumping

22. Identify several factors that can influence the effectiveness of disinfectants.
 Prior cleaning of the object or surface to be disinfected
 The organic load that is present, meaning the presence of organic matter on
the materials being treated
 The bioburden, meaning the type and level of microbial contamination
 The concentration of the disinfectant
  The contact time, meaning the amount of time that the disinfectant must
remain in contact with the organisms in order to kill them. The physical nature
of object being disinfected
 Temperature and ph

23. Explain briefly why the use of antibiotics in animal feed and household products is
controversial.
 The use of antibiotics in food animals selects for bacteria proof against
antibiotics utilized in humans, and these might spread via the food to humans
and cause human infection, hence the banning of growth-promoters. the
actual danger seems small, and there may well be disadvantages to human
and to animal health. The low dosages used for growth promotion are an
unquantified hazard. Although some antibiotics are used both in animals and
humans, most of the resistance problem in humans has arisen from human
use. Resistance is chosen in food animals, and resistant bacteria can
contaminate animal-derived food, but adequate cooking destroys them.
References

(2019) Fader, R., Engelkirk, P., Engelkirk, J. et al. Controlling Microbial Growth In
Vitro. BURTON’S Microbiology for the Health Sciences. Introduction to Microbes and
Cellular Biology. P 129 - 148

Helmenstine, A. (2020). Anabolism and Catabolism. Retrieved from

https://www.thoughtco.com/anabolism-catabolism-definition-examples-4178390

Kaiser, G. (2019). Aerobic Respiration Contributed. Retrieved from

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https://biologydictionary.net/silent-mutation/

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