Siemens

Training Center
for Communication
Networks

Fundamentals of Radio Network Planning

1 Objectives

The participant is able to

0 explain the basic steps during radio network planning

2 Contents

1 Mobile Radio Network Planning Tasks

1.1 Collection of Basic Planning Data
1.2 Terrain Data Acquisition
1.3 Coarse Coverage Prediction
1.4 Network Configuration
1.5 Site Selection
1.6 Field Measurements
1.7 Tool Tuning
1.8 Network Design
1.9 Data Base Engineering
1.10 Performance Evaluation and Optimization

2 Repetition

3 Radio Wave Propagation

3.1 Path Loss
3.2 Shadowing - Long Term Fading
3.3 Multi Path Propagation - Short Term Fading
3.4 Maximum Path Loss and Link Budget

4 Cellular Networks and Frequency Allocation

5 Traffic Models

6 Exercises

A30181-X1789-X004-01-7635 1-1
 Siemens
Training Center
for Communication
Networks

to many subscribers with high service quality at low costs

Capacity for a traffic model Quality of service Efficiency

0 service types 3 low blocking 7 low number of BS sites

1 call rate 4 low wait time 8 high frequency re-use

2 mobility 5 high speech quality

6 low call drop rate

 Siemens
Training Center
for Communication
Networks

Boundary conditions

Physics: frequency spectrum, radio propagation ® coverage & frequency planning

System: receiver characteristics, transmit power

channel configuration
algorithms and parameter setting cell design & network structure
link quality improvement

focal point of this course !

Fig. 1

As shown in the figure below, the main topic of this course is adjustment of system parameters for the Siemens
Base Station System (SBS) as part of the radio network planning process.

Before going into the details of the system features and control parameters, this introduction chapter summarizes
some basics on radio network planning:

In the first and second section of this chapter the steps within the radio network planning process are explained.
In sections 3 - 5 simple models concerning radio propagation, frequency re-use and teletraffic are presented.

As each model they are only an approximation of reality. Nevertheless

 they reflect the main physical effects,

 they help to understand the meaning of parameters and the way of working the algorithms,

 they allow to estimate parameter values.

 Siemens
Training Center
for Communication
Networks

3
 Siemens
Training Center
for Communication
Networks

5 Mobile Radio Network Planning Tasks

The mobile radio network is the connecting element between the mobile telephone users and the fixed network.

In this network the base transceiver station equipment (BTSE) is the direct interface to the subscriber. It has to
make radio communication channels available to the users and to care for a satisfactory signal quality within a
certain area around the base station. This area may be split into different sectors (cells) which belong to one
BTSE.

Planning a mobile radio network is a complex task, because radio propagation along the earth surface is
submitted to many influences due to the local environment. Furthermore the performance requirements to a radio
network cover a wide field of applications which depend on the operators potentialities and goals. To respond to
all these subjects, it is necessary to observe a certain sequence of tasks.

The first step is to get knowledge about the customers/operators objectives and resources (basic planning data).
On this basis it is possible to estimate the size of the project and to establish a coarse nominal cell plan.

Then it is necessary to install a digital terrain data base into a planning tool which contains topo-graphical and
morphological information about the planning region. This digital map permits to make more accurate
predictions about the radio signal propagation as compared to the first rough estimation, and to create a more
realistic cell structure, including the recommendable geographical positions of the base stations
equipment(coarse coverage prediction).

The network elements defined up to this moment have been found on a more or less theoretical basis. Now it has
to be checked if the envisaged radio site locations may really be kept. A site survey campaign in accordance with
the customer, who is responsible for the site acquisition, must clarify all problems concerning the infrastructure
and technical as well as financial issues of the BTSE implementation. Inside a tolerable search area the optimum
site meeting all these issues has to be selected.

This site selection should also take into account particular properties of the area, e.g. big obstacles which are not
recognizable in the digital maps.

Field measurements, to be carried out in typical and in complex areas must give detailed informations about the
radio characteristics of the planning region. The measurement results will then help to align the radio prediction
tool for the actual type of land usage (tool tuning).

Now, fixed site positions and an area-adapted tool being available, it is possible to start the detailed radio
planning. The final network design has to care for both sufficient coverage and proper radio frequency
assignment in respecting the traffic load and the interference requirements.

The last planning step is the generation of a set of control parameters, necessary to maintain a communication
while a subscriber is moving around. These parameters have to comply with the existing cell structure and the
needs to handle the traffic load expected in each cell.

After commissioning of the network, the performance must be checked by the network operator by evaluation of
statistical data collected in the operation and maintenance center. Situations of congestion or frequent call
rejections may be treated by modification of the pertinent control parameters and lead to an optimized network.
The individual planning steps are considered more closely in the following sections.
Siemens
Training Center
for Communication
Networks
 Siemens
Training Center
for Communication
Networks

5.1 Collection of Basic Planning Data

The requirements of the network operator concerning traffic load and service area extension are basic data for
the design of a mobile network . A coarse network structure complying with these requirements can be created
on this basis.

Two fundamental cell types are possible; their properties may be determined

a) by the maximum radio range of the involved transceiver stations and mobile terminals; the range is limited
by the available transmit power and the noise figure of the receivers. This type is called a noise limited cell;
it is typical for rural regions.

b) or it may be determined by the limited traffic capacity of a cell in the case of high subscriber concentration.
This leads to the implementation of small cells, mainly in urban areas where interference will become the
major problem.

The result of this first planning step is a rough estimate of the network structure, called a nominal cell plan,
which gives knowledge about the number of radio stations, their required technical equipment and their
approximate geographical positions. Thus allowing to assess the monetary volume of the project.

5.2 Terrain Data Acquisition

Mobile communication occurs in a natural environment. The radio signal propagation is highly affected by the
existing terrain properties like hills, forests, towns etc. Therefore the real mapping data must be taken into
account by the planning tool.

The signal level encountered by a subscriber in the street is influenced by absorbing, screening, reflecting and
diffracting effects of the surrounding objects and along the radio path.

To make realistic signal level predictions, the propagation models implemented in the prediction tool must be fed
with the relevant terrain data.

A very important factor for correct modeling is the morphographic classification of an area :

 building heights and density of built up areas (metropolitan, urban, suburban, village, industrial, residential)
or forest, parks, open areas, water etc.

The screening by hills which may affect the coverage of a service area must be made evident by consideration of
the terrain profile (height contour lines).

The procurement of digital maps with these informations may be rather expensive. The prediction accuracy is
directly related to the size of area elements (resolution) and to the reliability of these information (obsolescence
of maps!)
1.1

1.2 Coarse Coverage Prediction

 Siemens
Training Center
for Communication
Networks

On the basis of the digital terrain data base and by using standard propagation models, which have been
preselected to fit for special terrain types, it is possible to make field strength predictions without having a very
detailed knowledge of the particular local conditions.

By variation and modification of the site positions and antenna orientations, coverage predictions of rather good
quality may be attained.

Yet, the definitive site locations are subject to a later scheduled site selection process in accordance and by
cooperation with the customer.

The particular local characteristics must be introduced later by comprehensive survey measurements. These
measurements will be used to upgrade the propagation models.

1.3 Network Configuration

The results of the “coarse prediction“ steps will allow to define the radio network configuration and the layout of
individual base stations.

A first frequency allocation plan may also be derived from these predictions. The result might already be a well
functioning network. But it is still based on assumptions. The actual impact of the natural environment must be
considered in the following steps. Nevertheless, the “coarse planning“ results will help to better assess the
special details brought in by the real situation.

In designing the radio network one has to keep in mind the requirements emerging from an increasing subscriber
number. A multiple phase implementation plan has to govern the network configuration concepts.

In the initial phase a relatively low number of users has to be carried. On the other hand complete coverage of
the service area has to be provided from the beginning. Existing sites of the first implementation phase must be
useable in later phases. Increasing subscriber numbers (synonymous with increasing interference tendency!)
should be responded by completion of the existing TRX-equipment and by addition of new sites. This means
reconfiguration of the existing cell patterns and frequency reassignment. The planner should anticipate the future
subscriber repartitions and concentrations from the beginning, in creating cell structures capable to respond to
future needs. Increasing interference problems arising with higher site density may be overcome by downtilting
of directional antennas initially mounted for maximum signal range, as now the radio cell areas will be smaller.
 Siemens
Training Center
for Communication
Networks

5.3

5.4 Site Selection

The site positions found in the coarse planning process on a theoretical basis, must now be verified in a joint
campaign, called site survey, between the customer and the radio network planner. All site candidates within a
tolerable search area around the theoretical site positions must be checked.

This check includes the availability of electric power and of data transmission lines.

The most important topic is the possibility to install the antennas in a suitable height above the roofs or above
ground.

Environmental influences (screening obstacles, reflectors) have also to be regarded. The best fitting site should
be selected.

Another important task of this campaign is to declare a certain number of the radio sites be suitable to serve as
„survey sites“. This means that radio field measurements shall be done with these stations as transmitters. The
resulting measurements will be used for the alignment of radio propagation models.

The environment of the survey sites should be typical for a considerable number of other radio sites.

5.5 Field Measurements

Digital terrain data bases (DTDB) as derived from topographical maps or satellite pictures do not contain all
details and particularities of the existing environment. Especially in fast developing urban areas maps cannot
keep pace with reality and thus reflect an obsolete status. Keeping maps on this quality level would be very
expensive.

The characteristics of built up zones and vegetation areas with respect to radio propagation differ in a wide range
if we regard different countries. Even climatic conditions may influence the signal level. Knowledge about this
specific behavior must be acquired by measurements.

The survey measurements have to be carried out in typical areas. Evaluation of these measurements will result
in models that can be applied in comparable areas as well.

Special measurements must be carried out in very complex topographical regions where standardized
propagation models will fail. The resulting models are valid exclusively for this measurement zone.
 Siemens
Training Center
for Communication
Networks

5.6

5.7 Tool Tuning

The measurement results have to be compared with the predictions of proven standard models. The standard
parameters will be slightly modified to achieve minimum discrepancies with the measurements, i.e. to keep the
mean error and rms-error as low as possible. As the signal level is subject to statistical variations which cannot
be predicted, the rms-error will never be zero.

The reliability of the created models increases with the number of measurement runs that can be exploited.

The new specific model may also be applied in other base stations located in similar environment.

5.8 Network Design

The area-specific models are the basis for the final planning steps. The detailed network design has to care for

 a suitable signal level throughout the planning area

 sufficient traffic capacity according to the operators requirements

 assignment of the pertinent number of RF-carriers to all cells

sufficient decoupling of frequency reuse cells to respect the interference requirements for co-channels and
adjacent channels.

Moreover, attention has to be payed to an optimized handover scenario in heavy traffic zones.

The detailed planning process commits the final structure of the radio network and the configuration of the base
stations.

The capacity of digital data links connecting the radio stations to the fixed network elements may now be
defined.
 Siemens
Training Center
for Communication
Networks

5.9

5.10 Data Base Engineering

A cellular network is a living system with moving subscribers. The service must be maintained while mobiles
change radio cells and superior organization units, called location areas. All control parameters, necessary to
support this task, have to be administered and supervised in central data bases.

There is a permanent signaling information exchange between mobiles, base stations and control centers.

This signaling communication occurs on predefined time slots, called control channels which are assigned to one
of the RF-carriers of each radio cell.

Important control informations for each radio cell are :

 cell identification within the network

 control carrier frequency

 potential neighbor cells

 minimum received signal level

 maximum transmit power of a mobile

 power reduction factor to perform power control

 power margin for handover to neighbor cells

5.11 Performance Evaluation and Optimization

Regular performance checks must be carried out after commissioning of the network. These checks comprise the
evaluation of statistical data collected in the “operations and maintenance center“ (OMC) as well as
measurements by means of test mobile stations to explore e.g. handover events under realistic conditions;
unwanted handover may lead to traffic congestions in certain cells, or may drain off traffic from other cells.

Detection of multipath propagation problems caused by big reflecting objects is also subject to measurements.

Another goal of these checks is to investigate the real traffic load and its distribution, as subscriber behavior in a
living system will not necessarily reflect the original assumptions of the operator; assumed hot traffic spots may
have been changed or shifted after a couple of years.

Careful evaluation of the measurement data will help to optimize the network performance by modification of
the system parameters. As the number of subscribers will normally increase in course of time, supervision and
control of these parameters should become a permanent maintenance procedure.
 Siemens
Training Center
for Communication
Networks

7 Repetition

Mobile Radio Network Planning Tasks

 Collection of basic planning data

 Terrain data acquisition

 Coarse coverage prediction

 Network configuration

 Site selection and field measurements

 Tool tuning

 Network design

 Data base engineering

 Performance evaluation and optimization

Collection of basic planning data

 Customer must define basic network performance goals :

 Size of service area and area types

 Traffic load and distribution

 Mobile classes and service quality

 Future development (forecast)

 Available RF - bandwidth

The resulting nominal cell plan is a first planning approach

 to determine the required number of radio stations

 to figure out the approximate equipment configuration

 to get an idea of the financial volume of the project

 Siemens
Training Center
for Communication
Networks

Terrain data acquisition

Topographical and morphographical properties of the planning region must be compiled in a digital data base for
further processing

Contents of the digital terrain data base DTDB :

 Height profile ( topography )

 Land coverage and usage ( morphography )

Possible sources :

 Scanning of topographic maps

 Processed satellite pictures or air pictures

Coarse coverage prediction

A coarse coverage prediction based on the nominal cell plan and on the digital terrain data base :

 using standard propagation models

 using standard antenna types

Results :

 Geographical distribution of the radio signal level

 Coarse cell structure

 Nominal position of the radio sites and antenna orientation

 Search areas for final site positions

 Knowledge about the attainable degree of signal quality

 Siemens
Training Center
for Communication
Networks

Network configuration

Internal configuration of individual radio station :

 Equipment to be installed

Configuration of the radio network ( network structure ) :

 Number of base station controllers BSC

 Number of location areas

 Definition of data lines between the network elements

Site selection and field measurements

 Selection of definitive radio site locations

 Radio measurements in typical areas

 Radio measurements in complex topographical regions

Tool tuning

 Radio measurements are exploited to adapt standard propagation models to specific environmental conditions

 Resulting models may be applied in similar environment

 or are restricted to the special measurement area

Siemens
Training Center
for Communication
Networks
 Siemens
Training Center
for Communication
Networks

Network design

The final radio planning is performed by means of the area - adapted models

Planning goals:

 Sufficient signal level throughout the planning region

 Sufficient traffic capacity according to subscriber distribution

 Assignment of radio carriers to all cells

 Low interference level for co-channels and adjacent channels

 Definition of neighbor cells

Data base engineering

Control and maintenance of the radio network requires parameters for

 Identification of serving cell and neighbor cells , i.e.:

1 cell identity

2 location area

3 color code

 Cell - allocated control- and traffic carriers

 Maximum transmit power level

 Minimum receive signal level

 Power margin for handover to each neighbor cell

Performance evaluation and optimization

 By analyzing statistical data from maintenance center

 Measurements performed by a test mobile station roaming about the operating radio network
2

3 Radio Wave Propagation

There are three main components of radio propagation which are discussed in the next section:

 mean path loss (loss due to the distance between MS-BS),

 Siemens
Training Center
for Communication
Networks

 shadowing (long term fading),

 multi path propagation ® short term (Rayleigh) fading.

3.1 Path Loss

Standard path loss models are of the form:

Lm[dB]= A + B log d [km]

where Lm is the mean propagation path loss between the base station (BS) and the mobile station (MS) at a
distance d.

A: unit loss at 1 km,

B: propagation index or loss per decade.

The propagation coefficients A and B depend upon:

 the transmit frequency,

 the MS and BS antenna heights,

 the topography and morphology of the propagation area.

Examples are:

1. Free space loss:

L0 = 32.4 + 20 log f [MHz] + 20 log d [km]

or more important propagation in real environment - the famous Hata model:

2. Hata model

The Hata model describes the mean propagation effects for large cells and distances d > 1 Km. For urban
environment one has:

A = 69.55 + 26.16 log f - 13.82 log Hb - a(Hm)

B = 44.9 - 6.55 log Hb

 Siemens
Training Center
for Communication
Networks

Example: Hm = 1.5 m Hb = 50 m f=900 Mhz

®
A = 123.3 B = 33.8
 Siemens
Training Center
for Communication
Networks

For other environments (suburban, rural-quasi-open) the path loss per decade remains the same, but the unit loss
is reduced by a certain amount. The free space loss and the Hata model are illustrated in the figure above.

Models of this type are adequate for estimating the received level for large cells. However for a real network
planning, refinements of the model and adaptations of parameters to morphological and topographical data and
to measurement values are necessary (refer to section 1).

The smaller the cells, the more important are the details of e.g. the building structure within the cell.

3.2 Shadowing - Long Term Fading

In larger cells where the BS antenna is installed above the roof top level, details of the environment near the MS
are responsible for a variation of the received level around the mean level calculated by the models discussed
above.

Usually this variation of level - caused by obstacles near the MS (e.g. buildings or trees) - is described by the
statistical model, i.e. the total path loss Ltot is given by the mean „distance“ path loss plus a random shadowing

Ltot [dB] = Lm + S

S<0: free line of sight,

S>0: strong shadowing by e.g. a high building near the MS.

S has a Gaussian distribution (see figure below) with mean value 0 and a standard deviation s which typically
lies in the range s = 4...10 dB.

0 .5

0 .4

0 .3

0 .2

0 .1

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Shadow ing S/s [dB]

Fig. 2 Gaussian distribution of Shadowing S

The length scale for variation of the long term fading is in the range 5 ... 100 m, i.e. the typical size of
shadowing obstacles.

3.3 Multi Path Propagation - Short Term Fading

The superposition of several reflected waves arriving at the receiver on different paths and therefore with
different amplitudes and phases causes peaks (constructive superposition) and deep fading dips ( destructive
superposition) of the received level.
 Siemens
Training Center
for Communication
Networks

The length scale for variation (e.g. peak to peak) is given by the half of the transmission wave length, i.e. about
15 cm for GSM900 or 7.5 cm for DCS1800. An example for the variation of the received level due to short term
fading is shown in the figure below.

A comparison with the length scale for shadowing explains the names for these fading types.

The statistics of the Rayleigh fading is described in the following way:

Consider the received level due the path loss and long term fading which is called local mean: LLOC[dBm]. The
received local mean power is then given by

Ploc[mW] = 10LlOC/10

Using this formula the probability density function for the received power P is given by:

f(P) = 1/Ploc* exp(-P/Ploc)

which means that the probability function for the signal amplitude P = A2 is given by a Rayleigh distribution.

Using these formulas and some mathematics, one can calculate the probability that the received level L (affected
by Rayleigh fading) is x dB below the local mean level Lloc:

Prob (L - Lloc< x dB) = 1 - exp ( - 10 x/10)

Example:

x = 3 dB Prob = 86,5 %
x = 0 dB Prob = 63,0 %
x = -3 dB Prob = 39,5 %
x = -6 dB Prob = 22,0 %
x = -10 dB Prob = 9,5 %
x = -20 dB Prob = 1,0 %
 Siemens
Training Center
for Communication
Networks

Changing the transmission frequency and therefore the wave length, changes the position of Rayleigh peaks and
dips. This means that at a given position, the received level affected by Rayleigh fading in general differs for
different transmission frequencies. The higher the frequency difference the lower is the correlation for the
receive signal for the different frequencies. The coherence bandwidth Bcoh is defined as the frequency difference
at which this correlation has decreased to 0.5. The coherence bandwidth depends upon the spread of arrival
times of the different multi path components of the received signal. This spread is called delay spread DT:

Coherence Bandwidth and Delay Spread

1
Bcoh 
2T

i.e. the higher the delay spread the lower is the coherence bandwidth.

The delay spread depends upon the propagation environment. Typical values are:

 10 µs for hilly terrain (corresponding to path length between difference of 3 km).

 0.1 ... 1 µs for urban area (corresponding to path length between difference of 30 ... 300 m).

Keeping in mind that a Rayleigh fading dip of more than 10 dB occurs with a probability of 10 %, measures
should be provided to combat Rayleigh fading:

Means to combat Rayleigh fading:

 Averaging of Rayleigh fading over speech frames (interleaving of 8 bursts)

- Frequency Hopping
spacing between frequencies in hopping sequence >> coherence bandwidth

- Motion (speed v)
Example: v=50 km/h, distance between bursts = TDMA frame length T = 4.6 ms
® distance between MS positions at subsequent bursts D = 6.4 cm
® distance for 8 bursts_ 8 * D ~ 50 cm > 3 * wavelength

 Combining of signals received at positions of mutually uncorrelated fading

- Antenna Diversity
spacing between RX antennas >> half wavelength
 Siemens
Training Center
for Communication
Networks

Fig. 3
 Siemens
Training Center
for Communication
Networks

Short Term Fading

Fig. 4
 Siemens
Training Center
for Communication
Networks

Combiner Type 1:1 2:1 4:1

Duplexer 2.7 dB 2.7 dB 5.9 dB

Hybrid Combiner 2.0 dB 5.2 dB 8.4 dB

Output MS:

For the MS there is no need combining different carriers; and the cable loss and antenna gain reduce to zero. The
EIRP depends upon the power class of the MS specified in GSM Rec 05.05:

Power Class (GSM 05.05) Max. Output Power (GSM900) Max. Output Power (DCS1800)

1 -- 1 Watt = 30 dBm

2 8 Watt = 39 dBm 0.25W = 24 dBm

3 5 Watt = 37 dBm 4 Watt = 36 dBm

4 2 Watt = 33 dBm

5 0.8 Watt= 29 dBm

 Siemens
Training Center
for Communication
Networks

Input MS:

For the MS there is neither antenna gain nor antenna diversity gain. Cable losses can be neglected. Therefore the
required input power level at the MS antenna is given by the MS receiver limit sensitivity as specified by GSM
05.05:
 104 dBm for class 2 and 3 (GSM900),
 102 dBm for class 4 and 5 (GSM900),
 100 dBm for class 1 and 2 (DCS1800)

Maximum allowed path loss (Link Budget)

downlink Ld[dB] = EIRPBTS - RIPLMS

uplink Lu[dB] = EIRPMS - RIPLBTS

Example:

Duplexers 2:1: ® no RXAMOD, uplink cable loss = 3 dB

MS of Power Class 3: ® EIRPMS= 37 dBm
Antenna Diversity Gain: 4 dB

® Lu[dB] = 37 dBm - (- 104 dBm - 16 dBi + 3 dB - 4 dB) = 158 dB

® Ld[dB] = 44 dBm - 3 dB - 3 dB + 16 dBi - (- 104 dBm) = 158 dB

i.e. there is a symmetric link budget for uplink and downlink.

9 Requirement: Area Coverage Probability: 90 % ¨Coverage Probability at Cell Border: 75 %

10 Standard Deviation of Shadowing: s= 6 dB ® 75 % value of Shadowing: S75%= 4 dB

11 allowed loss L - S75% = 154 dB

® Lm = L - S75% = 154 dB

Path loss model (Hata): Lm [dB] = 123.3 + 33.7 log d [km]

® Cell Radius: dmax =10 (154-123.3)/33.7 = 8.15 km

Example 2:

Designing a radio cell for mainly MS of Power Class 4 (instead of power class 3), the following values for link
budget are obtained:

Lu[dB] = 154 dB
Ld [dB] = 156 dB

To obtain a symmetric link budget, the power amplifier output power of the BTS has to be reduced by 2 dB.
This is done using the O&M parameter BS_TXPWR_RED:
 Siemens
Training Center
for Communication
Networks

Fig. 5

Reducing the BTS output power has the advantage that less downlink interference is caused by this cell.

If there are also some mobiles of Power Class 2 and 3 within the cell designed for mobiles of Power Class 4,
their maximum transmit power has to be limited for a link budget balance. This is the reason behind the
following parameters:

Object DB Name Range Meaning

TRX PWRRED 0, 1, ...6 * 2dB Reduction of BTS power amplifier output

Specification Name DB Name/ Object Range Meaning

MS_TXPWR_MAX MSTXPMAX / BTS-B 2...15 GSM Maximum TXPWR a MS is allowed

0...15 DCS to use on a dedicated channel (TCH
* 2 dB or SDCCH) in the serving cell
GSM: 2 = 39 dBm, 15 = 13 dBm
DCS: 0 = 30 dBm, 15 = 0 dBm
PCS: 0 = 30 dBm, 15 = 0 dBm
30 = 33 dBm, 31 = 32 dBm

MS_TXPWR_MAX_CCH MSTXPMAXCH / BTS-C 0...31 Maximum TXPWR a MS is allowed

* 2 dB to use on the uplink common control
channel (Random Access Channel,
RACH) in the serving cell:
GSM: 0 = 43 dBm,19 = 5 dBm
DCS: 0 = 30 dBm, 15 = 0 dBm
 Siemens
Training Center
for Communication
Networks

Fig. 6

Another effect illustrated by this example is the following:

Since there is a balanced link budget Lu[dB] = Ld[dB], but a difference of the receiver sensitivity level for the
MS and BTS of 2 dB, there is difference between the mean downlink and uplink received level RXLEV of
about 2 dB:

RXLEV_DL - RXLEV_UL ~ 2 dB.

The consequence is that level threshold for e.g. the handover algorithm have to be set 2 dB higher for the
downlink than for the uplink.

4
 Siemens
Training Center
for Communication
Networks

9 Cellular Networks and Frequency Allocation

One important characteristic of cellular networks is the re-use of frequencies in different cells. By re-using
frequencies, a high capacity can be achieved. However, the re-use distance has to be high enough, so that the
interference caused by subscribers using the same frequency (or an adjacent frequency) in another cell is
sufficiently low.

Co-channel
Re-us e
Cells
MS
Interferer
Carrier

Re-us e
Ditance D

Cell Radius R

Fig. 7

To guarantee an appropriate speech quality, the carrier-to-interference-power-ratio CIR has to exceed a certain
threshold CIRmin which is 9 dB for the GSM System (GSM Rec. 05.05).

taking the situation of the example above and a path loss model L = A + B log d, one has

C/Itot[Watt] = C / (I1 + ... + INI) ~ C / (NI * I1) NI: number of interferes

or in dB

C/Itot [dB] = C[dB] - Itot[dB] ~ B log D - B log R - 10 log NI

= B log D/R - 10 log NI > CIRmin + LTFM (x%)

By introducing the long term fading margin LTFM (x%) for a required coverage probability of x%, the effect of
shadowing is taken into account.

For homogeneous hexagonal networks frequencies can be allocated to cells in a symmetric way. Defining the
cluster size K as group of cells in which each frequency is used exactly once, the following relations between
Cluster Size, Cell Radius and Re-use Distance are obtained.
 Siemens
Training Center
for Communication
Networks

Frequency Re-use and Cluster Size

D
n

R
r

Fig. 8

Outer Cell Radius - R

Inner Cell Radius - r = 0.5 x 3 x R

D = R x 3 x (n 2 m 2 nm)
Re-use Distance -

D
= 3xK
R

Cluster Size: Group of cells in which each frequency is used exatly once

K = (n 2 + m2 + nm)
n, m = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
K = 1, 3, 4, 7, 9, 12, 16, 19, ...
Siemens
Training Center
for Communication
Networks
 Siemens
Training Center
for Communication
Networks

Inserting the formula for the cluster size into the formula for the minimum CIR one obtains:

0.5 * B log 3 K > CIRmin + LTFM (x%) + 10 log NI

which gives a lower bound for the cluster size which can be used.

For a given cluster size K and total number of frequencies Ntot, the number of frequencies per cell Ncell is given
by:

Ncell = Ntot/K

i.e. the capacity of a cell can be increased by reducing the cluster size.

A reduction of cluster size can be achieved by

 reducing the number of interferers ® Sectorisation.

 reducing the interference from co-channel cells ® Power Control, Discontinued Transmission, ...

Examples for sectorized network structure are shown in the figures below. Methods for interference reduction
are discussed in chapter 6.

Obviously a real network does not have such a regular hexagonal structure and frequency allocation is performed
by planning tools using complex algorithms for optimizing the CIR in each cell.

The objective is to achieve a high mean value of frequencies per cell <Ncell>. The ratio

<K> = Ntot/Ncell

can viewed as the mean cluster size in such an inhomogeneous environment.

The capacity of the radio network depends upon the available number N of radio channels per area F (e.g. F = 1
km2).

N N N 1 N 1
 Ncell x BTS  CPF x tot x  CPF x tot x
F F K F / NBTS K CA

NBTS: number of BTS

CA: cell area
CPF: channel per frequencies
 Siemens
Training Center
for Communication
Networks

Omnicells - Cluster 7

2
2 7 3
7 3 1
1 6 4
6 4 5 2
5 2 7 3
2 7 3 1
7 3 1 6 4
1 6 4 5
6 4 5 2
5 2 7 3
7 3 1
1 6 4
6 4 5
5

Fig. 9 Example for homogeneous frequency allocation

 Siemens
Training Center
for Communication
Networks

3-Sector Cloverleaf - Cluster 3 x 3

2a 2a

1a 2c 2b 1a 2c 2b

1c 1b 3a 1c 1b 3a

2a 3c 3b 2a 3c 3b 2a

1a 2c 2b 1a 2c 2b 1a 2c 2b

1c 1b 3a 1c 1b 3a 1c 1b 3a

3c 3b 2a 3c 3b 2a 3c 3b

1a 2c 2b 1a 2c 2b

1c 1b 3a 1c 1b 3a

3c 3b 3c 3b

Fig. 10 Example for homogeneous frequency allocation

 Siemens
Training Center
for Communication
Networks

10 Traffic Models

A traffic model reflects the behavior of the subscribers, as their mobility, the mean call rate or call duration. It is
needed e.g. for calculating the required total number of channels within a cell and how to split them between
traffic and control channels.

These traffic model information is always a mixture between field observations in similiar networks and
arbitrary assumptions.

Traffic data are variable in time, therefore statistical characterization is used.

The goal of planning is to manage traffic even in busy hour.

In mobile networks we have to evaluate two main factors:

 user mobility

 communications

User mobility:

The user moves with a velocity v.

For example the handover and location update rates depend on this velocity.

Communications:

The number of subscriber in a cell, the traffic per subscriber has to be considered.

Furthermore, one needs information the mean call duration, the mean call cell rate (or busy hour call attempt
BHCA). separately for mobile originating calls (MOC) and mobile terminating calls (MTC).
 Siemens
Training Center
for Communication
Networks

number of call attempts (MOC+MTC) per subscriber per hour 1,1

percentage of MOC 58 %

percentage of ‘engaged’ in the case of an MOC 19,8 %

duration of TCH occupation in the engaged case 3s

no answer from a person called by MOC 14,4 %

mean TCH occupation for this case 30 s

percentage of successful MOC 65,8 %

mean time for ringing (MOC) 15 s

percentage of MTC 42 %

no paging response 32,5 %

duration of TCH occupation in this case 0s

no answer from a mobile subscriber 13,5%

means TCH occupation fir this case 30 s

successful MTC 54,0 %

mean time for ringing (MTC) 5s

mean call duration (MOC/MTC) 115 s

mean TCH occupation call attempt 83 s

TCH load per subscriber 0,025 Erl

time for MOC/MTC setup signaling on SDCCH (authentications, ...) 3s

time for a location update 5s

number of location update per subscriber per hour 2,2

resulting SDDCCH load per subscriber (no TCH queuing applied) 0,004 Erl
 Siemens
Training Center
for Communication
Networks

Load on Dedicated Channels

SDCCH load [Erl]: SUBSCR * ((MTC_PR_ph + MOC_ph) * T_SETUP + LU_ph * T_LU

+ IMSI_ph * T_IMSI + SMS_ph * T_SMS)

TCH load [Erl]: SUBSCR * (MTC_PR_ph + MOC_ph) * T_CALL

SUBSCR: number of subscribers within the cell

MTC_PR_ph: mobile terminating calls per subscriber per hour with paging response

MOC_ph: mobile terminating calls per subscriber per hour

LU_ph: location updates per subscriber per hour

IMSI_ph: IMSI attach/detach per subscriber per hour

SMS_ph short message service per hour

T_SETUP: mean time [sec] for call setup signaling on SDCCH

T_LU: mean time [sec] for location update signaling

T_IMSI: mean time [sec] for IMSI attach/detach signaling on SDCCH

T_SMS: mean time [sec] for short message service

T_Call: mean TCH occupation time per call

n p=1% p=3% p=5% p=7% n p=1% p=3% p=5% p=7%

1 0.01 0.03 0.05 0.08 51 38.80 42.89 45.53 47.72

2 0.15 0.28 0.38 0.47 52 39.70 43.85 46.53 48.76
3 0.46 0.72 0.90 1.06 53 40.60 44.81 47.53 49.79
4 0.87 1.26 1.53 1.75 54 41.50 45.78 48.54 50.83
5 1.36 1.88 2.22 2.50 55 42.41 46.74 46.54 51.86
6 1.91 2.54 2.96 3.30 56 43.31 47.70 50.54 52.90
7 2.50 3.25 3.74 4.14 57 44.22 48.67 51.55 53.94
8 3.13 3.99 4.54 5.00 58 45.13 49.63 52.55 54.98
9 3.78 4.75 5.37 5.88 59 46.04 50.60 53.56 56.02
10 4.46 5.53 6.22 6.78 60 46.95 51.57 54.57 57.06
11 5.16 6.33 7.08 7.69 61 47.86 52.54 55.57 58.10
12 5.88 7.14 7.95 8.61 62 48.77 53.51 56.58 59.14
13 6.61 7.97 8.84 9.54 63 49.69 54.48 57.59 60.18
14 7.35 8.80 9.37 10.48 64 50.60 55.45 58.60 61.22
15 8.11 9.65 10.63 11.43 65 51.52 56.42 59.61 62.27
16 8.88 10.51 11.54 12.39 66 52.44 57.39 60.62 63.31
17 9.65 11.37 12.46 13.35 67 53.35 58.37 61.63 64.35
18 10.44 12.24 13.39 14.32 68 54.27 59.34 62.64 65.40
19 11.23 13.11 14.31 15.29 69 55.19 60.32 63.65 66.44
 Siemens
Training Center
for Communication
Networks

20 12.03 14.00 15.25 16.27 70 56.11 61.29 64.67 67.49

21 12.84 14.89 16.19 17.25 71 57.03 62.27 65.68 68.53
22 13.65 15.78 17.13 18.24 72 57.96 63.24 66.69 69.58
23 14.47 16.68 18.08 19.23 73 58.88 64.22 67.71 70.62
24 15.29 17.58 19.03 20.22 74 59.80 65.20 68.72 71.67
25 16.13 18.48 19.99 21.21 75 60.73 66.18 69.74 72.72
26 16.96 19.39 20.94 22.21 76 61.65 67.16 70.75 73.77
27 17.80 20.31 21.90 23.21 77 62.58 68.14 71.77 74.81
28 18.64 21.22 22.87 24.22 78 63.51 69.12 72.79 75.86
29 19.49 22.14 23.83 25.22 79 64.43 70.10 73.80 76.91
30 20.34 23.06 24.80 26.23 80 65.36 71.08 74.82 77.96
31 21.19 23.99 25.77 27.24 81 66.29 72.06 75.84 79.01
32 22.05 24.91 26.75 28.25 82 67.22 73.04 76.86 80.06
33 22.91 25.84 27.72 29.26 83 68.15 74.02 77.87 81.11
34 23.77 26.78 28.70 30.28 84 69.08 75.01 78.89 82.16
35 24.64 27.71 29.68 31.29 85 70.02 75.99 79.91 83.21
36 25.51 28.65 30.66 32.31 86 70.95 76.97 80.93 84.26
37 26.38 29.59 31.64 33.33 87 71.88 77.96 81.95 85.31
38 27.25 30.53 32.62 34.35 88 72.81 78.94 82.97 86.36
39 28.13 31.47 33.61 35.37 89 73.75 79.93 83.99 87.41
40 29.01 32.41 34.60 36.40 90 74.68 80.91 85.01 88.46
41 29.89 33.36 35.58 37.42 91 75.62 81.90 86.04 89.52
42 30.77 34.30 36.57 38.45 92 76.56 82.89 87.06 90.57
43 31.66 35.25 37.57 39.47 93 77.49 83.87 88.08 91.62
44 32.54 36.20 38.56 40.50 94 78.43 84.86 89.10 92.67
45 33.43 37.17 39.55 41.53 95 79.37 85.85 90.12 93.73
46 34.32 38.11 40.54 42.56 96 80.31 86.84 91.15 94.78
47 35.22 39.06 41.54 43.59 97 81.24 87.83 92.17 95.83
48 36.11 40.02 42.54 44.62 98 82.18 88.82 93.19 9689
49 37.00 40.98 43.53 45.65 99 83.12 89.80 94.22 97.94
50 37.90 41.93 44.53 46.69 100 84.06 90.79 95.24 98.99
 Siemens
Training Center
for Communication
Networks

Fig. 11 Erlang B formula

 Siemens
Training Center
for Communication
Networks

11

12 Exercises

Exercise 1: Calculation Loss / Gain

 P 
LP  10 log  -3  dBm
 10 
reference P = 1 mW

 U 
LU  20 log  -6  dBV
 10 
reference U = 1 µV

 P 
Loss A  10 log  in  d B
 Pout 

P 
Gain G  10 log  out  d B
 Pin 

U2  U 
P LU  20 log   d BU
R  0,775 
reference = 775 mV, 600 W

 U 
A  20 log  in 
 Uout 

U 
G  20 log  out 
 Uin 

1. Amplifier: 100 mVin, 1 Vout. Calculate the gain

1. Amplifier: 2 mWin, 5 Wout. Calculate the gain

1. Amplifier: 20 dBmin, two steps amplification with 7 dB, 3 dB gain. Calculate the gain.
 Siemens
Training Center
for Communication
Networks

Maximum
ConversionRange
dBm « Watt

Class Watt dBm

1 20 43 

2 8 39  MS
3 5 37 

4 2 33
5 0,8 29

1 320 55 

2 160 52 
3 80 49  BTS
4 40 46 
5 20 43 

6 10 40
7 5 37
8 2,5 34

Watt dBm
4 · 10 -14
-5 -104
10
-4 -20
10
-3 -10
10
-2 0
10
-1 10
10
20
1
30
2
33
25
44
50
47
100
50

Example: SBS, GSM

Power Amplifier 25 Watt ^ 44 dBm

Combiner 2:1 -8 dB
Cable -3 dB
Antenna gain + 18 dB

Sending power 51 dBm ^ 125 Watt

 Siemens
Training Center
for Communication
Networks

Typical loss values:

153 dBm ^ 8 km free area

3 km urban area
1 km downtown

Fading: 6 dB
Glass: 5 dB
Wall: 12 dB
Shopping Mall: 25 dB
House 15 dB
Siemens
Training Center
for Communication
Networks
 Siemens
Training Center
for Communication
Networks

Solutions

Exercise 1

 1
G = 10 log   = 20 dB
 0,1
1.

 5 
G = 10 log   = 34 dB
 0,002 
1.

1. Power out = 20 + 7 + 3 = 30 dBm

30 dBm ^ 1 Watt
Siemens
Training Center
for Communication
Networks