Indian Onion ________________________________________________________________________________ 5

1. Capacity _____________________________________________________________________________________ 24

ca‧pac‧i‧ty _________________________________________________________________________________ 24
2. bring somebody/something ↔ down _____________________________________________________________ 25
3. bring somebody/something ↔ down _____________________________________________________________ 25
4. Role _________________________________________________________________________________________ 26
5. role _________________________________________________________________________________________ 26
6. Report (noun) _________________________________________________________________________________ 28
7. report _______________________________________________________________________________________ 28
8. Report (verb) _________________________________________________________________________________ 30
9. report 2 ______________________________________________________________________________________ 30
10. Abosrb ______________________________________________________________________________________ 31

11. ab‧sorb ______________________________________________________________________________________ 31

12. Attention ____________________________________________________________________________________ 32

13. at‧ten‧tion ___________________________________________________________________________________ 32

14. Vital_________________________________________________________________________________________ 35

15. vi‧tal ________________________________________________________________________________________ 35

16. Start (verb) ___________________________________________________________________________________ 36

17. start ________________________________________________________________________________________ 36
18. Start (noun) __________________________________________________________________________________ 43
19. start ________________________________________________________________________________________ 43
20. Surge (verb) __________________________________________________________________________________ 46
21. surge ________________________________________________________________________________________ 46
22. Surge (noun) __________________________________________________________________________________ 46
23. Begin ________________________________________________________________________________________ 47

24. be‧gin _______________________________________________________________________________________ 47

25. Spike (noun) __________________________________________________________________________________ 49

26. spike ________________________________________________________________________________________ 49
27. Spike (verb) __________________________________________________________________________________ 49
28. spike ________________________________________________________________________________________ 49
29. Cause (noun) _________________________________________________________________________________ 50
30. cause ________________________________________________________________________________________ 50
31. Cause (verb) __________________________________________________________________________________ 52
32. cause ________________________________________________________________________________________ 52
33. Export (noun) _________________________________________________________________________________ 54
 34. ex‧port ______________________________________________________________________________________ 54

35. Export (verb)__________________________________________________________________________________ 56

36. ex‧port ______________________________________________________________________________________ 56

37. Shortage _____________________________________________________________________________________ 57

38. short‧age_____________________________________________________________________________________ 57

39. Trend________________________________________________________________________________________ 58
40. trend ________________________________________________________________________________________ 58
41. Rise (verb)____________________________________________________________________________________ 60
42. rise 1 ________________________________________________________________________________________ 60
43. Rise (noun) ___________________________________________________________________________________ 63
44. rise 2 ________________________________________________________________________________________ 63
45. Cement (noun) ________________________________________________________________________________ 66

46. ce‧ment 1 ____________________________________________________________________________________ 66

47. Cement (verb) ________________________________________________________________________________ 66

48. cement 2 _____________________________________________________________________________________ 66
Kashmir Whispers Of Rediscovered Appeal _______________________________________________________ 67
49. Be rubbing your hands __________________________________________________________________________ 67
50. Prospect (noun) _______________________________________________________________________________ 67
51. Prospect (verb) ________________________________________________________________________________ 69
52. Influx ________________________________________________________________________________________ 69
53. Hyacinth _____________________________________________________________________________________ 70
54. Choked ______________________________________________________________________________________ 70
55. Choke (verb) __________________________________________________________________________________ 70
56. Choke (noun) _________________________________________________________________________________ 71
57. Flotillas ______________________________________________________________________________________ 72
58. Shikaras _____________________________________________________________________________________ 72
59. Hone ________________________________________________________________________________________ 72
60. Purveyor _____________________________________________________________________________________ 72
61. Initiate (verb) _________________________________________________________________________________ 72
62. Initiate (noun) ________________________________________________________________________________ 73
63. Bolt (noun) ___________________________________________________________________________________ 73
64. Bolt (verb)____________________________________________________________________________________ 73
65. Bolt (adverb)__________________________________________________________________________________ 74
66. Venture (noun) ________________________________________________________________________________ 74
67. Venture (verb) ________________________________________________________________________________ 74
Stress Knows Few Borders ____________________________________________________________________ 75
 68. Tense (adj) ___________________________________________________________________________________ 75
69. Tense (v) _____________________________________________________________________________________ 77
70. Tense (n) _____________________________________________________________________________________ 77
71. Tensed up (adj) ________________________________________________________________________________ 77
72. Connect (v) ___________________________________________________________________________________ 77
73. Experience (n)_________________________________________________________________________________ 79
74. Experience (v) _________________________________________________________________________________ 82
75. Basis ________________________________________________________________________________________ 82
76. Poll (n) ______________________________________________________________________________________ 84
77. Poll (v) _______________________________________________________________________________________ 85
78. Polling _______________________________________________________________________________________ 86
79. Cite _________________________________________________________________________________________ 86
80. Feel _________________________________________________________________________________________ 87
81. Beyond (preposition , adv)_______________________________________________________________________ 90
82. Beyond (n) ___________________________________________________________________________________ 91
Impressionism (1) ___________________________________________________________________________ 92
83. Movement ___________________________________________________________________________________ 92
84. Originate _____________________________________________________________________________________ 94
85. Influence (n) __________________________________________________________________________________ 95
86. Influence (v) __________________________________________________________________________________ 97
87. Want (v) _____________________________________________________________________________________ 98
88. Want (n) ____________________________________________________________________________________ 102
89. Straight (adv) ________________________________________________________________________________ 102
90. Straight (adj)_________________________________________________________________________________ 104
91. Effect (n) ____________________________________________________________________________________ 106
92. Effect (v) ____________________________________________________________________________________ 110
93. Devote _____________________________________________________________________________________ 110
94. Devoted ____________________________________________________________________________________ 110
95. Core (n) _____________________________________________________________________________________ 111
96. Core (adj) ___________________________________________________________________________________ 112
97. Core (v) _____________________________________________________________________________________ 113
98. Meet _______________________________________________________________________________________ 113
99. Hallmark (n) _________________________________________________________________________________ 117
100. ____________________________________________________________________________________ H
allmark (v) __________________________________________________________________________________ 117
101. ____________________________________________________________________________________ M
ake ________________________________________________________________________________________ 117
102. ____________________________________________________________________________________ E
xperiment (n) ________________________________________________________________________________ 128
103. ____________________________________________________________________________________ E
xperiment (v) ________________________________________________________________________________ 130
104. ____________________________________________________________________________________ F
ragment(n) __________________________________________________________________________________ 131
105. ____________________________________________________________________________________ F
ragment (v) __________________________________________________________________________________ 131
106. ____________________________________________________________________________________ D
ab (v) _______________________________________________________________________________________ 131
107. ____________________________________________________________________________________ D
ab (n)_______________________________________________________________________________________ 132
108. ____________________________________________________________________________________ M
ix (v) _______________________________________________________________________________________ 132
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ix (n) _______________________________________________________________________________________ 135
110. ____________________________________________________________________________________ M
ixed ________________________________________________________________________________________ 136
111. ____________________________________________________________________________________ D
escribe _____________________________________________________________________________________ 137
112. ____________________________________________________________________________________ A
ffect________________________________________________________________________________________ 138
113. ____________________________________________________________________________________ M
uch ________________________________________________________________________________________ 139
114. ____________________________________________________________________________________ I
nspire ______________________________________________________________________________________ 141
115. ____________________________________________________________________________________ I
nspired _____________________________________________________________________________________ 142
116. ____________________________________________________________________________________ R
egard (n) ____________________________________________________________________________________ 142
117. ____________________________________________________________________________________ R
egard (v) ____________________________________________________________________________________ 144
118. ____________________________________________________________________________________ R
egardless____________________________________________________________________________________ 144
Indian Onion
 fan‧cy 1 S2 / ˈfæ nsi / verb ( past tense and past participle fancied , present participle
fancying , third person singular fancies ) [ transitive ]
1 LIKE/WANT British English informal to like or want something, or want to do
something SYN feel like :
Fancy a quick drink, Emma?
fancy doing something
Sorry, but I don’t fancy going out tonight.
2 SEXUAL ATTRACTION British English informal to feel sexually attracted to someone :
All the girls fancied him.
3 fancy yourself British English informal to behave in a way that shows you think
you are very attractive or clever :
That bloke on the dance floor really fancies himself.
4 fancy yourself (as) something British English to believe, usually wrongly, that
you have particular skills or are a particular type of person :
He fancies himself an artist.
She fancies herself as another Madonna.
5 THINK SOMETHING WILL BE SUCCESSFUL British English to think someone or something
is likely to be successful in something :
Which team do you fancy this year?
I don’t fancy our chances of getting a ticket this late.
 6 fancy!/fancy that! British English spoken used to express your surprise or shock
about something :
‘The Petersons are getting divorced.’ ‘Fancy that!’
Fancy seeing you here!
7 THINK/BELIEVE literary to think or believe something without being certain
fancy (that)
She fancied she heard a noise downstairs.
fancy 2 noun ( plural fancies )
1 LIKING/WISH [ singular ] especially British English
a) a feeling, especially one that is not particularly strong or urgent, that you like
someone or want to have something
take a fancy to somebody/something (= decide that you like someone or want to
have something )
Mr Hill took a real fancy to Clara.
Wanting to go to Mexico was just a passing fancy (= the feeling did not last long ) .
Because of its high cost, a carpet is not an item that you change as the fancy takes
you (= whenever you want ) .
b) take/catch your fancy if something takes or catches your fancy, you like it or want
to have it :
Did you see anything that took your fancy?
2 tickle sb’s fancy informal to seem attractive or amusing to someone :
The idea of playing a joke on her tickled his fancy.
3 IDEA [ countable ] old-fashioned an idea or opinion that is not based on fact :
Oh, that was just a fancy of his.
4 IMAGINATION [ uncountable ] literary imagination or something that you imagine →
flight of fancy at FLIGHT ( 6 )
fancy 3 S3 adjective ( comparative fancier , superlative fanciest )
1 fancy hotels, restaurants, cars etc are expensive and fashionable SYN swanky :
Harry took me to a fancy restaurant for our anniversary.
fancy prices British English (= very high and often unreasonable prices )
2 having a lot of decoration or bright colours, or made in a complicated way :
fancy soaps in seashell shapes
I just want a basic sports coat – nothing fancy .
3 complicated and needing a lot of skill OPP straightforward :
I can’t do all that fancy stuff on the computer.
Negotiating a deal can take some fancy footwork (= skill at making deals ) .
4 [ only before noun ] American English fancy food is of a high quality
es‧ti‧mate 2 S3 W2 AC / ˈestəmeɪt, ˈestɪmeɪt / verb [ transitive ]
to try to judge the value, size, speed, cost etc of something, without calculating it
exactly
be estimated to be/have/cost etc
The tree is estimated to be at least 700 years old.
estimate something at something
Organizers estimated the crowd at 50,000.
estimate that
Scientists estimate that smoking reduces life expectancy by around 12 years on average.
estimate how many/what etc
It is not easy to estimate how many people have the disease.
— estimated adjective :
heroin with an estimated street value of £50,000
— estimator noun [ countable ]
 THESAURUS
calculate formal to find out an amount, price, or value by adding numbers together :
The students calculated the cost of printing 5000 copies of their book.
work out to calculate something. Work out is less formal than calculate , and is more
common in everyday English : You need to work out how much you will need to borrow.
figure out ( also figure American English ) informal to calculate an amount : We still
haven't figured out how much it's all going to cost. | the method for figuring welfare
payments
count to find out the total number of things or people in a group by looking at each one
and adding them all together : The teacher counted the children as they got on the bus.
total ( also total up ) to add a number of things together to get a final number : Once
the scores have been totaled, we will announce the winner. | Okay, now let's total up
who had the most points.
quantify formal to say how much something costs, how much of it there is, how serious
or effective it is etc : I think it's difficult to quantify the cost at the moment, for a variety
of reasons. | How do you quantify the benefits of the treatment? | a reliable method for
quantifying the amount of calcium in the blood
assess formal to calculate what the value or cost of something is, or decide how good,
bad etc something is : The value of the paintings was assessed at $20 million. | They are
still assessing the damage. | We need to have a better way of assessing students'
progress.
estimate to guess an amount, price, or number as exactly as you can, based on the
knowledge you have : The police department estimates that the number of violent
crimes will decrease by 2%.
put a figure on something to say what you think the exact total amount or value of
something is, especially when it is a lot : It's hard to put a figure on it, but the final cost
is likely to be over £225 million. | The company has refused to put a figure on its losses.
project to calculate what an amount will be in the future, using the information you
have now : The company projects sales of $4 million this year.
REGISTER
In everyday English, people often say put something at an amount rather than
estimate something at :
The damage was put at thousands of dollars.
es‧ti‧mate 1 S3 W2 AC / ˈestəmət, ˈestɪmət / noun [ countable ]
1 a calculation of the value, size, amount etc of something made using the
information that you have, which may not be complete :
We just need an estimate of the number of people who will come.
2 a statement of how much it will probably cost to build or repair something
estimate for
The garage said they’d send me an estimate for the work.
COLLOCATIONS
VERBS
make an estimate Insurers have to make an estimate of the risk involved.
give an estimate The builder gave me an estimate of £10,000.
provide (somebody with) an estimate Could you ask him if he can provide us with an
estimate?
put an estimate on something (= say the amount that you think something is ) It is
impossible to put an estimate on the value of the manuscript.
an estimate puts something at something Independent estimates put the number of
refugees at 50,000.
 base an estimate on something (= use something as information to give an estimate
) The government based its estimate on data from the 2008 census.
ADJECTIVES
a rough/approximate estimate (= not exact ) Can you give me a rough estimate of
how much the repairs will cost?
an accurate/reliable estimate (= fairly exact ) It’s hard to put an accurate estimate
on the number of people affected.
a conservative estimate (= deliberately low ) By conservative estimates, 2.5 million
people die each year from smoking cigarettes.
an official estimate (= accepted by people in authority ) According to official army
estimates, more than 500 rebels had been killed.
current/recent estimates (= ones that are accepted now ) According to current
estimates, the country can expect 200,000 visitors in the next three years.
the latest estimates (= the most recent ones ) The latest estimates are that sea levels
could rise by about 20 cm by 2050.
earlier/previous estimates These amounts are much higher than those given in
previous estimates.
the original estimate (= the one given at the beginning of a process ) The final cost
was nearly three times the original estimate.
PHRASES
according to an estimate According to some estimates, an acre of forest is cleared
every minute.
estimates range/vary from ... to ... Estimates of the number of homeless people in
the city range from 6,000 to 10,000.
serve 1 S1 W1 / sɜːv $ sɜːrv / verb
1 FOOD/DRINK [ intransitive and transitive ] to give someone food or drink, especially
as part of a meal or in a restaurant, bar etc :
The waiter was serving another table.
Sprinkle with cheese and serve immediately.
serve something with something
Serve the soup with crusty bread.
serve breakfast/lunch/dinner
Breakfast is served until 9 am.
serve something to somebody
Meals can be served to you in your room.
serve something hot/cold etc
Teacakes should be served hot with butter.
2 serve two/three/four etc (people) if food serves two, three etc, there is
enough for that number of people
3 SHOP [ intransitive and transitive ] to help the customers in a shop, especially by
bringing them the things that they want :
There was only one girl serving customers .
4 BE USEFUL/HELPFUL [ intransitive and transitive ] to be useful or helpful for a
particular purpose or reason
serve as
The sofa had to serve as a bed.
The reforms served as a model for the rest of the Communist world.
A large cardboard box will serve the purpose .
Her talent for organization should serve her well .
serve the needs/interests of somebody/something
research projects that serve the needs of industry
 5 DO USEFUL WORK [ intransitive and transitive ] to spend a period of time doing
useful work or official duties for an organization, country, important person etc
serve as
Lord Herbert served as ambassador to France.
serve in the army/air force/navy etc
He returned to Greece to serve in the army.
serve on
Ann serves on various local committees.
the women who served their country in the war
6 HAVE AN EFFECT [ intransitive ] formal to have a particular effect or result
serve as
Her death should serve as a warning to other young people.
serve to do something
A single example serves to illustrate what I mean.
7 PROVIDE SOMETHING [ transitive usually passive ] to provide an area or a group of
people with something that is necessary or useful :
Paris is served by two airports.
8 PRISON [ transitive ] to spend a particular period of time in prison :
He served an 18-month sentence for theft.
Did you know that Les is serving time (= is in prison ) ?
9 SPORT [ intransitive and transitive ] to start playing in a game such as tennis or
VOLLEYBALL by throwing the ball up in the air and hitting it over the net
10 it serves somebody right spoken used to say that you think someone deserves
something unpleasant that happens to them, because they have been stupid or unkind :
‘She kicked me!’ ‘It serves you right, teasing her like that.’
11 serve an apprenticeship to learn a job or skill by working for a particular period
of time for someone who has a lot of experience
12 serve a summons/writ etc to officially send or give someone a written order to
appear in a court of law
→ if my memory serves me (right/well/correctly) at MEMORY ( 1 )
serve something ↔ out phrasal verb
1 to complete a particular period of time in prison or doing a job :
Dillon’s almost served out his sentence (= in prison ) .
The Senator’s illness means he may not serve out his term .
2 British English to put food onto plates :
Serve out the rice, will you?
serve something ↔ up phrasal verb
to give food to someone as part of a meal :
What are you serving up tonight?
serve 2 noun [ countable ]
the action in a game such as tennis or VOLLEYBALL when you throw the ball in the air
and hit it over the net
THESAURUS
PREPARING FOOD
grate to cut cheese, carrot etc into small pieces by rubbing it against a special tool :
Grate the cheese and sprinkle it over the top of the pasta.
melt to make butter, chocolate etc become liquid : Melt the butter, chocolate, and 1
teaspoon of cream over a low heat.
sieve British English , sift American English to put flour or other powders through a
SIEVE (= tool like a net made of wire, which you use for removing larger grains or pieces
) : Sift the flour and cocoa before adding to the rest of the mixture.
chop to cut something into pieces, especially using a big knife : Chop up the vegetables.
dice to cut vegetables or meat into small square pieces : Dice the carrots and then fry
them in butter.
season to add salt, pepper etc to food : Season the meat before grilling.
crush to use a lot of force to break something such as seeds into very small pieces or
into a powder : Add one clove of crushed garlic.
mix to combine different foods together : Mix together all the ingredients in one bowl.
beat/whisk to mix food together quickly with a fork or other tool : Whisk the egg
whites until they form soft peaks.
stir to turn food around with a spoon : Stir the sauce gently to prevent burning.
fold something in to gently mix another substance into a mixture : Fold in the beaten
egg whites.
knead to press DOUGH (= a mixture of flour and water ) many times with your hands
when you are making bread : Knead the dough for ten minutes, until smooth.
drizzle to slowly pour a small amount of a liquid onto something : Drizzle with olive oil.
let something stand to leave something somewhere, before you do something else
with it : Let the mixture stand for a couple of hours so that it cools naturally.
serve to put different foods together as part of a meal : Serve with rice and a salad. |
Serve the aubergines on a bed of lettuce.
de‧mand 1 S2 W1 / dɪˈmɑːnd $ dɪˈmænd / noun
1 [ singular, uncountable ] the need or desire that people have for particular goods
and services :
Production is increasing faster than demand.
demand for
the demand for new housing
in demand (= wanted )
As a speaker he was always in demand.
→ SUPPLY AND DEMAND
2 [ countable ] a very firm request for something that you believe you have the right
to get :
demonstrations in support of the nationalists’ demands
demand for
their demand for higher salaries
demand that
demands that he should resign
3 demands [ plural ] the difficult, annoying, or tiring things that you need to do, or
a skill you need to have
demands of
the demands of modern life
demands on
The curriculum makes great demands on the teacher.
There are heavy demands on people’s time these days.
place/put demands on/upon somebody/something
the increased demands placed on police officers
4 popular demand when a lot of people have asked for something to be done,
performed etc
by/due to popular demand (= because of popular demand )
The exhibition will run for an extra week, due to popular demand.
5 on demand formal whenever someone asks :
Should you feed your baby on demand, or stick to a timetable?
COLLOCATIONS
ADJECTIVES/NOUN + DEMAND
high (= a lot of people want something ) Demand for housing is higher than ever.
low (= not many people want something ) Recently the demand for new cars has been
relatively low.
a big demand There’s always a big demand for photographs of celebrities.
a great/huge demand (= very big ) There is a huge demand for business software and
services.
increased/increasing/growing demand One of the problems is the growing demand
for housing.
falling demand (= decreasing ) the falling demand for coal
consumer demand (= the desire of consumers to buy goods ) Consumer demand for
new technology is strong.
VERBS
meet/satisfy demand (= supply as much as people need or want ) There are reports
that the company cannot produce enough to meet demand.
keep up with demand ( also keep pace with demand ) (= satisfy the demand ) Public
funding for higher education has not kept up with demand.
cope with demand (= satisfy demand ) The existing services were not capable of
coping with the demand for advice.
increase/boost demand A very hard winter boosted the demand for natural gas.
reduce demand Higher interest rates reduces the demand for credit.
demand rises/increases Demand for energy has continued to rise.
demand falls (= becomes lower ) Demand for the products has fallen in the last six
months.
PHRASES
be much in demand ( also be in great demand ) (= be wanted by a lot of people )
Fuel-efficient cars are now much in demand.
supply outstrips/exceeds demand (= more is available than people need or want ) In
the 1980s, the supply of grain far exceeded the demand.
a lack of demand Many factories closed through lack of demand.
a surge in demand (= a sudden increase ) There’s often a surge in demand for the
Internet at the weekend.
threat S3 W2 / θret / noun
1 [ uncountable and countable ] a statement in which you tell someone that you will
cause them harm or trouble if they do not do what you want :
Your threats don’t scare me.
threat of
the threat of military invasion
threat from
He says his family received phone threats from the group.
threats made against his wife and children
Nichols never carried out his threat to resign.
The government will not give in to terrorist threats .
She dismissed the statement as an empty threat .
They warned him with veiled threats not to mention anything he had witnessed.
The police are investigating death threats made against the two men.
Officials at the school say they received a bomb threat at approximately 11:30 a.m.
today.
2 [ countable usually singular ] the possibility that something very bad will happen
threat of
the threat of famine
threat from
 According to the Secretary of State, the Russians face no threat from an expanded
NATO.
under threat
The area remains under threat from commercial developers.
be under threat of closure/attack etc (= be likely to be closed, attacked etc )
The program is under threat of closure due to lack of funding.
3 [ countable usually singular ] someone or something that is regarded as a possible
danger
threat to
The fighting is a major threat to stability in the region.
present/pose a threat (to somebody/something)
Pollution poses a threat to fish.
COLLOCATIONS
VERBS
make/issue a threat Neighbours say that they heard Gardiner make threats against
his wife.
carry out a threat (= do what you threatened to do ) She ought to have carried out her
threat to go to the police.
give in to a threat (= do what something wants you to do after they threaten you ) The
government is not going to give in to terrorist threats.
ADJECTIVES/NOUN + THREAT
a death threat (= a threat to kill someone ) Scientists involved in the research have
received death threats.
a bomb threat The station was closed because of a bomb threat.
an empty/idle threat (= one that is not sincere ) She was not a woman to make idle
threats.
a veiled threat (= one that is not made directly ) The emails contained thinly veiled
threats of harm.
COLLOCATIONS
ADJECTIVES/NOUN + THREAT
a serious/major threat Bad air quality poses a serious threat to public health.
the greatest/biggest threat The greatest threat to our planet is global warming.
a real threat These measures pose a real threat to the future of agriculture.
a potential threat The group remains a potential threat to the regime.
an immediate threat (= the possibility that something bad will happen very soon ) The
volcano erupted on Thursday but there is no immediate threat to nearby towns.
a direct threat The workers destroyed the textile machinery which they saw as a direct
threat to their jobs.
a military threat Each country regarded the other as a major military threat.
a terrorist threat U.S. officials underestimated the terrorist threat before the June 25
bombing.
VERBS
pose/present a threat The rebels do not pose a serious threat to the armed forces.
represent a threat He is not afraid, because you represent no threat to him.
counter/combat a threat We must work together to counter the threat of state
terrorism.
face a threat (= likely to be affected by something ) The factory is facing the threat of
closure.
meet a threat (= deal with it ) We must transform our armed forces to meet emerging
threats.
THESAURUS
risk the chance that something bad may happen : Smoking greatly increases the risk of
lung cancer.
threat the possibility that something very bad will happen : the only way to reduce the
threat of nuclear war
hazard something that may be dangerous or cause accidents or problems : natural
hazards like avalanches
fetch 1 S3 / fetʃ / verb [ transitive ]
1 especially British English to go and get something or someone and bring them back
:
Quick! Go and fetch a doctor.
Shannon went upstairs to fetch some blankets.
fetch somebody/something from something
Would you mind going to fetch the kids from school?
fetch somebody something/fetch something for somebody
Fetch me some coffee while you’re up.
2 to be sold for a particular amount of money, especially at a public sale – used
especially in news reports :
The painting is expected to fetch at least $20 million.
3 fetch and carry to do simple and boring jobs for someone as if you were their
servant :
Am I supposed to fetch and carry for him all day?
4 British English to make people react in a particular way :
This announcement fetched a huge cheer from the audience.
fetch up phrasal verb British English informal
[ always + adverb/preposition ] to arrive somewhere without intending to SYN end
up :
I fell asleep on the train and fetched up in Glasgow.
THESAURUS
cost to have a particular price : The book costs $25. | A new kitchen will cost you a lot
of money. | It’s a nice dress and it didn’t cost much.
be especially spoken to cost a particular amount of money : These shoes were only £5.
be priced at something to have a particular price – used when giving the exact price
that a shop or company charges for something : Tickets are priced at $20 for adults and
$10 for kids.
retail at something to be sold in shops at a particular price – used especially in
business : The scissors retail at £1.99 in department stores.
sell/go for something used for saying what people usually pay for something : Houses
in this area sell for around £200,000.
fetch used for saying what people pay for something, especially at a public sale : The
painting fetched over $8,000 at auction. | A sports car built for Mussolini is expected to
fetch nearly £1 million at auction.
set somebody back something informal to cost someone a lot of money : A good set
of speakers will set you back around £150.
come to if a bill comes to a particular amount, it adds up to that amount : The bill came
to £100 between four of us.
fetch 2 noun
play fetch if you play fetch with a dog, you throw something for the dog to bring
back to you
rich S2 W2 / rɪtʃ / adjective ( comparative richer , superlative richest )
1 WEALTHY
a) someone who is rich has a lot of money and valuable possessions OPP poor :
 one of the richest women in America
She found herself a rich husband.
He thought this was the easiest way to get rich .
the rich nations of the world
fabulously rich British English :
She was both beautiful and fabulously rich.
His brother’s stinking rich (= very rich, in a way that you do not approve of ) .
b) the rich [ plural ] people who are rich :
houses belonging to the rich and famous
REGISTER
In written English, people sometimes prefer to use affluent rather than rich , because it
sounds more formal:
In affluent societies the definition of poverty is relative.
2 LARGE AMOUNT containing a lot of something
rich in
Citrus fruits are rich in vitamin C.
oxygen-rich/nutrient-rich/protein-rich etc
Pregnant women should eat protein-rich foods.
Rich mineral deposits have been found in the sea bed.
Red meat is a rich source of iron.
3 FULL OF INTEREST full of interesting or important facts, events, or ideas :
the rich literary tradition of England
The area has a very rich history.
rich in
a story that was rich in detail
4 FOOD rich food contains a lot of butter, cream, or eggs, which make you feel full
very quickly OPP light :
a rich fruit cake
The sauce was very rich.
5 SMELL/FLAVOUR a rich smell or flavour is strong and pleasant :
the rich scent of the pine trees
meat with a wonderfully rich flavour
a rich, fruity wine
6 COLOUR a rich colour is strong and attractive :
a rich dark brown colour
7 SOUND a rich sound is low and pleasant :
the rich tone of a cello
He laughed with a rich, throaty chuckle.
8 SOIL rich soil is good for growing plants in OPP poor :
Vegetables grow well in the rich, black soil.
9 CLOTH rich cloth is expensive and beautiful :
She stroked the rich velvet of the dress enviously.
10 that’s rich (coming from him/you etc) British English spoken used to say that
what someone has said is unreasonable and that they are criticizing you for doing
something that they do themselves :
He accused me of being dishonest, which was a bit rich coming from him.
COLLOCATIONS
ADVERBS
very rich He is a very rich man.
extremely rich He came from an extremely rich Viennese family.
immensely rich (= extremely rich ) He was immensely rich and owned two yachts.
 fabulously rich (= extremely rich ) She must have been fabulously rich to live in a
house like this.
seriously rich (= very rich ) They stand to become seriously rich if the venture
succeeds.
stinking/filthy rich disapproving (= very rich ) She was obviously stinking rich.
VERBS
get rich They just wanted to get rich. | get rich quick schemes
become rich Over the years, he became enormously rich.
grow rich (= become rich ) They have grown rich by selling this technology to other
companies.
make somebody rich The trade in tea made the British rich.
PHRASES
the new rich disapproving (= people who have recently become rich and spend a lot of
money ) For Russia's new rich, life is a candy store.
THESAURUS
rich having a lot of money – used about people and places : She married a rich Greek
shipowner. | one of the world’s richest nations
wealthy rich – used about people and places, especially when they have been rich for a
long time : wealthy landowners | Orange County is a very wealthy area. | a wealthy Arab
businessman
affluent formal rich – used about societies, groups of people, or areas where people
live, where people have nice houses and a lot of expensive possessions : today’s affluent
society | affluent young professionals | an affluent suburb of Boston
prosperous formal rich – used about places and groups of people, especially when their
money is related to success in business : Sales have grown fastest in the more
prosperous areas of the south. | prosperous merchants and bankers
well-off fairly rich compared to other people, so that you can live very comfortably : Her
parents are pretty well-off. | children from well-off families
well-to-do written rich – used especially in the past about families and people who had
a fairly high position in society : Only well-to-do families could afford to send their
children to university. | The Westons were now well-to-do and there was no necessity for
work.
privileged having special advantages because your family have a lot of money and a
high position in society : He comes from a privileged background. | The sport was only
played by a privileged few .
comfortably off [ not before noun ] having enough money to have a nice life without
having to worry about money : I wouldn’t say that we were rich – just comfortably off.
be rolling in it/be loaded informal to be extremely rich : They’ve got two houses and
a boat – they must be rolling in it. | Her books were so successful that she’s loaded now.
COLLOCATIONS CHECK
wealthy person/family/area
affluent society/area/family/lifestyle
prosperous area/economy/middle class
well-to-do family
privileged person/background/few/elite
taste 1 S2 W2 / teɪst / noun
1 FOOD
a) [ uncountable and countable ] the feeling that is produced by a particular food or
drink when you put it in your mouth SYN flavour :
The medicine had a slightly bitter taste.
taste of
 I don’t really like the taste of meat any more.
b) [ uncountable ] the sense by which you know one food from another :
Some birds have a highly developed sense of taste .
c) have a taste (of something) if you have a taste of some food or drink, you put a
small amount in your mouth to try it :
You must have a taste of the fruitcake.
2 WHAT YOU LIKE [ uncountable and countable ] the kind of things that someone likes
taste in
He asked about my taste in music.
taste for
While she was in France she developed a taste for fine wines.
3 JUDGMENT [ uncountable ] someone’s judgment when they choose clothes,
decorations etc
have good/bad etc taste
She has such good taste.
taste in
Some people have really bad taste in clothes.
4 WHAT IS ACCEPTABLE/NOT OFFENSIVE [ uncountable ] the quality of being acceptable
and not offensive :
All television companies accept the need to maintain standards of taste and decency .
be in bad/poor etc taste (= likely to offend people )
She acknowledged her remark had been in bad taste.
5 EXPERIENCE [ usually singular ] a short experience of something that shows you
what it is like
taste of
Schoolchildren can get a taste of the countryside first-hand.
It gave him his first taste of acting for the big screen.
The autumn storms gave us a taste of what was to come (= showed what would happen
later ) .
6 FEELING [ singular ] the feeling that you have after an experience, especially a bad
experience :
The way he spoke to those children left a nasty taste in my mouth .
the bitter taste of failure
the sweet taste of victory
7 ... to taste if you add salt, spices etc to taste, you add as much as you think
makes it taste right – used in instructions in cook books :
Add salt to taste.
→ give somebody a taste of their own medicine at MEDICINE ( 4 )
COLLOCATIONS
ADJECTIVES
delicious The taste was absolutely delicious. | a delicious creamy taste
nasty/unpleasant Some tablets have a nasty taste.
strange/odd/peculiar/funny The sweets had a rather peculiar taste.
strong This cheese has quite a strong taste.
mild The taste of the leaves is milder than the root.
sweet The fruits have an excellent sweet taste.
bitter The brandy would not have masked the bitter taste of the poison.
sour The purpose of the lemon’s sour taste may be to stop the fruit being eaten by
animals.
salty He was conscious of the salty taste of his own blood.
spicy Add a little curry powder to give it a spicy taste.
 creamy/buttery/fruity/nutty etc (= tasting of cream, butter etc ) The cookies had a
very buttery taste.
bland (= not strong or interesting ) Some people find the taste of rice too bland.
distinctive Hops give beer its distinctive bitter taste.
VERBS
have a sweet/strange etc taste The soup had a funny taste.
give something a taste The spices gave the bread a rather interesting taste.
COMMON ERRORS
► Do not say ' it is sweet taste ' or ' it is nice taste '. Say it has a sweet taste or it has
a nice taste .
COLLOCATIONS
ADJECTIVES
similar/the same We have similar musical tastes.
same/similar/different Their tastes in movies were very different.
expensive/sophisticated He was a man of expensive tastes (= he liked expensive
things. )
simple He was a man of simple tastes (= he liked simple things )
eclectic (= liking a wide variety of different things ) My tastes are very eclectic.
musical/literary/artistic taste His musical tastes changed radically.
your personal taste Which one you choose is a question of personal taste.
public/popular taste The shop created a unique style of goods that appealed to the
popular taste.
an acquired taste (= something that people do not like at first ) This kind of tea is an
acquired taste, but very refreshing.
consumer tastes Changes in consumer tastes result in the expansion of some
industries and the contraction of others.
VERBS
have ... tastes Josh and I have the same tastes.
have a taste for something (= like something ) She certainly has a taste for
adventure.
get/develop a taste for something ( also acquire a taste for something formal ) (=
to start to like something ) At university she developed a taste for performing.
share a taste (= have the same taste as someone else ) You obviously share her taste
in literature.
suit/satisfy/appeal to sb’s tastes (= provide what someone likes ) We have music to
suit every taste. | The magazine caters for all tastes.
PHRASES
be to sb’s taste (= be something that someone likes ) If her books are not to your
taste, there are plenty of books by other writers.
be too bright/modern etc for sb’s taste The building was too modern for my taste.
something is a matter of taste (= different people have different opinions about what
is good or right ) Which of the two methods you use is largely a matter of taste.
there’s no accounting for taste (= used humorously to say that you do not
understand why someone likes something )
THESAURUS
DESCRIBING THE TASTE OF SOMETHING
delicious having a very good taste : This cake is delicious! | a delicious meal
disgusting/revolting having a very bad taste : The medicine tasted disgusting. | They
had to eat revolting things, like fish eyes.
sweet tasting full of sugar : The oranges were very sweet.
tasty especially spoken tasting good and with plenty of flavour : She cooked us a simple
but tasty meal. | That was really tasty!
sour/tart having a taste that stings your tongue slightly, like lemon does – used
especially when this is rather unpleasant : The apples were a little sour. | The wine has
rather a tart taste, which not everyone will like.
tangy having a taste that stings your tongue slightly, like lemon does, in a way that
seems good : The dressing was nice and tangy.
bitter having a strong taste which is not sweet and is sometimes rather unpleasant –
used for example about black coffee, or chocolate without sugar : bitter chocolate | The
medicine had rather a bitter taste. | Hops give beer its distinctive bitter taste.
salty containing a lot of salt : Danish salami has a salty flavour.
hot/spicy having a burning taste because it contains strong spices : I love hot curries. |
a spicy tomato sauce
piquant / ˈpiːkənt / formal a little spicy – used especially by people who write about food.
This word can sound rather PRETENTIOUS in everyday conversation : cooked vegetables in
a piquant sauce
mild not having a strong or hot taste – usually used about foods that can sometimes be
spicy : a mild curry
bland not having an interesting taste : I found the sauce rather bland.
issue 2 S3 W2 AC verb [ transitive ]
1 to officially make a statement, give an order, warning etc :
Silva issued a statement denying all knowledge of the affair.
a warning issued by the Surgeon General
2 if an organization or someone in an official position issues something such as
documents or equipment, they give these things to people who need them
issue a passport/permit/visa etc
The US State Department issues millions of passports each year.
issue somebody with something
All the workers were issued with protective clothing.
issue something to somebody
The policy document will be issued to all employees.
3 to officially produce something such as new stamps, coins, or SHARE s and make
them available to buy
issue forth phrasal verb literary
if something issues forth, it comes out of a place or thing
issue forth from
A low grunt issued forth from his throat.
issue from something phrasal verb literary
if something issues from a place or thing, it comes out of it :
Smoke issued from the factory chimneys.
is‧sue 1 S1 W1 / ˈɪʃuː, ˈɪsjuː $ ˈɪʃuː / noun
1 SUBJECT/PROBLEM [ countable ] a subject or problem that is often discussed or
argued about, especially a social or political matter that affects the interests of a lot of
people :
Abortion is a highly controversial issue.
We should raise the issue of discrimination with the council.
The key issue is whether workers should be classified as ‘employees’.
2 MAGAZINE [ countable ] a magazine or newspaper printed for a particular day,
week, or month
issue of
the January issue of Newsweek
 the current/latest issue
Have you seen the latest issue?
3 take issue with somebody/something to disagree or argue with someone
about something :
It is difficult to take issue with his analysis.
take issue with somebody over something
I must take issue with you over what you said yesterday.
4 make an issue (out) of something to argue about something, especially in a
way that annoys other people because they do not think it is important :
I was upset by Eleanor’s remarks, but didn’t make an issue of it.
5 have issues (with somebody/something) informal
a) to have problems dealing with something because of something that happened in the
past :
There’s a self-help group for people who have issues with money.
b) if you have issues with someone or something, you do not agree with or approve of
them :
I have a few issues with Marc.
6 at issue formal the problem or subject at issue is the most important part of what
you are discussing or considering :
At issue here is the extent to which exam results reflect a student’s ability.
7 ACT OF GIVING SOMETHING [ singular ] the act of officially giving people something to
use :
the issue of identity cards to all non-residents
8 SET OF THINGS FOR SALE [ countable ] a new set of something such as SHARE s or
stamps, made available for people to buy :
We launched the share issue on March 1.
a new issue of bonds
9 die without issue old use to die without having any children
COLLOCATIONS
VERBS
discuss/debate an issue They met to discuss the issue of working conditions at the
factory.
raise an issue/bring up an issue (= say an issue should be discussed ) Some
important issues were raised at the meeting.
deal with/tackle an issue ( also address an issue formal ) The government must deal
with the issue of gun crime. | The company said that it will address the issue at the next
scheduled board meeting.
decide/settle/resolve an issue (= solve it ) The issue was settled after some tough
negotiations. | No deadline has been set to resolve the issue.
face an issue (= accept that an issue exists and deal with it ) Politicians seem to be
reluctant to face the issue.
avoid/evade an issue ( also dodge/duck an issue informal ) (= avoid discussing an
issue ) There is no point in evading the issue any longer.
confuse/cloud/muddy the issue (= make an issue more difficult to understand or
deal with than it needs to be ) You must not let your feelings cloud the issue.
highlight an issue (= bring attention to it ) The minister used his speech to highlight
the issue of global warming.
an issue comes up ( also an issue arises formal ) (= people started to discuss it ) The
issue arose during a meeting of the Budget Committee.
the issues surrounding something This chapter discusses the ethical issues
surrounding genetically modified foods.
ADJECTIVES
 a political/social/economic etc issue They discussed a number of political issues.
an important issue The committee met several times to discuss this important issue.
a key/major/big issue (= very important ) For me, the big issue is cost.
a difficult/complex issue He was able to grasp complex issues quickly.
a controversial/sensitive issue (= an issue that causes strong feelings and
arguments ) Abortion is a controversial issue.
a thorny issue ( also a vexed issue formal ) (= a difficult one that causes disagreement
) Illegal immigration is always a thorny issue.
a burning issue (= a very important and urgent issue ) For country-dwellers, transport
is a burning issue.
wider issues (= more general issues, that affect more people or things ) This is a
question that raises much wider issues.
a topical issue (= an issue that is important at the present time ) The magazine
discusses topical issues in science.
the underlying issue (= the cause, or a more important problem that is related to
something ) This research explores some of the underlying issues related to high
unemployment.
a fundamental issue (= a basic and important issue ) Decisions still need to be made
about some fundamental issues.
an unresolved issue (= that has not been dealt with ) A number of unresolved issues
remain before the treaty can be signed.
PHRASES
a range of issues A range of issues were debated at the meeting.
something is not the issue spoken (= something is not the most important problem or
part ) Price alone is not the issue.
al‧low S1 W1 / əˈlaʊ / verb [ transitive ]
1 CAN DO SOMETHING to let someone do or have something, or let something happen
SYN permit
allow somebody/something to do something
My parents wouldn’t allow me to go to the party.
Women are not allowed to enter the mosque.
Don’t allow your problems to dominate your life.
allow somebody something
Passengers are allowed one item of hand luggage each.
How much time are we allowed?
allow somebody in/out/up etc
I don’t allow the cat in the bedroom.
The audience is not allowed backstage.
something is (not) allowed (= something is or is not officially permitted )
Are dictionaries allowed in the exam?
We don’t allow diving in the pool.
2 MAKE SOMETHING POSSIBLE to make it possible for something to happen or for
someone to do something, especially something helpful or useful SYN permit :
This adjustment of the figures allows a fairer comparison.
allow for
Our new system will allow for more efficient use of resources.
allow somebody to do something
A 24-hour ceasefire allowed the two armies to reach an agreement.
allow somebody something
a seat belt that allows the driver greater freedom of movement
 3 HAVE ENOUGH OF SOMETHING to be sure that you have enough time, money, food etc
available for a particular purpose
allow somebody something
Allow yourselves plenty of time to get to the airport.
allow something for somebody/something
I’ve allowed half a bottle of wine for each person.
4 CORRECT/PERMITTED formal to accept that something is correct or true, or that
something is acceptable according to the rules or law
allow that
I allow that there may have been a mistake.
The judge allowed the evidence.
5 allow me formal used as a polite way of offering to help someone do something :
‘Allow me,’ the waiter said, opening the door.
→ LET 1 , FORBID ( 1 )
THESAURUS
allow to say that someone can do something – used about parents, teachers, or people
in authority : They don’t allow students to chew gum in the classroom. | I’m not allowed
to stay out after ten o'clock.
let [ not in passive ] to allow someone to do something. Let is not used in the passive,
and is much more commonly used in everyday English than allow : Will your Mum let
you come to the party? | I’ll borrow John’s bicycle, if he’ll let me.
permit formal if something is permitted, it is allowed according to the rules - used
especially on written notices and announcements : Smoking is not permitted anywhere
in the building.
give somebody permission used when someone in an important official position
decides to allow someone to do something : He was given special permission to leave
school early. | The Home Office has given him permission to stay in Britain indefinitely.
give your consent to say that you will allow someone to do something that will affect
you personally, or a member of your family, when you have a legal right to say ‘no’ : Her
parents have given their consent to the marriage. | You can’t build on someone’s land
without the owner’s consent.
give something the go-ahead to officially allow a planned project or activity to happen
: The government finally gave the go-ahead for a new terminal at Heathrow airport. | A
new nuclear plant has been given the go-ahead.
authorize to officially or legally allow someone to do something - used about laws or
people : The UN resolution would authorize the use of force. | I never authorized them to
give information about me to other banks.
entitle to give someone the right to do or have something : The pass entitles you to
travel on any bus, at any time, in Norwich. | If the goods are faulty, the customer is
entitled to a refund.
sanction formal to give official approval and support for something : The Truman
administration refused to sanction a military attack. | The advertisements were
sanctioned by the candidate himself.
allow for somebody/something phrasal verb
to consider the possible facts, problems, costs etc involved in something when
making a plan, calculation, or judgment :
Allowing for inflation, the cost of the project will be $2 million.
You should always allow for the possibility that it might rain.
allow of something phrasal verb formal
to make it possible for something to happen or be accepted :
The facts allow of only one interpretation.
 ac‧cept‧a‧ble S3 W3 / əkˈseptəb ə l / adjective
1 good enough to be used for a particular purpose or to be considered satisfactory
acceptable to
an agreement which is acceptable to all sides
Students who achieve an acceptable standard will progress to degree studies.
How do we reach an acceptable level of data security?
2 acceptable behaviour is considered to be morally or socially good enough :
Alcohol is not an acceptable way out of your problems.
Here, the students set the standards for acceptable behaviour .
acceptable (for somebody) to do something
It is not socially acceptable for parents to leave children unattended at that age.
It is perfectly acceptable to sample the food before you buy.
— acceptably adverb
— acceptability / əkˌseptəˈbɪləti, əkˌseptəˈbɪlɪti / noun [ uncountable ]
THESAURUS
satisfactory good enough – often used when something reaches a fairly good standard,
but is not of a high standard : Her grades are satisfactory. | For a beginner, this camera
produces satisfactory results.
all right/OK spoken not bad, but not very good : The meal was all right, but rather
expensive. | ‘How was the film?’ ‘It was OK.’
reasonable fairly good : a reasonable standard of living | The quality of the food was
reasonable.
acceptable if something is acceptable to you, you think it is good enough and you are
willing to take it : an acceptable offer | an acceptable level of risk | They can't find a
solution that is acceptable to both sides.
adequate enough in quantity, or of a good enough standard. Adequate sounds rather
formal and is used especially in official contexts : an adequate supply of drinking water |
adequate standards of hygiene
decent especially spoken good enough in quality – used especially when something is as
good as most other things : I want my kids to get a decent education. | Where can I get
a decent cup of coffee? | The food’s decent and the service is good.
passable satisfactory, but not of the best quality – used especially about food and drink,
or someone’s skill at doing something. Passable sounds rather formal : a passable
French wine | His Japanese was passable. | a passable imitation of Barack Obama
be up to scratch informal to be of a good enough standard : His work wasn’t up to
scratch. | None of the hotels they suggested were up to scratch.
will do informal to be good enough for a particular purpose : Any kind of paper will do. |
‘How about Ken?’ ‘I suppose he’ll do.’
con‧tain S2 W1 / kənˈteɪn / verb [ transitive ]
1 CONTAINER/PLACE if something such as a bag, box, or place contains something,
that thing is inside it :
The thieves stole a purse containing banknotes.
The museum contains a number of original artworks.
2 WRITING/SPEECH if a document, book, speech etc contains something, that thing is
included in it :
The letter contained information about Boulestin’s legal affairs.
be contained in/within something
The proposed changes are contained in a policy statement.
3 SUBSTANCE if a substance contains something, that thing is part of it :
This product may contain nuts.
 REGISTER
In everyday English, people often use different phrases to say that something contains
something else:
The box contained books. ➔ The box had books in it. | The essay contained a lot of
mistakes. ➔ There were a lot of mistakes in the essay. | Does this dish contain any
meat? ➔ Is there any meat in this dish?
4 CONTROL FEELINGS to control strong feelings of anger, excitement etc :
Jane couldn’t contain her amusement any longer.
contain yourself
He was so excited he could hardly contain himself.
5 STOP SOMETHING to stop something from spreading or escaping :
Doctors are struggling to contain the epidemic.
measures aimed at containing political opposition
→ SELF-CONTAINED
6 MATHS technical to surround an area or an angle :
How big is the angle contained by these two sides?
tang / tæŋ / noun [ singular ]
a taste or smell that is pleasantly strong or sharp :
The beer had a sharp, bitter tang.
tang of
the salty tang of the sea
the tang of fresh lemons
— tangy adjective :
tangy orange cake

Capacity
ca‧pac‧i‧ty S3 W2 AC / kəˈpæsəti, kəˈpæsɪti / noun ( plural capacities )

1 [ singular ] the amount of space a container, room etc has to hold things or people
capacity of
The fuel tank has a capacity of 40 litres.
The room had seating capacity for about 80.
The orchestra played to a capacity crowd (= the largest number of people who can fit
into a hall, theatre etc ) .
All the hotels were filled to capacity .
2 [ uncountable and countable ] someone’s ability to do something OPP incapacity
capacity for
a child’s capacity for learning
an infinite capacity for love
capacity to do something
a capacity to think in an original way
3 [ singular ] formal someone’s job, position, or duty SYN role
 in a professional/official etc capacity
Rollins will be working in an advisory capacity on this project.
(do something) in your capacity as something
I attended the meeting in my capacity as chairman of the safety committee.
4 [ singular, uncountable ] the amount of something that a factory, company, machine
etc can produce or deal with :
The company has the capacity to build 1,500 trucks a year.
The factory has been working at full capacity (= making the most amount of things that
it can ) .
5 [ singular, uncountable ] the size or power of something such as an engine :
The tax on cars is still based on engine capacity.

COLLOCATIONS
PHRASES

have a capacity of 5/10 etc litres It’s a small microwave which has a capacity of 0.6
cubic feet.
be filled to capacity (= be completely full ) The courtroom was filled to capacity.
ADJECTIVES/NOUN + CAPACITY
limited capacity The hospitals have a limited capacity.
high capacity (= able to hold a lot of things or people ) There was demand for a high
capacity public transport system.
storage capacity (= how much information a computer disk, CD-Rom etc can hold ) The
storage capacity is about 250 megabytes.
seating capacity (= how many seats there are in a theatre, hall etc ) The largest hall in
the university has a seating capacity of over 1,500.
CAPACITY + NOUN
a capacity audience (= the largest number of people who can fill a theatre, hall etc ) The
lecture attracted a capacity audience.
a capacity crowd (= the largest number of people that can fit in a place ) A capacity
crowd of 40,000 turned up at the stadium.

bring somebody/something ↔ down

bring somebody/something ↔ down phrasal verb
1 to reduce something to a lower level :
The government hopes these measures will help to bring down inflation.
2 to fly a plane down to the ground SYN land :
The pilot managed to bring the plane down safely.
 3 to make a plane, bird, or animal fall to the ground by shooting at it :
A bomber had been brought down by anti-aircraft fire.
4 to force a government or ruler to stop ruling a country :
a crisis that could bring down the government
5 to make someone fall over :
He was brought down by the goalkeeper and awarded a penalty.
bring something ↔ down on/upon somebody phrasal verb
to make something bad happen to someone, especially to yourself or to people
connected with you :
His recklessness brought down disaster on the whole family.
greenhouse will help bring them on.

Role
role S2 W1 AC / rəʊl $ roʊl / noun [ countable ]
1 the way in which someone or something is involved in an activity or situation, and
how much influence they have on it
role in
women’s role in society
the role of diet in the prevention of disease
role of
They want to limit the role of government.
2 the character played by an actor in a play or film SYN part
role of
Matthews plays the role of a young doctor suspected of murder.
the lead/leading/starring role (= the most important role )
A young actor named Johnny Depp was given the leading role.
major/minor role
It was Johansson's first major movie role.
the title role (= the role of the character whose name is in the title of a film or play )
The film features Paul Schofield in the title role.
3 role reversal a situation in which two people, especially a man and a woman, each
do what is traditionally expected of the other

COLLOCATIONS
VERBS

play/have a role He played a prominent role in the company’s success.

take on a role ( also assume a role formal ) (= start having it ) Mr Jones took on the role
of spokesperson for the organization.
take a role Britain began to take a more active role in the affairs of Europe.
give somebody a role Health experts should be given a key role in developing the
correct procedures.
cast somebody in a role written (= give someone a role, especially one they do not want
) He found himself cast in the role of guide and translator.
ADJECTIVES

an important/major role She played an important role in her husband’s political career.
a key/central role The report recognized the key role of teachers.
a vital/crucial/essential role Every member of the team has a vital role to play.
an active role (= when you do practical things to achieve particular aims ) She took an
active role in the community.
a leading role (= the most important role ) They take a leading role in discussions.
a significant role Technology is already playing a significant role in classroom teaching.
a prominent role The military has played a prominent role in Burmese politics.
a dual role (= when someone or something does two things ) People have dual roles in
society as producers and consumers.
sb’s traditional role (= one based on ideas that have existed for a long time, without
changing ) Some women are happy with their traditional role as carers.

COLLOCATIONS
VERBS

play a role She was the first actress to play the role of Peter Pan.
have a role His son has a small role in the series.
take a role In the end, I decided not to take the role.
land a role (= be given a role ) In 1982 he landed a role in the musical 'Destry Rides
Again'.
cast somebody in a role (= give them a role ) Television producers would not cast her in
lead roles.
ADJECTIVES

a major/big role It was his first major role.

a minor/small role He has had small roles in several other films.
the lead/leading role (= the most important role ) He had already cast Tom Hanks in
the lead role.
a starring role (= one of the most important roles ) She was offered the starring role in a
new British stage comedy.
the title role (= the role of the character whose name is the title of the film or play ) She
will play the title role in ‘Emma’ later this year.
a supporting role (= not one of the main roles ) Lee has a supporting role as Judy’s best
friend,
a comic role She admits she is attracted to comic roles.

Report (noun)
report 1 S2 W1 / rɪˈpɔːt $ -ɔːrt / noun [ countable ]
1 a written or spoken description of a situation or event, giving people the information
they need → account
report of/on/about
Colleges have to provide a written report on the progress of each student during the year.
2 a piece of writing in a newspaper about something that is happening, or part of a
news programme → reporter :
According to recent news reports , two of the victims are Americans.
report on/of
media reports of the food shortages
3 an official document that carefully considers a particular subject
report on
a recent report on child abuse
4 information that something has happened, which may or may not be true
report of
Police received reports of a bomb threat at the airport at 11:28 p.m.
Government officials have denied reports of rebel advances.
report that
a report that he had been killed
5 British English a written statement by teachers about a child’s work at school, which
is sent to his or her parents SYN report card American English
6 British English someone who works for a particular manager :
Only Gordon’s direct reports are attending the course.
7 formal the noise of an explosion or shot :
 a loud report

COLLOCATIONS
VERBS

write a report Her social worker has written a report on the case.
make a report We make regular progress reports to our manager.
give a report (= make a report, usually a spoken one ) He came to the office to give his
report in person.
prepare a report The surveyor will view the property and prepare a full report.
submit a report formal (= give a written report to someone ) Doctors will have to submit
weekly reports.
a report says/states (that) The report said that it would cost another £250 million to
repair the damage.
ADJECTIVES
a full/detailed report A full report will be prepared for the next committee meeting.
an official/formal report Black graduates still face discrimination from employers,
according to an official report.
a written report Mr Thomas asked me to send him a written report.
a confidential report (= one that only a few people see ) He made a confidential report
to UN headquarters in New York.
an autopsy report ( also a post-mortem report British English ) (= that shows the
results of an examination on a dead body to find the cause of death ) The autopsy report
gave the cause of death as alcohol poisoning.

COLLOCATIONS
VERBS

receive a report Amnesty has received repeated reports of violation of detention

procedures.
have a report (= receive one ) The police say they had reports of a gang shooting in East
London.
confirm a report A spokesman refused to confirm reports that the aircraft had previously
suffered an engine fire.
deny a report Government officials have denied reports of rebel advances.
dismiss a report (= refuse to consider it because you believe it is not true ) A Treasury
official yesterday dismissed the reports as ‘pure speculation’.
ADJECTIVES/NOUNS + REPORT
an unconfirmed report (= not yet supported by official information ) There are
unconfirmed reports that up to 2,000 people have been killed.
an eyewitness/first-hand report (= from someone who saw what happened ) Some
were beaten and tortured according to first-hand reports from former prisoners.
a reliable report On Sunday there were reliable reports of a group of whales off the
Devon coast.
an unofficial report According to unofficial reports, the president had talks with
Palestinian leaders.
conflicting reports (= reports saying very different things ) Conflicting reports continued
to emerge from the area.
a misleading report (= likely to make you believe something that is not true ) This isn’t
the first time the industry has published misleading reports based on incomplete data.

Report (verb)
report 2 S2 W1 verb
1 NEWS [ intransitive and transitive ] to give people information about recent events,
especially in newspapers and on television and radio → reporter :
This is Gavin Williams, reporting from the United Nations in New York.
We aim to report the news as fairly as possible.
The incident was widely reported in the national press.
report on
The Times sent her to Bangladesh to report on the floods.
report that
Journalists in Cairo reported that seven people had been shot.
report doing something
Witnesses reported seeing three people flee the scene.
2 be reported to be/do something used to say that a statement has been made
about someone or something, but you do not know if it is true → allege :
The stolen necklace is reported to be worth $57,000.
3 JOB/WORK [ intransitive and transitive ] to tell someone about what has been
happening, or what you are doing as part of your job
report (to somebody) on something
I’ve asked him to come back next week and report on his progress.
4 PUBLIC STATEMENT [ transitive ] to officially give information to the public :
Doctors have reported a 13% increase in the number of people with heart disease.
5 CRIME/ACCIDENT [ transitive ] to tell the police or someone in authority that an
accident or crime has happened :
I’d like to report a theft.
report something to somebody
All accidents must be reported to the safety officer.
report somebody/something missing/injured/killed
The plane was reported missing.
6 COMPLAIN [ transitive ] to complain about someone to people in authority
report somebody for something
Polish referee Ryszard Wojoik reported two Leeds United players for violent conduct.
report somebody to somebody
Hadley’s drinking problem led co-workers to report him to the supervisor.
7 ARRIVAL [ intransitive ] to go somewhere and officially state that you have arrived
report to
All visitors must report to the site office.
All soldiers were required to report for duty (= arrive and be ready for work ) on Friday.
8 report sick to officially tell your employers that you cannot come to work because
you are ill
report back phrasal verb
to give someone information about something that they asked you to find out about
report back to
The committee has 60 days to report back to Congress.
report back on
Students were asked to report back on their results.
report to somebody phrasal verb
to be responsible to someone at work and be managed by them :
He will report to Greg Carr, Boston Technology’s chief executive.

Abosrb
ab‧sorb W3 / əbˈsɔːb, əbˈzɔːb $ -ɔːrb / verb [ transitive ]

1 LIQUID/GAS to take in liquid, gas, or another substance from the surface or space
around something :
Plants absorb nutrients from the soil.
absorb something into something
Water and salts are absorbed into our blood stream.
2 INFORMATION to read or hear a large amount of new information and understand it :
Her capacity to absorb information is amazing.
 3 INTEREST to interest someone so much that they do not pay attention to other things
:
The movement and noise of the machines absorbed him completely.
be absorbed in something
Judith lay on the settee, absorbed in her book.
4 BECOME PART OF SOMETHING to become part of something larger :
California absorbs many of the legal immigrants to the US.
be absorbed into something
We were soon absorbed into local village life.
5 LIGHT/HEAT/ENERGY/NOISE if something absorbs light, heat, energy, or noise, it
takes it in :
Darker surfaces absorb heat.
6 DEAL WITH CHANGE/COSTS if something absorbs changes or costs, it accepts them and
deals with them successfully :
The beer industry had absorbed a doubling of federal tax in 1991.
7 MONEY/TIME if something absorbs money, time etc, it uses a lot of it :
Defence spending absorbs almost 20% of the country’s wealth.
8 FORCE to reduce the effect of a sudden violent movement :
A well-designed sports shoe should absorb the impact on your feet.

Attention
at‧ten‧tion S2 W1 / əˈtenʃ ə n / noun

1 LISTEN/LOOK/THINK CAREFULLY [ uncountable ] when you carefully listen to, look at,
or think about someone or something :
My attention wasn’t really on the game.
She tried to pay attention to what he was saying.
If you paid more attention in class, you might actually learn something!
Scott sat down at his desk and turned his attention to the file he had in front of him.
As a society we need to give more attention to the needs of older people.
Now he’s gone, I can give you my undivided attention .
This game is fun and is sure to keep the attention of any young student.
They listened to the speech with close attention .
Attention to detail is essential in this job.
During the lecture Sarah’s attention began to wander .
2 INTEREST [ plural, uncountable ] the interest that people show in someone or
something :
She was flattered by all the attention he was giving her.
attract/receive/enjoy attention
a player who quickly attracted the attention of several clubs
The exhibition received little attention in the press.
public/media/press attention
Her case attracted a great deal of media attention.
hold/keep sb’s attention (= make someone stay interested and keep reading, listening,
watching etc )
The book holds the reader’s attention right to the very end.
Rob loves being the centre of attention (= the person who everyone is interested in,
listens to etc ) .
She spent a lot of time trying to avoid the attentions (= romantic interest ) of her boss.
The man then turned his attentions to (= became romantically interested in ) her sister.
3 NOTICE

a) attract/catch/get sb’s attention to make someone notice you, especially because

you want to speak to them or you need their help :
She waved to attract the attention of the waitress.
b) get attention to make someone notice you and be interested in what you are doing :
Children often misbehave in order to get attention.
c) draw/call attention to something ( also focus attention on something ) to make
people notice and be concerned or think about something :
The purpose of the article was to draw attention to the problems faced by single parents.
We wanted to focus public attention on this matter.
He left quietly to avoid drawing attention to himself.
d) divert/distract/draw attention from something to make people stop being
concerned about something such as a social problem :
All this talk of war is just an attempt to draw attention away from the serious economic
problems that face our country.
e) bring something to sb’s attention to tell someone, especially someone in authority,
about something such as a problem :
The matter was first brought to my attention earlier this year.
 f) come to sb’s attention if something such as a problem comes to the attention of
someone in authority, they find out about it :
It came to my attention that Jenny was claiming overtime pay for hours she had not
worked.
g) escape your attention if something escaped your attention, you did not notice it :
This fact had not escaped the attention of the authorities.
4 REPAIR/CLEANING [ uncountable ] something you do to repair or clean something :
The bike’s in fairly good condition, but the gears need a bit of attention .
5 CARE [ uncountable ] things that you do to help or to take care of someone or
something :
Pets need a lot of care and attention .
Anyone who comes into contact with these chemicals should seek urgent medical
attention .
Your plants look like they could do with a bit of attention .
6 stand to/at attention if soldiers stand to attention, they stand up straight in neat
lines
7 attention!
a) used to ask people to listen to important information that is being announced,
especially on a LOUDSPEAKER (= piece of equipment used to make sounds louder ) :
Attention, please! Could Passenger Marie Thomas please proceed to Gate 25 immediately.
b) used when ordering a group of soldiers to stand up straight in neat lines
8 for the attention of somebody used on the front of an official letter when you
want a particular person to read it or deal with it :
Letters should be marked ‘for the attention of Joe Benson’.

COLLOCATIONS
VERBS

pay attention to something/somebody He read the final page, paying particular

attention to the last paragraph.
turn your attention to something/somebody She quickly put away the shopping and
then turned her attention to preparing dinner.
give something/somebody your attention (= think about something/somebody so
that you can deal with a problem ) She promised to give the matter her attention the next
day.
sb’s attention wanders (= somebody stops listening, watching etc carefully ) During the
service, her mind began to wander.
ADJECTIVES
sb’s full/complete/undivided attention He gave the task his undivided attention.

THESAURUS
pay attention to carefully listen to, look at, or think about something or someone : She
told the class to stop talking and pay attention. | In any relationship, it helps to pay
attention to each other’s needs.
concentrate to think carefully about something that you are doing and not let other
things disturb your thoughts : I tried to read a few pages, but I was too upset to
concentrate. | Children need their own quiet space where they can concentrate on their
homework.
keep your mind on something to continue to pay attention to something, especially
when you are very excited or worried about something else : On Friday, the day of the
party, I had a dreadful time keeping my mind on my work. | Good football players keep
their minds on the game at all times.
keep your eyes on something to keep watching something carefully, so that you do not
make any mistakes : The first rule of driving is to keep your eyes on the road. | Keep your
eyes on the ball – now swing!
be engrossed in something to be paying so much attention to a book, a conversation,
some work etc, that you do not notice what is happening around you : Helen was sitting
up in bed, engrossed in a novel. | He was so engrossed in what he was doing he didn’t
even hear the doorbell ring.
be absorbed in something to be giving all your attention to something, especially
something you are reading, watching, or thinking about : The little boy sat at the edge of
the pond, totally absorbed in watching the fish. | He was a quiet man who often seemed to
be absorbed in his own thoughts. | Matilda was curled up in an armchair, absorbed in a
book.
give something/somebody your undivided attention to give all your attention to
something or someone and not do anything else – used especially when this is something
you want or need to do : Come round when the kids are in bed so I can give you my
undivided attention. | Once I’ve finished my exams, I’ll be able to give my undivided
attention to looking for a job.

Vital

vi‧tal W2 / ˈvaɪtl / adjective

1 extremely important and necessary for something to succeed or exist SYN crucial
The work she does is absolutely vital .
vital to
These measures are vital to national security.
vital for
Regular exercise is vital for your health.
 it is vital (that)
It is vital that you keep accurate records.
it is vital to do something
It is vital to keep accurate records.
It is vital to be honest with your children.
The tourist industry is of vital importance to the national economy.
Richardson played a vital role in the team’s success.
The samples could give scientists vital information about long-term changes in the
earth’s atmosphere.
2 full of energy in a way that is exciting and attractive :
Rodgers and Hart’s music sounds as fresh and vital as the day it was written.
3 [ only before noun ] necessary in order to keep you alive :
the body’s vital processes
vital organs (= heart, lungs etc )
4 vital signs medical the signs that show someone is alive, for example breathing and
body temperature

COLLOCATIONS
ADVERBS

absolutely vital Vitamins are absolutely vital for good health.

NOUNS

a vital role/part Nurses play a vital role in hospitals and surgeries.

a vital part/element Learning to play with other children is a vital part of growing up.
a vital ingredient/component Involving teachers in making decisions is a vital
ingredient in raising morale.
vital information The radio was a source of vital information on sea and weather
conditions.
vital evidence The vital evidence contained in the file had disappeared.
a vital source of something The forest was a vital source of timber.
PHRASES

something is of vital importance Reading is of vital importance in language learning.

Start (verb)
start 1 S1 W1 / stɑːt $ stɑːrt / verb
 1 BEGIN DOING SOMETHING [ intransitive and transitive ] to do something that you were
not doing before, and continue doing it SYN begin :
There’s so much to do I don’t know where to start.
Have you started your homework?
start doing something
Then the baby started crying.
start to do something
It’s starting to rain.
He got up and started running again .
I’d better get started (= start doing something ) soon.
start somebody doing something
What Kerry said started me thinking (= made me start thinking ) .
2 BEGIN HAPPENING [ intransitive and transitive ] ( also start off ) to begin happening, or
to make something begin happening :
What time does the film start?
Lightning started a fire that burned 500 acres.
The party was just getting started when Sara arrived.
starting (from) now/tomorrow/next week etc
You have two hours to complete the test, starting now.
3 BEGIN IN A PARTICULAR WAY [ intransitive always + adverb/preposition, transitive ] (
also start off ) to begin something in a particular way, or to begin in a particular way :

A healthy breakfast is a good way to start the day.

start with
The festivities started with a huge fireworks display.
start as
The restaurant started as a small take-out place.
start badly/well/slowly etc
Any new exercise program should start slowly.
start (something) by doing something
Chao starts by explaining some basic legal concepts.
4 BUSINESS/ORGANIZATION [ transitive ] ( also start up ) to make something begin to
exist
start a business/company/firm etc
She wanted to start her own catering business.
5 JOB/SCHOOL [ intransitive and transitive ] to begin a new job, or to begin going to
school, college etc :
When can you start?
start school/college/work
I started college last week.
6 CAR/ENGINE ETC [ intransitive and transitive ] ( also start up ) if you start a car or
engine, or if it starts, it begins to work :
The car wouldn’t start this morning.
get the car/engine etc started
He couldn’t get his motorbike started.
7 BEGIN GOING SOMEWHERE [ intransitive ] ( also start off/out ) to begin travelling or
moving in a particular direction SYN set out :
We’ll have to start early to get there by lunchtime.
8 LIFE/PROFESSION [ intransitive always + adverb/preposition, transitive ] ( also start
off/out ) to begin your life or profession in a particular way or place
start as/in
She started as a dancer in the 1950s.
It’s difficult for new lawyers to get started in private practice.
9 ROAD/RIVER/PATH ETC [ intransitive always + adverb/preposition ] if a river, road,
path etc starts somewhere, it begins in that place :
The trail starts immediately behind the hotel.
start in/at
The race will start at the town hall.
10 PRICES/AMOUNTS [ intransitive always + adverb/preposition ] if prices, amounts, or
rates start at or from a particular number, that is the lowest number at which you can get
or buy something
start at/from
Room prices start from £25 a night.
11 start from scratch/zero to begin doing a job or activity completely from the
beginning :
There were no textbooks, so the teachers had to start from scratch.
12 DELIBERATELY BEGIN SOMETHING [ transitive ] to deliberately make something start
happening, especially something bad :
I started a fire to warm the place up.
start a fight/argument
Oh, don’t go trying to start an argument.
Other girls were starting rumours about me.
13 to start with spoken
a) said when talking about the beginning of a situation, especially when it changes later :
I was pretty nervous to start with, but after a while I was fine.
b) said to emphasize the first of a list of facts or opinions you are stating :
There are problems. To start with, neither of us likes housework.
14 be back where you started to try to do something and fail, so that you finish in
the same situation that you were in before :
A lot of people who lose weight gain it back over time, and end up back where they started.
15 SPORTS [ intransitive and transitive ] if a player starts in a game, or if someone
starts them, they begin playing when the game begins, especially because they are one of
the best players on the team
start for
Astacio started for the Dodgers on Tuesday night.
16 start a family to have your first baby :
We’re not ready to start a family yet.
17 start afresh/anew to stop doing what you are doing and begin doing it again in a
better or different way :
She saw her new job as a chance to start afresh.
18 somebody started it! spoken used to say that someone else has caused an
argument or problem :
‘Don’t hit her!’ ‘But she started it!’
19 start something/anything to begin causing trouble :
It looks like Jess is trying to start something.
20 MOVE SUDDENLY [ intransitive ] to move your body suddenly, especially because you
are surprised or afraid SYN jump :
A loud knock at the door made her start.
start from
Emma started from her chair and rushed to the window.
21 start young to begin doing something when you are young, especially when it is
unusual to do it :
Woods started young, and was coached by his father.
 22 don’t (you) start! British English spoken used to tell someone to stop complaining,
arguing, or annoying you :
‘Mum, I don’t like this ice cream.’ ‘Oh, don’t you start!’

THESAURUS
TO START DOING SOMETHING

start to begin doing something : I’m starting a new job next week. | It’s time we started.
begin to start doing something. Begin is more formal than start , and is used especially in
written English : He began to speak. | The orchestra began playing. | Shall we begin?
commence formal to start doing something : The company will commence drilling next
week. | Work was commenced on the next power station.
get down to something to finally start doing something, especially your work : Come on,
Sam – it’s time you got down to some homework. | We’d better get down to business .
set off to start a journey : What time do you have to set off in the morning? | I usually set
off for work at about 8.30.
set out to start a long journey : The ship set out from Portsmouth on July 12th.
embark on something especially written to start something, especially something new,
difficult, or exciting : The Law Society has embarked on a major programme of reform. |
Jamaica was embarking on a decade of musical creativity.
resume formal to start doing something again after stopping it or being interrupted :
Normal train services will be resumed on April 5th. | Trade was resumed after the end of
the war.
get cracking informal to start doing something or going somewhere : I think we should
get cracking straightaway.
TO START HAPPENING

start/begin to begin : What time does the film start?

begin to start. Begin is more formal than start and is used especially in written English :
The trial began in March. | Work on the new bridge will begin early next year.
open to start being shown to the public – used about a play, show, or exhibition : Lloyd
Webber’s new musical opened in London last week. | A major exhibition of her work will
open in New York in November.
commence formal to start happening : The voting has already commenced. | The work is
scheduled to commence in April.
get under way to start happening or being done – used especially about something that is
likely to last a long time : Construction work is getting under way on a new train network. |
Discussions concerning the plan got under way on April 2.
break out to start happening – used especially about a fire, a fight, war, or a disease :
Police were called in when fighting broke out in the crowd. | The blaze broke out on the
third floor of the hotel.
kick off informal to start – used especially about a football game or a meeting : The match
is due to kick off this afternoon at Wembley Stadium. | What time will the celebrations kick
off?
start back phrasal verb
to begin returning to the place you came from
start back to/down/up etc
I started back down the mountain to camp.
start in phrasal verb American English
1 to begin doing something, especially with a lot of effort :
I decided to just start in and see what I could do.
start in on
Lilly started in on her burger.
2 to begin criticizing someone or complaining to them about something
start in on
Mom turned away from Rose and started in on me.
start off phrasal verb
1 to begin something in a particular way, or to begin in a particular way
start something ↔ off with something/by doing something
The theater company started off their new season with a Shakespeare play.
start off with something/by doing something
I started off by drawing the flowers I had collected.
2 to be a particular thing or have a particular quality at the beginning of something,
especially when this changes later :
The puppies start off white, and get their black spots later.
start off as
The games start off as a social event, but players soon become competitive.
I started off as a drummer.
3 start something ↔ off to make something begin happening :
We’re not sure what starts the process off.
4 start somebody ↔ off to help someone begin an activity
start somebody ↔ off with
He started me off with some stretching exercises.
5 to begin going somewhere :
I sat in the car for a few minutes before starting off.
start off to/towards/back etc
She started off to school in her new uniform.
6 start somebody off British English informal to make someone get angry or start
laughing, by saying something :
Don’t say that; that’ll just start him off.
start somebody off doing something
He made her jump, and that started her off giggling.
start on somebody/something phrasal verb
1 to begin doing something or using something :
You’d better start on your homework.
2 start somebody on something to make someone start doing something regularly,
especially because it will be good for them :
Try starting your baby on solid foods at four months old.
3 British English informal to begin criticizing someone or complaining to them about
something
start on somebody/something at
Ray’s wife started on at him about spending too much time in the pub.
start out phrasal verb
1 to begin happening or existing in a particular way, especially when this changes later
start out as
‘The Star’ started out as a small weekly newspaper.
The leaves start out a pale green, and later get darker.
2 to begin your life or profession, or an important period of time :
When the band first started out, they played at small clubs.
start out as
She started out as a model.
start out on
young couples starting out on their life together
3 to begin going somewhere :
Oliver started out at five, when it was still dark.
start over phrasal verb American English
 to start doing something again from the beginning, especially because you want to do it
better :
If you make a mistake, just erase it and start over.
start up phrasal verb
1 if you start up a business, company etc, or it starts up, it begins to exist :
Tax breaks help new companies start up.
start something ↔ up
Jordan started up a band of his own.
2 if an engine, car etc starts up, or you start it up, it begins working :
The driver got back into the car and started up.
start something ↔ up
Rory started up the engine and got the vehicle moving.
3 if a sound, activity, or event starts up, it begins to exist or happen :
The crickets had started up now that it was evening.

Start (noun)
start 2 S1 W2 noun
1 OF AN ACTIVITY/EVENT [ countable usually singular ] the first part of an activity or
event, or the point at which it begins to develop
start of
We arrived late and missed the start of the film.
(right) from the start
We’ve had problems with this project right from the start.
She read the letter from start to finish without looking up.
get off to a good/bad etc start (= begin well or badly )
a free bottle of wine to get your holiday off to a great start
a rocky/shaky/slow etc start (= a bad beginning )
After a rocky start, the show is now very popular.
He wanted an early start on his election campaign.
2 OF A PERIOD OF TIME [ countable usually singular ] the first part of a particular period
of time SYN beginning
start of
Since the start of 1992, the company has doubled in size.
the start of the year/day/season
the start of an election year
3 make a start (on something) to begin doing something :
I’ll make a start on the washing-up.
4 SUDDEN MOVEMENT [ singular ] a sudden movement of your body, usually caused by
fear or surprise
with a start
Ted woke up with a start and felt for the light switch.
She said his name, and Tom gave a start (= made a sudden movement ) .
5 good/better/healthy etc start (in life) if you have a good etc start, you have all
the advantages or opportunities that your situation, your parents etc could provide to help
you succeed :
Good health care for the mother before birth gives babies a healthy start .
Naturally we want to give our kids the best possible start in life .
6 WHERE RACE BEGINS the start the place where a race begins :
The horses were all lined up at the start.
7 BEING AHEAD [ countable usually singular ] the amount of time or distance by which
one person is ahead of another, especially in a race or competition
start on
The prisoners had a three-hour start on their pursuers.
→ HEAD START (2)
8 for a start British English informal used to emphasize the first of a list of facts or
opinions you are stating :
Well, for a start, the weather was horrible.
9 be a start spoken used to say that something you have achieved may not be
impressive, but it will help with a bigger achievement :
One exercise class a week isn’t enough, but it’s a start .
10 JOB

a) [ countable usually singular ] the beginning of someone’s job, which they will develop in
the future, especially a job that involves acting, writing, painting etc :
Pacino got his start on the stage, before his success in films.
I gave you your start , so remember me when you win the Pulitzer Prize.
b) [ countable usually plural ] a job that has just started, a business that has just been
started, or someone who has just started a new job :
The number of business starts plummeted 10.5% during the second half of the year.
 a training course for new starts
11 starts ( also housing starts ) [ plural ] technical when people begin to build a
number of new houses
12 SPORT [ countable usually plural ]
a) a race or competition that someone has taken part in :
The horse Exotic Wood was unbeaten in five starts.
b) an occasion when a player plays when a sports match begins :
Jackson played in 353 games, with 314 starts.
→ FALSE START , → fresh start at FRESH ( 4 ) , → in/by fits and starts at FIT 3 (7)

COLLOCATIONS
ADJECTIVES

a good/great start A 3-0 win is a good start for the team.

a flying start (= a very good start ) The appeal got off to a flying start at the weekend
when the group held a raffle.
a promising start (= a good start that makes success seem likely ) Her teacher says she's
made a promising start in learning Spanish.
a bad/poor/disastrous start Things got off to a bad start when two people turned up
late.
a rocky/shaky start (= a rather bad start ) After a shaky start, they managed two wins in
five matches.
a disappointing start He accepted full responsibility for the club’s disappointing start to
the season.
a slow start Work got off to a very slow start because of bad weather.
an auspicious/inauspicious start (= one that makes it seem likely that something will
be good or bad ) His second term in office has got off to an extremely inauspicious start.
an early/late start It was long trip so we had planned an early start.
VERBS

get off to a good/bad etc start On your first day at work, you want to get off to a good
start.
make a good/bad/early etc start He made a flying start at college, but then he didn't
manage to keep it up.
have a good/bad etc start We’ve had a disappointing start but we are hoping to
improve.

THESAURUS
beginning the first part of something such as a story, event, or period of time : The
beginning of the movie is very violent. | Let’s go back to the beginning.
start the beginning of something, or the way something begins : Tomorrow marks the start
of the presidential election campaign. | It was not a good start to the day. | The runners
lined up for the start of the race.
commencement formal the beginning of something – used especially in official contexts :
the commencement of the academic year | the commencement of the contract
origin the point from which something starts to exist : He wrote a book about the origins
of the universe. | The tradition has its origins in medieval times.
the onset of something the time when something bad begins, such as illness, old age, or
cold weather : the onset of winter | An active lifestyle can delay the onset of many diseases
common to aging.
dawn literary the beginning of an important period of time in history : People have
worshipped gods since the dawn of civilization.
birth the beginning of something important that will change many people’s lives : the birth
of democracy in South Africa | the birth of the environmental movement

Surge (verb)
surge 1 / sɜːdʒ $ sɜːrdʒ / verb [ intransitive ]

1 [ always + adverb/preposition ] to suddenly move very quickly in a particular

direction
surge forward/through etc
The taxi surged forward.
The crowd surged through the gates.
2 ( also surge up ) if a feeling surges or surges up, you begin to feel it very strongly :

She could feel anger surging inside her.

3 [ usually + adverb/preposition ] if a large amount of a liquid, electricity, chemical etc
surges, it moves very quickly and suddenly :
A wave surged up towards them.
Adrenalin surged through her veins.
4 to suddenly increase SYN shoot up :
Oil prices surged.

Surge (noun)
surge 2 noun [ countable usually singular ]
1 a surge of something a sudden large increase in a feeling :
a surge of excitement
2 a sudden increase in amount or number
surge in/of
a surge in food costs
a surge of reporters’ interest in his finances
3 a sudden movement of a lot of people
surge of
a surge of refugees into the country
4 a sudden quick movement of a liquid, electricity, chemical etc through something :
a device that protects your computer against electrical surges

THESAURUS
increase noun [ uncountable and countable ] an occasion when the amount or number of
something becomes bigger : There has been a significant increase in violent crime over the
past year. | price increases
growth noun [ singular, uncountable ] an increase in the number, size, or importance of
something. Growth is also used when saying that a company or a country’s economy
becomes more successful : The astonishing growth of the Internet has had a dramatic
effect on people’s lives. | Japan experienced a period of rapid economic growth. | Many
people are concerned about the enormous growth in the world’s population.
rise noun [ countable ] an increase in the amount of something, or in the standard or level
of something : The latest figures show a sharp rise (= a sudden big rise ) in
unemployment in the region. | There was a 34 percent rise in the number of armed
robberies. | The majority of families experienced a rise in living standards.
surge noun [ countable usually singular ] a sudden increase in something such as profits,
demand, or interest : There has been a big surge in demand for organically grown food. |
We have seen a tremendous surge of interest in Chinese medicine.
gain noun [ uncountable and countable ] an increase in the amount or level of something -
used especially in business or political contexts, or when talking about an increase in
someone’s weight : sales gains | The December job figures show a net gain of 81,000
jobs. | The party has experienced a gain in popularity. | The amount of weight gain during
pregnancy varies.
hike noun [ countable ] informal especially American English a large or sudden increase in
prices or taxes - often used in newspaper reports : Despite a 25% hike in fuel costs, the
airline made a profit last year. | tax hikes | wage hikes

Begin

be‧gin S1 W1 / bɪˈɡɪn / verb ( past tense began / -ˈɡæn / , past participle begun / -ˈɡʌn / ,
present participle beginning )

1 START DOING SOMETHING [ intransitive and transitive ] to start doing something :

As everybody’s here, let’s begin.
In the third year students begin the study of classical Chinese.
The president begins talks with the prime minister tonight.
begin to do something
She began to feel a sense of panic.
begin doing something
I began teaching in 1984.
2 START HAPPENING [ intransitive and transitive ] if something begins, or you begin
something, it starts to happen or exist from a particular time :
It was the coldest winter since records began.
begin at
The meeting begins at 10.30 am.
3 DO FIRST [ intransitive ] if you begin with something or begin by doing something, this
is the first thing you do
begin with
Shall we begin with a prayer?
begin by doing something
I’ll begin by thanking you all for being here tonight.
4 BOOK/WORD ETC [ intransitive ] if a book, film, or word begins with something, it
starts with a particular event or letter
begin with
‘Psychosis’ begins with a P.

REGISTER
In everyday English, people usually say start rather than begin :
The movie starts at 7.45.
Let’s start by introducing ourselves.
Not many English names start with X.
5 SPEECH [ intransitive and transitive ] to start speaking :
‘Ladies and gentlemen,’ he began. ‘I am delighted to be here.’
6 to begin with
a) spoken used to introduce the first and most important point you want to make :
Well, to begin with, he shouldn’t even have been driving my car.
b) used to say that something was already in a particular condition before something else
happened :
I didn’t break it! It was like that to begin with.
c) during the first part of a process or activity :
The kids helped me to begin with, but they soon got bored.
7 can’t begin to understand/imagine etc spoken used to emphasize how difficult
something is to understand etc :
I can’t begin to imagine how awful it was.
begin (something) as something phrasal verb
to be a particular thing at the start of your existence, working life etc :
Roger began his career as an office boy.

Spike (noun)
spike 1 / spaɪk / noun [ countable ]

1 something long and thin with a sharp point, especially a pointed piece of metal
2 [ usually singular ] a sudden large increase in the number or rate of something
spike in
a spike in interest rates
3 spikes [ plural ] shoes with metal points on the bottom, worn by people who run
races, play golf etc
4 spike heels [ plural ] a pair of women’s shoes with very high thin heels

Spike (verb)
spike 2 verb

1 [ transitive ] to secretly add strong alcohol or a drug to someone’s drink or food

spike something with something
The orange juice had been spiked with gin.
2 [ intransitive ] if the number or rate of something spikes, it increases quickly and by a
large amount :
New telephone orders have spiked in the last two years.
3 [ transitive ] to push a sharp tool or object into something
4 [ transitive ] to prevent someone from saying something or printing something in a
newspaper :
a clumsy attempt to spike rumours of a cabinet split
5
a) spike the ball American English to powerfully throw an American football down on the
ground to celebrate a TOUCHDOWN
b) [ intransitive and transitive ] to powerfully hit a VOLLEYBALL down over the net
6 spike sb’s guns British English to spoil an opponent’s plans

Cause (noun)
cause 1 S2 W1 / kɔːz $ kɒːz / noun

1 [ countable ] a person, event, or thing that makes something happen → effect

cause of
Breast cancer is the leading cause of death for American women in their 40s.
It’s our job to establish the cause of the fire.
► Do not say ‘the cause for something’. Say the cause of something .
2 [ uncountable ] a fact that makes it right or reasonable for you to feel or behave in a
particular way SYN reason
cause for
There is no cause for alarm .
The patient’s condition is giving cause for concern .
The present political climate gives little cause for optimism .
have (good) cause to do something
His father has good cause to be proud of him.
with/without good cause
Many people are worried about the economy, and with good cause.
3 [ countable ] an aim, belief or organization that a group of people support or fight for
:
My father fought for the Nationalist cause.
cause of
her lifelong devotion to the cause of women’s rights
He has championed the cause of independence (= he has supported it publicly ) .
You can get fit, and at the same time raise money for a worthy cause .
Please give generously – it’s all in a good cause (= done in order to help people ) .
4 have/make common cause (with/against somebody) formal to join with other
people or groups in order to oppose an enemy :
U.S. officials expect other Western governments to make common cause with them over
the arrests.
 5 [ countable ] law a case that is brought to a court of law
→ lost cause at LOST 2 ( 12 )

COLLOCATIONS
ADJECTIVES

a common cause of something Alcohol is the most common cause of road accidents.
the main/primary cause of something Smoking is the main cause of lung disease.
a major/leading cause of something In this country, debt is a major cause of
homelessness. | Drug abuse is the leading cause of crime and violence.
a direct/indirect cause Government policies are the direct cause of the problems facing
the economy.
the root cause (= the most basic cause ) People often deal with the symptoms rather than
the root cause of a problem.
the fundamental/underlying cause (= the root cause ) The underlying cause of
insomnia is often anxiety.
the probable/likely cause The probable cause of the fire was faulty wiring.
VERBS

discover/find the cause An investigation has failed to discover the cause of the epidemic.
determine/establish/identify the cause (= discover definitely what it is ) A team of
experts is at the scene of the accident, trying to determine the cause.
investigate the cause Police are still investigating the cause of the fire.
PHRASES

the cause of death A snake bite was the cause of death.

die of/from natural causes (= die of illness, old age etc, not because of an accident or
crime ) He died from natural causes, believed to be a heart attack.
cause and effect (= the idea that one thing directly causes another ) What happened was
simply a question of cause and effect.

COLLOCATIONS
ADJECTIVES

a good cause (= one that is worth supporting, for example a charity ) The money we are
raising is for a good cause.
a worthy/deserving cause (= a good cause ) The Red Cross is a very worthy cause.
a just cause (= an aim that is fair and right ) The rebels believed that they were fighting
for a just cause.
a noble cause (= an aim that is morally good ) He died for a noble cause.
 the Nationalist/Republican etc cause (= their aims and organization ) The election
results were a serious blow to the Nationalist cause.
VERBS

support a cause Giving money is only one way of supporting a good cause.
fight for a cause (= take action to achieve an aim ) Young people often want to fight for a
cause.
champion a cause (= publicly support an aim ) He has championed the cause of
renewable energy since the 1980s.
advance/further/promote a cause (= help to achieve an aim ) He did much to advance
the cause of freedom.
be committed to a cause (= believe in an aim very strongly ) We are committed to the
cause of racial justice.
be sympathetic to a cause (= understand an aim, and possibly support it ) They hope
the new President will be sympathetic to their cause.

Cause (verb)
cause 2 S1 W1 verb [ transitive ]

to make something happen, especially something bad :

Heavy traffic is causing delays on the freeway.
The fire caused £15,000 worth of damage.
cause something for somebody
The oil spill is causing problems for coastal fisheries.
cause concern/uncertainty/embarrassment etc
The policy changes have caused great uncertainty for the workforce.
I’m sorry if I caused any confusion .
cause somebody trouble/problems etc
You’ve caused us all a lot of unnecessary worry.
Sorry, I didn’t mean to cause offence (= offend you ) .
cause somebody/something to do something
What caused you to change your mind?
► Do not say ‘cause that someone does something’. Say cause someone to do
something .

REGISTER
In everyday English, people usually use the expression make somebody do something
rather than cause somebody to do something :
What made you change your mind?

COLLOCATIONS
NOUNS

cause a problem The heavy rain has been causing serious problems on the roads.
cause trouble I decided not to complain because I didn’t want to cause trouble.
cause damage A fire had broken out and caused severe damage to the roof.
cause (a) disease Scientists are trying to find out what causes the disease.
cause injury Rugby is one of the sports that are most likely to cause injury.
cause pain The infection can cause severe pain.
cause death The famine caused the death of up to 400,000 people.
cause (a) delay Bad weather caused delays at many airports.
cause an accident 75% of accidents are caused by speeding.
cause chaos/disruption Floods caused chaos across much of the country.
cause concern/alarm Environmental issues are causing widespread concern.
cause confusion Teachers say the reforms will cause confusion in schools.
cause offence/embarrassment (= offend/embarrass someone ) How can I refuse the
invitation without causing offence?

THESAURUS
cause to make something happen, especially something bad : Bad weather has caused a
lot of problems on the roads. | The fault caused the whole computer system to shut down.
make somebody/something do something to cause someone to do something, or
cause something to happen. Make is less formal than cause , and is the usual word to use
in everyday English : What made you decide to become a teacher? | I’m sorry, I didn’t
mean to make you cry. | Gravity is the force which makes the planets move round the Sun.
be responsible for something if someone or something is responsible for something bad,
they caused it to happen : The excessive heat was responsible for their deaths. | A small
militant group was responsible for the bombing.
bring about something to make something happen – used especially about changes or
improvements : The Internet has brought about enormous changes in society. | It’s
important that we do everything we can to bring about peace.
result in something if an action or event results in something, it makes that thing happen
: The fire resulted in the deaths of two children. | The decision is likely to result in a large
number of job losses.
 lead to something to cause something to happen eventually after a period of time : The
information led to several arrests. | A poor diet in childhood can lead to health problems
later in life.
trigger if one event triggers another, it suddenly makes the second event happen : The
incident triggered a wave of violence. | An earthquake off Java’s southern coast triggered a
tsunami.
precipitate formal to make a very serious event happen very suddenly, which will affect a
lot of people : The withdrawal of foreign investment would precipitate an economic crisis. |
The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand precipitated World War I.

Export (noun)
ex‧port 1 W2 AC / ˈekspɔːt $ -ɔːrt / noun
1 [ uncountable ] the business of selling and sending goods to other countries OPP
import
export of
a ban on the export of toxic waste
for export
bales of cloth for export to the continent
2 [ countable usually plural ] a product that is sold to another country OPP import :
Wheat is one of the country’s main exports.

COLLOCATIONS
EXPORT + NOUN
an export market The US is Scotland’s second largest export market after France.
export trade Most of its export trade is with Russia.
export earnings/revenue (= the money a company or country makes from exports ) Oil
and gas provide 40% of Norway’s export earnings.
export sales/figures (= the total number of products that are sold to other countries )
Export sales exceeded 50% of the company’s total turnover. | Hong Kong is a major
trading power, with annual export figures rivalling those of Germany.
an export licence (= an official document giving you permission to sell something to
another country ) You will have to submit an application for an export licence.
export controls/restrictions/quotas (= official limits on the number of exports ) The
European Parliament wants tougher export controls on certain goods. | The number of
goods subject to import and export quotas is being reduced.
an export ban ( also a ban on exports ) During the crisis, France imposed an export ban
on British beef. | The ban on exports was lifted in June.
ADJECTIVES/NOUN + EXPORT
the major/main/principal export Agricultural products are the country’s principal
exports.
oil/agricultural/manufacturing exports Oil exports from Iraq have resumed.
British/US etc exports Higher tariffs will affect a wide range of British exports.
invisible exports (= services that are exported, such as banking or insurance, rather than
a product ) The City of London is important to the invisible exports of this country.
VERBS

boost exports (= increase them ) The measures should boost exports and create
employment.
encourage exports (= make them more likely to exist ) Kenya used subsidies to
encourage exports.
reduce exports OPEC has threatened to reduce exports of oil to the West.
restrict exports (= limit or control them ) The government threatened to restrict exports
because of weak demand.
ban exports (= stop them completely ) In retaliation, Britain banned exports of cloth to
France.
exports increase/rise/grow Electronics exports grew more slowly than in previous
years.
exports fall/decline/drop Exports of gas and oil continued to fall while imports of raw
materials have risen.
exports account for something (= form a particular part of a total ) Exports currently
account for 37% of sales.
PHRASES

a growth/rise/increase in exports The electronics sector has seen a 16% growth in

exports.
a fall/decline/drop in exports There has been a decline in exports and an increase in oil
prices.

THESAURUS
product noun [ countable ] something that is made or produced in large quantities, usually
in order to be sold : consumer products such as mobile phones | dairy products
goods noun [ plural ] things that are produced in order to be sold, especially for use in the
home : They sell furniture and other household goods . | electrical goods | white
goods (= large electrical goods used in the home such as washing machines and
refrigerators )
commodity noun [ countable ] formal a type of product or raw material that can be bought
and sold – used especially about basic food products, metals, and fuels : The decline in
prices for agricultural commodities made the economic situation worse. | All metal was a
valuable commodity and was rarely wasted.
merchandise noun [ uncountable ] formal things that are being sold, especially in shops :
Customers are not allowed to handle the merchandise. | Sales of books, videos, and other
merchandise have increased.
wares noun [ plural ] written things that are offered for sale, especially in a market or on
the street : In the market, the traders began selling their wares. | Merchants brought their
wares from all over the world.
export noun [ countable often plural ] a product that is sent to a foreign country in order
to be sold : US exports rose to $11.935 billion. | At the moment, oil is their biggest export.
import noun [ countable often plural ] goods that are brought from one country into
another to be sold there : The UK clothing industry cannot compete with foreign imports on
price.

Export (verb)

ex‧port 2 AC / ɪkˈspɔːt $ -ɔːrt / verb

1 [ intransitive and transitive ] to sell goods to another country OPP import

export something (from somebody) to somebody
The company exports tuna to the US.
2 [ transitive ] to introduce an activity, idea etc to another place or country :
Italian food has been exported all over the world.
3 [ transitive ] technical to move computer information from one computer to another,
from one computer document to another, or from one piece of software to another OPP
import

— exportation / ˌekspɔːˈteɪʃ ə n $ -ɔːr- / noun [ uncountable ]

THESAURUS
sell to give something to someone in exchange for money : He sold his motorcycle. | The
shop sells old furniture. | Do you sell books on gardening?
export to send goods to another country to be sold : Which countries export oil to the
United States?
deal in something to buy and sell a particular type of goods as part of your business : He
deals in antiques.
put something up for sale/put something on the market to make something available
to be bought : When the painting was first put up for sale, no one thought that it would be
worth so much money. | The farm was put up for sale.
sell up British English to sell your house or your business so that you can move to a
different place or do something different : They’re thinking of selling up and moving to
Canada.
auction something/sell something at auction to sell things at a special event to the
person who offers the most money : The contents of his home will be auctioned.
flog British English informal to sell something, especially something that is of low quality :
A man at the market was flogging £10 watches.
peddle to sell cheap things in the street. Also used about selling illegal drugs and
PORNOGRAPHY : Street vendors peddled American and British cigarettes. | People who peddle
drugs to children should be severely punished.
traffic in something to buy and sell large quantities of illegal goods or people : They
trafficked in illegal weapons. | The gang were involved in people-trafficking. | drug-
trafficking

Shortage
short‧age / ˈʃɔːtɪdʒ $ ˈʃɔːr- / noun [ uncountable and countable ]

a situation in which there is not enough of something that people need SYN lack
shortage of
a shortage of skilled labour
There is no shortage of funds.

COLLOCATIONS
ADJECTIVES/NOUN + SHORTAGE
a severe/serious shortage There is a serious shortage of food in some areas.
an acute shortage (= very bad ) They were suffering because of an acute shortage of
doctors and nurses.
a desperate/dire shortage (= very serious and worrying ) There is a desperate shortage
of fresh water in the disaster area.
a chronic shortage (= very bad and existing for a long time ) There is a chronic shortage
of housing in rural areas.
a growing shortage (= one that is increasing ) The United States is facing a growing
shortage of information technology workers.
a general shortage (= a shortage of lots of different kinds of things or people ) There was
a general shortage of skilled workers.
a national/world shortage There is likely to be a world shortage of timber in the future.
a water/food/housing etc shortage The water shortage was reaching crisis proportions.
 a labour/manpower shortage (= a shortage of people to do work ) During the war,
there was a severe labour shortage, so women began doing jobs they had never done
before.
a staff shortage (= a shortage of people to work at a particular business ) The company
blamed staff shortages for the delays.
VERBS

create/cause a shortage Poor harvests could cause food shortages in the winter.
lead to/result in a shortage The strike led to serious shortages of fuel in some areas.
face a shortage (= be likely to suffer a shortage ) The refugees face desperate shortages
of food and water.
ease a shortage (= make it less serious ) Building more houses will ease the shortage of
accommodation.

Trend
trend S3 W2 / trend / noun [ countable ]
1 a general tendency in the way a situation is changing or developing
trend towards
Lately there has been a trend towards hiring younger, cheaper employees.
trend in
recent trends in education
The current trend is towards more part-time employment.
the general trend towards the centralization of political power
A disturbing trend is that victims of violence are getting younger.
The growing trend is for single mothers to bring up children by themselves.
Even so, the underlying trend is positive.
national and international economic trends
the downward trend in the price of gold
Successive presidents have tried to reverse this trend , but without success.
2 set the trend to start doing something that other people copy :
Larger corporations are setting the trend for better maternity benefits.
3 on trend fashionable – used especially in magazines :
This striped dress is bang on trend.

COLLOCATIONS
ADJECTIVES
 a recent/new trend He wrote an article attacking many recent trends in education.
the current/latest trend If current trends continue, the amount of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere will double by the year 2030.
a general trend (= one followed by most people or happening in most places ) There was
a general trend towards marriage at a younger age.
a growing/increasing/rising trend a growing trend towards globalization in world
markets
an alarming/worrying/disturbing trend I have detected a worrying trend of late.
the underlying/long-term trend (= the trend over a long period of time ) The
underlying trend is for rich economies to get richer.
a downward/upward trend (= a tendency for something to increase or decrease ) The
downward trend in population growth was not seen as a problem.
economic/market trends This forecast is based on current economic trends.
the national trend Crime rates in Manchester bucked the national trend.
the international/world-wide/global trend the global trend towards intensive farming
VERBS

reverse a trend (= make something start to change back ) He succeeded in reversing the
downward trend of the railway’s fortunes.
buck the trend (= do something that is not what is generally happening ) The recession
may still be biting, but video games company Nintendo continues to buck the trend.
follow a trend Divorce rates in Scotland are following the general trend.
start a trend The young started a trend toward living in the downtown area.

THESAURUS
fashion noun [ uncountable and countable ] a style of clothes, hair, behaviour etc that is
fashionable. Fashion is also used as an uncountable noun, when talking about all of these
styles in general : the latest fashions from Donna Karan | changing fashions in popular
music | I'm not interested in fashion.
vogue noun [ singular,uncountable ] if there is a vogue for something, or it is in vogue ,
it is fashionable. Vogue sounds more formal and typical of the language that more
educated speakers use than fashion : the current vogue for realistic animated films |
There was a vogue for cream furniture in the 1920s. | His pictures are very much in vogue
these days.
trend noun [ countable ] a way of doing something or a way of thinking that is becoming
fashionable or popular : The magazine focuses on the latest trends in contemporary design.
| The trend is for people to wait longer to marry and have children.
craze/fad noun [ countable ] informal a fashion, activity, type of music etc that suddenly
becomes very popular, but only remains popular for a short time – often used about things
that you think are rather silly : a new fitness craze | the current fad for bare white walls
and uncomfortable-looking metal furniture | I'm sure it's just a passing fad (= something
that will soon stop being fashionable ) . | fad diets
something is all the rage formal used when saying that something is very popular and
fashionable for a short time : The game was all the rage at her school.

Rise (verb)
rise 1 S2 W1 / raɪz / verb ( past tense rose / rəʊz $ roʊz / , past participle risen / ˈrɪz ə n / ) [
intransitive ]
1 INCREASE to increase in number, amount, or value SYN go up OPP fall
rise by
Sales rose by 20% over the Christmas period.
rise from/to
The research budget rose from £175,000 in 1999 to £22.5 million in 2001.
rise above
Temperatures rarely rise above freezing.
rise dramatically/sharply/rapidly/steeply etc
The number of people seeking asylum in Britain has risen sharply.
The divorce rate has risen steadily since the 1950s.
rising crime/unemployment/inflation etc
The country faces economic recession and rising unemployment.
The police seem unable to cope with the rising tide of (= large increase in ) car crime.

REGISTER
In everyday English, people usually say an amount or level goes up rather than rises :
Prices have gone up a lot.
2 GO UPWARDS to go upwards OPP fall :
The floodwaters began to rise again.
She watched the bubbles rise to the surface.
the problems caused by climate change and rising sea levels
rise from
Smoke rose from the chimney.
The road rises steeply from the village.
The waves rose and fell .
3 STAND formal to stand up :
Then she picked up her bag and rose to leave.
rise from the table/your chair etc
The chairman rose from his chair and came forward to greet her.
He put down his glass and rose to his feet .
4 BECOME SUCCESSFUL to become important, powerful, successful, or rich OPP fall
rise to
He rose to the rank of major.
rise to prominence/fame/power
He had swiftly risen to prominence during the 1950s.
Mussolini rose to power in Italy in 1922.
people who rise to the top in their chosen professions
rise to do something
He rose to become chairman of the company.
She had joined the company as a secretary and risen through the ranks (= made
progress from a low position to a high position ) to become a senior sales director.
5 BE TALL ( also rise up ) to be very tall

rise above
The cliffs rose above them.
rise from
huge rocks rising from the sea
The bridge rose majestically into the air.
6 VOICE/SOUND

a) to be loud enough to be heard

rise from
The sound of traffic rose from the street below.
rise above
Her voice rose above the shouts of the children.
b) to become louder or higher :
His voice rose in frustration.
7 SUN/MOON/STAR to appear in the sky OPP set :
The sun rises in the east.
8 EMOTION if a feeling or emotion rises, you feel it more and more strongly :
 She could sense her temper rising again.
There was an atmosphere of rising excitement in the school.
The doctor sounded optimistic and John’s hopes rose .
9 rise to the occasion/challenge to deal successfully with a difficult situation or
problem, especially by working harder or performing better than usual :
a young athlete who can certainly rise to the occasion
The team rose to the challenge.
10 AGAINST A GOVERNMENT/ARMY ( also rise up ) if a large group of people rise, they try
to defeat the government, army etc that is controlling them :
They rose up and overthrew the government.
rise against
The prisoners rose against the guards and escaped.
rise in revolt/rebellion
They rose in rebellion against the king.
11 BREAD/CAKES ETC if bread, cakes etc rise, they become bigger because there is air
inside them
12 BED literary to get out of bed in the morning
13 ALIVE AGAIN to come alive after having died → resurrection
rise from the dead/grave
On the third day Jesus rose from the dead.
14 COURT/PARLIAMENT if a court or parliament rises, that particular meeting is formally
finished
15 WIND formal if the wind rises, it becomes stronger :
The wind had risen again and it was starting to rain.
16 RIVER literary if a river rises somewhere, it begins there :
The Rhine rises in Switzerland.
17 rise and shine spoken used humorously to tell someone to wake up and get out of
bed

COLLOCATIONS
ADVERBS

sharply/steeply (= a lot in a short time ) The value of the painting has risen sharply in
recent years.
dramatically (= a lot and very suddenly ) Unemployment rose dramatically.
rapidly/quickly/fast House prices rose rapidly last year.
significantly (= in a way that shows something important ) Male cancer rates rose
significantly during the period 1969–78.
substantially (= a lot ) University fees have risen substantially.
steadily My salary had risen steadily each year.
slightly The water temperature had risen slightly.
rise above something phrasal verb
if someone rises above a bad situation or bad influences, they do not let these things
affect them because they are mentally strong or have strong moral principles :
You expect a certain amount of criticism, but you have to rise above it.
I try to rise above such prejudices.
rise to something phrasal verb
if you rise to a remark, you reply to it rather than ignoring it, especially because it has
made you angry :
You shouldn’t rise to his comments.
He refused to rise to the bait (= react in the way someone wanted him to ) .

Rise (noun)
rise 2 S3 W2 noun
1 INCREASE [ countable ] an increase in number, amount, or value SYN increase OPP
fall
rise in
We are expecting a rise in interest rates.
an alarming rise in unemployment
rise of
Profits went up to £24 million, a rise of 16%.
2 WAGES [ countable ] British English an increase in wages SYN raise American English
:
He’s been promised a rise next year.
The railworkers were offered a 3% pay rise .
3 SUCCESS/POWER [ singular ] the achievement of importance, success or power OPP
fall
rise of
the rise of fascism
the rise of Napoleon
rise to
Thatcher’s rise to power in the late 70s
The band’s sudden rise to fame took everyone by surprise.
his swift rise to prominence
the rise and fall of the Roman Empire
4 give rise to something formal to be the reason why something happens, especially
something bad or unpleasant → provoke :
His speech gave rise to a bitter argument.
The President’s absence has given rise to speculation about his health.
5 MOVEMENT UP [ singular ] a movement upwards OPP fall
rise in
a sudden rise in sea levels
She watched the steady rise and fall of his chest.
6 SLOPE [ countable ] an upward slope or a hill :
There’s a slight rise in the road.
They topped the rise (= reached the top of the hill ) and began a slow descent towards the
town.
7 get a rise out of somebody informal to make someone become annoyed or
embarrassed by making a joke about them → make fun of somebody :
She enjoys getting a rise out of you.

COLLOCATIONS
ADJECTIVES/NOUN + RISE
sharp/steep (= great and sudden ) There’s been a sharp rise in house prices.
dramatic (= great and sudden ) The meter showed a dramatic rise in the level of
radioactivity.
big/large There has been a big rise in violent crime.
huge/massive The result was a huge rise in unemployment.
substantial/significant Manufacturers claimed the increase would mean a substantial rise
in costs. | Wealthy Americans face a significant rise in their income tax rate.
rapid The post-war years saw a rapid rise in prosperity.
steady Japanese banks have been hit hard by the rise in interest rates.
a 10%/40% etc rise The company reported an 81% rise in profits.
a price rise The tax would result in a price rise of 6 percent for petrol.
a rent rise British English Tenants face huge rent rises.
 a temperature rise They predicted a global temperature rise of 2.5 degrees by the end of
the century.
PHRASES

a rise in the number of something There has been a rise in the number of arrests for
drug offences.

COLLOCATIONS
PHRASES

sb’s rise to power They were alarmed by Hitler’s rise to power.

sb’s rise to prominence His rise to prominence would not have been possible without the
war.
sb’s rise to fame Her success in the film ensured a rapid rise to fame.
sb’s rise to stardom In this book, he explores the actor’s rise to stardom.
sb’s rise to the top His rise to the top of the Labour Party was effortless.
the rise and fall of somebody/something The exhibition tells the story of the rise and
fall of the Etruscan civilisation.
ADJECTIVES

meteoric (= very great and quick ) What can explain their meteoric rise in popularity?
rapid/swift Her rapid rise to the top is well deserved.

THESAURUS
increase noun [ uncountable and countable ] an occasion when the amount or number of
something becomes bigger : There has been a significant increase in violent crime over the
past year. | price increases
growth noun [ singular, uncountable ] an increase in the number, size, or importance of
something. Growth is also used when saying that a company or a country’s economy
becomes more successful : The astonishing growth of the Internet has had a dramatic
effect on people’s lives. | Japan experienced a period of rapid economic growth. | Many
people are concerned about the enormous growth in the world’s population.
rise noun [ countable ] an increase in the amount of something, or in the standard or level
of something : The latest figures show a sharp rise (= a sudden big rise ) in
unemployment in the region. | There was a 34 percent rise in the number of armed
robberies. | The majority of families experienced a rise in living standards.
surge noun [ countable usually singular ] a sudden increase in something such as profits,
demand, or interest : There has been a big surge in demand for organically grown food. |
We have seen a tremendous surge of interest in Chinese medicine.
gain noun [ uncountable and countable ] an increase in the amount or level of something -
used especially in business or political contexts, or when talking about an increase in
someone’s weight : sales gains | The December job figures show a net gain of 81,000
jobs. | The party has experienced a gain in popularity. | The amount of weight gain during
pregnancy varies.
hike noun [ countable ] informal especially American English a large or sudden increase in
prices or taxes - often used in newspaper reports : Despite a 25% hike in fuel costs, the
airline made a profit last year. | tax hikes | wage hikes

Cement (noun)

ce‧ment 1 / sɪˈment / noun [ uncountable ]

1 a grey powder made from LIME and clay that becomes hard when it is mixed with
water and allowed to dry, and that is used in building → concrete :
a bag of cement
2 a thick sticky substance that becomes very hard when it dries and is used for filling
holes or sticking things together

Cement (verb)
cement 2 verb [ transitive ]
1 ( also cement over ) to cover something with cement

2 to make a relationship between people, countries, or organizations firm and strong

cement a relationship/alliance
They want to cement a good working relationship between the government and trade
unions.
Kashmir Whispers Of Rediscovered Appeal

Be rubbing your hands

be rubbing your hands informal to be pleased because something has happened
which gives you an advantage, especially because something bad has happened to
someone else

Prospect (noun)
pros‧pect 1 W2 AC / ˈprɒspekt $ ˈprɑː- / noun
1 [ uncountable and countable ] the possibility that something will happen
prospect of doing something
I see no prospect of things improving here.
There is every prospect (= a strong possibility ) of the weather remaining dry this week.
prospect for
There are good prospects for growth in the retail sector.
prospect that
There’s a real prospect that England will not qualify for the World Cup.
2 [ singular ] a particular event which will probably or definitely happen in the future –
used especially when you want to talk about how you feel about it
 prospect of
The prospect of marriage terrified Alice.
Greeks face the prospect of new general elections next month.
He relishes the prospect of a fight.
daunting/exciting etc prospect
be excited/alarmed/concerned etc at the prospect (of something)
She wasn’t exactly overjoyed at the prospect of looking after her niece.
3 prospects [ plural ] chances of future success :
I had no job, no education, and no prospects .
job/career prospects
Job prospects for graduates don’t look good.
4 [ countable ] a person, job, plan etc that has a good chance of success in the future
5 in prospect formal likely to happen in the near future :
A new round of trade talks is in prospect.
6 [ countable usually singular ] formal a view of a wide area of land, especially from a
high place

COLLOCATIONS
ADJECTIVES

daunting (= frightening in a way that makes you not feel confident ) It is a pretty
daunting prospect, being on stage for forty minutes.
terrifying Driving through London in a strange car was a terrifying prospect.
gloomy/grim/bleak Many Britons face the grim prospect of having their home
repossessed.
exciting We were to be her guardians. This was an exciting prospect.
attractive A journey of that length was not an attractive prospect.
VERBS

face the prospect (of something) Now they face the prospect of unemployment.
relish the prospect (of something) (= enjoy the thought of it very much ) She would
have to speak to him. She didn’t relish the prospect.
dread the prospect (of something) (= feel very worried about it ) I dread the prospect
of staying here while you’re away.
PHRASES

be excited/thrilled/delighted etc at the prospect (of something) I was excited at

the prospect of going to Washington.
 be alarmed/appalled/upset etc at the prospect (of something) She was secretly
appalled at the prospect of being looked after by her aunt.

THESAURUS
WHAT WILL HAPPEN TO SOMEBODY/SOMETHING

sb’s/sth’s future what will happen to someone or something : He knew that his future
was in films. | Shareholders will meet to decide the company’s future.
fate someone or something’s future – used especially when you are worried that something
bad could happen : The fate of the hostages remains uncertain. | The show’s fate lies in the
hands of TV bosses.
destiny what will happen to someone in their life, especially something important : Sartre
believed that everyone is in charge of their own destiny. | He thinks that it is his destiny to
lead the country.
the outlook what will happen, especially concerning business, the economy, or the
weather : The economic outlook looks good. | Here is the weather outlook for tomorrow.
prospect the idea or possibility that something will happen : the awful prospect of another
terrorist attack | Prospects for a peace settlement don’t look too good.
fortune what will happen to a person, organization etc in the future – used especially when
talking about whether or not they will be successful : Fans are hoping for a change in the
club’s fortunes. | Two years ago, my financial fortunes took a turn for the better (= they
improved ) . | In 1680 he decided that his fortune lay in the theatre.

Prospect (verb)
pro‧spect 2 / prəˈspekt $ ˈprɑːspekt / verb [ intransitive ]

1 to examine an area of land or water, in order to find gold, silver, oil etc →
prospector
prospect for
The company is prospecting for gold in Alaska.
2 to look for something, especially business opportunities
prospect for
salesmen prospecting for new customers

Influx
in‧flux / ˈɪnflʌks / noun [ countable ]

the arrival of large numbers of people or large amounts of money, goods etc, especially
suddenly
influx of
a sudden influx of cash
massive/great/huge etc influx
a large influx of tourists in the summer

Hyacinth
hy‧a‧cinth / ˈhaɪəsənθ, ˈhaɪəsɪnθ / noun [ countable ]

a garden plant with blue, pink, or white bell-shaped flowers and a sweet smell

Choked
choked / tʃəʊkt $ tʃoʊkt / adjective [ not before noun ]

British English very upset :

I was really choked when I heard he’d died.

Choke (verb)
choke 1 / tʃəʊk $ tʃoʊk / verb

1 [ intransitive ] to be unable to breathe properly because something is in your throat

or there is not enough air
choke on
He choked on a piece of bread.
Six people choked to death on the fumes.
2 [ transitive ] if something chokes you, it makes you unable to breathe properly :
I felt as if there was a weight on my chest, choking me.
The smoke was choking me.
3 [ transitive ] to prevent someone from breathing by putting your hands around their
throat and pressing on it :
His hands were round her throat, choking her.
4 [ intransitive and transitive ] to be unable to talk clearly because you are feeling a
strong emotion
choke with
He was choking with rage.
I was too choked with emotion to speak.
Her voice was choked with rage.
5 [ transitive ] ( also choke something ↔ out ) to say something with difficulty
because you are very upset or angry :
‘Get out,’ she choked.
6 [ transitive ] ( also choke something ↔ up ) to fill a place so that things cannot
move through it :
Weeds were choking the stream.
be choked (up) with something
The gutters were choked up with leaves.
7 [ intransitive ] informal to fail at doing something, especially a sport, because there is
a lot of pressure on you :
People said I choked, but I just had a bad day on the golf course.
8 [ transitive ] if one plant chokes another, it kills it by growing all around it and taking
away its light and room to grow :
Weeds can quickly choke delicate garden plants.
9 choke a horse American English spoken if you say that something is big enough to
choke a horse, you are emphasizing that it is very big :
a wad of bills big enough to choke a horse
choke something ↔ back phrasal verb
to control your anger, sadness etc so that you do not show it :
He choked back tears as he described what had happened.
She choked back a sob.
I choked back my anger.
choke off something phrasal verb
to prevent something from happening :
It is feared that higher interest rates might choke off economic recovery.
choke something ↔ out phrasal verb
to say something with difficulty because you are very upset or angry :
His heart hammered as he choked out the words.
‘No!’ she choked out.
choke up phrasal verb
1 choke something ↔ up to fill a place so that things cannot move through it
be choked up with something
The stream was choked up with weeds.
2 choke somebody up to make someone feel very upset and unable to talk :
This song really chokes me up.
I was really choked up when I saw her again.

Choke (noun)
choke 2 noun [ countable ]
 1 a piece of equipment in a vehicle that controls the amount of air going into the
engine, and that is used to help the engine start
2 the sound that someone makes when they cannot breathe properly because
something is in their throat or there is not enough air :
She gave a little choke of laughter.

Flotillas
flo‧til‧la / fləˈtɪlə $ floʊ- / noun [ countable ]

a group of small ships

Shikaras
Shikaras / / noun [ countable ]

a type of wooden ship

Hone
hone / həʊn $ hoʊn / verb [ transitive ]

1 to improve your skill at doing something, especially when you are already very good
at it :
He set about honing his skills as a draughtsman.
finely honed (= extremely well-developed ) intuition
2 formal to make knives, swords etc sharp SYN sharpen

Purveyor
pur‧vey‧or / pɜːˈveɪə $ pɜːrˈveɪər / noun [ countable usually plural ]

formal a business that supplies goods, services, or information :

purveyors of farmyard fresh poultry

Initiate (verb)
i‧ni‧ti‧ate 1 AC / ɪˈnɪʃieɪt / verb [ transitive ]
1 formal to arrange for something important to start, such as an official process or a
new plan :
They have decided to initiate legal proceedings against the newspaper.
Intellectuals have initiated a debate on terrorism.
2 to tell someone about something or show them how to do something
initiate somebody into something
Those kids were initiated into heroin use at a young age.
 3 to introduce someone into an organization, club, group etc, usually with a special
ceremony
initiate somebody into something
At the age of thirteen, the boys in the tribe are initiated into manhood.

Initiate (noun)
i‧ni‧ti‧ate 2 / ɪˈnɪʃiət, ɪˈnɪʃiɪt / noun [ countable ]

someone who has been allowed to join a particular organization, club, or group and has
been taught its secrets

Bolt (noun)
bolt 1 / bəʊlt $ boʊlt / noun [ countable ]

1 LOCK a metal bar that you slide across a door or window to fasten it
2
SCREW a screw with a flat head and no point, for fastening things together
3 a bolt from/out of the blue news that is sudden and unexpected :
Was this money a bolt from the blue or did you know you were going to get it?
4 bolt of lightning lightning that appears as a white line in the sky :
There’s not much left of his house after it was struck by a bolt of lightning .
→ THUNDERBOLT

5 make a bolt for it British English to suddenly try to escape from somewhere :
They attacked the driver and he straightaway made a bolt for it.
6 WEAPON a short heavy ARROW that is fired from a CROSSBOW

7 CLOTH a large long roll of cloth

→ have shot your bolt at SHOOT 1 ( 24 ) , → the nuts and bolts of something at NUT 1 (
6)

Bolt (verb)
bolt 2 verb
1 [ intransitive ] to suddenly run somewhere very quickly, especially in order to escape
or because you are frightened :
The horse reared up and bolted.
Kevin had bolted through the open window.
2 [ transitive ] ( also bolt down ) to eat very quickly SYN gobble :

He bolted down his breakfast.

 3 [ transitive ] to fasten two things together using a bolt
bolt something to something
The cell contained an iron bedframe bolted to the floor.
bolt something together
The boxes were made of heavy panels of metal bolted together.
4 [ transitive ] to lock a door or window by sliding a bolt across

THESAURUS
ANIMALS RUNNING

trot to run fairly slowly, taking short steps – used especially about horses and dogs : A
little dog was trotting behind her.
gallop if a horse gallops, it runs very quickly : The horse galloped off across the field.
bolt to suddenly run somewhere very fast, especially in order to escape : Suddenly a fox
bolted out from beneath a hedge.

Bolt (adverb)
bolt 3 adverb
sit/stand bolt upright to sit or stand with your back very straight, often because
something has frightened you :
She sat bolt upright in the back seat.

Venture (noun)
ven‧ture 1 / ˈventʃə $ -ər / noun [ countable ]

a new business activity that involves taking risks

business/commercial venture
joint venture (= when two companies do something together )

Venture (verb)
venture 2 verb
1 [ intransitive always + adverb/preposition ] to go somewhere that could be
dangerous :
When darkness fell, he would venture out.
She paused before venturing up the steps to the door.
children who lack the confidence to venture into libraries
 2 [ transitive ] to say or do something in an uncertain way because you are afraid it is
wrong or will seem stupid :
‘You’re on holiday here?’ he ventured.
venture to do something
I ventured to ask him what he was writing.
venture an opinion/question/word etc
If we had more information, it would be easier to venture a firm opinion.
Roy ventured a tentative smile.
venture that
I ventured that the experiment was not conclusive.
3 nothing ventured, nothing gained used to say that you cannot achieve anything
unless you take risks
venture into something phrasal verb
to become involved in a new business activity :
Banks are venturing into insurance.
venture on/upon something phrasal verb
to do or try something that involves risks :
I thought I might venture on a new recipe.

Stress Knows Few Borders

Tense (adj)
tense 1 AC / tens / adjective
 1 a tense situation is one in which you feel very anxious and worried because of
something bad that might happen → tension
tense situation/atmosphere/moment etc
Marion spoke, eager to break the tense silence.
2 feeling worried, uncomfortable, and unable to relax OPP relaxed :
Is anything wrong? You look a little tense.
3 unable to relax your body or part of your body because your muscles feel tight →
tension :
Massage is great if your neck and back are tense.
She tried to relax her tense muscles.
— tensely adverb
— tenseness noun [ uncountable ]

THESAURUS
nervous worried or a little frightened about something and unable to relax : Kelly was so
nervous about her exam that she couldn’t sleep. | It makes me nervous when you drive
that fast.
tense worried and unable to relax in a way that makes you get angry or upset easily :
Mary’s problems at work were making her tense and irritable.
uneasy nervous because you feel that something bad might happen, so that you are
unable to relax until the danger has passed : I began to feel uneasy when he still hadn’t
phoned by 11 o'clock.
on edge if you are on edge or your nerves are on edge, you feel nervous because you are
worried about what might happen : My nerves were on edge, waiting for the results of the
test. | Redundancies and other work upheavals have put employees on edge.
neurotic nervous and anxious in a way that is not normal or reasonable : She’s completely
neurotic about food hygiene. | a neurotic mother
edgy/jumpy/jittery nervous because you are worried about what might happen :
Investors are a little edgy about the financial markets these days. | There was a lot of
pressure on the team tonight and that’s why they were a little jumpy.
highly-strung British English , high-strung American English becoming nervous or upset
easily because that is your character : Like many musicians, he’s very sensitive and highly-
strung.
be a nervous wreck to feel extremely nervous and unable to relax : After 10 months of
teaching, I was a total nervous wreck.
have butterflies (in your stomach) informal to feel nervous about something that you
are going to do very soon because it is important and you want to do it well : Actors often
have butterflies before going on stage.
Tense (v)
tense 2 ( also tense up ) verb [ intransitive and transitive ]
to make your muscles tight and stiff, or to become tight and stiff :
Relax, and try not to tense up so much.
Every time the phone rang, she tensed.

Tense (n)
tense 3 noun [ uncountable and countable ]
any of the forms of a verb that show the time, continuance, or completion of an action or
state that is expressed by the verb. ‘I am’ is in the present tense, ‘I was’ is past tense, and
‘I will be’ is future tense.

Tensed up (adj)
ˌtensed ˈup adjective [ not before noun ] informal
feeling so nervous or worried that you cannot relax :
Brian got so tensed up he could hardly speak.

Connect (v)
con‧nect S2 W2 / kəˈnekt / verb
1 JOIN THINGS [ transitive ] to join two or more things together
connect something to/with something
The railway link would connect Felixstowe with Fishguard.
Connect the speakers to the CD player.
We’d like two rooms with connecting doors (= doors that join the rooms ) .
2 RELATIONSHIP [ transitive ] to realize or show that a fact, event, or person is related
to something :
I didn’t connect the two events in my mind.
connect somebody/something with something
There is no evidence to connect them with the attack.
3 ELECTRICITY/TELEPHONE ETC [ intransitive and transitive ] to join something to the
main supply of electricity, gas, or water, or to a telephone or computer network OPP
disconnect
connect to
Click here to connect to the Internet.
Has the phone been connected yet?
 The power supply should be connected by a qualified electrician.
4 TRANSPORT [ intransitive ] if one train, flight etc connects with another, it arrives just
before the other one leaves so that you can continue your journey :
I missed the connecting flight .
connect with/to
This train connects with the one to Glasgow.
From Toronto you can connect to all other Air Canada destinations.
5 TELEPHONES [ transitive ] to join two telephone lines so that two people can speak :
Please hold the line. I’m trying to connect you.
6 HIT SOMETHING [ intransitive ] to succeed in hitting someone or something :
He swung at the ball, but didn’t connect.
7 UNDERSTAND PEOPLE [ intransitive ] especially American English if people connect, they
feel that they like each other and understand each other
connect with
They valued her ability to empathize and connect with others.
connect something ↔ up phrasal verb
to join something to the main supply of electricity, gas, or water, to the telephone
network, or to another piece of equipment :
Is the washing machine connected up yet?
connect something ↔ up with
The autopilot can be connected up with the flight recorder.

THESAURUS
TO JOIN THINGS TOGETHER

join to make two things come together and stay in that position. Join is used about fixing
two things together permanently, so that they form a single thing : Doctors used a metal
rod to join the two pieces of bone together.
attach to join one thing to another, so that it stays in position. Attach is often used when
you can separate the two things later : She attached the photo to the letter with a paper
clip. | The boards are attached with nails. | On the wall, attached with adhesive tape, was a
New York City subway map.
connect ( also connect up ) to join pieces of equipment together, especially with a wire or
pipe, so that electricity, gas, water etc can pass from one to another : Have you connected
up the speakers to the stereo? | The hoses that connect the radiator to the engine are
leaking.
link ( also link up ) to connect machines, systems, computers etc, so that electronic signals
can pass from one to another : All the office PCs are linked to the main server.
Experience (n)
ex‧pe‧ri‧ence 1 S1 W1 / ɪkˈspɪəriəns $ -ˈspɪr- / noun
1 KNOWLEDGE/SKILL [ uncountable ] knowledge or skill that you gain from doing a job
or activity, or the process of doing this
experience of/in/with
You’ve got a lot of experience of lecturing.
my experience in many areas of the music business
He had no previous experience of managing a farm.
The advice in the booklet reflects the practical experience we have gained (= experience
gained by actually doing something, rather than knowledge from books etc ) .
I had some experience in fashion design.
She was turned down on the grounds of lack of experience .
I have first-hand experience (= experience gained by doing something myself ) of
running a school.
gain/get experience
The programme enables pupils to gain some experience of the world of work.
2 KNOWLEDGE OF LIFE [ uncountable ] knowledge that you gain about life and the world
by being in different situations and meeting different people, or the process of gaining this
in sb’s experience
In his experience, women did not like getting their feet wet and muddy.
know/learn/speak from experience
Being a parent isn’t easy, as I know from experience.
All animals appear to have some capacity to learn from experience.
I speak from bitter experience (= having learnt something because something unpleasant
happened ) .
personal/previous/past experience
From personal experience, she knew and understood the problems of alcohol addiction.
experience shows/suggests that
Beth’s experience suggests that people don’t really change deep down.
3 SOMETHING THAT HAPPENS [ countable ] something that happens to you or something
you do, especially when this has an effect on what you feel or think :
childhood experiences
experience of/with
This was my first experience of living with other people.
 experience for
Failing an exam was a new experience for me.
I had a similar experience last year.
The two children in this story have been through a lot of bad experiences .
Parachuting is quite an experience.
memorable/unforgettable experience
This romantic evening cruise is a memorable experience.
religious experience (= a situation in which you feel, hear, or see something that affects
you strongly and makes you believe in God )
This kind of religious experience was a sign of God’s special favour.
4 the black/female/Russian etc experience events or knowledge shared by the
members of a particular society or group of people :
No writer expresses the black experience with such passion as Toni Morisson.
5 work experience British English a system in which a student can work for a
company in order to learn about a job, or the period during which a student does this :
Ella is about to do work experience with a clothing manufacturer.
on work experience
students on work experience

COLLOCATIONS
VERBS

have experience Applicants must have experience of working with children.

get/gain experience He suggested that I should gain some experience in a related
industry like travel.
lack experience (= not have enough experience ) Some students lack experience writing
essays.
broaden/widen your experience (= increase the amount of different experience you
have ) After six years with the bank, he went to work in New York to broaden his
experience.
ADJECTIVES

considerable experience (= a lot of experience ) Margaret has considerable experience

of hospital work.
long experience (= experience gained over a long period of time ) New prison officers are
partnered by officers with long experience of dealing with violent prisoners.
useful/valuable experience (= useful experience ) That summer he got some valuable
experience working in a tax office.
 invaluable experience (= extremely useful experience ) Playing in the under-21 squad
gives these young players invaluable experience.
relevant experience (= experience that directly relates to a job, subject, or problem )
Applicants need a degree and two years of relevant experience.
past/previous experience His only previous experience of broadcasting consisted of a
job hosting a local radio station.
practical experience (= experience gained from doing something, not from books or
study ) The classes provide students with some practical experience of computers.
first-hand experience (= experience gained by doing something yourself ) She has no
first-hand experience of running a school.
PHRASES

a wealth of experience (= a lot of useful experience ) Between them, the management

team have a wealth of experience.
lack of experience My colleagues kept making comments about about my lack of
experience.

COLLOCATIONS
ADJECTIVES

personal experience He spoke from personal experience about the harmful effects of
taking drugs.
life experience (= experience that comes from life ) As an older parent, your life
experience is one of your greatest assets.
first-hand experience (= experience gained from doing something yourself ) As a
journalist living in Iraq, he had first-hand experience of coping with terror on his doorstep.
bitter experience (= experience that makes you feel disappointed or upset ) I knew from
bitter experience how unreliable she could be.
everyday experience (= experience of normal life ) Hunger is part of everyday
experience for these children.
VERBS

know/learn from experience Janet knew from experience that love doesn't always last.
speak from experience The miners spoke from experience about the dangers of their
work.
lack experience Many men in their twenties lack experience and social skills.
experience suggests/shows something Experience suggests that children who commit
crimes will continue to offend as adults.
PHRASES

lack of experience He was embarrassed about his lack of experience with women.

COLLOCATIONS
ADJECTIVES/NOUN + EXPERIENCE
a good/bad experience On the whole, going to boarding school was a good experience
for him. | I've had some bad experiences when I've been travelling on my own.
positive/negative The entire experience has been very positive. | Many people reported
having negative experiences when dealing with their local council.
enjoyable/pleasant We want to make the experience as enjoyable as possible. | She
recalled pleasant experiences from her past.
memorable/unforgettable (= a good experience that you will remember for a long time
) Meeting the queen was a memorable experience.
painful (= one that is very upsetting ) Her family supported her through the painful
experience.
traumatic/harrowing (= one that is shocking and upsetting, and affects you for a long
time ) Having an operation can be a traumatic experience for a child.
new The club scene was a whole new experience for me.
a formative experience (= one that has an important influence on the way someone
develops ) The trip was probably the most formative experience of my life.
childhood experiences Our childhood experiences make us what we are as adults.
a religious experience (= one that makes someone believe strongly in God ) As a young
man he had a profound religious experience.
an everyday/commonplace experience (= one that is typical of normal life ) The sound
of gunfire is an everyday experience in the city.

Experience (v)
experience 2 S2 W2 verb [ transitive ]
1 if you experience a problem, event, or situation, it happens to you or affects you
experience problems/difficulties
Many old people will experience problems as the result of retirement.
Children need to experience things for themselves in order to learn from them.
2 to feel a particular emotion, pain etc :
Many women experience feelings of nausea during pregnancy.

Basis
ba‧sis S2 W1 / ˈbeɪsəs, ˈbeɪsɪs / noun ( plural bases / -siːz / ) [ countable ]
1 the facts, ideas, or things from which something can be developed :
Their claim had no basis in fact (= it was not true ) .
basis of
 Bread forms the basis of their daily diet.
basis for
The video will provide a basis for class discussion.
2 on the basis of something because of a particular fact or situation :
discrimination on the basis of sex
3 on a regular/daily/weekly etc basis every day, week etc :
I’m saving money on a regular basis.
4 on a voluntary/part-time/temporary etc basis a system or agreement by which
someone or something is VOLUNTARY etc :
Nurses are employed on a full-time basis.

COLLOCATIONS
VERBS

form the basis of something This research will form the basis of a book.
provide a basis for something The poem provided the basis for an interesting class
discussion.
become the basis of/for something Some of these ideas became the basis for the
Parents’ Educational Union.
serve as a basis for something The document will serve as a basis for negotiations.
establish a basis ( also lay a basis ) (= create something from which something can be
developed ) The agreement established a sound basis for international commerce.
have a basis Our constitution has a democratic basis.
have no basis in fact (= be not true ) Many of these rumours have no basis in fact.
ADJECTIVES

a good basis Love and trust form a good basis for marriage.
a sound/firm/solid basis Drama school may provide a sound basis for an acting career.

THESAURUS
basis the facts, ideas, things etc from which something can be developed : His work will be
used as a basis for future research.
foundation the thing on which something is based, especially something important that
continues for a long time : Their ideas were the foundation for the political system that
exists in the UK today. | How can we provide a solid foundation for world peace?
bedrock the most important thing that something depends on in order to be successful :
Honesty is the bedrock of any healthy relationship. | Labour’s traditional bedrock of support
is among the working classes.
 cornerstone the most important thing that something depends on in order to be
successful, especially in business and politics : Confidence is the cornerstone of our
business. | NATO remains a cornerstone of defence policy for Europe.

Poll (n)
poll 1 W3 / pəʊl $ poʊl / noun
1 [ countable ] the process of finding out what people think about something by asking
many people the same question, or the record of the result SYN opinion poll , survey :
A recent poll found that 80% of Californians support the governor.
Polls indicate that education is the top issue with voters.
Labour is ahead in the polls.
The latest public opinion poll showed that 25% of us consider ourselves superstitious.
conduct/carry out/do a poll
a poll conducted by ‘USA Today’
poll on
a poll on eating habits
poll of
a poll of 1,000 people
2 go to the polls to vote in an election :
Ten million voters went to the polls.
3 [ singular ] British English the process of voting in an election, or the number of votes
recorded :
Labour won the election with 40% of the poll.
The result of the poll won’t be known until around midnight.
4 the polls the place where you can go to vote in an election :
The polls will close in an hour.

COLLOCATIONS
VERBS

carry out/take/do a poll A similar poll was carried out among academics in the United
States. | A poll taken last month gave the Democrats a seven-point lead.
conduct a poll formal (= carry out a poll ) The poll was conducted with a sample of 1,023
adults.
a poll shows/indicates/suggests something Polls show that older voters are most
concerned about economic issues.
a poll finds something Our poll found that 29 percent rated his performance as good.
POLL + NOUN
poll results/findings The poll results are very encouraging.
a poll rating (= showing how popular someone is ) His poll ratings keep slipping.
ADJECTIVES/NOUN + POLL
an opinion poll (= that measures what people think about something ) A recent opinion
poll showed strong support for the government.
an exit poll (= when people are asked how they have just voted ) The exit polls said that
46 percent of women had voted for Obama.
a popularity poll (= measuring how popular someone is ) In most popularity polls, he is in
fourth or fifth place.
a local/national/statewide etc poll Local polls show him leading by only two or three
points.
PHRASES

sb’s lead in the polls Labour soon regained its lead in the polls.
sb’s standing in the polls (= how popular a poll shows them to be ) The President's
standing in the polls declined sharply.
be ahead/leading in the polls The good news is that we are ahead in the polls.
be behind/trailing in the polls At the moment the Democrats are trailing in the polls.

Poll (v)
poll 2 verb [ transitive ]
1 to ask a lot of people the same questions in order to find out what they think about a
subject :
18% of the women we polled said their husbands had a drinking problem.
2 to get a particular number of votes in an election :
Labour polled just 4% of the vote.

THESAURUS
ASK A QUESTION

ask to speak or write to someone to get an answer : Did you ask about the price? | They
asked me a lot of questions.

inquire/enquire / ɪnˈkwaɪə $ -ˈkwaɪr / formal to ask someone for information about

something : I’m writing to inquire about the job that was advertised in yesterday’s ‘Times’.
demand especially written to ask a question in a firm or angry way : ‘Why didn’t you call
me?’, she demanded.
interview to ask someone questions, to find out if they are suitable for a job, or as part of
a television or radio interview : When they interviewed me for the job, they didn’t mention
the salary. | David Letterman has interviewed all the stars.
poll to officially ask a lot of people in order to find out their opinion on something : Over
1,000 people were polled for the report. | 64% of the people we polled said that they
approved of the way the government had handled the crisis.

Polling
poll‧ing / ˈpəʊlɪŋ $ ˈpoʊ- / noun [ uncountable ]

1 when people vote in a political election :

Polling started at 8.00 this morning.
heavy/light polling (= with many or few people voting )
2 when a person or an organization asks a lot of people the same questions in order to find
out what they think about a subject

Cite
cite AC / saɪt / verb [ transitive ] formal
1 to mention something as an example, especially one that supports, proves, or
explains an idea or situation :
The judge cited a 1956 Supreme Court ruling in her decision.
cite something as something
Several factors have been cited as the cause of the unrest.
2 to give the exact words of something that has been written, especially in order to
support an opinion or prove an idea SYN quote :
The passage cited above is from a Robert Frost poem.
3 to order someone to appear before a court of law SYN summon
cite somebody for something
Two managers had been cited for similar infractions.
4 British English to mention someone by name in a court case :
Sue was cited in the divorce proceedings.
5 to mention someone because they deserve praise
cite somebody (for something)
Garcia was cited for her work with disabled children.

THESAURUS
mention to talk or write about something or someone, usually quickly and without saying
very much or giving details : Kate had mentioned his name a few times, but I had not met
him before. | Jack mentioned that you might be looking for a new job.
refer to somebody/something to say something about someone or something in a
conversation, speech, or piece of writing : He had earlier referred to difficulties in gathering
evidence. | It was not clear which case he was referring to.
touch on something to briefly mention a subject during a speech, lesson, piece of writing
etc : This problem has already been touched on in Chapter 4.
bring something up to start to talk about a particular subject during a conversation or
meeting : I didn’t want to bring up the subject of money. | I knew you’d bring that up!
raise to mention a subject that people should start to discuss or think about. Raise is
more formal than bring something up : He promised to raise the issue with the Prime
Minister. | They raised a number of points.
broach to mention a subject that may be embarrassing or upsetting, or that may cause an
argument : I was reluctant to broach the subject of payment.
cite formal to mention something as an example or proof of something else, or as a reason
for something : Hong Kong is often cited as an example of this kind of economic system.
allude to something formal to mention something in a way that is deliberately not direct :
Many of the ancient Greek poets allude to this myth.

Feel
feel 1 S1 W1 / fiːl / verb ( past tense and past participle felt / felt / )
1 FEELING/EMOTION [ linking verb, transitive ] to experience a particular physical feeling
or emotion :
Do you still feel hungry?
You can never tell what he’s feeling.
Stop exercising if you feel any pain.
feel fine/good/comfortable etc
I’m feeling a little better today.
Marie immediately felt guilty.
feel as if/as though
When his dad left, he felt as though his world had turned upside-down.
I felt like I’d really achieved something.
2 NOTICE [ transitive not in progressive ] to notice something that is happening to you,
especially something that is touching you :
She felt his warm breath on her cheek.
The earthquake was felt as far south as San Diego.
feel somebody/something do something
She felt his arms go round her.
feel yourself doing something
I felt myself blushing.
3 FEEL SMOOTH/DRY ETC [ linking verb ] to give you a particular physical feeling,
especially when you touch or hold something
feel smooth/cold/damp etc
Her hands felt rough.
The house felt hot and stuffy.
feel as if/as though
My leg feels as if it’s broken.
It’s nice fabric – it feels like velvet.
4 FEEL GOOD/STRANGE/EXCITING ETC [ linking verb ] if a situation, event etc feels good,
strange etc, that is the emotion or feeling that it gives you :
After twenty years, seeing him again felt very strange.
feel ... to be/do something
It felt wonderful to be wearing clean clothes again.
How does it feel to be 40?
It’s been a year since her daughter died, but to her, it still feels like yesterday.
5 HAVE AN OPINION [ transitive not usually in progressive ] to have a particular opinion,
especially one that is based on your feelings, not on facts
feel (that)
Some of the parents felt the school wasn’t doing enough about bullying.
feel about
How would you feel about working with Nicole for a while?
The experience of rape can change how a woman feels about her body.
feel sure/certain (= think that something is definitely true )
She felt sure she’d made the right decision.
6 feel like (doing) something spoken to want to have something or do something :
He didn’t feel like going to work.
Do you feel like another drink?
7 TOUCH [ transitive ] to touch something with your fingers to find out about it :
She felt his forehead. Perhaps he had a temperature.
Mum, feel this stone. Isn’t it smooth?
feel how hard/soft/rough etc something is
He could feel how damp his shirt was against his chest.
8 feel around/on/in etc something (for something) to search for something with
your fingers :
She felt in her bag for a pencil.
9 feel the force/effects/benefits etc of something to experience the good or bad
results of something :
The local economy is beginning to feel the effects of the recession.
10 feel the need to do something to believe that you need to do something :
Children who can talk to their parents feel less need to try drugs.
11 feel your way
a) to move carefully, with your hands out in front of you, because you cannot see properly
:
Silently, she felt her way across the room.
b) to do things slowly and carefully, because you are not completely sure about a new
situation
feel your way towards
The European Union is still feeling its way towards common policies.
12 feel free spoken used to tell someone that they can do something if they want to :
‘Could I use your phone for a minute?’ ‘Feel free.’
feel free to do something
Please feel free to make suggestions.
13 I know (just/exactly) how you feel spoken used to express sympathy with
someone or with a remark they have just made :
I know how you feel, Mark, but maybe it’s better not to confront him.
14 not feel yourself spoken to not feel as healthy or happy as usual :
I don’t know what’s wrong. I just don’t feel quite myself.
15 feel your age to realize that you are not as young or active as you used to be :
Looking at his grandson made him really feel his age.
16 feel the cold/heat to suffer because of cold or hot weather :
Old people tend to feel the cold more.
17 feel a death/a loss etc to react very strongly to a bad event, especially someone’s
death :
Susan felt her grandmother’s death more than the others.
feel for somebody phrasal verb
to feel sympathy for someone :
At the Center, the other mothers know what it’s like, and they really feel for you.
feel somebody ↔ out phrasal verb American English informal
to find out what someone’s opinions or feelings are, without asking them directly :
I thought I’d feel out some of my colleagues before the meeting.
feel somebody ↔ up phrasal verb informal
to touch someone sexually, without their permission
feel up to something phrasal verb [ usually in questions and negatives ] informal
to have the strength, energy etc to do something :
I just didn’t feel up to going.

Beyond (preposition , adv)

be‧yond 1 S2 W1 / bɪˈjɒnd $ -ˈjɑːnd / preposition , adverb
1 on or to the further side of something :
They crossed the mountains and headed for the valleys beyond.
Beyond the river, cattle were grazing.
She drove through Westport, and stopped a few miles beyond at a wayside inn.

REGISTER
In everyday English, people usually say on the other side of something rather than use
the preposition beyond :
People waited on the other side of the barrier.
2 later than a particular time, date etc SYN after :
What changes await us in the coming year and beyond?
The ban has been extended beyond 2003.
The disco went on until beyond midnight.
3 more or greater than a particular amount, level, or limit :
More people are choosing to work beyond retirement age.
Inflation has risen beyond the 5% level.
4 outside the range or limits of something or someone :
Such tasks are far beyond the scope of the average schoolkid.
expensive luxuries that are beyond the reach of ordinary people
5 used to say that something is impossible to do
beyond repair/control/belief etc (= impossible to repair, control, believe etc )
Scott’s equipment was damaged beyond repair.
The town centre had changed beyond all recognition.
Due to circumstances beyond our control, the performance has had to be cancelled.
6 be beyond somebody to be too difficult for someone to understand :
The whole problem was quite beyond him.
Why Joan ever married such an idiot in the first place is beyond me.
7 used to mean ‘except’ in negative sentences :
Fred owns nothing beyond the clothes on his back.

Beyond (n)
beyond 2 noun
the beyond literary whatever comes after this life
Impressionism (1)

Movement
move‧ment S1 W1 / ˈmuːvmənt / noun
1 PEOPLE WORKING TOGETHER [ countable ] a group of people who share the same ideas
or beliefs and who work together to achieve a particular aim
civil rights/feminist/peace etc movement
the civil rights movement of the 1960s
movement to do something
Mendes led a movement to stop destruction of the rain forest.
 movement for
the movement for independence
2 POSITION/PLACE [ uncountable and countable ]
a) when someone or something changes position or moves from one place to another :
the dancer’s graceful movements
movement of
A slight movement of the curtains showed where she was hiding.
the movement of goods across the border
He motioned to the door with a movement of his head.
b) a planned change in the position of a group of soldiers :
reports of troop movements in the area
3 CHANGE/DEVELOPMENT [ uncountable ] a gradual change or development in a situation
or in people’s attitudes or opinions :
There’s been no movement in the peace talks since Thursday.
movement towards/away from
a movement towards equality with men in the workplace
4 sb’s movements the places where someone goes and the things they do during a
certain period :
Police are trying to trace Carter’s movements since Tuesday.
5 MUSIC [ countable ] one of the main parts into which a piece of music is divided,
especially a SYMPHONY
6 CLOCK/WATCH [ countable usually singular ] the moving parts of a piece of machinery,
especially a clock or watch
7 BODY WASTE [ countable ] formal when you get rid of waste matter from your BOWEL s

COLLOCATIONS
VERBS

make a movement He made a small movement with his head, to indicate the door.
control somebody's/something's movement Some people have trouble controlling
their hand movements.
restrict/hinder somebody's movement (= make movement more difficult ) Clothes
should not be so tight that they restrict your movement.
ADJECTIVES

a big movement He made a big sweeping movement with his arm.

a small/little movement She made a restless little movement.
 a slight movement (= small ) His eye caught a slight movement behind the bushes.
a quick/sudden movement Don't make any quick movements that might scare the dog.
a slow movement the slow movements of the old man
an easy movement (= without effort ) She swung her legs off the bed in one easy
movement.
a smooth movement (= graceful ) Tom leaped over the fence in one smooth movement.
a jerky movement (= with many starts and stops ) the jerky movements of a frightened
horse
a rhythmic movement (= with a strong rhythm ) When giving a massage, use firm
rhythmic movements.
a forward/backward movement waves caused by the forward movement of the boat
PHRASES

freedom of movement (= when people can go wherever they want ) The automobile
gave people a freedom of movement previously unknown.
ease of movement (= when someone or something can move easily ) Cyclists wear tight
fitting shorts for ease of movement.

Originate
o‧rig‧i‧nate / əˈrɪdʒəneɪt, əˈrɪdʒɪneɪt / verb

1 [ intransitive always + adverb/preposition, not in progressive ] formal to come from a

particular place or start in a particular situation :
How did the plan originate?
originate from
A lot of our medicines originate from tropical plants.
originate in
Many Christmas traditions originated in Germany.
originate with
The idea originated with the ancient Greek philosophers.
originate as
The town originated as a small fishing port.
2 [ transitive ] to have the idea for something and start it :
The technique was originated by an Italian artist.

THESAURUS
TO COME FROM SOMETHING OR SOMEWHERE

come from something to have developed from something that existed before : The word
origami comes from the Japanese ori (folding) and kami (paper). | Where did the idea for
the book come from?
be based on something to use something else as the basis : The film is based on a
traditional Chinese story. | She later wrote a book based on her experiences in Africa.
originate to come from a particular place, group, or situation, especially one that existed a
long time ago. Originate is more formal than come from : The jewellery probably
originates from Egypt. | Genes also tell us that native Americans originated from a small
group of migrants who crossed the Bering land bridge from Siberia. | Christmas pudding is
thought to have originated from a type of medieval porridge, which was made of meat,
dried fruit, nuts, sugar and spices.
be founded on something to develop from an idea or belief : Our system of government
is founded on the principle of democracy.
derive from something/be derived from something to come from something,
especially by means of a long or complicated process – often used about words coming
from another language : Much of the English language is derived from Latin. | Many drugs
are derived from plants.
have its origins/roots in something to develop from something that existed long ago :
Halloween has its origins in an ancient Celtic festival. | Modern country and Western music
has its roots in the folk songs of the rural south.
go back to something to come from a particular past time or event or from something
that existed a long time ago : Our friendship goes back to our freshman year in college. |
The college goes back to the Middle Ages.

Influence (n)
in‧flu‧ence 1 S3 W1 / ˈɪnfluəns / noun
1 [ uncountable and countable ] the power to affect the way someone or something
develops, behaves, or thinks, without using direct force or orders :
As a scientist, his influence was immense.
influence on/over
the unions’ influence over local politics
2 [ countable ] someone or something that has an influence on other people or things
bad/good/positive etc influence (on somebody)
Gayle’s mother said I was a bad influence on her daughter.
For centuries the country remained untouched by outside influences .
 3 under the influence (of alcohol/drink/drugs etc) drunk or feeling the effects of
a drug

COLLOCATIONS
VERBS

have an influence on somebody/something His works have had an influence on many

modern writers.
exert an influence formal (= have an influence ) Technology exerts a powerful influence
over our lives.
use your influence She wasn’t afraid to use her influence to get what she wanted.
exercise/wield influence formal (= use it ) The Federal Reserve exercises influence on
the economy by setting short-term interest rates.
come/fall under the influence of somebody/something (= be influenced by someone
or something ) They had come under the influence of a religious sect.
extend your influence (= make your influence larger ) Syria had the opportunity to
extend its influence in the region.
ADJECTIVES

a good/positive influence Television can have a positive influence on young people.

a bad/negative influence He thought her friends were a bad influence.
a big/great influence The goalkeeper’s injury had a big influence on the match.
an important/significant/major influence Parents have an important influence on
children's development. | He was a major influence on my musical tastes.
considerable influence Well-organized pressure groups can exert considerable influence
on the government.
a strong/powerful influence The press can have a powerful influence on the way people
vote.
a deep/profound influence His writings had a profound influence on the Romantic poets.
a growing influence Many people are worried about the growing influence of these
websites.
a lasting influence (= continuing for a long time ) His travels in Africa had a lasting
influence on his work.
a direct/indirect influence The Cubist painters had a direct influence on his work. | The
federal government has an indirect influence on investment through its control of bank
credits.
a calming/soothing influence The music seemed to have a calming influence.
sb’s personal influence Frank used his personal influence to get his son a job at the
newspaper.
political/cultural/economic influence French political influence began to dominate the
country.
outside/external influence (= happening from outside a country or a situation ) They
must make their own decisions, free from external influence. | The US remains the biggest
outside influence on the country.
undue influence (= too much influence ) He felt that the United States wielded undue
influence in Europe.

THESAURUS
effect a change that is caused by an event, action etc : The people in this area are still
suffering from the effects of the famine. | The treatment had little or no effect.
impact an effect that happens as a result of something important, especially a big and
permanent effect : Changes in technology have had a massive impact on the way we work.
| the environmental impact of industrial activity
influence the effect that something has on people’s opinions or behaviour, or on how
something develops : American television has had a big influence on popular culture in the
west. | His ideas had a lot of influence at the time.
side effect an unwanted and unplanned effect that something has – used especially about
drugs and medical treatment : Common side effects of the drug may include headaches
and muscle pains.
after-effects British English , aftereffects American English bad effects that continue for
a long time after the thing that caused them : A traumatic experience can have severe
psychological after-effects. | the after-effects of the war

repercussions / ˌriːpəˈkʌʃ ə ns $ -pər-/ / the effects that happen later as a result of an event
or decision, especially a range of effects that continue for a long time : The scandal could
have serious repercussions for her career. | The judge’s decision is likely to have important
repercussions for future cases of this kind.
a knock-on effect British English used when something has an effect on something, which
then has an effect on something else : Higher oil prices have a knock-on effect on other
fuels.
footprint the effect that human activities have on the environment, caused by using up its
natural resources, pollution, waste etc : Businesses all over the world must attempt to
reduce their environmental footprint. | The house has a low carbon footprint (= it uses
very little energy from carbon and therefore is good for the environment ) .

Influence (v)
influence 2 S3 W2 verb [ transitive ]
to affect the way someone or something develops, behaves, thinks etc without directly
forcing or ordering them :
Marx was strongly influenced by the historian Niebuhr.
influence a decision/outcome/choice etc
Several factors are likely to influence this decision.
influence somebody to do something
What influenced you to take up nursing?

THESAURUS
persuade to make someone decide to do something, especially by giving them reasons
why they should do it, or asking them many times to do it : I persuaded her to change her
mind. | Do you think you can persuade him to lend us the money?
talk somebody into (doing) something to persuade someone to do something,
especially something they do not really want to do : Why did I let you talk me into this? |
He finally talked her into going on a date with him.
get somebody to do something to make someone do something by persuading or asking
them : If we can’t get a taxi I’ll get Joe to pick us up. | I know how to get you to kiss me.
convince to persuade someone that they should do something, because it is the best or
the right thing to do. Some British speakers think this use is incorrect, and prefer to use
persuade : It would be difficult to convince him to move.
encourage to try to persuade someone to do something, especially because you think it
will be good for them : Children should be encouraged to read all kinds of books.
influence to have an effect on what someone decides to do : What influences you to buy
clothes?
coax to persuade someone to do something by talking gently and kindly : I tried to coax
him to eat a little.

cajole / kəˈdʒəʊl $ -ˈdʒoʊl / to persuade someone to do something by praising them or

making promises to them : He hoped to cajole her into selling her house.
put somebody up to something to persuade or encourage someone to do something
wrong or stupid : Who put you up to this?
dissuade formal to persuade someone not to do something : How do you dissuade young
people from experimenting with drugs?

Want (v)
want 1 S1 W1 / wɒnt $ wɒːnt, wɑːnt / verb [ not usually in progressive ]
1 DESIRE [ transitive ] to have a desire for something :
I really want a drink.
What do you want for your birthday?
She’d always wanted to go to Thailand.
I don’t want Linda to hear about this.
He didn’t want the holiday to end.
You can order whatever you want .
This shampoo is mild enough to use every day if you want .
If she doesn’t get what she wants , she’s not happy.
He wanted that job so badly he was willing to kill for it.
They desperately wanted a son.
What I want to know is when we’re going to get paid.
All I want is the chance to prove myself.
Oh thank you, it’s just what I’ve always wanted .
2 NEED [ transitive ] used to say that you need something or to ask someone firmly to
do something for you :
Do you still want these magazines, or can I throw them out?
want something done
I want that letter typed today.
want somebody to do something
I want you to find out what they’re planning.
make you want to cry/throw up etc (= give you a strong feeling that you must do
something )
It always makes me want to sneeze.
What do you want with a tool kit (= what do you need it for ) ?
want doing British English informal (= need to be done )
The carpet really wants cleaning.
3 OFFER [ transitive ] used when offering or suggesting something to someone :
Do you want a drink?
Do you want me to come with you?
Want a game of chess?
Who wants a cup of coffee (= used to offer something to a group of people ) ?
4 SHOULD [ transitive ] especially spoken British English used to say that something is
sensible or that someone should do it, especially when giving advice
may/might want to do something
You might want to install anti-virus software.
wouldn’t want to do something (= used to say something would not be a good idea )
I wouldn’t want to come here at night.
want to do something
You want to see a doctor about that cough.
You don’t want to leave that – it’ll get wet.
5 what do you want? used to ask, often in a slightly rude way, what someone wants
you to give them, do for them etc :
What do you want now? I’m busy.
What do you want – chocolate or vanilla?
6 ASK FOR SOMEBODY [ transitive ] to ask for someone to come and talk to you, or to
come to a particular place :
You’re wanted on the phone.
Christine wants you in her office now.
7 LACK [ intransitive and transitive ] formal to suffer because you do not have
something :
In many poorer countries, people still want basic food and shelter.
8 if you want
a) used to offer to do something :
I’ll come with you if you want.
b) used to invite someone to do something or to give them permission :
Join in if you want.
You can stay if you want to .
c) used when someone suggests doing something, to say that you will do it, although you
do not especially want to :
‘Hey, shall we go to the beach?’ ‘If you want.’
9 who wants ...? used to say that you do not like something or do not think that it is
worth doing :
Who wants to go to a noisy disco anyway?
10 I just wanted to say/know etc used to politely say something, ask about
something etc :
I just wanted to check that the meeting is still on next week.
11 I don’t want to sound/be ..., but ... used to be polite when you are going to tell
someone something that may upset them :
I don’t want to sound rude, but I think you’ve had too much to drink.
 12 SEX [ transitive ] informal if you want someone, you want to have sex with them

COLLOCATIONS
ADVERBS

very much She very much wanted to do the right thing.

badly How badly do you want to win?
desperately He desperately wants his mum and dad to get back together.
really Do you really want to succeed?
just I just want to be left alone.
PHRASES

whatever/anything you want Now he can do whatever he wants.

whenever you want Joanna is happy for him to see his son whenever he wants.
wherever you want You can park wherever you want.
if you want (to) You can go if you want.
get what you want You’ve got what you wanted, so you might as well leave.
do what you want You can do what you want, instead of being told what to do.
what I want to do is ... What I want to do is develop the skills I already have.
all I want is ... All I want is a normal life.
it’s just what I’ve always wanted (= used to thank someone for a present that you
really like ) Thanks for the bread machine – it's just what I've always wanted.
want for something phrasal verb
not want for something/want for nothing to have something you need, or
everything you need :
Say what you like, my kids never wanted for anything.
want in phrasal verb informal
1 especially American English to want to be involved in something :
You want in, Mike?
2 to want to go into a place :
The dog wants in.
want out phrasal verb informal
1 to want to stop being involved in something :
She was fed up and she wanted out.
2 to want to leave a place :
I think the cat wants out.
Want (n)
want 2 noun
1 for (the) want of something used to say that you do not have or cannot find what
you need in a particular situation :
The gallery closed down for want of funding.
2 for want of a better word/phrase etc used to say that you cannot find an exact
word or phrase to describe something :
They should behave, for want of a better word, decently.
3 not for want of (doing) something used to say that even though something did
not happen or succeed, it was not because you did not try hard enough or have what you
needed :
Well, if he doesn’t get the job it won’t be for want of trying !
4 for want of anything better (to do) if you do something for want of anything
better, you do it only because there is nothing else you want to do
5 LACK [ uncountable and countable ] formal something that you need but do not have :
a disgraceful want of proper care
6 NO FOOD/MONEY ETC [ uncountable ] a situation in which you do not have enough
food, money, clothes etc :
the chronic want and deprivation in the townships
7 be in want of something formal to need something :
The house is sadly in want of repair.

Straight (adv)
straight 1 S1 W2 / streɪt / adverb
1 IN A STRAIGHT LINE in a line or direction that is not curved or bent
straight ahead/at/down/in front of etc
The book is on the table straight in front of you.
She was looking straight at me.
Terry was so tired he couldn’t walk straight.
He was sitting with his legs stretched straight out in front of him.
2 POSITION in a level or correct position :
He stopped in front of the mirror to put his tie straight.
Sit up straight, don’t slouch.
3 IMMEDIATELY immediately, without delay, or without doing anything else first
straight to/up/down/back etc
I went straight up to bed.
Go straight home and tell your mother.
straight after
I’ve got a meeting straight after lunch.
I think I should get straight to the point .
4 ONE AFTER THE OTHER happening one after the other in a series :
He’s been without sleep now for three days straight.
5 HONEST ( also straight out ) if you say or ask something straight, you say it in an
honest direct way, without trying to hide your meaning :
I just told him straight that I wouldn’t do it.
She came straight out with it and said she was leaving.
I hope, for your sake, you’re playing it straight (= being honest ) .
I told him straight to his face (= speaking directly to him ) what I thought of him.
6 think/see straight if you cannot think or see straight, you cannot think or see
clearly :
Turn the radio down – I can’t think straight.
7 straight away ( also straight off ) British English spoken immediately or without
delay :
I phoned my mum straight away.
8 go straight informal to stop being a criminal and live an honest life :
Tony’s been trying to go straight for about six months.
9 straight up spoken
a) used to ask someone if they are telling the truth :
Straight up? Did you really pay that much for it?
b) used to emphasize that what you are saying is true :
No, straight up, I’ve never seen him before.
10 straight from the shoulder British English informal if someone speaks straight from
the shoulder, they say things in a very direct way, without trying to be polite
Straight (adj)
straight 2 S2 W3 adjective ( comparative straighter , superlative straightest )
1 NOT BENDING OR CURVING something that is straight does not bend or curve :
a long, straight road
Try to keep your legs straight.
Always lift with a straight back.
her long, straight black hair
They sat down in a straight line .
The road was dead straight (= completely straight ) .
2 LEVEL/UPRIGHT level or upright, and not leaning to one side :
Is my tie straight?
straight white teeth
3 TRUTHFUL honest and truthful :
I’d like a straight answer please.
Just give me a straight yes or no.
I think it’s time for some straight talk now.
be straight with somebody
I wish you’d just be straight with me.
4 ONE AFTER ANOTHER [ only before noun ] happening immediately one after another in a
series :
The team now has an amazing record of 43 straight wins.
5 TIDY [ not before noun ] a room that is straight is clean and tidy and everything is in
its proper place :
It took me two hours to get the house straight .
6 get something straight spoken to understand the facts of a situation and be able to
tell them correctly :
I wanted to get the facts straight.
Let me get this straight – Tom sold the car and gave you the money?
7 set/put somebody straight to make someone understand the true facts about a
situation :
Tell him to ask Ruth – she’ll put him straight.
8 straight face if you have a straight face, you are not laughing or smiling even
though you would like to :
I found it very difficult to keep a straight face .
 9 SEXUAL CHOICE informal someone who is straight is attracted to people of the opposite
sex SYN heterosexual
10 ALCOHOLIC DRINK a straight alcoholic drink has no water or any other drink added to
it :
a straight whisky
11 NOT OWING MONEY [ not before noun ] spoken if two people are straight, they no
longer owe money to each other :
If you give me £10, then we’re straight.
12 CHOICE/EXCHANGE [ only before noun ] a straight choice or exchange is between only
two possible choices or things :
It was a straight choice between my career or my family.
We did a straight swap – one of my cards for one of his.
13 FIGHT/COMPETITION [ only before noun ] a straight fight or competition is between
only two people :
The election is now a straight fight between Labour and the Conservatives.
14 NORMAL informal someone who is straight behaves in a way that is accepted as
normal by many people but which you think is boring
15 NOT FUNNY a straight actor or character does not try to make people laugh
16 ONLY ONE TYPE completely one particular type of something :
It’s not a straight historical novel.
17 DRUGS informal someone who is straight does not take illegal drugs
→ set/put the record straight at RECORD

THESAURUS
NOT HIDING THE TRUTH OR THE FACTS

honest saying what you really think and not hiding the truth or the facts : I’m going to ask
you something, and I want you to be honest with me. | an honest answer | To be honest, I
didn’t think his speech was very good.
straight informal honest and saying what you really think : I can’t help you if you’re not
straight with me. | I need a straight answer.
open willing to talk about what you think, feel etc in an honest way, rather than trying to
hide it : People have become more open about their feelings. | She’s very easy to talk to
because she’s so open.
frank speaking honestly and directly about something, especially something that people
find difficult to discuss : In his book, he’s brutally frank about his experience with his
illness. | a frank discussion about sex
direct saying exactly what you think in an honest clear way, even when this might annoy
or upset people : Not everyone liked his direct manner. | She can be very direct.
blunt speaking in a completely honest way, even if it upsets people, when it would be
better to be more careful or polite : Sorry if I was a bit blunt with you. | His hard tone and
blunt words were hurtful. | She didn’t reply and I knew I had been too blunt.
upfront [ not before noun ] informal talking and behaving in an honest way, even when it
is difficult to do this, in a way that people respect : It’s best to be upfront about your
financial problems. | You have to be upfront with kids.
outspoken expressing your opinions publicly in a very direct way, which may offend or
annoy some people : an outspoken critic of the government | He was known for his
outspoken views on various controversies.
forthright formal saying exactly what what you think, without being afraid of what other
people will think : The opposition have not come up with a clear forthright statement of
their policies. | At times, Helena was a little too forthright.
candid formal honest about the facts, or about your opinions and feelings, even if other
people disapprove of them : He’d always been completely candid about his past. | It was an
unusually candid admission for a politician.

Effect (n)
ef‧fect 1 S1 W1 / ɪˈfekt / noun
1 CHANGE/RESULT [ uncountable and countable ] a change that is caused by an event,
action etc
effect on
My parents’ divorce had a big effect on me.
effect of
the harmful effects of modern farming practices
the long-term effects of the drug
I could feel the effects of the thin mountain air.
This ingredient also has the effect of making your skin look younger.
A system failure has a knock-on effect throughout the whole hotel.
the cumulative effect of human activities on the global environment
A much lower dose of the painkiller can still produce the desired effect .
In mental illness, there is a complex relationship between cause and effect .
→ GREENHOUSE EFFECT , SIDE EFFECT ► Do not confuse with the verb affect (=to have an
effect on something).
2 put/bring something into effect to make a plan or idea happen :
It won’t be easy to put the changes into effect.
 3 take effect to start to produce results :
The morphine was starting to take effect and the pain eased.
4 LAW/RULE

a) take effect/come into effect if a law, rule, or system takes effect or comes into
effect, it officially starts
b) be in effect if a law, rule, or system is in effect, it is being used now
5 with immediate effect/with effect from formal starting to happen immediately, or
from a particular date :
Hoskins is appointed manager, with immediate effect.
6 in effect used when you are describing what you see as the real facts of a situation
SYN effectively :
In effect, we’ll be earning less than we were last year.
7 to good/great/no etc effect used to show how successful an action is :
We tried to wake him, but to no effect.
8 to this/that/the effect used when you are giving the general meaning of
something, rather than the exact words :
Jim told me to go away, or words to that effect .
The letter said something to the effect that she was no longer needed.
9 IDEA/FEELING [ countable usually singular ] an idea or feeling that an artist, speaker,
book etc tries to make you think of or to feel SYN impression
effect of
Turner’s paintings give an effect of light.
10 for effect if someone does something for effect, they do it in order to make people
notice :
She paused for effect, then carried on speaking.
11 PERSONAL POSSESSIONS effects [ plural ] formal the things that someone owns SYN
belongings :
Don’s few personal effects were in a suitcase under the bed.
12 FILM [ countable usually plural ] an unusual or impressive sound or image that is
artificially produced for a film, play, or radio programme
→ SOUND EFFECTS , SPECIAL EFFECT

COLLOCATIONS
VERBS

have an effect on something/somebody Eating junk food will eventually have an effect
on your health.
 have the effect of doing something The news had the effect of making everyone feel
better.
produce an effect formal If we combine these sounds, they produce an effect that is
almost jazzy.
feel an effect (= notice it ) Small companies will feel the effect of the recession first.
lessen/reduce an effect (= make an effect smaller or less severe ) The government must
take action to reduce the effects of pollution.
cushion the effect of something (= make it less bad ) Lower mortgage rates will cushion
the effect of rising house prices.
an effect lasts (= continues ) The effect of the drug lasts about six hours.
an effect wears off (= gradually stops ) The effect of the anaesthetic was beginning to
wear off.
ADJECTIVES

big/major The teachers’ strike had a big effect on many schools.

significant/substantial/marked (= quite big ) Global warming could have a significant
effect on agriculture in many parts of the world.
profound/powerful (= very big, in a way that changes someone or something
significantly ) My father’s death had a profound effect on me.
dramatic (= very big and sudden ) Taking the new drug had a dramatic effect on his
health.
small The drugs have a relatively small effect on a lot of patients.
negligible/minimal formal (= very small ) The advertising campaign had a negligible
effect on demand.
immediate (= quick and sudden ) The announcement had an immediate effect on stock
prices.
good Inflation can sometimes have some good effects on the economy.
positive/beneficial (= good, or helping someone or something in some way ) The
incident had a very positive effect on his career.
bad Working too hard was beginning to have a bad effect on my health.
negative/detrimental (= bad or harmful ) the negative effects of low rainfall
harmful/damaging (= causing harm or damage to something or someone ) the harmful
effects of drinking too much alcohol | Some of the effects can be quite damaging.
visible/noticeable (= an effect that you can clearly see ) He drank five beers, but they
did not seem to have any visible effect on him.
the adverse effects formal (= the bad effects ) No one told them about the adverse
effects of smoking marijuana.
the long-term/short-term effect (= having an effect for a long or short time ) Many
boxers suffer with the long-term effects of punches to the head.
a knock-on effect (= an effect that is caused by something that has happened before )
The strike could have a knock-on effect at other airports.
a cumulative effect (= the effect of many things happening one after the other ) The
cumulative effect of these policies will be to push up inflation.
the desired effect (= the effect you want ) His team talk had the desired effect because
the team went on to win the game.
the full effect (= the whole effect ) We won’t know the full effect of the tax changes until
the end of the financial year.
a calming/soothing effect (= one that makes you feel less angry, excited, or nervous )
His words seemed to have a calming effect on the crowd.

THESAURUS
effect a change that is caused by an event, action etc : The people in this area are still
suffering from the effects of the famine. | The treatment had little or no effect.
impact an effect that happens as a result of something important, especially a big and
permanent effect : Changes in technology have had a massive impact on the way we work.
| the environmental impact of industrial activity
influence the effect that something has on people’s opinions or behaviour, or on how
something develops : American television has had a big influence on popular culture in the
west. | His ideas had a lot of influence at the time.
side effect an unwanted and unplanned effect that something has – used especially about
drugs and medical treatment : Common side effects of the drug may include headaches
and muscle pains.
after-effects British English , aftereffects American English bad effects that continue for
a long time after the thing that caused them : A traumatic experience can have severe
psychological after-effects. | the after-effects of the war

repercussions / ˌriːpəˈkʌʃ ə ns $ -pər-/ / the effects that happen later as a result of an event
or decision, especially a range of effects that continue for a long time : The scandal could
have serious repercussions for her career. | The judge’s decision is likely to have important
repercussions for future cases of this kind.
a knock-on effect British English used when something has an effect on something, which
then has an effect on something else : Higher oil prices have a knock-on effect on other
fuels.
footprint the effect that human activities have on the environment, caused by using up its
natural resources, pollution, waste etc : Businesses all over the world must attempt to
reduce their environmental footprint. | The house has a low carbon footprint (= it uses
very little energy from carbon and therefore is good for the environment ) .
Effect (v)
effect 2 verb [ transitive ]
formal to make something happen SYN bring about :
Many parents lack confidence in their ability to effect change in their children’s behaviour.
► Do not confuse with the verb affect (=to have an effect on something).

Devote
de‧vote AC / dɪˈvəʊt $ -ˈvoʊt / verb [ transitive ]
1 to use all or most of your time, effort etc in order to do something or help someone
SYN dedicate
devote your time/energy/attention etc to something
He devoted his energies to writing films.
devote yourself to something
She devoted herself full-time to her business.

REGISTER
In everyday English, people usually say put time/energy etc into something rather than
devote time/energy etc to something:
He put a lot of time into the project.
2 to use a particular area, period of time, or amount of space for a specific purpose
devote something to something
The meeting will be devoted to health and safety issues.

Devoted
de‧vot‧ed AC / dɪˈvəʊtəd, dɪˈvəʊtɪd $ -ˈvoʊ- / adjective
1 giving someone or something a lot of love and attention :
a devoted father
devoted to
Isabella was devoted to her brother.
2 dealing with, containing, or being used for only one thing SYN dedicated
devoted to
a museum devoted to photography
 3 strongly supporting someone or something because you admire or enjoy them :
Beckham’s devoted fans
The journal had a devoted following of around 1,000 subscribers.
— devotedly adverb

THESAURUS
faithful continuing to support a person, party, belief etc for a long time : his long and
faithful service to the party | his faithful servant | He remained faithful to his fatherland
right to the end. | She was one of the party’s most faithful and hardworking members.
loyal supporting a particular person, party, set of beliefs, etc – used especially about
someone you can can trust and depend on to support you : a loyal friend | loyal party
members | The women have remained loyal to the goals of the Communist Party. | I am
not blindly loyal. If I see something that I think is a mistake which could be handled better,
I will say so.
devoted strongly supporting someone or something because you admire them, love them,
or enjoy what they do : the author’s devoted fans | her devoted husband
staunch [ only before noun ] a staunch supporter, defender, or ALLY is very loyal, in spite
of problems or difficulties : He is a staunch supporter of the president. | a staunch defender
of civil liberties | the US’s staunchest ally
steadfast [ usually before noun ] a steadfast friend or supporter is very loyal. Also used
about someone’s support or service : Lewis was a generous and steadfast friend. | the
steadfast support of America's allies | The Queen has set a shining example of steadfast
service to her country.
true faithful and loyal to someone, or to your beliefs, principles etc, even if there are
problems : In times like these you find out who your true friends are. | He remained true to
his socialist priniciples. | She promised that she would always be true to him.
patriotic feeling a lot of love and respect for your country : Americans are very patriotric. |
His speech was full of patriotic rhetoric.

Core (n)
core 1 W3 AC / kɔː $ kɔːr / noun [ countable ]
1 FRUIT the hard central part of a fruit such as an apple :
Remove the cores, and bake the apples for 40 minutes.
2 MOST IMPORTANT PART the most important or central part of something
core of
The core of the book focuses on the period between 1660 and 1857.
Debt is at the core of the problem.
 3 PEOPLE a number of people who form a group which is very important to an
organization :
The business needs a new core of trained administrators.
a core group of clients
→ HARD CORE

4 to the core extremely or completely

shaken/shocked/thrilled to the core
When I heard the news, I was shaken to the core.
That woman is rotten to the core !
He was a bureaucrat to the core.
5 PLANET the central part of the Earth or any other PLANET

6 NUCLEAR REACTOR the central part of a NUCLEAR REACTOR

Core (adj)
core 2 AC adjective
1 core curriculum/subjects/skills etc subjects that have to be studied at a school
or college :
the national core curriculum
the core subjects of English, maths, and science
Schools have to deliver the core skills.
2 core business/activities/operations etc the main business or activities of a
company or organization :
The core business of airlines is flying people and cargo from place to place.
the company’s core product
3 core values/beliefs the values or beliefs that are most important to someone :
the core values of American liberalism, such as taxing the rich to help the poor

THESAURUS
main larger or more important than all the others : the main entrance of the building | the
main reason for his decision
chief/principal most important. Chief and principal are more formal than main , and
are often used in written English : Coffee is the country’s principal export. | What is the
company’s chief objective?
major very important or serious : Smoking is a major cause of heart disease. | Street
crime is becoming a major problem.
key most important, or the one that everything or everyone else depends on : Education is
likely to be a key issue in the election campaign. | Hooper was a key member of the team.
| Diet is key.
number one especially spoken most important or best - this phrase sounds a little informal
and it is used especially in spoken English : Reliability is the number one priority. | the
number one cause of death | He is still in the number one position.
primary most important - used especially about the most important aim, role, cause, or
concern. Primary is more formal than main : The primary aim of the project was to help
students develop their communication skills. | Security is our primary concern. | The
primary function of the university was considered to be the teaching of ‘the great cultural
disciplines’.
prime very important or most important - used especially about the most important
reason, cause, or aim, or about the most likely TARGET or SUSPECT . Prime is more formal
than main : Their prime objective is to increase profits for their shareholders. | Tourists
are prime targets for theft and robbery.
core most important - used especially about the things that people should pay most
attention to : the core skills of reading and writing | He wants the company to focus on its
core business - advertising. | The party’s core values are individual freedom and reducing
the amount of government bureaucracy.
central most important and having more influence than anything else : The U.S. played a
central role in the peace negotiations. | a central theme of the book | The central question
is, why are people still so attached to their cars?
predominant most common, typical, or important : Yellow was the predominant colour
everywhere. | High arched windows are a predominant feature in English churches. | New
York still has a predominant role in the contemporary art world.

Core (v)
core 3 AC verb [ transitive ]
to remove the centre from a fruit

Meet
meet 1 S1 W1 / miːt / verb ( past tense and past participle met / met / )
1 SEE SOMEBODY AT AN ARRANGED PLACE [ intransitive, transitive not in passive ] to go to
a place where someone will be at a particular time, according to an arrangement, so that
you can talk or do something together :
Meet me at 8.00.
I’ll meet you by the main reception desk.
meet (somebody) for something
Why don’t we meet for lunch on Friday?
We arranged to meet outside the theatre.
2 SEE SOMEBODY BY CHANCE [ intransitive, transitive not in passive ] to see someone by
chance and talk to them SYN bump into :
You’ll never guess who I met in town.
I was worried I might meet Henry on the bus.
3 SEE SOMEBODY FOR THE FIRST TIME [ intransitive, transitive not in passive ] to see and
talk to someone for the first time, or be introduced to them :
We first met in Florence.
I met my husband at university.
Jane, come and meet my brother.
nice/pleased to meet you (= used to greet someone politely when you have just met
them for the first time )
‘This is my niece, Sarah.’ ‘Pleased to meet you.’
(it was) nice meeting you (= used to say goodbye politely to someone you have just
met for the first time )
4 SEE SOMEBODY AT AN AIRPORT/STATION ETC [ transitive ] to be waiting for someone at
an airport, station etc when they arrive in a plane or train :
My dad met us at the station.
I’ll come and meet you off the plane.
5 COME TOGETHER TO DISCUSS SOMETHING [ intransitive ] to come together in the same
place in order to discuss something :
The committee meets once a month.
The two groups will meet next week to discuss the project.
6 COMPETE AGAINST SOMEBODY [ intransitive, transitive not in passive ] to play against
another person or team in a competition, or to fight another army in a war :
Manchester United will meet Blackburn Rovers in the sixth round of the Cup.
The two armies finally met on the battlefield at Stamford Bridge.
7 JOIN OR TOUCH [ intransitive, transitive not in passive ] if two things meet, they touch
or join at a particular place :
The two roads meet just north of Flagstaff.
Their hands met under the table.
8 EXPERIENCE A PROBLEM OR SITUATION [ transitive ] to experience a problem, attitude, or
situation SYN encounter , come across :
Wherever she went she met hostility and prejudice.
9 meet a problem/challenge to deal with a problem or something difficult that you
have to do :
The new building will mean that we can meet the challenge of increasing student numbers.
10 meet a need/demand/requirement/condition etc to do something that
someone wants, needs, or expects you to do or be as good as they need, expect etc :
The company says it is unable to meet the workers’ demands for higher wages.
The service is tailored to meet your needs.
beaches which meet European standards of cleanliness
11 meet a deadline to finish something at the time it is meant to be finished :
We are still hoping to meet the November deadline.
12 meet a goal/target etc to achieve something that you are trying to achieve :
It’s impossible to meet the sales targets.
The scheme does not meet its objectives .
13 meet a debt/cost/expense etc to make a payment that needs to be made :
The government has promised to meet the cost of clearing up after the floods.
14 there’s more to somebody/something than meets the eye used to say that
someone or something is more interesting, intelligent etc than they seem to be
15 our/their eyes meet if two people’s eyes meet, they look at each other :
Our eyes met momentarily, then he looked away.
His eyes met Nina’s and she smiled.
16 meet sb’s eye(s)/gaze/glance etc to look directly at someone who is looking at
you :
Ruth looked down, unable to meet his eye.
She turned to meet his gaze.
17 meet your eyes if something meets your eyes, you see it :
An extraordinary scene met our eyes as we entered the room.
18 meet your match to compete against an opponent who is stronger or more skilful
than you are :
I think he might have met his match in Simon.
19 meet somebody halfway to do some of the things that someone wants, in order
to reach an agreement with them
20 meet (something) head-on
a) if two moving vehicles meet head-on, they are facing each other and hit each other
suddenly and violently
b) if you meet a problem head-on, you deal with it directly without trying to avoid it
21 meet your death/end to die in a particular way :
He met his death at the hands of enemy soldiers.
22 meet your maker to die – used humorously
23 meet your Waterloo to finally be defeated after you have been successful for a
long time
→ make ends meet at END 1 ( 18 )

THESAURUS
meet to be in the same place as someone else because you have arranged to see them :
I’ll meet you at the restaurant, OK? | The two leaders are scheduled to meet again next
month.
get together informal to meet with a group of people, in order to do something together :
Why don’t we all get together and go out for a drink? | Have the students get together in
groups of four to work on the problem.
come together if people come together, they meet in order to discuss things, exchange
ideas etc : Goldman persuaded the heads of the groups to come together for an informal
conference.
meet up informal if friends meet up, they meet in order to do something together : We
must meet up some time. | Why don’t I meet up with you after lunch?
gather if people gather somewhere, they come together in the same place in order to do
something or see something : Fans have started to gather outside the stadium. | Angry
crowds gathered in front of the US embassy.
assemble formal if people assemble somewhere, they all come and stand together in the
same place, especially as part of an officially arranged plan : If the fire alarm rings, please
assemble in the parking lot. | The students began to assemble in the main hall.
meet up phrasal verb
1 to meet someone in order to do something together :
We often meet up after work and go for a drink.
meet up with
I’ve got to go now, but I’ll meet up with you later.
2 if roads, paths etc meet up, they join together at a particular place
meet up with
The path eventually meets up with the main road.
meet with somebody/something phrasal verb
 1 to have a meeting with someone :
Representatives of EU countries will meet with senior American politicians to discuss the
trade crisis.
2 ( also be met with something ) to get a particular reaction or result

meet with opposition/disapproval etc

His comments have met with widespread opposition.
meet with support/approval etc
Her ideas have met with support from doctors and health professionals.
meet with success/failure (= succeed or fail )
Our attempts at negotiation finally met with some success.
3 meet with an accident formal to be injured or killed in an accident

Hallmark (n)
hall‧mark 1 / ˈhɔːlmɑːk $ ˈhɒːlmɑːrk / noun [ countable ]

1 an idea, method, or quality that is typical of a particular person or thing

hallmark of
These hotels still offer the sort of service which was the hallmark of the grand days of
travel.
The explosion had all the hallmarks of a terrorist attack.
Their performance did not bear the hallmark of European champions.
2 a mark put on silver, gold, or PLATINUM that shows the quality of the metal, and where and
when it was made

Hallmark (v)
hallmark 2 verb [ transitive ]
to put a hallmark on silver, gold, or PLATINUM

Make
make 1 S1 W1 / meɪk / verb ( past tense and past participle made / meɪd / )
 1 PRODUCE [ transitive ] to produce something, for example by putting the different
parts of it together :
I’m going to show you how to make a box for your tools.
A family of mice had made their nest in the roof.
She made her own wedding dress.
The company has been making quality furniture for over 200 years.
They met while they were making a film.
Make a list of all the things you need.
make somebody something
He made her a toy horse, using just some straw and bamboo twigs.
be made from something
Paper is made from wood.
be made (out) of something
a shirt made of silk
make something from/out of something
She’s very good at making things from old scraps of material.
Japanese-made/English-made etc (= produced in Japan etc )
→ make the bed at BED 1 (1)

GRAMMAR
Use made from especially when the materials used to make something have been
completely changed and cannot be recognized :
a wine made from Chilean grapes
Use made of when the materials have not been completely changed and can still be
recognized :
The wheels were made of wood.
► Do not use 'made by' when talking about the materials used to make something.
2 DO [ transitive ] used with some nouns to say that someone does something :
Anyone can make a mistake.
I can’t make a decision just yet.
I need to make a quick phone call.
You could have made more effort to talk to him.
He made no attempt to apologize.
Could I make a suggestion?
There are a few points I’d like to make.
The police were called but no arrests were made.
I suppose we should make a start on cleaning this room.
Stop making such a fuss!
3 COOK [ transitive ] to cook or prepare food or drink :
When was the last time you made a cake?
John was making breakfast in the kitchen.
Who’s going to make the tea?
make somebody something
I’ll make you some sandwiches.
4 CAUSE [ transitive ] to cause something to happen, or cause a particular state or
condition :
Its beautiful beaches make this a highly popular area with tourists.
It was this movie which made him a star.
His attitude made him very unpopular with colleagues.
The photo makes her look much older than she really is.
make somebody/something do something
I like him because he makes me laugh.
make something difficult/easy/possible etc
The use of computers has made it possible for more people to work from home.
make something the best/worst/most expensive etc
Over 80,000 people attended, making it the biggest sporting event in the area.
The President has made it clear that he is not going to change his mind.

REGISTER
In written English, people often use cause somebody to do something rather than
make somebody do something , as it sounds more formal:
His attitude caused him to be unpopular with colleagues.
5 FORCE [ transitive ] to force someone to do something
make somebody do something
My parents always make me do my homework before I go out.
be made to do something
I was made to wait four hours before I was examined by a doctor.
6 MARK/HOLE ETC [ transitive ] to cause a mark, hole etc to appear
make a hole/dent/mark etc
Make a hole in the paper.
The cup has made a mark on the table.
7 make it
a) to succeed in getting somewhere in time for something or when this is difficult :
If we run, we should make it.
make it to
With blood pouring from his leg, he made it to a nearby house.
b) to be successful at something, for example in your job :
He came to the US and not only made it but made it big (= was extremely successful ) .
So far, relatively few women have made it to the top in the business world.
make it as
He was told he had no talent and would never make it as a professional singer.
make it to
England look less likely to make it to the finals.
make it to manager/director etc
How did anyone so stupid make it to manager?
c) spoken to be able to go to an event, meeting etc that has been arranged :
I’m really sorry, but I won’t be able to make it on Sunday after all.
Nice to see you. I’m glad you could make it.
d) informal to continue to live after you have been seriously ill or badly injured :
Frank was very ill, and the doctors didn’t think he’d make it.
e) to manage to deal with a difficult experience
make it through
I couldn’t have made it through those times without the support of my boyfriend.
f) used to say or ask what time it is according to your own or someone else’s watch :
What time do you make it?
I make it ten past three.
8 make the meeting/the party/Tuesday etc spoken to be able to go to something
that has been arranged for a particular date or time :
I’m sorry, I can’t make Friday after all.
Will you be able to make the next meeting?
 9 ACHIEVE SOMETHING [ transitive ] to succeed in achieving a particular position, rate etc
:
He was never good enough to make the team.
I don’t think we’ll make the deadline.
10 GET MONEY [ transitive ] to earn or get money :
The plan could cost you more than you would make.
They made a profit of £140 million.
His one aim in life was to make money .
She hopes to make a living (= earn the money she needs to live ) from writing children’s
books.
He’s made a fortune (= earned a lot of money ) selling computers on the Internet.
make something out of something
How easy is it to make money out of gardening?
11 HAVE A QUALITY [ linking verb ] to have the qualities that are necessary for a
particular job, use, or purpose
make noun
I’m sure you will make a very good teacher.
The hall would make an ideal venue for a wedding reception.
An old cardboard box makes a comfortable bed for a kitten.
12 make it/that something spoken used to correct what you have just said :
Can we have two cups of coffee, please? No, make that three.
13 make do to manage with the things that you have, even though this is not really
enough :
I hardly had any food in the house so I just had to make do.
make do with/without
I usually make do with a cup of coffee for breakfast.
For many people, make do and mend (= when someone manages with the things they
have and does not buy anything new ) was a harsh reality.
14 make yourself heard/understood/known etc to succeed in getting someone to
hear you, understand you, or know that you are there :
I had to shout to make myself heard above the music.
15 BE A TOTAL [ linking verb ] to be a particular amount when added together :
Two and two make four.
There are nine people coming, plus me, which makes ten.
 16 CALCULATE [ transitive ] used to say what you have calculated a number to be :
I make that $150 altogether.
17 SPORTS SCORE [ transitive ] to achieve a particular score in a sports game :
Surrey had made 92 by lunchtime.
18 make somebody captain/leader etc to give someone a new job or position in a
group, organization etc :
She’s now been made a full partner.
He was made mayor in 1998.
19 make believe to pretend or imagine that something is true when it is not :
I tried to make believe she was happy, but knew deep down it wasn’t true.
→ MAKE-BELIEVE

20 make like informal to behave as if something is true when it is not :

He makes like he never met me before.
21 make as if to do something literary to seem as if you are going to do something
but then not do it :
She made as if to speak but then stopped.
22 ARRIVE [ transitive ] old-fashioned to arrive at or get to a particular place, especially
when it is difficult :
I don’t think we’re going to make the town before nightfall.
23 make the papers/headlines/front page etc to be interesting or important
enough to be printed in a newspaper, reported on television etc :
News of their divorce made the headlines.
24 make or break to cause something or someone either to be very successful or to
fail completely :
Critics can make or break a young performer.
→ MAKE-OR-BREAK

25 that makes two of us spoken used to say that you agree with someone or that
something that is true of them is true of you too :
‘I haven’t a clue what’s going on.’ ‘That makes two of us.’
26 MAKE SOMETHING PERFECT [ transitive ] informal to make something complete or
successful :
The hat makes the outfit.
27 make it with somebody old-fashioned informal to have sex with someone
→ MADE , → make sb’s day at DAY ( 19 ) , → make friends at FRIEND ( 3 ) , → make
good at GOOD 1 ( 35 ) , → make sense at SENSE 1 ( 5 )
THESAURUS
make used about things you make yourself, or things that are made in a factory : Diane
makes all her own clothes. | My camera was made in China.
produce to make something in large quantities to be sold, or to make something as the
result of a natural process : The factory produces high-quality steel. | Japan produces some
of the most advanced mobile phones. | The pancreas is a gland in your body which
produces hormones.
create to make something new and original : Tarantino created a whole new style of films.
| Many companies invest a lot of money in creating new products. | Potter was famous for
creating characters such as ‘Peter Rabbit’. | This technique is used to create images of
beautiful forests.
manufacture to make machines, cars, equipment etc in factories : The company
manufactures aircraft parts.
mass-produce to make very large quantities of something in a factory : They developed a
way to mass-produce the drug.
develop to design and make something new over a period of time : In 1962, Enders
developed an effective vaccine against measles. | The company is developing new anti-
virus software.
form to make something as the result of a natural process or chemical reaction : Hydrogen
and oxygen combine to form water. | The research will help us understand how planets are
formed.
generate to make something such as heat, electricity, or power : Wind can be used to
generate electricity.
make away with somebody/something phrasal verb
1 informal to steal something and take it away with you :
Thieves made away with the contents of the safe.
2 old-fashioned to kill someone
make for something phrasal verb [ not in passive ]
1 to go in the direction of a particular place SYN head for :
I think it’s time we made for home.
2 [ not in progressive ] to cause a particular result or situation :
Both teams are on good form, which should make for a great game.
→ made for each other at MADE (6)
make somebody/something into something phrasal verb
1 to change something so that it has a different form or purpose SYN convert :
We can make your room into a study.
2 to change someone’s character, job, position in society etc :
The movie made her into a star overnight.
make something of somebody/something phrasal verb
1 to have a particular opinion about or understanding of something or someone :
I didn’t know what to make of her.
What do you make of the idea?
2 to use the opportunities that you have in order to become successful :
I want to make something of my life.
make something of yourself
She has the ambition and talent to make something of herself.
3 make the most of something to get as much advantage as you can from a
situation while you are able to :
We’ve only got one day in Paris, so we’d better make the most of it.
4 make too much of something to treat something as if it is more important than it
really is :
It would be a mistake to make too much of these findings.
→ make much of somebody/something at MUCH 2 ( 17 )
5 make a day/night/evening of it informal to spend a whole day, night etc doing
something, because you have chosen to :
We decided to take a picnic and make a day of it.
→ make a go of something at GO 2 ( 3 ) , → make the best of something at BEST 3 (
9 ) , → see what somebody is made of at MADE ( 4 )
make off phrasal verb
to leave quickly, especially in order to escape :
The men made off as the police arrived.
make off along/across/through etc
The getaway car made off towards Horrocks Avenue.
make off with something phrasal verb [ not in passive ] informal
to steal something and take it away with you :
Thieves broke into the school and made off with computer equipment worth £40,000.
make out phrasal verb
1 SEE/HEAR make something ↔ out to be just able to see or hear something :
He could just make out a dark shape moving towards him.
make out who/what etc
I couldn’t make out what he was saying.
2 UNDERSTAND SOMETHING make something ↔ out to understand something,
especially the reason why something has happened
make out what/how/why etc
I couldn’t make out what I had done to annoy her.
As far as I can make out , he has never been married.
3 UNDERSTAND SOMEBODY make somebody ↔ out [ usually in questions and negatives
] to understand someone’s character and the way they behave :
Stuart’s a strange guy – I can’t make him out at all.
4 WRITE CHEQUE ETC make something ↔ out to write something such as a bill or
cheque :
She was making out a list of people to invite.
The book gives advice on making out a will.
make something ↔ out to
Make the cheque out to ‘Grays Ltd’.
5 SAY/PRETEND make somebody/something ↔ out to say that something is true
when it is not :
The situation was never as bad as the media made out.
make out (that)
She always tried to make out that I was wrong and she was right.
make somebody/something out to be something
He makes me out to be some sort of idiot.
6 make out a case (for something) to find good reasons that prove something or
show why you need something :
We made out a case for hiring another assistant.
7 SUCCEED especially American English to succeed or progress in a particular way SYN
get on :
How did you make out this morning?
8 SEX informal especially American English to kiss and touch someone in a sexual way
9 make out like a bandit American English informal to get or win a lot of money :
The lawyers made out like bandits.
make something out of somebody/something phrasal verb
to change a person or thing into something else :
The Olympics can make sporting heroes out of previously little-known athletes.
make something/somebody ↔ over phrasal verb
1 especially British English to officially and legally give money or property to someone
else SYN transfer
make something/somebody ↔ over to

He made over the whole estate to his son.

2 to change someone or something so that they look different or have a different use :
Redgrave has made herself over completely for her movie role.
→ MAKEOVER

make towards something phrasal verb British English formal

to start moving towards something :
She made towards the door.
make up phrasal verb
1 FORM/BE make up something [ not in progressive ] to combine together to form
something SYN constitute :
Women make up only a small proportion of the prison population.
be made up of something
The committee is made up of representatives from every state.
2 PRETEND SOMETHING IS TRUE make something ↔ up to pretend that something is
true in order to deceive someone :
I think they’re making the whole thing up.
→ MADE-UP (1)
3 INVENT make something ↔ up to produce a new story, song, game etc by thinking :
Nick made up a song about them.
When you’re the boss you can make up your own rules.
I’ve given talks so many times that now I just make them up as I go along (= think of
things to say as I am speaking ) .
4 PREPARE make something ↔ up to prepare something by mixing things or putting
things together :
I could make up a bed for you on the sofa.
Can you make up a bottle of milk for the baby?
5 SB’S FACE make somebody ↔ up to put MAKE-UP (= special coloured substances ) on
someone’s face in order to make them look better or different :
They made him up as an old man for the last act of the play.
One lucky winner will have the chance to be made up and photographed.
 ► Do not use the verb 'make up' when you are talking about putting make-up on your
own face. Say that you put on (your) make-up. → MADE-UP ( 2 )
6 NUMBER/AMOUNT make something ↔ up especially British English to add to an
amount in order to bring it up to the level that is needed :
I saved as much as I could, and my parents made up the rest.
The company will be forced to pay $6 million to make up the difference .
7 TIME/WORK make something ↔ up to work at times when you do not usually work,
because you have not done as much work as you should :
I’m trying to make up the time I lost while I was sick.
Is it OK if I make the work up next week?
8 FRIENDS ( also make it up ) informal to become friendly with someone again after you
have had an argument
make up with
Have you made up with Patty yet?
Oh come on! Why don’t you just kiss and make up ?
9 FROM CLOTH make something ↔ up to produce something from cloth by cutting and
sewing :
The dress had been made up to her exact requirements.
make something ↔ up into
I plan on making that material up into a dress.
→ make up your mind at MIND 1 (3)
make up for something phrasal verb
1 to make a bad situation better, or replace something that has been lost SYN
compensate :
The team will be anxious to make up for a disappointing start to the season.
I don’t eat breakfast but I make up for it at lunch.
The good days more than make up for the bad ones.
2 to have so much of one quality that it is not important that you do not have much of
another one
make up for something in/with
What Jay lacked in experience, he made up for in enthusiasm.
Caroline doesn’t have a natural talent for music but she makes up for it with hard work.
3 to do something to show that you are sorry for doing something that upset or
annoyed someone :
I’m sorry I was late. To make up for it, let me treat you to a meal.
 4 make up for lost time
a) to work more quickly, or at times when you do not usually work, because something has
prevented you from doing the work before :
We rehearsed all day Saturday, to make up for lost time.
b) to do a lot of something in an eager way because you have not had a chance to do it
before :
Palin didn’t travel much as a young man but he’s certainly made up for lost time now.
make up to somebody phrasal verb
1 make (it) up to somebody to do something to show that you are sorry about the
problems you have caused someone :
I’ll make it up to you somehow.
He was looking for a way to make up to her for what he had done.
2 British English informal to say nice things to someone or be very friendly to them in
order to get an advantage for yourself – used in order to show disapproval
3 be made up to captain/manager etc to be given a higher position in an
organization SYN promote :
He was a security guard before he was made up to reception manager.

Experiment (n)
ex‧per‧i‧ment 1 S3 W2 / ɪkˈsperəmənt, ɪkˈsperɪmənt / noun [ countable ]
1 a scientific test done to find out how something reacts under certain conditions, or to
find out if a particular idea is true
experiment with/in/on
experiments with alcohol-fuelled cars
experiments on sleep deprivation
by experiment
Many small birds guide themselves by the stars, as has been verified by experiment.
2 a process in which you test a new idea or method to see if it is useful or effective
experiment with/in/on
an experiment in state socialism

COLLOCATIONS
VERBS
 do/carry out an experiment They carried out a series of experiments to test the theory.
| He did some experiments with bats.
perform/conduct an experiment formal (= do an experiment ) The laboratory began
conducting experiments on rats.
an experiment shows/proves/demonstrates something His experiment showed that
lightning was a kind of electricity. | The experiment proved that fabrics treated with the
chemical are much less likely to catch fire.
ADJECTIVES/NOUN + EXPERIMENT
a scientific experiment Astronauts performed scientific experiments during the flight.
animal experiments (= experiments using animals ) I think most animal experiments are
cruel and unnecessary.
a laboratory experiment (= one that takes place in a laboratory ) They did a series of
laboratory experiments on human sleep patterns in the 1960s.
a field experiment (= one that takes place in the real world, not in a laboratory ) In field
experiments, we used patients who did not know that it was a test situation.
a controlled experiment (= one that is done using correct scientific methods ) The theory
has not yet been tested by a properly controlled experiment.
a practical experiment (= one that relates to real situations or events, not scientific
theories ) The research team compiled a set of practical experiments in Modern Astronomy.
PHRASES

an experiment to test/measure/find out something We did an experiment to test the

acidity of the soil.
COMMON ERRORS
► Do not say ' make an experiment '. Say carry out an experiment or do an
experiement .

COLLOCATIONS
ADJECTIVES

a bold experiment (= one that tries to achieve a lot and takes risks ) The country's bold
experiment with economic reform has not paid off yet.
a unique experiment (= one that has not been done before ) Congestion charging is a
unique experiment that other UK cities are watching with interest.
a democratic/socialist/communist experiment (= one in which a country tries a new
political system ) He went to Havana to judge for himself the success or failure of the
socialist experiment.
a social experiment (= one in which people try a new way of living and organizing society
) The community started out as a social experiment.

THESAURUS
research noun [ uncountable ] careful detailed work that is done in order to find out more
about a subject, especially as a part of a scientific or academic project : Billions of dollars
have been spent on research into the causes and treatment of cancer. | The University has
for a long time been a leading centre for research in this field.
work noun [ uncountable ] the studies that have been done on a particular subject :
Faraday is famous for his work on electricity. | A lot of work has been done on hydrogen-
powered cars. | Their work had an enormous influence on the study of genetics.
study noun [ countable ] a piece of work in which someone examines a particular subject
in order to find out more about it, and writes about what they have found : The study
showed that 25 percent of adults do not eat breakfast at all, compared with 14 percent in
1961. | Recent studies suggest that our sense of smell is closely linked with the part of the
brain that deals with memory.
experiment noun [ countable ] a scientific test in order to find out what happens when you
do something : They carried out a series of experiments (= they did a series of
experiments ) in order to try to prove their theory. | Experiments have shown that there is
an increased risk of some forms of cancer.

Experiment (v)

ex‧per‧i‧ment 2 / ɪkˈsperəment, ɪkˈsperɪment / verb [ intransitive ]

1 to try using various ideas, methods etc to find out how good or effective they are
experiment with/on/in
He experimented with lighter-than-air flight.
The teacher provided some different materials and left the children to experiment.
2 to do a scientific test to find out if a particular idea is true or to obtain more
information
experiment with/on
I would defend the right of scientists to experiment on animals.
3 to try doing something to find out what it feels like, for example having sex or using
illegal drugs
experiment with
She admitted she had experimented with cocaine.
— experimenter noun [ countable ]
 Fragment(n)
frag‧ment 1 / ˈfræɡmənt / noun [ countable ]

a small piece of something that has broken off or that comes from something larger :
glass fragments
fragment of
fragments of broken pottery

THESAURUS
A SMALL PIECE

fragment a small piece that has broken off something, especially something hard : The
window shattered, covering them with fragments of glass. | They found fragments of bone.
crumb a very small piece of bread, cake etc : There were just a few crumbs left on the
plate.
speck a piece of something such as dirt or dust which is so small you almost cannot see it
: She brushed the specks of dust from the table.
drop a very small amount of a liquid : There were drops of blood on the floor. | I felt a
drop of rain.

Fragment (v)
frag‧ment 2 / fræɡˈment $ ˈfræɡment, fræɡˈment / verb [ intransitive and transitive ]

to break something, or be broken into a lot of small separate parts – used to show
disapproval :
the dangers of fragmenting the Health Service
— fragmented adjective :
a fragmented society

— fragmentation / ˌfræɡmənˈteɪʃ ə n, -men- / noun [ uncountable ]

Dab (v)
dab 2 verb ( past tense and past participle dabbed , present participle dabbing )
1 [ intransitive and transitive ] to touch something lightly several times, usually with
something such as a cloth :
She dabbed her eyes with a handkerchief.
dab at
He dabbed at his bleeding lip.
2 [ transitive ] to put a substance onto something with quick light movements of your
hand
dab something on/onto etc something
She dabbed some cream on her face.

Dab (n)
dab 1 / dæ b / noun [ countable ]

1 a small amount of something that you put onto a surface

dab of
a dab of butter
2 a light touch with your hand, a cloth etc :
She wiped her tears away with a dab of her handkerchief.
3 be a dab hand at/with something British English informal to be very good at a
particular activity
4 a small flat fish
5 dabs [ plural ] British English old-fashioned your FINGERPRINT s

Mix (v)
mix 1 S2 W3 / mɪks / verb
1 [ intransitive and transitive ] if you mix two or more substances or if they mix, they
combine to become a single substance, and they cannot be easily separated :
Oil and water don’t mix.
mix (something) with something
Shake the bottle well so that the oil mixes with the vinegar.
The powder is mixed with cold water to form a paste.
Mix the soured cream with ketchup.
mix something together
First mix the butter and sugar together, then add the milk.
mix something in
Mix in 75 g of butter.
mix something into something
Mix the herbs into the sauce.
2 [ transitive ] to combine two or more different activities, ideas, groups of things etc :
Their musical style mixes elements of Eastern culture and Western pop.
mix something with something
His books mix historical fact with fantasy.
I don’t like to mix business with pleasure (= combine business and social activities at
the same time ) .
3 [ intransitive ] to meet, talk, and spend time with other people, especially people you
do not know very well SYN socialize
mix with
Charlie doesn’t mix well with the other children.
4 not mix if two different ideas, activities etc do not mix, there are problems when
they are combined :
Smoking and babies don’t mix.
5 [ transitive ] ( also mix up ) to prepare something, especially food or drink, by mixing
things together :
Will you mix us some martinis, Bill?
6 mix and match to choose to put different things together from a range of
possibilities :
They can mix and match their uniform, wearing either a sweatshirt or blouse with trousers
or a skirt.
7 [ transitive ] technical to control the balance of sounds in a record or film
8 mix it (up) informal to get involved in a fight with someone :
You don’t want to mix it with him. He’s been drinking since noon.
mix somebody/something ↔ up phrasal verb
1 to make the mistake of thinking that someone or something is another person or
thing SYN confuse , muddle up
mix somebody/something ↔ up with
I always mix him up with his brother. They look so much alike.
I think you might be mixing up Wetherall and Newton.
I must have got the times mixed up .
2 to change the way things have been arranged, often by mistake, so that they are no
longer in the same order :
My papers got all mixed up .
Books on Scottish history were mixed up with books on volcanoes.
 3 to make someone feel confused :
They kept trying to mix me up.
4 to prepare something by mixing things together :
It was hard work mixing up four tonnes of cement.
→ MIXED UP , MIX-UP

THESAURUS
TO MIX FOODS, LIQUIDS ETC

mix to put different substances or liquids together so that they can no longer be separated
: Mix yellow and blue paint to make green. | This cake is really easy – you just mix
everything together in the bowl. | Concrete is made by mixing gravel with sand, cement,
and water.
combine to mix things together so that they form a single substance. Combine is more
formal than mix : Combine the flour and the eggs. | Steel is produced by combining iron
with carbon.
stir to move a spoon or stick around in a liquid, a pan etc, especially when you are mixing
things together : Keep stirring until the sauce becomes thicker. | Stir the sugar into the
warm milk. | Stir the paint before you use it.
blend to mix together soft or liquid substances to form a single smooth substance : Blend
the yogurt with fresh fruit for a great drink.
beat to mix food together quickly and thoroughly using a fork or kitchen tool – used
especially about eggs : Beat the eggs and add them to the milk and flour.
whisk to mix foods that are soft or liquid very quickly so that air is mixed in, using a fork
or special tool : Whisk the egg whites until they form soft peaks.
dilute to mix a liquid with water in order to make it weaker : Dilute the bleach with two
parts water to one part bleach.
TO MIX STYLES, IDEAS, OR OTHER THINGS

mix to put different styles, ideas, or other things together : His music mixes jazz and
classical styles. | The different categories of books were all mixed together.
combine to mix different styles, ideas, or other things, so that they work together or
become a single thing : Diets are most effective when they are combined with exercise. |
He combines Greek philosophy with Christian teachings.
blend to combine parts of different things together, especially in a successful and effective
way : The teaching course blends theory and practice in the classroom.
fuse to combine different styles in order to form a new style : The band fuses African
rhythms with traditional Celtic music.
jumble to mix things together in an untidy way, so that they are not in any order : The
jigsaw pieces were all jumbled together in the box.
 Mix (n)
mix 2 noun
1 [ singular ] the particular combination of things or people in a group or thing
mix of
a good mix of people
We felt that between us we had the right mix of skills.
a complicated mix of colours and textures
the region’s rich ethnic mix (= people of different races )
2 [ uncountable and countable ] a combination of substances that you mix together to
make something such as a cake SYN mixture
cake/soup etc mix
Add water to the cake mix and bake at 375°F.
3 [ countable ] a particular arrangement of sounds, voices, or different pieces of music
used on a POP record :
the dance mix

THESAURUS
PREPARING FOOD

grate to cut cheese, carrot etc into small pieces by rubbing it against a special tool : Grate
the cheese and sprinkle it over the top of the pasta.
melt to make butter, chocolate etc become liquid : Melt the butter, chocolate, and 1
teaspoon of cream over a low heat.
sieve British English , sift American English to put flour or other powders through a SIEVE
(= tool like a net made of wire, which you use for removing larger grains or pieces ) : Sift
the flour and cocoa before adding to the rest of the mixture.
chop to cut something into pieces, especially using a big knife : Chop up the vegetables.
dice to cut vegetables or meat into small square pieces : Dice the carrots and then fry
them in butter.
season to add salt, pepper etc to food : Season the meat before grilling.
crush to use a lot of force to break something such as seeds into very small pieces or into
a powder : Add one clove of crushed garlic.
mix to combine different foods together : Mix together all the ingredients in one bowl.
beat/whisk to mix food together quickly with a fork or other tool : Whisk the egg whites
until they form soft peaks.
stir to turn food around with a spoon : Stir the sauce gently to prevent burning.
fold something in to gently mix another substance into a mixture : Fold in the beaten egg
whites.
knead to press DOUGH (= a mixture of flour and water ) many times with your hands when
you are making bread : Knead the dough for ten minutes, until smooth.
drizzle to slowly pour a small amount of a liquid onto something : Drizzle with olive oil.
let something stand to leave something somewhere, before you do something else with it
: Let the mixture stand for a couple of hours so that it cools naturally.
serve to put different foods together as part of a meal : Serve with rice and a salad. |
Serve the aubergines on a bed of lettuce.

Mixed
mixed S2 / mɪkst / adjective
1 [ only before noun ] consisting of several different types of things or people :
a very mixed group of women
a mixed salad
2 mixed feelings/emotions if you have mixed feelings or emotions about something,
you are not sure whether you like, agree with, or feel happy about it
mixed feelings/emotions about
I had mixed feelings about meeting Laura again.
He watched with mixed emotions.
3 mixed reaction/response/reviews etc if something gets a mixed reaction etc,
some people say they like it or agree with it, but others dislike it or disagree with it :
The film has had mixed reviews from the critics.
Media coverage of the event was mixed.
4 especially British English for both males and females :
a mixed school
5 a mixed blessing something that is good in some ways but bad in others :
Having your parents living nearby is a mixed blessing.
6 a mixed bag
a) a group of things or people that are all very different from each other
a mixed bag of
The concert was a mixed bag of classical and modern music.
Club-goers are a mixed bag these days, and so are the places they go clubbing.
b) something that includes both good and bad parts :
The meat was very good, but the vegetables were rather a mixed bag.
7 (of) mixed race having parents of different races :
children of mixed race
8 in mixed company when you are with people of both sexes :
It’s not the sort of joke you tell in mixed company.
→ mixed metaphor at METAPHOR (2)

Describe
de‧scribe S2 W1 / dɪˈskraɪb / verb [ transitive ]
1 to say what something or someone is like by giving details about them :
The police asked her to describe the man.
Another approach to the problem is described in Chapter 3.
describe somebody/something as (being/having) something
After the operation her condition was described as comfortable.
The youth is described as being 18 to 19 years old.
describe how/why/what etc
It’s difficult to describe how I feel.
describe somebody/something to somebody
So describe this new boyfriend to me!
describe doing something
He described finding his mother lying on the floor.
2 describe a circle/an arc etc formal to make a movement which forms the shape of
a circle etc :
Her hand described a circle in the air.

THESAURUS
describe to talk or write about a person, place, event etc, in order to show what they are
like : Could you try and describe the man you saw? | In her book, she describes her
journey across the Sahara. | Police described the attack as particularly violent.
tell somebody about somebody/something to describe someone or something to
someone. This phrase is more commonly used than describe in everyday spoken English :
So, tell me about your holiday! | My friends have told me all about you!
depict formal to describe someone or something in a piece of writing : His stories depict
life in Trinidad as seen through the eyes of a young boy. | In this new biography she is
depicted as a lonely and unhappy woman.
portray/represent formal to describe someone or something in a particular way : College
teachers are often represented on television shows as slightly eccentric. | The magazine
has been criticized for the way it portrays women. | The treatment has been portrayed as a
painless way of curing cancer, which is simply not true. | Police have represented her as a
willing participant in the crimes.
characterize somebody/something as something formal to describe someone or
something by emphasizing one particular quality or feature about them : He characterized
himself as ‘an average American’. | The successful schools were characterized as innovative
and creative.
paint somebody/something as something to describe someone or something,
especially in a way that makes people believe something that is not true : Not all young
people are as bad as they’re painted in the press. | We won, yet the media is painting it as
a victory for our opponents. | The woman was painted as having only a slight grasp of
reality.
paint a picture to describe a situation, so that people can get a general idea of what it is
like : Can you paint a picture of life in Japan for us? | My uncle’s letters generally painted a
rosy picture of how things were. | The report painted a bleak picture of the management’s
failures.

Affect
af‧fect S2 W1 AC / əˈfekt / verb [ transitive ]
1 to do something that produces an effect or change in something or in someone’s
situation :
the areas affected by the hurricane
a disease that affects the central nervous system
decisions which affect our lives
Trading has been adversely affected by the downturn in consumer spending.
2 [ usually passive ] to make someone feel strong emotions :
We were all deeply affected by her death.
3 formal to pretend to have a particular feeling, way of speaking etc :
As usual, Simon affected complete boredom.
He used to affect a foreign accent.
Much
much 2 S1 W1 determiner , pronoun
1 a large amount of something :
I don’t have much money with me.
Was there much traffic?
He didn’t say much about his trip.
Do you get much chance to travel in your job?
After much consideration we have finally arrived at a decision.
much of
Much of the city was destroyed in the attack.
(far/rather/a little) too much
There was too much work for one person.
It would cost far too much to have the thing repaired.
It was such a small thing to have caused so much trouble.

GRAMMAR
Much is used before uncountable nouns, mainly in questions and negative sentences, or
after too or so :
Was there much mess?
I don’t have much time.
We’ve wasted too much time.
► Do not use much before plural nouns. Use many or a lot of :
There are too many advertisements (NOT too much advertisements) on television.

REGISTER
Much sounds formal in positive statements. In everyday English, people usually say a lot
of :
The dress cost a lot of money.
After a lot of thought I said yes.
2 how much used to ask or talk about the amount or cost of something :
How much is that dress?
How much flour should I use in the sauce?
I know how much hard work goes into looking after a baby.
3 as much an amount that is equal and not less
as much (...) as
I hope you have as much fun as I did.
Just do as much as you can.
4 as much as 10/100 etc used to emphasize how surprisingly large an amount is :
Some machines cost as much as £20,000.
5 used in negative expressions to say that something is not important, interesting,
good etc
not/nothing much
‘What are you doing?’ ‘Oh, not much, really.’
There’s nothing much we can do to help.
I don’t think much of that idea (= I do not think it is good ) .
The car may not be much to look at (= it does not look good ) but it’s very reliable.
It’s the best book he’s written, but that’s not saying much (= none of his books is very
good ) .
6 not be much of a something to not be a good example of something or not be very
good at something :
I’m not much of a dancer, I’m afraid.
It wasn’t really much of a storm.
7 be too much for somebody to be too difficult for someone to do or bear :
The effort of climbing the stairs had been too much for the old man.
The shock had been too much for her – she never recovered.
8 not be up to much British English spoken to be fairly bad :
The restaurant’s very grand but the food isn’t up to much.
9 there is not much in it informal used to say that there is little difference between
two things or amounts :
‘Isn’t the woollen carpet more expensive?’ ‘A little, perhaps, but there’s not much in it.’
10 think/say etc as much to think or say the thing that has just been mentioned :
Carson strongly disapproved of the plan and said as much at the meeting.
‘Max was lying all the time.’ ‘ I thought as much.’
11 it was as much as somebody could do to do something used to say that
someone only succeeded in doing something with great difficulty :
He looked so stupid, it was as much as I could do to stop myself from laughing.
12 not/without so much as something used when you are surprised or annoyed
that someone did not do something :
They left without so much as saying goodbye.
He’d received not so much as a thank you from Tiffany.
13 so much for something used to say that a particular action, idea, statement etc
was not useful or did not produce the result that was hoped for :
He’s late again. So much for good intentions.
14 I’ll say this/that much for somebody/something used when saying one good
thing about someone or something when they are being criticized a lot :
Well, he does admit it when he’s wrong, I’ll say that much for him.
15 as much again an additional amount that is equal :
The car only cost me £1,500 but it cost as much again to get it insured.
16 be a bit much/be too much British English spoken used to say that someone’s
behaviour is unacceptable or impolite :
It’s a bit much expecting you to pay for it all.
17 make much of somebody/something formal to treat a person or thing as though
you think they are very important or special :
The press made much of the discovery.
They’ve always made much of their nephews and nieces

Inspire
in‧spire / ɪnˈspaɪə $ -ˈspaɪr / verb [ transitive ]

1 to encourage someone by making them feel confident and eager to do something :

We need someone who can inspire the team.
inspire somebody to do something
He inspired many young people to take up the sport.
inspire somebody to something
I hope this success will inspire you to greater efforts.
Inspired by the sunny weather, I decided to explore the woods.
2 to make someone have a particular feeling or react in a particular way :
Gandhi’s quiet dignity inspired great respect.
inspire confidence (= make people feel confident because they trust your ability )
His driving hardly inspires confidence.
The hospital’s record does not inspire confidence .
3 to give someone the idea for something, especially a story, painting, poem etc :
The story was inspired by a chance meeting with an old Russian duke.
a range of designs inspired by wild flowers
4 technical to breathe in

Inspired
in‧spired / ɪnˈspaɪəd $ -ˈspaɪrd / adjective

1 having very exciting special qualities that are better than anyone or anything else :
an inspired leader
an inspired performance
2 inspired guess/choice etc a good or successful guess, choice etc that is based on
inspiration not facts :
In an inspired move, they took on the relatively inexperienced Ray Unwin as director.
3 politically/religiously etc inspired started for political, religious etc reasons :
We suspect that the violence was politically inspired.

Regard (n)
re‧gard 1 S3 / rɪˈɡɑːd $ -ɑːrd / noun
1 ADMIRATION/RESPECT [ uncountable ] respect and admiration for someone or
something
regard for
Jan’s regard for his great talent
Burt had high regard for his old law professor, Dr. Finch (= he respected him a lot ) .
The voters hold her in high regard (= respect or admire her ) .
Teachers are held in low regard in this society (= are not respected or admired ) .
2 ATTENTION/CONSIDERATION [ uncountable ] formal attention or consideration that is
shown towards someone or something
regard for
She has no regard for other people’s feelings.
pay/show regard
One must show proper regard for the law.
little/no/scant regard (for somebody/something)
 The present administration has demonstrated little regard for environmental issues.
All students must have access to quality education without regard to wealth or class.
3 with/in regard to something formal relating to a particular subject :
US foreign policy with regard to Cuba
4 in this/that regard formal relating to something you have just mentioned :
The company’s problems, in this regard, are certainly not unique.
5 regards [ plural ] good wishes – used when sending your good wishes to someone or
when ending a short letter or message :
My husband sends his regards .
Hope to see you soon. Regards, Chris
(with) kind/best regards (= used to end a letter in a friendly but rather formal way )
6 [ singular ] literary a long look without moving your eyes

COLLOCATIONS
ADJECTIVES

high regard The players have a very high regard for their manager.
low regard This might explain the low regard in which the President is held.
mutual regard (= which people feel for each other ) There seems to have been a genuine
mutual regard between the two leaders.
considerable regard (= fairly high regard ) Eliot had considerable regard for Collingwood.
VERBS

hold somebody/something in high regard Doctors are held in high regard by society.
have a high regard for somebody/something I had the highest regard for him.

COLLOCATIONS
VERBS

have no regard for something Some motorists have no regard for other road users.
have regard to something formal The court must have particular regard to the factors
listed in section 13.
pay regard to something The architect who designed the building paid too little regard to
its function.
show regard for something He showed great regard for the Mosaic Law and Jewish
customs.
ADJECTIVES

due/proper regard The aim is to get the job done as cheaply as possible, with due regard
to high standards.
little regard (= not enough regard ) He drove himself on, with little regard for his own
health.
scant regard (= very little regard ) Should we be exporting arms to countries with scant
regard for human rights?
no regard The decision was implemented with no regard for the families still living on the
estate.

Regard (v)
regard 2 S2 W1 verb [ transitive ]
1 [ not in progressive ] to think about someone or something in a particular way
regard somebody/something as something
Paul seemed to regard sex as sinful and immoral.
Edith was widely regarded as (= considered by many people to be ) eccentric.
His work is highly regarded (= regarded as very good ) by art experts.
2 formal to look at someone or something, in a particular way :
She stood back and regarded him coldly.
3 as regards something formal relating to a particular subject – use this when you
want to talk or write about a particular subject :
As regards a cure for the disease, very few advances have been made.

Regardless
re‧gard‧less / rɪˈɡɑːdləs $ -ɑːr- / adverb

1 without being affected or influenced by something

regardless of
The law requires equal treatment for all, regardless of race, religion, or sex.
2 if you continue doing something regardless, you do it in spite of difficulties or other
people telling you not to
carry on/go on regardless British English (= continue what you are doing )
You get a lot of criticism, but you just have to carry on regardless.