1905 REVOLUTION — CAUSES AND EVENTS

Challenges to the Tsar's power

From the late 19th century through to the outbreak of World War One in 1914, a series of threats
to the Tsar's authority developed. At the end of the war these factors led to revolution and brought
about the end of 300 years of Tsarist rule.

The first major threat came during the rule of Nicholas II in the form of the 1905 Revolution:

 Strikes spread across the country and illegal trade unions were widespread.
 Grand Duke Sergei, Nicholas II’s uncle, was assassinated near the Kremlin in Moscow.
 A mutiny broke out amongst the sailors on the battleship Potemkin.
 There was a general strike in October.
There are a number of long term and short term causes of the 1905 Revolution.

The Russo Japanese War 1904 – 1905

In 1904 war broke out between Russia and Japan. They were fighting for control over Korea and
Manchuria. The war was a disaster for the Tsarist Empire.

In January 1905 the Russian held port of Port Arthur surrendered. This led to a great deal of
resentment about the way the war was being conducted. Further defeats at Mukden and Tsushima
embarrassed the Russian population and led to demands for reform. This contributed to the unrest
and discontent which was building within the Tsarist Empire.

CHALLENGES FROM REVOLUTIONARY GROUPS

Unpopular Tsarist policies

Many were unhappy with the political conditions in Russia:

 Ethnic minorities were greatly oppressed by the policies of Russification

 Jewish people were persecuted by state-sanctioned pogroms
 The influence of Zemstvas (provincial governing bodies) was reduced
 In 1900 officials criticising the government were purged
 Middle class industrialists were unhappy that they had no say in how the country was governed
 Increased industrialisation and urbanisation had led to major social and economic problems for workers
and peasants
This discontent provided revolutionary groups with a bed of support that could potentially be used
to create change.
SOURCES OF OPPOSITION
Liberals

The provincial Zemstvas were often highly critical of Tsarist policies. They cited famine and
industrial stagnation as major problems that the government was responsible for.

The lack of power they had to influence decision-making at a national level also frustrated them.
They wanted the introduction of a state Duma (Parliament) which would advise the Tsar.

The Union of Liberation was formed in St Petersburg in 1904 under the guidance of Liberal
politician Peter Struve. The Union pushed for a constitutional monarchy with enfranchisement (the
right to vote) for all men.

Radicals

Radical opposition groups often carried out political assassinations. The People’s Will tried to
assassinate Alexander III in 1887. Populism existed in the universities. The Narodnik socialist
movement tried to persuade the peasants to rise against the Tsar and take power for themselves.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF MARXISM

The 1905 revolution
In an attempt to quell economic discontent among the workers, Minister of the Interior Plehve had
established a legal trade union in St Petersburg. Called the Assembly of Russian Factory and Mill
Workers, it was led by a Russian Orthodox priest, Father Georgy Gapon. It was this organisation
that would, unwittingly, set the 1905 Revolution in motion.

In late 1904, four union members at the Putilov Iron Works Plant in St Petersburg were dismissed.
Gapon called for industrial action. Over the coming days over 100 thousand workers in the city
went on strike. Although protests were peaceful, troops were brought in to support existing forces
in the city.

Father Gapon organised a petition complaining about working conditions in the city and calling
for change. It was signed by over 150 thousand people.

On 22 January 1905, Father Gapon led a march to deliver a petition to the Tsar. Thousands of
workers took part in this peaceful protest. The workers were not trying to overthrow the Tsar. They
believed that the Tsar did not know of their plight. Instead they blamed the Tsarist ministers and
officials.

This demonstration of factory workers was brutally put down by Russian soldiers. Up to 200
people were killed by rifle fire and Cossack charges. This event became known as Bloody Sunday
and is seen as one of the key causes of the 1905 Revolution.
The aftermath brought about a short-lived revolution in which the Tsar lost control of large areas
of Russia. The revolution failed but it served as a serious warning of what might happen in the
future.

From the 1880s, Marxist ideas began to spread through Russia. Based on the theories of the
German economist Karl Marx, they proposed that the proletariat - the underclass of society - would
rise up in rebellion and seize power from the wealthy ruling class and establish a fairer society.

Social Revolutionaries

The Socialist Revolutionaries adopted a combination of Marxist and Populist beliefs. They wanted
to overthrow the government in favour of giving power to the peasants.

Although they were greatly uncoordinated in their efforts, they carried out approximately 2,000
political assassinations in the years leading up to the 1905 Revolution.

Social Democrats

Social Democrat beliefs were based on Marxism. They did not consider that the peasants would
rise in revolution. They focused on agitation amongst the workers in the cities.

The group split in 1903 after an ideological disagreement. The Mensheviks, led by Martov, wanted
revolution by the workers to occur naturally. The Bolsheviks led by Lenin, believed revolution
should come as soon as possible.

Although not directly involved in the 1905 revolution, these revolutionary groups had been able
to help spread strikes and protests throughout the Empire.

SUPPRESSING THE 1905 REVOLUTION

Methods of suppression

The army had stayed loyal to the Tsar and was used to crush opposition in the cities. In December,
Tsarist forces moved against workers who had formed Soviets (committees made up of workers
and soldiers) in St Petersburg and Moscow.

Fighting broke out between the army and strikers in Moscow. By the middle of the month, the
army had suppressed the strike and killed over 1,000.

The Union of Russian People was established to fight against the revolutionary groups. It had the
power to arrest, sentence and execute those who committed crimes against the state.

Terrorist groups such as the Black Hundreds were used to intimidate and attack those opposed to
the Tsar.

During the second Duma, the Okhrana arrested Bolshevik and Menshevik representatives who
were attempting to develop opposition to the Tsarist state within the army. An uprising would have
 been potentially threatening for the Tsar - control of the army was essential in suppressing the
revolution.

Impact on revolutionary groups

The Okhrana’s exposure of Bolshevik revolutionary plans forced Lenin into exile in 1907. He
would not return for 10 years.

Show trials and summary executions had reduced membership of revolutionary groups from
100,000 to 10,000 by 1910. ‘Stolypin’s Neckties’, the nickname for the hangman's noose, became
infamous as a method of fear and oppression.

However, revolutionary groups survived underground and continued to attract support.

Revolutionaries managed to assassinate Stolypin in 1911.

Political concessions: The October Manifesto and the Fundamental Laws

The October Manifesto

Sergei Witte was an influential policy maker. He persuaded the Tsar to pass his October Manifesto.
Issued in 1905, it promised significant political reform, although most of these promises were open
to interpretation:

 A Duma (elected national parliament) was to be set up. No law was to be passed unless approved by the
Duma.
 Censorship would be loosened and more freedom of speech encouraged.
 The people would have more rights to gather together for discussions and meetings
Reaction to the manifesto

Reaction from political groups was varied:

 Liberals were satisfied with the level of reform in the Manifesto.

 Kadet Liberals wanted reform to go further. They wanted a written constitution and guarantees of a
constituent assembly.

THE DUMAS
Four Dumas were held between 1906 and 1914. The first two featured strong opposition to Tsarism
and quickly dissolved. The next two were less radical and more flexible as a result of changes to
the voting system.

The first Duma

The first Duma was established in May 1906, after the announcement of the Fundamental Laws.
 It consisted mainly of Kadets and SRs. Hence, it demanded further political reform, including land
reform and the release of political prisoners. This was denied by the Tsar.

It lasted for just over two months before it was dissolved for passing a vote of ‘no confidence’ in
Prime Minister Ivan Goremykin.

The second Duma

The second Duma was established in February 1907. Following the dissolving of the first Duma,
many Kadets were involved in writing the Vyborg Appeal. This criticised the government and
demanded the non-payment of taxes.

In response, these Kadets were made inelegible to vote. This greatly reduced the power of the
Kadets.

Liberal Octoberists (those who agreed with the October Manifesto) had more influence as did SRs,
Bolsheviks and Mensheviks. The second Duma lasted for five months. It was dissolved when
members began promoting revolutionary organisations within the army.

The third Duma

Established in 1907, this Duma was intended to be much more supportive of the Tsar.

Arrangements had been made for landowners to have more voting power. This meant only the
most affluent third of the population were able to vote in the election.

The resulting Duma was less radical and more favourable to the government. Prime Minister Pyotr
Stolypin was able to pass considerable land reform. It lasted until mid-1912.

The fourth Duma

Established in November 1912, the fourth Duma comprised mainly Octoberists on one side and
socialists on the other, This made decision-making increasingly difficult.

Both groups found it impossible to unite in order to make progress. The Duma was suspended in
1915, by which time Russia was committed to fighting the Austrians and Germans in World War
One.

 The Social Revolutionaries (SRs) were critical of the Manifesto, as were the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks.
It did not give any more power to the peasants or workers.
As a response to the 1905 Revolution, the October Manifesto succeeded in dividing the opposition,
making the Tsar's grip on power more secure.

The new government

As a result of the October Manifesto and the promise of a constitutional monarchy, a new
government structure was adopted. The Tsar remained as head of the government, but was aided
by three permanent political bodies:
 The Council of Ministers was the most powerful of these. It was effectively the Tsar's advisors, elected
by and answerable only to him. They created law.
 The State Council, chosen by both the Tsar and the Zemstva, approved law created by the Council of
Ministers.
 The Duma, voted for by the male electorate would also have to approve laws created.
The Fundamental Laws

Passed in April, 1906, the Fundamental Laws were an edict from the Tsar. They confirmed the
October Manifesto but also asserting the Tsar’s powers over the Duma:

 the right to rule independently of the Duma when it was not in session
 the right to dissolve (close) the Duma at any point
 power to change the electoral system
 power to appoint ministers he wanted to the Council
 sole commander of the army and navy, giving him military power to crush any uprising
With the Fundamental Laws, the Tsar regained his position as supreme leader.

REFORMS OF STOLYPIN

Agrarian reforms
Why was reform introduced?

Stolypin wanted to reform agriculture in order to modernise Russia and make it more competitive
with other European powers.

He hoped that reorganising the land would increase support for the Tsar among unskilled
farmhands. This would reduce the threat of the Social Revolutionaries.

Stolypin believed the key to success was to increase the number of peasant landowners or Kulaks.
Stolypin believed that they would be supporters of the Tsar.

What changed?

Redemption Payments (loans from the state) were abolished. Loans for peasants to buy land
became available with the introduction of Peasants' Land Banks.

Mirs (communities of peasant farmers) could no longer stop individuals from leaving to buy
private land. Mirs that did not cooperate were to be dissolved. Peasants were also given financial
incentives to move to remote areas of Siberia in an attempt to open up the countryside.
What were the results of agrarian reform?

Agricultural output increased by a third, while peasant land ownership increased by 30 per cent.
The number of Kulaks increased dramatically and they were increasingly supportive of the Tsar.

However, Stolypin faced opposition from Conservative groups who opposed his plans.
Furthermore his assassination in 1911 and the outbreak of the Great War in 1914 meant that his
reforms did not receive the time he believed they needed to succeed.

Industrial progress
It was hoped that agrarian reform would reduce demand for labour in the countryside, hence
increasing urbanisation as people flooded into the towns and cities looking for work.

Increased output

Heavy industry increased considerably. The production of iron and steel rose by 50 per cent and
by the outbreak of World War One, Russia was the fourth largest producer of steel, coal and iron.

Improved conditions

The formation of trade unions had been made legal in 1905. In 1912, safety inspectors were
introduced into factories. Workers began to benefit from employee insurance schemes which
provided protection against accidents and illness.

However, a strike at the Lena gold fields in 1912 emphasised that there was still a great deal of
discontent. Hundreds of the protesters were killed by army and police. It was clear that opposition
to the Tsarist state was again on the increase.
FEBRUARY REVOLUTION - CAUSES, EVENTS AND EFFECTS

Political problems
The incompetence of Nicholas II

The outbreak of the War in August 1914 led to a wave of patriotism sweeping the Empire.
However, early defeats resulted in the mood changing.

In 1915, Nicholas declared himself Commander in Chief of the army and left for STAVKA (the
High Command) to take control of operations. However, Nicholas was not well educated in the
tactics of war. It also meant he could know be directly blamed for any setbacks on the battlefields.
 Many members of the Duma left to help in the war effort. They also declared an end to opposition
politics for the duration of the war. However, by the summer of 1915 they were unhappy with the
conduct of the war and a group of Octoberists and Kadets established the Progressive Bloc.

This group wanted to replace the Tsars ministers with people who would have the support of the
Duma and the population. In response, in September 1915, Nicholas closed the Duma. This
alienated many liberals and also resulted in a two day general strike on Petrograd.

The war and the Tsarina

As the war continued, the quality and effectiveness of the Russian Empire's government was called
into question.

The departure of Nicholas II to the front left his wife, Tsarina Alexandra, in control. Alexandra
was not hugely popular in Russia. She was reserved and awkward in public. More importantly, she
was a German princess and some were suspicious as to where her loyalties lay.

Alexandra gained increasing influence over the appointment of ministers to the government. She
was determined that no member of the imperial government should ever be in a sufficiently strong
position to challenge the authority of her beloved husband. She appointed less threatening,
sometimes incompetent, ministers to replace those who knew how to govern.

During a period of 16 months she employed:

 Four different Prime Minsters

 Five different Ministers of the Interior
 Three different Minsters of War
This was known as “Ministerial Leapfrog” and would have been bad enough with Russia at peace,
but in wartime, it led to the work of the Government grinding to a halt and inevitably to disaster
for the monarchy and for Russia.

Revolutionary groups

The membership and influence of revolutionary groups had been severely reduced by 1914, mainly
through the repressive tactics of Stolypin and the Okhrana. But radical opinion was not wholly
defeated:

 Revolutionary groups survived underground and continued to attract support

 Revolutionaries managed to assassinate Stolypin in 1911
 Pravda, the Bolshevik newspaper, was highly popular amongst workers
Despite the Bolsheviks holding influence over many workers, Lenin had no part in bringing about
the February Revolution. He believed that revolution should be organised, not developed from
unorganised protest.
 IMPACT OF WORLD WAR ONE

Military defeats
In 1914 Russia attempted to support both Britain and France by launching armies into battle within
ten days. Two large Russian armies invaded Eastern Germany and won a small victory.

However, a short time later, they were completely routed by smaller German forces at the battles
of Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes.

In 1915 German and Austrian attacks forced the Imperial Armies to retreat and resulted in the loss
of land. Much of this land was farmland which produced food. It also led to large numbers of
refugees fleeing eastwards. These refugees needed to be fed and looked after. This intensified the
problems facing the Tsarist State.

In 1916 General Brusilov launched a massive attack which forced the Austro-Hungarian Army to
retreat with large numbers of casualties. Although it was successful it also resulted in heavy
casualties for the Russian army.

By 1916 the Russian army had suffered around 5.3 million casualties. The Russian army which
had been loyal to the Tsar had been largely destroyed. The new recruits were conscripted peasants
who resented being taken away from their land. During their training they were kept in barracks
in cities such as Petrograd. This allowed them to come into contact with the increasingly unhappy
civilian population. This was dangerous as not only were the recruits unhappy, they also had access
to weapons.

Leadership

The Russian people looked for someone to hold to account for their suffering. In 1915, the Tsar
had declared himself Commander in Chief of the Army. This made him a suitable target for this
discontent. Nicholas II may have believed that, by taking charge, his army would be inspired and
would fight with renewed vigour. Unfortunately, the Tsar knew little about the command and
organisation of large military forces. The series of defeats and humiliations continued.

The organisation of the Russian army deteriorated and there were massive shortages of
ammunition, equipment, and medical supplies. The treatment of the Russian wounded was seen as
disgraceful and led to complaints by members of the Duma.

The Minister of War, Vladimir Sukhomlinov, was forced from office in 1915. He was blamed for
Russia’s lack of preparation for the war. He was also accused of preventing reforms in military
training. He had once said "I have not read a military manual for the last twenty-five years". This
also caused many to question the leadership of the Empire during the war.

Economic problems
From the start of the war, Russia's economic problems grew steadily worse. By the beginning of
1917, the country was facing virtual economic collapse.
Industry

Russian industry moved into crisis during the war. Vital raw materials from overseas could no
longer reach Russia. This resulted in shortages of raw materials and finished goods. The army
faced major shortages of supplies and weapons.

Transport

Russia had an underdeveloped railway system. This was taken over by the government to be used
primarily for the war effort. It had to cope with the pressures of moving large quantities of troops
and supplies to the battlefronts. This made it more difficult to keep the cities supplied with food.

Agriculture

Agricultural methods remained backward and still relied on many peasants being able to work the
land. Millions of peasant farmers were conscripted into the army. This led to a major shortage of
manpower on the farms and a corresponding fall in production.

There were serious shortages of food in the city shops. The price of even the most basic foods was
rising steeply.

By 1916, inflation had reached 200 per cent, the value of the rouble had fallen substantially and
the price of goods was soaring. This made life increasingly difficult, particularly for poorer people.

ISSUES WITH RASPUTIN

The imperial family was brought into disrepute as the Tsarina fell under
the influence of Grigori Rasputin.
Rasputin was a monk from Siberia. He was rumoured to be a Khlyst, member of an extreme
underground sect that had split from the Orthodox Church. He was infamous for his drunkenness
and for womanising.

However he also gained a reputation as a healer, able to perform amazing feats and miracles.

Rasputin came to the attention of the royal family. In April 1907, Alexandra called on him to heal
her only son, the Tsarevich Alexis. He was suffering from painful bleeding as a result of an injury.
It was not publicly known but Alexis suffered from the blood disease haemophilia.

After Alexis recovered, Tsarina Alexandra became convinced that Rasputin could control the
young boy's illness.

While there is still debate over the nature of his powers over the health of Alexis, it is clear that
his influence over the Tsarina was considerable. He advised her on appointments to the
government, interfered in important decisions. He could do no wrong in the eyes of the Tsarina.
Excuses were always made for his excessive and antisocial behaviour.
 To the Russian people, Rasputin symbolised everything that was wrong with imperial government.
The court and the royal family became objects of ridicule, to be despised. Rasputin's murder by
royalists at the end of 1916, came too late to undo the damage he had caused.

Revolution from below

By February 1917 the civilian population was unhappy for a number of reasons:

 It was winter and there were shortages of both food and fuel due to the collapse of the transport system
 Huge casualties in the war had led to many Russians becoming dissatisfied and demoralised
 The Royal Families behaviour caused many to question their competence to lead and also their loyalty.
Gossip and rumours about Rasputin had damaged the reputation of the Tsarina. Some even believed that
she was deliberately trying to damage the war effort because she was a “German Princess”
In February a series of events led to the downfall of the Tsar

On February 22nd workers at the Putilov works in Petrograd went on strike after the failure of pay
talks. The following day a series of demonstrations in connection with International Women’s Day
took to the streets. Many carried banners protesting about the lack of bread. They were joined by
many other workers. By the 25th, the numbers of strikers and protestors had risen to 250, 000
people. The army was ordered to restore order and fire on the demonstrators.

Although one regiment (the Volynskii) did so, others began to question the order. By February
27th large numbers of soldiers were refusing to obey orders. Many were siding with the
demonstrators. The Tsarist authorities had lost control.

The fall of the Tsar

When informed of these events, Nicholas II dismissed it as a "hooligan movement" which would
soon be over. Even as his regime met total collapse, the Tsar still showed his inability to face
reality and act appropriately.

Nicholas made an attempt to return from the war front to the capital, Petrograd, and reclaim his
authority. But in late February revolutionaries diverted the train to Pskov. Isolated and powerless
without the support of the army, his reign as Tsar was over - the only option now was abdication.

Nicholas named his brother, the Grand Duke Michael, as his successor. Michael lacked the support
of the people or the military. He refused the position. With that, the Romanov dynasty surrendered
its 300 year control of Russia.

Reasons for the failure of the Provisional Government under Kerensky

The Provisional Government was set up in February 1917 to govern Russia. It was to eventually
collapse in October when the Bolsheviks took power. It failed for a number of reasons:
 Reforms

The Provisional Government issued a number of reforms after February:

 they abolished the Okhrana

 they removed Tsarist Governors
 they also allowed freedom of speech
 they abolished the death penalty
 they released political prisoners
 they gave an amnesty to opponents of the Tsar
Although many of these changes were popular, they also made it easier for enemies of the
provisional government to criticise them. There was little the government could do to prevent it.

Authority

As a provisional government it was only supposed to be a temporary measure until elections could
be held for a Constituent Assembly. This meant that it lacked any real legitimacy and was often
ignored. Failure to set a date for the elections also caused people to complain.

Dual power

The Provisional Government could not make decisions on their own. They had to share power
with the Soviet. Indeed, the assembly of workers and soldiers deputies had more influence over
many areas of everyday life. They controlled the railway, postal and telegraph services. This meant
the Provisional Government had to listen to the Soviet.

A key example of this power was Order No. 1. It stated:

 committees were to be elected to replace officers and control weapons and equipment
 officers were not to be saluted
 all soldiers and sailors were to obey the Soviet
This had an impact on the discipline of the army. Soldiers refused to obey orders and large numbers
simply went home. This was particularly true of those from the countryside who wanted to take
advantage of the disorder to seize land. The result was that there were very few troops who could
be relied on to follow orders.

The main reasons for dissatisfaction with the Provisional Government concerned its failure to
tackle three main issues:

 continuation of the War

 demands for land
 economic and social problems facing the population
Continuation of the War

The Provisional Government felt it had to continue the war. It relied on loans and investment from
Britain and France. It was afraid this would be withdrawn if Russia pulled out of the war.

The Government was afraid of the demands that the Germans might make if Russia asked for
peace.

Some such as Alexander Kerensky (Prime Minister July to October 1917) believed that a
victorious war would unite the people behind the Government.

The decision to continue the war was unpopular. In April 1917 the Government sent a note to the
allies telling them they would continue in the war. The note suggested that Russia should be
rewarded with land from Turkey in the event of a victory. This led to demonstrations and disorder.
Many were unhappy because it appeared that the Provisional Government was no different to the
Tsar's Government. The Foreign Minister who sent the note was forced to resign and order was
restored by the Soviet.

In June 1917 a new Russian offensive failed with heavy casualties. Desertion quickly increased
and the lack of discipline resulted in its disintegration.

Demands for land

The Government wanted to leave discussion of this issue until after elections. This caused the
peasants to become unhappy with the authorities. It also ignored reality. After February 1917 the
peasant had simply taken the land. The land seizures also encouraged many peasants to desert from
the army. They were afraid they would miss out.

Economic and social problems facing the population

There were continued shortages of food in the cities throughout 1917. Food riots were common as
the price of food rose much faster than wages.

The failure to tackle the major problems meant that the Provisional Government lost support. The
Kornilov revolt meant it was relying on its enemies, the Red Guards, to defend it. By the autumn
of 1917 few people were prepared to fight to defend Kerensky and his minsters.
October Revolution - Causes, events, effects
 Role of the Bolsheviks
The Bolsheviks were a revolutionary party, committed to the ideas of Karl Marx. They believed
that the working classes would, at some point, liberate themselves from the economic and political
control of the ruling classes. Once they had achieved this, a genuine socialist society based on
equality, could be established.

At the time of the February Revolution, which overthrew the Tsar, the Bolsheviks were still
relatively weak. Most of their leaders, including Lenin, were in exile in Switzerland. The chances
of the Bolsheviks ever attaining power in Russia seemed remote.

But in late 1917, Bolshevik leader Lenin decided that the conditions in Russia were ripe for
revolution.

Role of Lenin
In April 1917, assisted by Germans, Lenin returned to Russia from Switzerland. At once he took
control and direction over the Bolsheviks. He began to stir up opposition to the Provisional
Government. He prepared to seize power using a clear plan:

 First the Bolsheviks had to gain control of the Petrograd Soviet

 Then they would take power in the name of the Soviet
 The process would then be repeated in other cities
Lenin's energy and drive convinced the Bolsheviks to agree on this course of action.

For the plan to work, it was necessary to increase Bolshevik support within the Soviets. Lenin
developed Bolshevik policies with this aim in mind. These policies were outlined in his April
Theses.

The April Theses

Lenin declared “All power to the Soviets”. This showed that the Bolsheviks did not believe in the
existence of the Provisional Government or an elected national assembly.

He also promised “Peace, Land and Bread” to the masses

 Peace -
o Lenin could see that the Russian people wanted an end to the war
o The Bolsheviks declared that they would make peace with the Germans.
 Land -
o Bolsheviks support was concentrated in the cities
o they had very little support among the peasants who made up the vast majority of the population
o by offering them land, Lenin ensured that the peasants stayed neutral when the Bolsheviks made their
bid for power
 Bread -
o Lenin claimed that the Bolsheviks could solve the food shortages that existed in the towns and cities
However, the influence of the Bolsheviks was limited until Autumn 1917. The Petrograd Soviet
was dominated by Social Revolutionaries and Mensheviks, while the Provisional Government
remained in control of Russia.

Leon Trotsky

Lenin was actively supported by Leon Trotsky. In September, Trotsky became Chairman of the
Petrograd Soviet and was head of the Military Revolutionary Committee. The MRC was
established to protect Petrograd and allowed socialists to infiltrate the army.

Trotsky had superb organisational and improvisational skills. His position in the Soviet allowed
him to create the Red Guard. This was a Bolshevik militia, formed from armed factory workers,
soldiers and sailors.

Lenin returned to Petrograd in early October, determined to seize power quickly. The Provisional
Government had announced that elections would take place in November and he was certain that
the Bolsheviks would perform poorly.

Trotsky took charge of planning the Bolshevik coup that was intended for the end of October.

Reasons for Bolshevik success

Economic difficulties
Economic difficulties had played a major role in Nicholas II's fall from power. The Provisional
Government had failed to address these same problems.

 The price of goods continued to increase

 Food was in short supply
 Fuel shortages made living conditions unbearable, especially during the harsh Russian winter
 The government could not guarantee enough grain, ammunition or weapons for troops fighting in the
war.
The government did not to solve the land issue in the countryside and the desire of peasants for
control of more land was not met. As a result seizures of land from landowners became widespread.

The continuing economic crisis discredited the Provisional Government and strengthened the
appeal of the Bolsheviks.

Continuation of the war

The Russian people wanted the war to come to an end. However, the Provisional Government
decided to continue Russia’s involvement. They feared that foreign investment from Britain and
France would cease in the event of a Russian withdrawal.

In March, 1917, the Petrograd Soviet declared that it would no longer support an offensive war
against Germany.

The June Offensive

The Provisional Government persisted with military campaigns. Alexander Kerensky, Minister of
War, ordered the June Offensive of 1917, an attempt to push the Austrians back. However this
failed and contributed to protests during July.

The morale of the army declined further and there were huge increases in the level of desertions.
The soldiers became more interested in Bolshevik policies and the loyalty of a number of units to
the Provisional Government was now uncertain.

The Petrograd Soviet

The July Days

Following the failure of the June Offensive morale in the army fell rapidly. Increasing numbers of
soldiers deserted. Others lost their loyalty to the government.

Shortages continued and there was widespread unrest in Petrograd between the 3rd and 6th of July.
Sailors from Kronstadt protested in the city. Soldiers joined them. Soon thousands of protesters
awaited instructions from the Petrograd Soviet and the Bolsheviks.

However, there was little in the form of direction from Socialist Revolutionaries. Lenin did not
take advantage of the situation, perhaps because only small numbers of soldiers and sailors actively
supported the Bolsheviks.

The uprising was suppressed by loyal troops who were brought in by the Provisional Government.
A number of Bolshevik leaders, including Trotsky, were arrested. Lenin fled to Finland.

The Kornilov Revolt

In August 1917, Lavr Kornilov, a Russian General, made an attempt to seize power for himself.
His army advanced on Petrograd. The Provisional Government, now under the leadership of
Alexander Kerensky, seemed powerless to stop him. Kerensky called on the Petrograd Soviet to
defend the city. This meant arming the Soviet - a move that would not be easy to reverse.

Under Trotsky's direction, the Red Guards organised the defence of the city. Bolshevik agents
infiltrated Kornilov's troops and encouraged them to desert. The Bolsheviks also organised strikes
by railway workers - disrupting Kornilov's supplies and communications. By the end of the month,
Kornilov had been relieved of his command and put under arrest.
An important result of the Kornilov Revolt was a marked increase in support for the Bolsheviks.
They were seen to have saved the revolution from a loyal Tsarist general. By September, the
Bolsheviks had gained control of the Petrograd Soviet.

The October Revolution

Led by Trotsky, the Military Revolutionary Committee was able to secure the support of the
Petrograd Garrison and the Kronstadt sailors.

On 24th October, Prime Minister Kerensky tried to limit Bolshevik influence. He ordered the arrest
of many of their leaders. In response, the Military Revolutionary Committee decided to take action.

The Red Guards and Kronstadt sailors gained control of key locations in the city. This included
the bridges, railway stations, and post office.

On the night of the 25th, they moved against the Provisional Government. By this time the only
defenders the Government had left were a few officer cadets and the “Women’s Battalion of
Death”. Very few people were prepared to fight for it. The majority of troops remained in their
barracks and did nothing to stop the Bolshevik takeover.

Kerensky left the Winter Palace to find help. Later that evening the Palace was surrounded by
workers and soldiers. They were supported by the Kronstadt sailors who had arrived on board the
cruiser Aurora. On the 26th of October, Red Guards entered the Winter Palace and arrested the
members of the Provisional Government. There was little fighting.

 Russian Civil War - The Red Army

After seizing control of Russia from the Provisional Government, the Bolsheviks had to safeguard
their fragile grip on the reins of power.

Lenin negotiated peace with Germany and therefore an end to Russia's role in World War One.
However he could not avoid a civil war.

The Russian Civil War raged from 1918 until the start of 1921. During this time, the Bolsheviks
faced massive opposition to their rule in the form of the White Armies, led by former officers of
the Tsarist state, and also from intervention by the forces of foreign countries. Yet, by the start of
1921, the Bolsheviks had defeated their enemies and gained a complete victory.

Leadership of the Reds

The Bolsheviks were extremely fortunate in the quality of their leadership, particularly in Lenin
and Trotsky. Throughout the Civil War, Lenin provided the energy and drive needed to inspire
success, while Trotsky provided the organisation and charisma.
 Role of Leon Trotsky

Trotsky became Commissar for War in the Bolshevik government in March 1918. A brilliant
organiser and improviser, Trotsky created the Red Army out of the Red Guards and from the
remnants of the old Tsarist army.

 Appointing ex-Tsarist officers was questioned, but Trotsky insisted they would bring expertise
essential to winning the Civil War.
 Political commissars were drafted into army units to spread socialist ideas and maintain loyalty
to the Bolsheviks.
 Conscription was established, hundreds of thousands of peasants were drafted into the Red
Army.
 Trotsky imposed tough discipline and control over the Red Army. Officers found guilty of
cowardice or treachery were executed. However, men who showed initiative and courage were
promoted rapidly.
Trotsky travelled in an armoured train to the front lines to encourage troops. At times of crisis, he
readily assumed personal command of areas under threat. He successfully inspired and encouraged
troops to greater efforts, and to eventual victory.

Ruthlessness
Under Lenin's leadership, the Bolsheviks displayed total ruthlessness in making sure that they did
not face rebellion and revolt in the areas they controlled, assuming the role as the true nationalists
and representative of Russian people.

 Once the Civil War began, the Bolsheviks banned all political parties and arrested their leaders.
They also closed down newspapers that opposed them.
 "War communism" was introduced to help supply the war effort. In May 1918 a Food
Dictatorship was established where the Bolsheviks requisitioned grain from the peasants.
 The Cheka, the Bolshevik Secret Police, hunted down and arrested anyone who was suspected
of hostility towards the Bolsheviks. By the end of the Civil War, they had executed over 100,000
political opponents. This was known as the Red Terror.
 Russia’s industry was nationalised, giving the Bolsheviks total control of goods production.
Propaganda
The Bolsheviks organised a highly effective propaganda campaign dispersed through posters,
leaflets, cinema and speeches.

Propanganda told the people that living conditions would improve and wealth would be distributed
more fairly. In contrast they warmed that the White Armies and their leaders would destroy all the
achievements of the Revolution, break up the Soviets and bring back the old system.
 The Bolsheviks portrayed themselves as a patriotic party who would defend Russia from
imperialists. This was particularly effective since the Whites had support from Britain, France and
the USA.

The Bolsheviks spread the fear that Russia would be taken over by foreign countries and absorbed
into their empires.

Russian Civil War - The White Army

Leadership of the Whites

The White Armies appeared to have a number of advantages in the Civil War:

 Their leaders were experienced military commanders

 They controlled huge areas of Russia
 They had the Bolsheviks surrounded
 They had the active support of foreign countries, which intervened in the Civil War on their behalf.
However, as the Civil War developed, the White Armies began to face major problems and
difficulties in organising their campaigns. Against the drive and ruthless energy of the Bolsheviks,
their campaigns faltered. By the end of 1920, the Bolsheviks were close to achieving total victory.

White Army weaknesses

The Whites had a number of weaknesses that led to their defeat.

 Divided leadership- lacking a single figurehead like Lenin, different generals had conflicting aims
 Whites became hated and feared for the brutality they showed towards local areas, stealing crops and
livestock and torturing objecting civilians
 Low moral- their lack of a clear aim or plan was less enticing than the Bolshevik cause- the establishment
and survival of the revolution and a communist Russia.
 Many feared that foreign intervention would bring an end to Russian independence in the event of White
victory.
Given the choice between the Bolsheviks and the Whites, it was hardly surprising that Bolshevik
support increased dramatically.

Impact of foreign intervention

The impact of foreign countries on the Civil War was minimal for a number of reasons:

 World War One had ended in 1918, resulting in a lack of commitment to Russia
 With the threat of Germany gone, Britain, France and the USA did not feel the need to supply Russia
 After World War One, foreign powers lacked resources or troops to spare
 Neither the fear of communism, nor the desire to protect Russian autocracy was strong enough to keep
Western powers committed to involvement in Russia
By the end of 1919 most foreign troops had left Russia. But the Reds used the idea of foreign
support for the White armies as propaganda. They claimed that the White generals were attempting
to defeat the Bolsheviks in order to hand Russia over to foreign imperialists.

The fear of losing their independence convinced a great deal of Russians to support the Reds. As
a result, the Reds established themselves as the saviours of Russia.

Geographical implications
At the start of the Civil War, the Bolsheviks controlled the key central area of Russia between
Petrograd and Moscow. This gave them a number of advantages.

 Most of Russia's railways were in this area. This made communication between the various
battlefronts much easier. Trotsky was able to move troops and supplies quickly to positions
under attack. As Commissar for War, he was able to visit the battlefronts in an armoured train,
and to take personal command.
 The large population of the major cities was a key resource for the Bolsheviks. The cities
provided fresh recruitment for the Red Army.
 Much of Russia's industry and raw materials was located in this area. This made it possible for
the Bolsheviks to keep their troops supplied and equipped with weapons, ammunition and
supplies.
 The sheer size of Russia worked against the White Armies. They had to move their forces and
supplies over huge distances. This made it difficult to maintain effective control.

Victory for the Reds

By the end of the Civil War in 1921 the Bolsheviks had succeeded in securing their grip on power
in Russia.

The White Armies and the foreign powers fighting on Russian soil had been defeated. Just as
importantly, rival political parties had been outlawed. Thanks to the Cheka secret police, dissenting
voices had been silenced.

Lenin had achieved his ultimate goal of steering his small Bolshevik party to total control of
Russia.

The committment with which they pursued their plan meant that they maximised the tools at their
disposal.

 Ending Russian involvement in WW1 was a popular move that freed up resources
 Organisation of Red Army who were loyal and well supplied in comparison to Whites, due to
Trotsky's strong leadership.
 Other political parties were silenced so that it was only the Bolsheviks that represented the
revolution and people against a White Army confused to what it wanted.
 War Communism- the economic measures imposed hardships upon many but was successful in
its aim of supporting the Red Army.
 The geographical advantage of the central area and cities Bolsheviks held enabled them to
control production and access better railways and facilities, whereas the Whites were more
dispersed in the rural expanses of Russia.

Conclusion
Why did the Red Army win the the Civil War?

Before the fighting began, the Whites had more advantages than the Reds:

 more men and officers from the Tsarist army

 controlled food-producing areas (except Ukraine)
 much support from foreign powers
However, by 1922, the Red Army were the victors. This was for a variety of reasons:

Communications

The Reds controlled a central area which had good railway lines. They were able to move troops
around the fronts much more easily than the Whites.

Leadership

Lenin and Trotsky controlled the Red Army. There was little co¬operation between the White
Generals. This meant that they did not attack the Bolsheviks all at once.

Motivation

The Red Army was fighting for the Bolshevik party. Defeat meant death. The Whites were fighting
for a variety of different reasons and often disagreed amongst themselves.

Foreign support
After 1919, the end of the Great War, the Allies began to pull out of Russia. Their role in the civil
war was unpopular amongst their own people.

Foreign intervention was seen as an invasion of Russia by some of the Russian population. This
led many of them to support the Bolsheviks, who were portrayed as the defenders of Russia.

Propaganda
Both sides made use of propaganda to win support.
The Bolsheviks told the peasants that if the Whites were victorious, then the land would be taken
away from them. This convinced many to support the Bolsheviks.

In July 1918, the Royal Family were murdered in Ekaterinburg. This was because the Bolsheviks
were afraid that the Tsar might be freed by the advancing Czech Legion. They did not want him
to become a focus of discontent against the Bolsheviks. As a result, Nicholas and his family were
shot and their bodies destroyed. This provided the White forces with propaganda. However, it was
not very effective within Russia as the Tsar was unpopular.