When Nicholas II was crowned Russia 1894 the crowds flocked to saint Petersburg to cheer

Twenty three years later he had been removed from power he and his family were imprisoned, they
were held under armed guard, and commentators had apparently predicted this before 1917.
o in many cities. Many peasant rebellions broke out in the countryside. In June
1905 the crew of the battleship Potemkin mutinied in support of the striking
workers
o Nicholas avoided making important decisions
o Nicholas also managed his officials poorly, and felt threatened by able and
talented ministers
o H also appointed family members and friends from the court to important
positions, many of them were incompetent or even corrupt , making s huge
fortune of bride

o The growth of revolutionary opposition

The opposition came from three important groups. One was formed of middle- class reformers in
the DUMA. Many middle-class people wanted greater DEMOCRACY in Russia and pointed out that
Britain still had a king but also a powerful parliament. These people were called liberals or 'Cadets'

Two other groups were more violently opposed to the Tsar. They believed that revolution was the
answer to the people's troubles:
o The Socialist Revolutionaries (SRS) were a radical movement. Their main aim
was to carve up the huge estates of the nobility and hand them over to the
peasants.

o The Social Democratic Party was a smaller but more disciplined party which
followed the ideas of Karl Marx . In 1903 the party split itself into
BOLSHEVIKS and MENSHEVIKS. The Bolsheviks (led by Lenin) believed it was
the job of the party to create a revolution whereas the Mensheviks believed
Russia was not ready for revolution.

o The 1905 Revolution and the October Manifesto

o In 1905 Russia was almost overwhelmed by a wave of strikes and rebellions
which turned into a full-scale revolution. In January 1905 about 200,000
peaceful protesters marched through the streets of St Petersburg towards
the Winter Palace, led by a priest, Father Gapon. They wanted to hand in a
petition asking for changes. The troops panicked and opened fire.

o This led to a wave of strikes and protests in many cities. Many peasant
rebellions broke out in the countryside. In June 1905 the crew of the
battleship Potemkin mutinied in support of the striking workers.

o The Tsar survived by issuing the October Manifesto. It offered concessions to

the middle classes in the form of a Duma (an elected parliament), the right
to free speech and the right to form political parties.

o Stolypin's policies - the use of oppression, land reform, and the expansion
of industry
In 1906 the Tsar appointed a tough new Prime Minister - Peter Stolypin. Stolypin used a 'carrot and
stick' approach to the problems of Russia.
 o The stick: He came down hard on strikers, protesters, and revolutionaries.
Over 20,000 were exiled and over 1,000 hanged.
o The carrot: Stolypin also tried to win over the peasants with the 'carrot' they
had always wanted - land. He allowed wealthier peasants.

Stolypin also tried to boost Russia's industries. There was impressive economic growth between
1908 and 1911 (see Figure 7 on page 109). But Russia was still far behind modern industrial powers
such as Britain, Germany, and the USA.
Stolypin was assassinated in 1911. Relations between the Tsar and his people became steadily worse
the economy took a downturn in 1912, causing unemployment and hunger.

o The First World War

In August 1914 Russia entered the First World War. The Tsar's action was applauded Worker’s
peasants and aristocrats all joined in the patriotic enthusiasm. Anti-government strikes and
demonstrations were abandoned.

Russian society the impact of military defeats on the Tsarist government

o The Russian army was huge. At first the soldiers were enthusiastic as was the
rest of society. They were badly led and treated appallingly by their
aristocrat officers They were also poorly supported by the industries.
o The Tsar took command of the armed forces in September 1915This made
little difference to the war, since Nicholas was not a particularly able
commander.
o Social and economic effects of the war on the countryside and the cities

By 1916, there was discontent in the cities. 3.5 million industrial jobs between 1914 and 1916, but
the workers received little in the way of extra wages They also had to cope with even worse
overcrowding than before the war. There were fuel and food shortages What made it worse was
that there was enough food and fuel, but it could not be transported to the cities. The rail network
could not cope with the needs of the army.

populations of the cities. As 1916 turned into 1917, many working men and women stood, shivering,
in bread queues and cursed the Tsar.

The unpopularity of the Romanovs

The situation was so bad by late 1916 that the Council of the United Nobility was calling for the Tsar
to step down.

o Rasputin
Rasputin was also giving her and the Tsar advice on how to run the country People in Russia y very
suspicious of Rasputin. The Tsar's opponents seized on Rasputin as a sign of the Tsar's weakness and
unsuitability to rule Russia. the concerns were so serious that a group of leading aristocrats
murdered Rasputin in December 1916were.
The Tsar's abdication
o As 1917 dawned few people had great hopes for the survival of the Tsar's
regime.
o February the strikes spread. They were supported and even joined by
members of the army.
o On 7 March workers at the Putilov steelworks in Petrograd went on strike.
They joined with thousands of women-it was International Women's Day
and other discontented worker demanding that the government provide
bread.
o 10 March the number of striking workers rose to 250,000Industry came to a
standstill.
o 12 March the Tsar ordered his army to put down the revolt by force The
soldiers refused This was the demonstrator marched to the Duma
demanding that its members should take over the government Reluctantly,
the Duma leaders accepted they had always wanted reform rather than
revolution but now there seemed no choice.

o The Provisional Government: Social, economic and military problems

The Duma's Provisional Committee took over the running of the government. It faced three
overwhelmingly urgent decisions:

o to continue the war or make peace

o to distribute land to the peasants (who had already started calling it) or ask
them to wait until elections had been held
o how best to get food to the starving workers in the cities.

The provisional government

Was a mixed group. While it included men such as the lawyer Alexander Kerensky - Justice Minister
in the Provisional Government but also a respected member of the Petrograd Soviet - it also
included angry revolutionaries who had no experience of government at all. The Provisional
Government promised Russia's allies that it would continue the war while trying to settle the
situation in Russia. It also urged the peasants to be restrained and wait for elections before taking
any land

Lenin and the growth of Bolshevik organisation

Lenin, leader of the Bolsheviks When he heard of the March revolution he immediately returned to
Russia from exile in Europe The Germans even provided him with a special train, hoping that he
might cause more chaos in Russia!
He urged the people to support the Bolsheviks in a second revolution. Lenin's slogans, 'Peace, Land
and Bread' and 'All Power to the Soviets, contrasted sharply with the cautious message of the
Provisional Government Support for the Bolsheviks increased quickly (see Figure 2), particularly in
the soviets and in the army

The Provisional Government's failure to deal with Russia's problems.

In the second half of 1917, the Provisional Government's authority steadily collapsed:
 o The war effort was failing Soldiers had been deserting in thousands from the
army. Kerensky became Minister for War and rallied the army for a great
offensive in June. It was a disaster. The army began to fall apart in the face of
a German counterattack. The deserters decided to come home.
o Desertions were made worse because another element of the Provisional
Government's policy had failed. The peasants ignored the orders of the
government to wait. They were simply taking control of the countryside The
soldiers, who were mostly peasants, did not want to miss their turn when
the land was shared out.

Bolshevik-led protests against the war turned into a rebellion. Others were also fed up with the
Provisional Government. In contrast, the Bolsheviks were promising what the people wanted most
(bread, peace, land)It was the Bolsheviks who had removed the threat of Kornilov. By the end of
September 1917, there were Bolshevik majorities in the Petrograd and Moscow Soviets, and in most
of Russia's other major towns and cities

The October/November Revolution

You have seen how Bolshevik support increased throughout 1917. By the end of October 1917, Lenin
was convinced that the time was right for the Bolsheviks to seize power.
Leon Trotsky, who had recently joined the Bolsheviks, was responsible for the organisation of the
Red Guards in Petrograd.
o During the night of 6 November, the Red Guards took control of post offices,
bridges and the State Bank.
o On 7 November, Kerensky awoke to find the Bolsheviks were in control of
most of Petrograd. Through the day, with almost no opposition, the Red
Guards continued to take over railway stations and other important targets.
o On the evening of 7 November, they stormed the Winter Palace (again,
without much opposition) and arrested the ministers of the Provisional
Government. Kerensky managed to escape and tried to rally loyal troops.
When this failed, he fled into exile.
o On 8 November an announcement was made to the Russian people

o The impact of Lenin's dictatorship

Lenin's Bolshevik government intended to establish COMMUNISM, but the Bolsheviks only had
support from certain groups in society. While Lenin's supporters were full of enthusiasm for what
was promised, others such as landowners and factory owners were alarmed at the prospect of the
major changes to society that would result. Indeed, many hoped that Lenin's rule would be short-
lived, with the government eventually returning to its traditional leadership. Lenin and the
Bolsheviks had promised the people bread, peace, and land. Lenin knew that if he failed to deliver,
he and the Bolsheviks would suffer the same fate as Kerensky and the Provisional Government.

Lenin immediately set up the Council of People's Commissars (the Sovnarkom). It issued its first
decree on 8 November, announcing that Russia was asking for peace with Germany. There followed
an enormous number of decrees from the new government that aimed to strengthen the Bolsheviks'
hold on power. The peasants were given the Tsar's and the Church's lands. The factories and
industries were put into the hands of the workers. The Bolsheviks were given power to deal
ruthlessly with their opponents - and they did.

The end of Russia's part in the First World War

o The next promise that Lenin had to make good was for peace. He put Trotsky
in charge of negotiating a peace treaty. He told Trotsky to try to spin out the
peace negotiations as long as possible. He hoped that very soon a socialist
revolution would break out in Germany as it had in Russia.
o By February of 1918, however, there was no revolution, and the Germans
began to advance again. Lenin had to accept their terms in the Treaty of
Brest-Litovsk in March 1918. The Treaty was a severe blow to Russia. You can
see how much land was lost in.
of its population, 32 per cent of its agricultural land, 54 per cent of its industry, 26 per cent of its
railways and 89 per cent of its coal mines. A final blow was the imposition of a fine of 300 million
gold roubles.

o The Cheka
Lenin's activities in 1917-18 were bound to make him enemies. In December 1917 he set up a secret
police force called the CHEKA to crush his opponents.
The Tsars had used the Okhrana - secret police - to spy on anyone suspected of being disloyal. In
December 1917 the 'All-Russian Emergency Commission for Combating Counter-Revolution and
Sabotage’

o The Cheka members were supposed to operate under a code of conduct,

chaotic situation after 1917 this was rapidly ignored.
o The Cheka was feared, and by 1921 there were at least 200,000 members.
They were brutal and operated what became known as a Red Terror, leading
to the killing of several thousand people (see page 122).

o The Red Army

In October/November 1917 the Bolsheviks had a small body of disciplined red guards.
The Red Army was formed in January 1918, and all CITIZENS over the age of 18 were eligible. Most of
its members were peasants who were keen to protect the new government which represented the
working classes.
Very soon in 1918 the newly formed Red Army was involved in a struggle to preserve the existence
of the new Communist republic from all its political enemies in a civil war.

o The causes of the Civil War

By the end of 1918 an unlikely collection of anti-Bolshevik elements had united in an attempt to
crush the Bolsheviks. They became known as the Whites (in contrast to the Bolshevik Reds) and
consisted of enemies of the Bolsheviks from inside and outside Russia.
o The Bolsheviks' stronghold was in western Russia. Much of the rest of the
country was more sympathetic to the Socialist Revolutionary Party.
o In March 1918 the Czech Legion seized control of a large section of the
Trans-Siberian Railway.

The nature of the Civil War

The reaction of the Bolsheviks was ruthless and determined. In an amazingly short time, Leon
Trotsky created a new Red Army of over 300,000 men. They were led by former Tsarist officers.
Trotsky made sure of their loyalty by holding their family’s hostage and by appointing political
commissars to watch over them. The Cheka made sure that nobody in Bolshevik territories co-
operated with the Whites. There were many beatings, hangings and shootings of opponents, or even
suspected opponents, in what became known as the Red Terror.

Not even the Tsar escaped. In July 1918, White forces were approaching Ekaterinburg where the
Tsar was being held. The Bolshevik commander ordered the execution of the Tsar and his family.
Lenin could not risk the Tsar being rescued and returned as leader of the Whites.

Propaganda
Both sides – the Reds and the Whites - used PROPAGANDA in the civil war. One prim reason why the
Reds won was that theirs was probably more effective because the message was consistent - fight to
protect the rights of the workers and fight to get rid of the foreign invaders who want to re-establish
aristocratic rule. Trotsky used the railway network, most of which was controlled by the Reds, to
send out travelling cinemas which showed propaganda films to local people as well as the Red Army.
Trotsky himself toured round, making frequent speeches, to raise morale.

o Social and economic developments, 1918-2

Lenin wanted to establish a Communist-style society and economy where everyone would be
treated equally and fairly.
o War Communism WAR COMMUNISM was the name given to the harsh
economic measures the Bolshevik adopted during the Civil War
The First aim is to execute communist theories – redistributing wealth.
The second aim was to help with the Civil War by keeping the towns and the Red Army supplied with
food and weapons.
 o All large factories were taken over by the government. Production was
planned and organised by the government.
o Discipline for workers was strict and strikers could be shot.
o Peasants had to hand over surplus food to the government. If they didn't,
they could be shot.
o Food was rationed. Free enterprise became illegal - all production and trade
was controlled by the state.
o War Communism achieved its aim of winning the war, but in doing so it
caused terrible hardship.

The Kronstadt Rising

In February 1921 Bolshevik policies sparked a mutiny at Kront naval base Kronstadt was an
immanent naval base on an island in the G of Finland It housed the Russian Balt Fleet and guarded
the approaches to Petrograd. Sailors on two of the leading battleships drew up a list of fifteen
demands for the Bolsheviks In response, Trotsky sent 60,000 troops to put down the uprising killing
more than a thousand of the Kronstadt sailors.

Soon afterwards Lenin abandoned the emergency policies of War Communism. Considering the
chaos of the Civil War years, it may seem strange that this particular revolt had such a startling effect
on Lenin However, it did so because the Kronstadt sailors had been among the strongest supporters
of Lenin and Bolshevism.

The New Economic Policy

After the Kronstadt revolt, Lenin recognised that changes were necessary. In March 1921, at the
Party Congress, Lenin announced some startling new policies which he called the New Economic
Policy (NEP). The NEP effectively brought back CAPITALISM for some sections of Russian society.
Peasants were allowed to sell surplus grain for profit and would pay tax on what they produced
rather than giving some of it up to the government.

Lenin’s death 1924

o Lenin did not live to see the recovery of the Russian economy however he
successfully led Russia through a revolution and civil war.
o The takeover Trotsky lost this contest although he was brilliant, he was
arrogant and failed to take opposition seriously. In addition to this he also
frightened many people in the USSR
o So how did Stalin win Stalin called Trotsky saying the funeral was on the
26th (it was on the 27th) and as Trotsky was in south Russia, he couldn’t
make it back in time
o As a result, Trotsky couldn’t attend the funeral and Stalin appeared to be
Lenin’s chief mourner, and closest friend, Stalin polices where also met with
a greater favour than Trotsky

o The purges
for Stalin it wasn’t enough power he wanted to be in an unchallengeable position. Under Stalin the
only legal party was the communist party, with an impressive army armed with the latest weaponry
and under the soul control of Stalin, he also kept the secret police in order to surveillance any
upcoming opposition.
o The purges (1934)
o It started with the murder of Kirov the leader of Leningrad he used this as an
excuse to case show trials (and apparently, he arranged the murder of Kirov)
 o Estimates suggest that over 500,000 party members were arrested on
charges of anti-Soviet activities and either executed or sent to labour camps,
in 1940 Trotsky who was exiled in Mexico was murdered by Stalin’s agents.

o The great terror

o The purges continued but on a widespread span, factory owners,
universities, 25,000 of the red army were removed, people were physically
tortured or threatened until they cracked
o By 1937 18 million people were transported to labour camps, and 10 million
dead
o Stalin didn’t want the USSR to have any weaknesses
o What happened to the prisoners: labour camps were harsh having to
perform physical labour in harsh conditions
o By 1939 3 million people were in these labour camps or gulags the prisoners
produced gold and coal from mines, timber and other resources. The
prisoners also played an important role in the building of roads and railways
(etc..)
Propaganda and censorship
o Stalin wanted to be involved in the soviets peoples everyday lives: the
soviets had portraits, photographs and statues of Stalin everywhere. And
every Russian town had a Stalin square or street
o Religious worship was banned by 1939, 1/40 churches were active and there
were only 7 bishops in the USSR
o Music and arts were very carefully monotonised, poets and playwrights had
to praise Stalin indirectly or directly
The cult of personality
o The citizens admired Stalin, the purges according to the people had nothing
to do with him
o The history of the soviet union was rewritten so that Lenin and Stalin were
the only real heroes of the Bolshevik revolution. The soviet education system
was geared to Stalinist propaganda and not to independent thinking. Schools
children were also expected to join the pioneers.

o Stalin's modernisation of the USSR

Once in power, Stalin was determined to modernise the USSR as quickly as possible, and he had
some powerful reasons:
o To increase the USSR's military strength: The First World War had shown
that a country could only fight a modern war if it had the industries to
produce the weapons and other equipment which were needed
o To rival the economies of the USA and other capitalist countries: When
Stalin took power much of Russia's industrial equipment had to be
imported.
 o To increase food supplies: Stalin wanted more workers in industries, towns
and cities. He also wanted to sell grain abroad to raise cash and to buy
industrial equipment.
o To create a Communist society: Comer thug sad that most of the population
had to be workers if Comedy was going to work. In 1928 only about one in
five Russians were industrial workers.
o To establish his reputation: Lenin had made big changes to Russia/the USSR.
Stalin wanted to prove himself as a great Reader ley lagging about even
greater changes.

Modernising agriculture: Collectivisation 1928-32

For the enormous changes of the FIVE-YEAR PLAN to be successful, Stalin needed to modernise the
USSR's agriculture. This was vital because the population of the industrial centres was growing
rapidly and yet as early as 1928 the country was already 2 million tons short of the grain it needed to
feed its workers. Stalin also wanted to try to raise money for his industrialisation programme by
selling exports of surplus food abroad.
The problem was that farming was not organised to do this. Under the NEP, most peasants were
either agricultural labourers (with no land) or kulaks - prosperous peasants who owned small farms.
These farms were too small to make efficient use of tractors, fertilisers and other modern methods.
o Gosplan set overall targets for the industry
o Each region was told its targets
o The region set targets for each mine and factory
o Manager of each mine set plans for each foreman
o And to foreman to individual workers
Although most targets weren't met the achievements were still staggering. The industrialisation
helped improve Russia's agriculture and production increased massively, there was a second 5 year
plan which built on the achievements of the first.
Industrial workers
Any plan as extreme as Stalin’s five year plan requires a cost and for the USSR it was payed by the
workers. The workers were constantly bombarded with propaganda, posters and slogans and radio
podcasts they all had strict goals they had to meet and is they didn’t they were fired
o The most famous example was Alexei Stakhanov and in one sift he collected
102 tonnes of coal 14 times the average. He became a hero and was highly
celebrated and encouraged others to do the same
On these major project conditions were appalling and there were many deaths and accidents
100,000 people died in the construction of the Belomor canal
Woman
In the first five year plan there was a shortage of workers the government concentrated on drafting
on more women, opening more thousands of new crashes and day-cares, helping woman to work,
by 1937 40percent of the woman were industrial workers
Loyalty to Stalin were strong despite the poor living conditions
o The impact of the second world war
Stalin’s wartime leader ship, so far by 1939 Hitler had not attacked following the two countries pact
in august 1939. By June 1942 over 2 million Germans invaded Russia Stalin was taken by surprise. On
the first day 1,200 aircrafts were destroyed on the ground. By October the Germans assumed
victory
o Thousands of factories were taken to pieces and reconstructed east of the
Ural mountains out of reach of the advancing Germans, animals and crops
were also moved
o Incessant rain in October hit slowing the German advances turning the
ground to mud
 o The in November the temperatures went below freezing, the soldiers
weren’t dressed for the tough conditions, and machines ceased to work and
many men died
o Marshal Zhukov surrounded the Germans and the Germans surrendered
February 1943

Political economic social problems caused by the great patriotic war

o Politically, the war involved even more controlled by Stalin and the
government therefore economically and socially the great patriotic war
caused huge problems for the soviet people. It was won at a tremendous
cost. Over 20 million soviet citizens were killed
o Huge are of farmland were devastated including 100,000 collective farms
and 70,000 villages suffered major destruction

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